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HORT-221 Production Technology for Fruit and Plantation Crops 2(1+1)

Lecture schedule: Theory

HORT-221 Production Technology for Fruit and Plantation Crops 2(1+1)

S.No. Topic Cr.Hrs.

1. Importance and scope of fruit and plantation crop industry in India; 1

Importance of rootstocks
2. Production technologies for the cultivation of major fruits - Mango 1

3. Banana 1

4. Citrus 1

5. Grape 1

6. Guava and Litchi 1

7. Papaya and Sapota 1

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8. Apple 1

9. Pear and Peach 1

10. Walnut and Almond 1

11. Minor fruits- Date palm, Ber, Aonla, Custard apple, Bael and 2
Strawberry
12. Pineapple and Pomegranate 1

13. Plantation crops-Coconut and Cashew nut 1

14. Areca nut & Rubber 1

15. Tea and Coffee 1

Author :- TNAU(ICAR)

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Note:- In This You can Read Only Fruits Crops

LEC. 1
SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT CULTIVATION, NUTRITIONAL,
COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL AND MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT CROPS

Importance of fruit growing

Cultivation of fruit crops plays an important role in the prosperity of any nation. It is generally
stated that the standard of living of the people can be judged by per capita production and
consumption of fruits.

Fruits crops are capable of giving higher tonnage of yield per unit area than other field crops. For
example, a wheat crop produces on an average 12-15 tonnes from an area of one hectare in two

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crops per year. Even a hybrid rice variety can giv e only a maximum of 24 tonnes from one hectare
land in three crops per year while a banana crop can yield 35-40 tonnes per hectare. Papaya gives
100-150 tonnes per hectare in 2 ½ years which works out of 40-60 tonnes per year and mango
gives 25 tonnes from a hectare. From grapevine, a quantity of 60-80 tonnes per hectare in tow
harvests per year can be obtained under tropical climate.

Fruits are found to be a rich source of vitamins and minerals. For example mango, papaya and
jack have the important constituent the beta carotene which is actually the precursor of vitamin A.

Mango and papaya fruits have been estimated to be very good sources of readily available beta-
carotene, 1990 ug per 100 g in mango and 880 ug per 100 g in papaya. While bajra supplies only
132 ug of beta-carotene per 100 g, wheat supplies hardly 64 ug per 100g. It is disheartening to
know that raw rice which is the major energy source in South Indian diet does not possess any
carotene at all.

According to recent research results many phytochemicals found in fruits act as powerful
antioxidants protecting cells and organs from damage caused by free radicals, neutralizing their
damaging effects. They are the biologically active substances in plants that give them colour,
flavour, odour and protection against not only diseases affecting the plants but also human being.
Consequently hundreds of such plant substances are being investigated now for their role in
preventing cancer and other degenerative diseases. Some of the promising phytochemicals which
act as antioxidants are bioflavanoids (Vitamin P), phenolics, lycopene, carotenoids, antioxidant
vitamins (C and E) and glucosinolates.
Oranges, lemons, limes and grape fruits besides being principal sources of vitamin C and folate
are rich in a class of phytochemicals called limonoids. This antioxidant has been found to be very
effective against cancer.

Sweet orange is the most common food recommended for a patient suffering from very high fever.
It has a cooling effect as well as it is easily assimilated. Peyan, a variety of banana fruit is
administered to patients suffering from chicken pox as it brings down the high temperature of the
body.

The potential of fruit crops in the growth of national economy is noteworthy. The prosperity of
the country lies in building up its foreign exchange reserves. Being a country having varied
climatic conditions ranging from tropical to subtropical and to temperate, India has very immense

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potential for the production of different fruits and their export. During 1998-99, 1.18 lakh tonnes
of fruits and nuts valued at Rs.24,714 lakhs were exported from India. During 2002 India ranked
second in annual production of fruits with 48.57 million tonnes accounting for about 10.3% of
total world fruit production.

Recent policies of the Government of India to encourage export of fruits and their products by
announcing concessions to the fruit industry such as reduced air freight charges and exemption for
storage charges for refrigerated air cargo at international airports have encouraged a number of
private entrepreneurs / corporate bodies and NRIs to go in for planting larger area under fruit
crops with an aim to export fruits and fruit products.

The foregoing account is given with a view to emphasize the growing importance of the fruit
industry. As could be seen from the details given therein, the fruit culture in vital to the health and
economy of the nation, from the stand point of increased food production, nutrition, trade and fruit
based industries.

LEC .2 FRUIT PRODUCTION SCENARIO, STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL,

IMPACT AND ECONOMIC TREND WITH EMPHASIS TO EXPORT

India is the second largest producer of fruits after Brazil. The total production of fruits in the
world is around 370 million MT. India ranks first in the world with an annual output of 32 million
MT. While there are almost 180 families of fruits that are grown all over the world, citrus fruits
constitute around 20% of world’s total fruit production. India with its current production of around
32 million MT accounts for about 8% of the world’s fruit production. The major fruits for export
are mango, banana, citrus fruits, apple, guava, papaya, pineapple and grapes. The diverse
agroclimatic zones of the country makes it possible to grow almost all varieties of fruits and
vegetables in India. The fruit production in India has recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the
fruit processing sector has grown at about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been
extensively higher for frozen fruits & vegetables (121%).

Mango production accounts for an estimated 38 percent of total tropical fruit output in 2002, two
percent higher than the most recent estimates, again due to increased production in China and India
which offset declines in mango output in Mexico. Area dedicated to mango production continues
to steadily increase in recent years in India, covering an estimated 39 percent of all agricultural

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area dedicated to fruit crops. Pineapple production is estimated at 14.4 million tonnes 13.7 million
tonnes for 2001, or 21 percent of global output, with papaya and avocado production estimated to
reach 8.9 and 2.6 million tonnes, respectively. Total papaya output registered a slight decline in
2002, although production in Brazil and India, the two largest producers, increased nearly 3
percent for each country over 2001. The production of minor tropical fruits, such as lychees,
durian, rambuttan, guavas and passionfruit continues to steadily increase, and are estimated to
have reached 15.5 million tonnes, or 23 percent of total global output.

India has 1655 lakh ha of land and a operational holding of agricultural farming is about 153 lakh
ha is under horticulture and yields about 142 million tonnes of fruits and vegetables. India ranks
first in the production of mango, banana, sapota and acid limes in the world. It is among the first
10 in the production of apples, papaya, oranges, grapes and pineapples. The five fruits namely
Mango, Banana, Citrus, Guava and Apple account for 75% of the total fruit production.
Although India is the largest producer of fruits in the world, the production per capital is only
about 100 gms per day. However, it is estimated that more than 20-22% of the total production of
fruits is lost due to spoilage at various post harvest stages. Thus the per capita availability of fruits
is further reduced to around 80 gms per day which is almost half the requirement for a balanced
diet. Area and production of fruits

Area (Lakh Production

Year
ha) (lakh Mt)

1991-92 28.74 268.32

1992-93 32.06 329.55

1993-94 31.84 372.55

1994-95 43.10 386.03

1995-96 33.57 415.07

1996-97 35.79 404.58

*1997-98 37.50 432.60

*1998-99 37.40 440.40

1999-2000 38.00 450.00

2000-2001 39.40 498.00

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India’s Export of Fresh Fruits (Quantity : MT, Value : Rs. Lakhs )

1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02

Crop
Quality Value Quality Value Quality Value Quality Value
Banana 8111.00 1689.40 6290.00 1280.81 8629.00 1800.30 8100.00 1583.94

Dates 49.00 20.78 27.00 9.88 5.00 3.30 530.00 16.50

Fig 34.00 14.53 10.00 1.29 81.00 20.32 633.00 49.04

Pineapple 245.00 16.79 138.00 38.04 757.00 128.59 837.00 159.97

Guava 487.00 69.22 2102.00 272.10 640.00 127.84 890.00 172.30

Mango 45408 7913.67 34631 7154.89 39274 7420.12 44429 8099.13

Citrus 12786 1519.39 26915 2824.62 30464 3407.99 33171 3915.20

Grapes 11382 3709.07 14006 5513.82 20780 8391.85 14694 6043.22

Papaya 2505 342.64 12660 2076.10 11928 1619.91 1976 286.89

Apples 7442 1002.36 5477 884.34 2847 417.29 19296 1339.29

Pear & 182 9.43 99 5.18 4 0.64 13 1.66

quinces
Cherries and 60 40.13 96 23.35 5 1.76 133 39.07
apricots
Peaches & 25 42.50 14 1.36 - - - -
plum
Strawberry 68 44.66 78 103.57 40 39.17 118 12.74

Kiwi - - 4291 386.82 - - - -

Pomegranate 4239 896.07 5726 1153.69 4456 991.56 4774 1041.85

Sapota 1049 136.96 1572 243.10 911 161.85 1150 214.47

Custard apple 81 13.41 277 45.64 640 117.69 170.93 29.80

Litchi 45 13.95 299 73.82 167 157.84 29 35.99

Other fruits 2411 504.48 4946 1084.23 1913.14 36241 - 5082.89

Almonds 21 32.20 61 23.82 21.60 20 - 1.93

Hazelnuts 21 32.14 - - - 10 - 20.23

Walnuts 5328 6892 4993 6056 11001 7402 - 11778

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Pistachio 1 1.08 - - 0.01 - - -

Statewise area and production of fruits in india (area in lakh ha, output in lakh mt)
State 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99
Area Outpu Area Outpu Area Outpu Area Outpu Area Outpu Area Outpu
t t t t t t
Andhraprades 3.45 50.23 3.72 51.62 3.91 54.70 4.07 56.58 4.15 58.99 3.79 5.90
h
Arunachal 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.27 0.66 0.29 0.88 0.29 0.88 0.30 0.92
pradesh
Assam 1.10 11.66 1.10 12.39 1.01 12.12 1.03 12.29 1.04 12.20 1.05 12.50
Bihar 2.82 35.83 2.79 33.78 2.86 60.45 2.93 27.52 3.00 37.55 3.04 7.97
Goa 0.11 0.88 0.11 1.21 0.12 0.93 0.12 0.94 0.12 0.85 0.12 0.97
Gujarat 1.04 22.44 1.14 24.48 1.50 20.68 1.38 18.20 1.59 22.68 1.63 22.94
Haryana 0.17 1.23 0.18 1.34 0.20 1.45 0.22 1.51 0.24 1.76 0.24 1.92
Himachal 1.68 3.25 1.90 3.25 1.96 3.72 2.24 3.75 2.31 3.03 2.07 4.48
pradesh
Jammu and 1.24 8.68 1.27 7.46 1.30 7.90 1.44 9.45 1.47 10.47 1.36 8.81
Kashmir
Karnataka 2.42 41.97 2.59 45.11 2.76 4.73 2.99 51.34 3.15 54.46 3.15 54.46
Kerala 1.94 17.83 1.95 18.10 1.95 18.27 1.96 18.26 1.96 18.26 2.33 16.21
Madhyaprades 0.69 13.20 0.60 11.18 0.62 11.43 0.60 11.27 0.62 11.84 0.63 13.74
h
Maharastra 3.22 51.13 3.67 50.99 3.11 47.99 3.73 63.33 3.80 64.73 4.36 75.22
Manipur 0.21 1.10 0.23 11.10 0.23 11.10 0.23 1.11 0.23 1.11 0.23 1.15
Meghalaya 0.25 2.37 0.24 2.02 0.25 239 0.25 2.39 0.23 1.86 0.23 1.86
Mizoram 0.10 0.46 0.12 0.51 0.15 0.71 0.14 0.66 0.15 0.69 0.16 0.77
Nagaland 0.06 0.56 0.05 0.73 0.05 0.72 0.14 1.69 0.16 1.90 0.11 1.52
Orissa 1.61 11.16 1.76 12.72 1.87 12.42 2.07 13.42 2.27 15.12 2.49 17.18
Punjab 0.82 7.28 0.82 7.37 0.84 7.61 0.90 8.14 0.90 8.14 0.93 8.45
Rajasthan 0.21 0.95 0.20 2.30 0.20 2.38 0.21 2.67 0.20 2.78 0.21 3.10
Sikkim 0.09 0.22 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.13 0.10 0.13 0.10 0.08
Tamil Nadu 1.80 36.21 1.86 48.19 1.86 48.19 2.21 38.63 2.34 36.84 2.14 54.48
Tripura 0.47 3.26 0.47 3.25 0.32 4.01 0.32 4.00 0.32 4.01 0.30 .72
U.P (Hills) 1.63 4.60 1.82 4.93 1.84 5.02 1.86 5.10 1.87 5.15 1.88 5.20
U.P (Plain) 3.02 30.10 3.08 28.71 3.10 30.09 3.19 40.45 3.29 42.93 3.05 30.98

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West Bengal 1.35 14.58 1.12 12.19 1.16 12.83 1.16 10.35 1.17 13.74 1.28 15.36
A&N Islands 0.04 0.16 0.03 0.17 0.04 0.17 0.04 0.17 0.04 0.17 0.04 0.17
All India 31.8 372.5 43.1 386.0 33.5 415.0 35.7 404.5 37.0 432.6 37.2 440.4
4 5 0 3 7 7 9 8 2 3 7 2

(Source : National Horticulture Board)

Despite such high levels of production in this sector about 30% of the produce sets spoiled
due to improper storage, post harvest handling and lack of processing facilities. The present output
of fruits in the country is about 48 million tonnes while the demand has been estimated at 72
million tonnes.

AREA AND OUTPUT OF MAJOR FRUIT CROPS

(Area in million ha, output million MT)
Crop 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01*
Area Output Area Output Area Output Area Output
Apples 0.23 1.32 0.23 1.38 0.23 1.04 0.24 1.30
Bananas 0.44 13.34 0.46 15.07 0.49 16.81 0.50 17.50
Citrus 0.48 4.31 0.48 4.57 0.52 4.65 0.53 4.80
fruits
Grapes 0.04 0.97 0.04 1.08 0.04 1.13 0.04 1.20
Guavas 0.15 1.61 0.15 1.80 0.15 1.71 0.16 1.85
Litchi 0.05 0.45 0.05 0.43 0.05 0.43 0.06 0.45
Mangoes 1.38 10.23 1.40 9.78 1.48 10.50 1.50 11.40
Papaya 0.07 1.62 0.06 1.58 0.06 1.66 0.07 1.70
Pineapples 0.07 0.94 0.07 1.01 0.07 1.02 0.07 1.10
Sapota 0.04 0.44 0.05 0.68 0.06 0.80 0.07 0.90
Other fruits 0.78 8.03 0.75 6.66 0.65 5.75 0.70 7.60

* Provisional (Source : National Horticultural Board, Ministry of Agriculture) LEC. 3

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON CLIMATIC
REQUIREMENTS, HORTICULTURAL AND
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Agroclimatic zones of India

Agro ecological zone is defined as a land unit in terms of major climates, suitable for
certain range of crops and cultivars. Fruits are broadly classified on the basis of their temperature

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requirement such as, temperate, subtropical and tropical. However, some fruits may be grown
under more than one climate. For example, mango is grown under both tropical and subtropical
climates. Grape and peach can be grown in both temperate and subtropical regions. The agro
climatic zones of India are as follows.

Zones
Temperate Subtropical Tropical
North western North eastern
Central southern coastal
Characteristics of different zones
Temperate zone:

Vegetative and flower buds of most of the temperate zone fruits enter into dormancy in
late summer or autumn and require a substantial amount of winter cold before they can resume
growth in the following spring.

i. these fruit plants are frost - hardy and even tolerant to snowfall and ice,
ii. the soil is mainly shallow and acidic in nature, and iii. rainfall is
adequate.

In India, temperate zone climatic environment occurs at sufficiently high elevations.

Subtropical zone:
i. Temperature is of intermediate in nature,
ii. chilling temperature, if occurs, is for a brief spell and beneficial for many
fruits, iii. the fruits grown have no distinct rest period, iv. light frost may occur
in this zone,

v. rainfall varies widely from low to high, vi.

soil reaction is generally neutral,
vii. soil fertility status is not satisfactory, viii. the majority
areas have sandy loam and alluvial soil, and ix. the fruits
have no marked photoperiodic requirement.

Tropical zone:

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i. Chilling temperature is practically absent, ii. high
temperature occurs during most part of the year, iii. day
and night temperature variation is narrow, iv.
photoperiodic requirement in very insignificant, v.
rainfall varies widely,

vi. soil type varies greatly (clay loam, alluvial, saline, sandy, laterite etc.,) Besides, the
arid region of India which occupies nearly 12 percent of the total land area is of
immense importance for fruit growing because of the development of highly efficient
irrigation management methods. In India, the hot, arid zone covers over 3.2
lakh.Sq.km.in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka and

Maharastra. There is about 70,300 sq. km area under the cold arid zone of Ladadh in Jammu
& Kashmir.

These regions are characterized by distinct agro climatic features:

i. Annual rainfall is low with erratic distribution pattern and largely confined to
the period from July – September with 9-12 rain spells out of 12-20 in the whole year.
After April, the vapour pressure deficit is more than 24mb, and exceeds 30 mb during
may and June causing heavy evapotranspiration. These conditions result in soil
moisture and atmospheric water stress to the plants after the rainy season. The mean
annual rainfall varies from 100 mm north-western to 450 mm in eastern boundary of
the arid zone in Rajasthan. It varies from less than 30mm to 500mm in the arid zone
of Gujarat and from 200mm to 450mm in Haryana and Punjab.

ii. High solar radiation incidence (450 – 500 cal per cm2 / day) and high wind
velocity (20km/hour) result in a high potential evapotraspiration (6mm/day) and high
mean acidity index (74-78%).

iii. The soils being wind blown, have 85% sand and low organic matter (0.1 –
0.45%) with poor water holding capacity (25-28%) and high infiltration rate (9cm
/hr). iv. The groundwater resources are meager and at a great depth (40-50mm).
Owing to the poor surface and subsurface drainage, the groundwater in a large part of
the area (e.g. 60% of arid Rajasthan) is highly saline.

Fruit growing regions in India

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1. Temperate zone: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, part of Uttar Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, part of Nagaland, Nilgiris and Pulney hills in Tamil Nadu.

2. North western subtropical zone: Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, part of UP, part of
Mathaya Pradesh.

3. North Eastern subtropical zone: Bihar, Assam, Megalalya, Tripura, part of Arunachal
Pradesh and part of west Bengal.

4. Central tropical zone: Part of Madhya Pradesh, part of Mahsrashtra, Gujarat, part of
Orissa, part of West Bengal, part of Andhra Pradesh & part of Karnataka.

5. Southern tropical zone: Part of Karnataka, part of AP, part of TN & part of Kerala.
6. Coastal tropical humid zone: Coast of Maharastra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, TN, Orissa,
West Bengal, Tripura and Mozorm, part of Gujarat along sea and the Indian Islands.

The ICAR, New Delhi, has recognized eight agro climatic zones for effective land use
planning.

S.No. Agro climatic Region Status

1. Humid western
Himalayan Region
J&K, HP, Kumaon and Garhwal in Uttarnchall
2. Humid Bengal – Assam
Region
West Bengal & Assam
3. Humid Eastern
Himalayan Region
Bay Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura, Sikkam,Megalaya & Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.

4. Sub-humid Sutlez-Ganga
Alluvial plains
Punjab, Delhi, UP plains & Bihar.
5. Sub-humid to Humid

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Eastern and south Eastern
Islands
Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar.
6. Arid western plains Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

7. Semi-arid Lava plateaus and central Islands.

Mahastra, Western Central Madhya Pradesh and Goa.

8. Humid to Semi-arid western Ghats

Karnataka, TN, KErala, Pandichary and Lakshadweep Islands.

During 1985 – 90, the Planning commission accepted 15 broad agroclimatic zones based
on physiography and climate for effective planning.

These zones are:

1. Western Himalayan Region.
2. Eastern Himalayan Region.
3. Lower Gangetic plains Region.
4. Middle Gangetic plains Region.
5. Upper Gangetic plains Region.
6. Trans – Gangetic plains Region.
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Region.
8. Central Plateau and Hills Region,
9. Western plateau and Hills Region,
10. Southern plateau and Hills Region,
11. East coast plains and Hills Region,
12. West coast plains and Ghats,
13. Gujarat plains and Hills Region,
14. Western Dry Region, and
15. The Island Region.
Under National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) each agro climatic zone is divided into sub-
sones. The sub-zones totaling 120, are primarily based on rainfall, existing cropping pattern and
administrative units, where in each state is divided into 2-12 sub-zones. These delineations are too
many for planning process at National level, having

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similar agro climatic conditions. The National Be of soil survey & land use planning (NBSS &
LUP) Nagpur, delineated the country into 21 agro Ecological regions, using physiographic, soils,
bioclimatic types and growing periods. Growing period (GP) was based on water balance starting
with period having precipitation 0.5 excess of evaporation (PET) ending with utilization of 100
mm of stored soil moisture once precipitation falls below PET. In this system of delineations, arid
zone had GP of 90 days, semi-arid region corresponded to 90- 150 days of GP and the subarid
zone correlated with region having GP between 150 and 210 days. The humid and prehumid zones
had GP of 210-270 days and more than 270 days/year respectively.

The Climatic Zons of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu forms the southernmost state of Indian Union located between 8° 20 ` to 13 °10 `
north latitude and 76° 15 to 80° 20` east longitude. The man annual rainfalls is 974mm (Table)
with the highest contribution from north-logged monsooon 47 per cnet of total rainfall), followed
by south-west monsson (32 per cent), summer (16 per cent) and winter (5 per cent). Based on the
rainfall, altitude and irrigation souce, the state has been marked into seven c;limatic zones (fig.44)
whose characterisitcs are furnished below.

1. North-eastern Zone: (Chengai-Anna, North Arcot Sotuh Arcot districts): The mean annual
rainfall is 1100mm out of which 566 mm is received during the North-East monsoon period
with frequent occurrence of cycloners. The mean maximum temperature is from28.5 to 38.4° C
while the mean minimum temperature is from 21 to 28° C.The major soil types are red sandy
loam, clayey loam and saline coastal alluvium. The major irrigation sources are hanks and wells.
Since the rainfall is uniformly distributed from July to December, two crop sequences of
groundnut followed pulses are practised. In the coastal area rain-fed rice is cultivated. The other
crops like sugarcance and millets are raised with the help of well.two crop sequences are
followed. In this zone a significant practice of transplanting finger milet, sorghunm and tomato
purely under raiunfed condition is followed. Established mango grooves in drylands are
common in this zone.

2. North – Western Zone: (Salem and Dharmapuri Districts): The mean annual rainfall is 875 mm
and about 42 per cent of rainfall is received during the South – West monsoon period. The mean
monthluy maximum temperature ranges from 30 to 37° C and the minimum temperature is from
19 to 25° C. The minimum temperature usually goes below 15 C in northern parts adjoining

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Karnataka. The elevation rangers from 800 to 1000 m(MSL). The Cultivation is drylands
commences from the month opf June and

3. Western Zone: (Coimbatore and Periyar Districts): Themean annual rainfalls is 720 mm with a
contribution of 49 per cent from the North-East period. The mean maximum emperature is from
30 to 35° C while the mean minimum temperature ranges from19 to 24° C. The predominant
soil types in black soils during September/October . With the receipt of early rain, groundnut is
sown in red soils. In black soil areas, cotton for early rains and bengalgram for late rains are
raised. In the southern oiart if this zone the rainfal is about 550 mm only and more area is
devoted to pastures with hardy tress like white babul. With the help of well and cannal irrigation
crops, like cotton, finger milklet and sugarcane and raised.

4. Cauvery Delta zone: (Thanjavur and Tiruchirapalli Districts): The mean annual rainfall varies
from 900-1000 mm, out of which more than 50 percent is received through North_east monsoon
period. The main source of irrigation is the Cauvery river. The mean maximum temperature is
from ranges from 30.0 to 38.5° C and mean minimum temperature is from 21 to 27° C. The
major soil typer is alluvial in the old delta areas while red loamy and it has been rightly called
as

‘rice bowl of Tamil Nadu’. After the rice crop, pulses are raised with residual soil moisture. In
places with supplemental irrigation through wells filter points cotton, groundnut and sesamum are
raised as su mmer crops.

5. Southern Zone: (Pudukkottai, Madurai, Quaide- e-millath, Passumpon, Kamarajar,

Ramanathapuram, Chidambaram and Tirunelveli): The topography of zone is undulating. This
zone lies on the rain shadow are of the western ghats. The mean annual rainfall is 850 mm with a
contribution of about 470 mm from North-East monsoon. The mean maximum temperature varies
from 28 to 38.5° C, and the minimum temperature ranges from 21 to 27.5° C. The soils of this
region fall under major groups, viz., black, red alluvial and lateritic. Saline coastal alluvial soils
are also present in the coastal belt. In black soils only one crop, either cotton or sorghum is raised.
Direct seeded rice is cultivated under rainfed condition onlight soils. On red soils, groundnut crop
is raised. Under garden land conditions, pearl millet and chillies from the major crops.

6. High Rainfall Zone: (Kanyakumari District) : The mean annual rainfall is 1460 mm received
in 64 rainny days, out of which 38 and 36 per cent are respectively received during South-west

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and North -East monsoon periods. The mean maximum temperature ranges from 28 to 33,5° C
and minimum is from 22 to 26.5 ° C. The soils are deep red loam except the crop grown under
rainfed condition followed by tapioca. Plantaion crops like tea, pepper, clove, nutmeg,
cardamom and coffee also cultivated on the hills.

7. Hilly zone: This zone c comprises the hilly region of the Nilgris, the Shevroys, the Yalagiri, the
Annamalais and the Palani. The rainfall varies from 1000 mm at the foot of the hills to 5000
mm at the peaks. The mean maximum temperature varies from 15 to 24° C and that minimum
ranges from 7 to 13° C. The soil is mainly lateritic. The major crops are cole vegetables, potato,
tropical and temperate fruit areas. At the foot of th hills minor millets are the raised by hill tribes.

At higher altitudes wheat cultivation is common during winter season.

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LEC. 4 MANGO – SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, HIGH DENSITY PLANTING,
NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, INTERCROPPING,
OFF-SEASON PRODUCTION

Mango (Mangifera indica), the king of fruits, is grown in India for over 400 years. India
shares about 56% of total mango production in the world. Its production has been increasing since
independence, contributing 39.5% of the total fruit production of India. Andhra Pradesh tops in
total production, whereas Uttar Pradesh tops area-wise. Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of the total
production in India.

Climate and Soil

Mango can be grown on a wide variety of soils under varied climatic conditions. It can be
grown from alluvial to lateritic soils except in black cotton soil having poor drainage. It grows
well in soils with slightly acidic pH. It does not perform well in soils having pH beyond 7.5.

Soils having good drainage are ideal for mango.

Mango is a tropical fruit, but it can be grown up to 1,100m above mean sea level. There
should not be high humidity, rain or frost during flowering. The temperature between 24 and 27°C
is ideal for its cultivation. Higher temperature during fruit development and maturity gives better-
quality fruits. The areas experiencing frequent showers and high humidity are prone to many pests
and diseases. Thus it can be grown best in regions with a rainfall between 25cm and 250cm.
Regions having bright sunny days and moderate humidity during flowering are ideal for mango
growing.

Varieties
India is the home of about 1,000 varieties. Most of them are the result of open pollination
arisen as chance seedlings. However, only a few varieties are commercially cultivated throughout
India.

Commercial mango varieties grown in different states

Andhra Pradesh Banganapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum and Totapuri

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Bihar Bombay green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog,
Himsagar, Zardalu and Langra
Gujarat Kesar, Alphonso, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Totapuri, Neelum, Dashehari
and Langra

Haryana Chausa, Dashehari, Langra and Fazli

Himachal Pradesh Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
Karnataka Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli, Pairi, Neelum and Mulgoa
Madhya Pradesh Alphonso, Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fazli, Langra and Neelum
Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar and Pairi
Punjab Chausa, Dashehari and Malda
Rajasthan Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
Tamil Nadu Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli and Neelum
Uttar Pradesh Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
West Bengal Fazli, Gulabkhas, Himsagar, Kishenbhog, Langra and Bombay
Green

State wise availability of mango in India

Andhra Pradesh March to mid – August
Bihar May-end to mid-August
Gujarat April to July
Haryana June to August
Himachal Pradesh mid-June to mid- August
Karnataka May to July
Madhya Pradesh Mid-April to July
Maharashtra April to July
Rajasthan May to July
Tamil Nadu April to August
Uttar Pradesh Mid-May to August
West Bengal May to August

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In India, mango is available from March to mid-August. The north Indian cultivars are
alternate-bearer whereas south Indian ones are generally regular-bearer. About 20 varieties are
grown commercially. They are
Alphonso
One of the most popular variety of India, it is mainly grown in Ratnagiri area of

Maharashtra and to a small extent in parts of south Gujarat and Karnataka. Its fruits are

medium-sized (250g), with attractive blush towards the basal end. Pulp is firm, fibreless with

excellent orange colour. It has good sugar: acid blend. Keeping quality is good. It is

susceptible to spongy tissue.

Banganapalli
A widely cultivated, early-maturing mango of south India. It is the main commercial
variety of Andhra Pradesh. Its fruits are large-sized, weighing on an average 350-400g. The pulp
is fibreless, firm and yellow with sweet taste. Fruits have good keeping quality.

Bombay Green
It is one of the earliest varieties of north India. Its fruits are medium-sized, weighing about
250g each. Fruits have strong and pleasant flavour. Pulp is soft and sweet. Chausa

Late-maturing variety of north India, it matures during July or beginning of August. Fruits
are large, weighing about 350g each. Fruits are bright yellow with soft'and sweet pulp. It is shy
bearing.

Dashehari
One of the most popular variety of north India, it is a mid-season mango. Fruits are
medium-sized, with pleasant flavour, sweet, firm, and fibreless pulp. Stone is thin and keeping
quality good. Fazli

This is indigenous to Bihar and West Bengal. Fazli is a late-maturing (August) mango.
Fruits are large, with firm to soft flesh. Flavour is pleasant and pulp is sweet and fibre less.

Keeping quality is good.

Gulab Khas

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It is indigenous to Bihar. Regular and heavy-bearer, it is mid-season mango. Fruits are
small to medium-sized. It has rosy flavour. Fruits are ambre-yellow with reddish blush towards
the base and on sides. Keeping quality is good.
Himsagar
Very popular in West Bengal, it is a regular-bearing mango. Its fruits are medium-sized,
having good quality. Flesh is firm, yellow, fibreless with pleasant flavour. Keeping quality is good.

Kesar
Popular in Saurashtra region of Gujarat, Kesar is an irregular-bearing mango. Fruits are
medium-sized. Flesh is sweet and fibreless. It has excellent sugar: acid blend. Fruits ripen to
attractive apricot-yellow colour with red blush. It has good processing quality.

Kishenbhog
Indigenous to West Bengal, it is a mid-season mango. Fruits are medium to large-sized,
good with a pleasant flavour. There are traces of turpentine. Flesh is firm with few fibres.

Keeping quality is good.

Langra
An important commercial mango variety of north India, it is biennial-bearer and a
midseason variety, with good quality fruits. Flesh is firm, lemon-yellow in colour and scarcely
fibrous. It has characteristic turpentine flavour. Keeping quality is medium.

Mankurad
It is a mid-season variety, popular in Goa. Fruits are medium-sized with yellow skin.
Flesh is firm, cadmium yellow and fibreless. Keeping quality is good.
Neelum
A heavy-yielding, late-season mango in south India, it has regular-bearing habit. Fruits are
medium-sized with good flavour. Flesh is soft, yellow and fibreless. Keeping quality is good.

Pairi
A native to coastal Maharashtra including Goa, it is an early-maturing, heavy and regular-
bearer mango. Fruits are medium-sized with good quality. It has good flavour with sugar: acid
blend. Flesh is soft, primuline-yellow and fibreless. Keeping quality is poor.

Totapuri

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Widely grown in south India, Totapuri is a regular and heavy-bearing mango. Fruits are
medium to large with prominent sinus. Fruit quality is medium. It has a typical flavour and flat
taste. Flesh is cadmium-yellow and fibreless.
A number of selections/hybrids of mango have been evolved. These include Clone C-51
from Dashehari selected at the CISH, Lucknow, and an off-season selection, Niranjan, selected at
Parbhani. New clonal selections from Langra and Sunderja have been made at Varanasi and Rewa.
A clonal selection, Paiyur 1, has been made from Neelum, in addition to few dwarf polyembryonic
selections made in the north-eastern region.

As a result of systematic hybridization, several hybrids have been released. However only a
few have become commercially acceptable. Of these, Mallika, Ratna and Arka Puneet are
becoming quite popular.

Mango hybrids and their characters

Hybrid Place of research Parentage Important characters
Mallika IARI, New Delhi Neelum x Regular-bearers, high TSS, good
Dashehari colour, uniform fruits, moderate

keeping quality
Amrapali IARI, New Delhi Dashehari x Dwarf, regular-bearers,
Neelum clusterbearing, small-sized fruits,
good keeping quality

Ratna FRS, Vengurla Neelum x Regular-bearers, free from spongy

Alphonso tissue and fibre

Sindhu FRS, Vengurla Ratna x Regular-bearer, stone thin

Alphonso
Arka IIHR, Bangalore Alphonso x Regular-bearer, attractive skin colour,
Puneet Banganapalli medium-sized, free from spongy
tissue. Good keeping quality, good
sugar, acid blend

Propagation

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Mango is a highly heterozygous and cross-pollinated crop. There are 2 types of mango
varieties. Most of the varieties in south are polyembryonic and thus give true-to-type seedlings. In
north, the varieties grown are monoembryonic and need to be propagated vegetatively.

Mango is propagated on mango rootstock. For raising rootstock, the seeds of mango are
sown within 4-5 weeks after extraction otherwise they lose their viability. For sowing the seeds,
raised beds are prepared with a mixture farmyard manure, red soil and sand. In some places, seeds
are sown directly in polythene bags. After germination, the leaves turn green in 2-4 weeks. These
seedlings are transplanted to polythene covers containing red soil, sand and farmyard manure.
Addition of nitrogenous fertilizer to polythene covers after the establishment of plants helps in
quick growth of seedlings. The seedlings thus raised should be used for grafting at different ages.
Several methods of grafting are practiced. They are:

lnarching: It is one of the most widely practiced methods of grafting. One can get a big-sized
plant material for planting with over 95% success rate.

Veneer and side grafting: These can be utilized for preparing a grafted plant material or for insitu
grafting, i.e. for the rootstocks which are already planted.

Epicotyl /stone grafting: This method is widely practiced in the Konkan region of Maharashtra.
The germinated seedlings of 8-15 days old are used for grafting.

CULTIVATION

Planting
Different systems of planting like square, rectangular and hexagonal are followed at
different places. However, square and rectangular systems are also popular. The spacing depends
on the vigour of the variety and the cropping system. The planting season varies fron Jun to Sep.
The main field is brought to fine tilth. Pits of 1m x 1mx 1m size are dug. These are exposed to sun
for about 30 days. Before planting, pits are filled with well-rotten farmyard manure. The top and
sub-soil are taken out separately while digging the pits. The grafts should be planted during rainy
season. In the in-situ grafting, rootstocks are planted in the main field. Then they are raised for 6
months to 1 year. Then the scions of the variety that need to be grown are taken and grafted. This
is usually done when humidity is high. After grafting the scions are covered with polythene covers.
High-density planting

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High-density planting helps increase the yield/unit area. In north India, mango Amrapali is found
amenable for high-density planting with a spacing of 2.5m x 2.5m. Soil drenching with
paclobutrazol (2 ml/tree) induces flowering during off year. It has become a commercial practice
in Konkan region of Maharashtra. If coupled with pruning, it, helps increase production /unit area
in Dashehari. The polyembryonic mango Vellaikolumban when used as rootstock imparts
dwarfing in Alphonso.

AFTER CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Training and pruning
Training is an important practice during the first few years after planting. It is essential to
space the branches properly to facilitate intercultural operations.

Manuring and fertilization

The nutritional requirement of mango varies with the region, soil type and age. A dose of
73g N, l8g P2O2 and 68g K2O5 / year of age from first to tenth year and thereafter a dose of 730g
N, l80g P2O5 and 680g K2O should be applied in 2 split doses during June-July and
SeptemberOctober respectively.

Spraying of zinc sulphate (0.3%) during February, March and May is recommended to
correct the zinc deficiency. Spraying of Borax (0.5%) after fruit set twice at monthly intervals and
0.5% manganese sulphate after blooming corrects boron and manganese deficiencies respectively.

Organic manures and phosphatic fertilizers should be applied immediately after harvest,
whereas ammonium sulphate should be given before flowering.

Intecropping
In mango, intercropping helps check weed growth and reduces nutrient losses. Intercropping
blackgram-wheat-mango and brinjal-onion-mango gives better monetary benefits. Besides, taking
up cover crops like sunhemp, cowpea, pea help to prevent soil erosion.

Irrigation
The young plants upto 2-year-old should be watered regularly. The newly-planted grafts
need about 30 litres of water every week. Irrigation during preflowering phase increases flowering.
Irrigating grown-up trees after fruit set at 10-day interval increases the yield.

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Harvesting and Postharvest Management
Mangoes should be harvested with pedicel. Injury to the fruits during harvesting brings
down their quality and also makes them prone to fungal attack. An average mango tree yields 8
tonnes /ha. The number of fruits per tree doing its bearing age generally various from 1000 to

2000 fruits. The productivity of mango is higher in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar. The north Indian
mangoes Langra and Dashehari are alternate-bearers, whereas most of the south Indian mangoes
are regular bearers. Mango Mallika and Amrapali are also comparatively regular-bearer.
After harvesting, mangoes are graded according to their size. To maintain the quality,
proper packaging is a must. In western region, bamboo baskets are used for packing. A basket
contains 50-100 fruits. Straw is used for packing. Wooden boxes are also used in some place.
However, now perforated cardboard are generally used. In these boxes either fruits are individually
wrapped with tissue paper before packing or paper shavings are used for cushioning.

Minimizing the post harvest losses is one of the most important aspects. Usually green and
mature mangoes are stored better than ripe ones harvested from trees. Low temperature storage,
controlled atmospheric storage, use of chemical treatment for delaying ripening, irradiation, heat
treatment, packaging and shrink wrapping are methods to increase their shelflife. The temperature
of 5-16°C for different varieties is ideal for storing. Mangoes are highly susceptible to low
temperature injury. Loss of flavour and development of undesirable softening are major symptoms
of chilling injury.

Under controlled atmospheric storage, retardation of respiratory activity, delaying of softening,

colour development and senescence of fruits take place. Hence, this method has not been adopted
in mango. The combination of waxing (3%) along with hot-water treatment results in good
quality fruits with extended storage life. Individual wrapping of fruit imparts uniform colour and
reduces shrinkage. Hydro-cooling at 12°-15°C and holding for 2 weeks at 15°C followed by
storage for 1 week at ambient temperature gives good storage life to fruits.
LEC. 5 MANGO- MAJOR PROBLEMS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS,
PESTS AND DISEASES AND INTEGRATED
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

DISORDERS

Alternate bearing
Alternate bearing has been one of the major problems. Most of the south Indian varieties
are regular-bearer, whereas north Indian ones alternate-bearer. Paclobutrazol is a promising
chemical for flower induction in mango. Soil drenching with paclobutrazol (5g -10g/tree) results

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in minimum outbreak of vegetative flushes during September to October giving an early and
profuse flowering and more annual yield without affecting fruit size and quality.

Mango malformation
It is one of the most important disorders, causing huge losses. It is a major problem in
Punjab, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. However, it has also been noticed in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar,
West Bengal and Orissa. Of the 2 types of mango malformation, vegetative malformation is more
common in nursery seedlings and young plants. Floral malformation affects trees at the bearing
stage. In vegetative malformation or bunchy top, compact leaves are formed in a bunch at the
apex of shoot or in the leaf axil and growth of shootlet is arrested. Floral malformation directly
affects the productivity. The incidence of disorder varies from variety to variety. Deblossoming
alone or coupled with a spray of 200ppm NAA lowers the number of malformed panicles
significantly.

Black tip
This disorder is mainly noticed in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The distalend
of the affected fruits turns black and becomes hard. These fruits ripen prematurely and become
unmarketable. This disorder is caused by the smoke of brick-kilns located within a distance of
600m. Gases like carbon monoxide and carbondioxide, sulphur dioxide and acetylene cause these
symptoms. It can be controlled by raising the height of the chimney of the brickkilns. Spraying
borax (0.6%) at 10-14 days intervals starting from fruit set also controls it.

Clustering (Jhumka)
This malady is characterized by a cluster of fruitlets at the tip of the panicle giving an
appearance of bunch tip called jhumka. These fruitlets are dark green with a deeper curve in the
sinus beak region compared with normally developing fruitlets. These fruitlets grow to marble size
after which their growth ceases. One of the main reasons for clustering is the adverse climate
during February-March, particularly the low temperature. Most of the fruits are aborted with
shrivelled embryos and do not develop further, signifying the role of normal embryo growth in the
development of fruits.

Spongy tissue
It is specific in Alphonso mango. Fruits from outside look normal. but inside a patch of
flesh becomes spongy, yellowish and sour. This disorder has brought down the export of this

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variety. Inactivation of ripening enzyme due to high temperature, convective heat and post harvest
exposure to sunlight are the causes. Use of sod culture and mulching are useful in reducing its
incidence. Mango hybrids Ratna and Arka Puneet which have Alphonso like characters do not
suffer from this malady. Harvesting mangoes when they are three-fourths matured rather than fully
matured ones also reduces this malady.

Use of Growth Regulator

Due to the various causes, fruit drop occurs in mango rather at a higher rate, even upto about 99
percent in various stages of growth, more during the initial four weeks.

The extent of fruits drop can be reduced significantly by (a) Regular irrigation during the fruit
development period (b) Timely and effective control measures against major pests and diseases,
and (c) Through the application of growth regulators like NAA (50 ppm) and 2,4-D (20 ppm)
during off years about six weeks after fruit set.

Pest and Diseases

Mango hopper (Amaritodus atkinsoni)
Spray phosalone @ 0.05% or carbaryl 2 g/ lit or phosphamidon 1 m1/litre.
Nut weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae and C.gravis)
General cleanliness in the orchard, destroying the adults in the bark crevices and holes and
spraying with Fenthion 0.1% Stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata)

Padding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10ml in 2.5 cm per tree soaked in absorbant cotton
Application of carbofuron 3G 5g per bore hole and plugging with mud.

Fruit fly (Dacus spp)

Plough the inter spaces to expose pupae.
Monitor with Methyl Eugenol traps.
Remove the fallen fruits now and then and bury them deep into soil.
Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae)
Apply sulphur dust (350 mesh) in the early morning to protect new flush or spray wettable sulphur
0.2% or Tridemorph 0.05%

Anthracnose and stalk and end rot (Collectotrichum gloesporioides)

Spray Mancozeb 0.2% (1kg /ha) or Carbendezim 0.1% as preharvest spray,

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3 times at 15 days interval.
Sooty mould (Capnodium sp)
Spray Dimecron 0.03% + Maida 5% (1kg maida or starch boiled with one litre of water and diluted
to 20 litre).

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LEC.6 BANANA – SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, HIGH DENSITY PLANTING,
NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, INTER CULTURAL
SPECIAL OPERATIONS

Banana : Musa sp Scitaminae Sub family: Musaceae

Banana is one of the oldest fruit known to mankind and also important food for man.
Origin: South East Asia

‘Apple of paradise’
Rich source of energy (137 K. Ca/100g)
It is a good laxative.

Important status: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andrapradesh and Bihar.

Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of the two species.
M. acuminata, M. balbisiana. They set fruits by parthenocarpy.

Climate: Humid tropic plant. Temperature range of 10°C to 40°C with an average of 23°C.
Altitude: Upto 1500 mts from MSL.
Wind velocity more than 80 m/hr will damage the crop heavily.
Rainfall : 100 mm/ month is good.

Soil: Deep well – drained soil with abundant organic matter.

Depth – one mete
Soil pH: 5.5 – 8.0 found to be optimum.
Season of planting
Wet land – Feb-April: Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan
April – May : Nendran, Robusta
Garden lands : January – February and November – December
Padugai lands : January – February and August – September
Hill banana : April – May (lower palani hills)
June – Aug (Sirumalai)

Propagation : Sucker

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i. Sword sucker – suckers with a well – developed base and pointed tip having
narrow sword shaped leaf bladers in the early stage.

ii. Water sucker or broad leaved sucker – small, undersized suckers of superficial
origin bearing broad leaves.

Sword suckers – more vigorous, grows faster and comes to bearing early.
Average weight of the sucker – 1.5 to 2 kg.
Micropropagation through tissue culture – Rapid multiplication of banana suckers.
Pretreatment of sucker : The roots and decayed portion of the corn are trimmed.
Pseudostem is cut leaving 20 cm from the corn.
To avoid wilt disease infected portion of the corn may be pared, dipped for 5 min in carbendazion
0.1% (1 gm in 1 lit of water) for wilt susceptible varieties – Monthan, Neyvannan, Virupahshi etc.

Pralinage – with 40 g of carbofuran 3 G granules per sucker.

(The corn is dipped in slurry solution of 4 parts of clay plus 5 parts water and sprinkled with
carbofuran to control nematodes).

Alternatively, dip the corn in 0.75% monocrotophas shade dried for atleast 24 hours and plant.
Sow sunhemp on 45th day incorporate it after about a month. This operation reduce nematode
build up.

TC banana – plants with 5-6 leaves planting – Pseudomonas fluorescence / plant 25 gm.
Field preparation
The land is ploughed deeply and leveled. The pits of size 45 cm3 is dug. The pits are refilled
with top soil, mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 250 g of neem cake and 50 g of lindane 1.3%.

Spacing Plants / ha
Garden land 1.8 x 1.8 m 3086
1.5 x 1.5 m 4444
Wet land 2.1 x 2.1 m 2267
Hill 3.6 x 3.6 m 750

High density planting – 3 suckers / pit at a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6 m

(4600 plants / ha).

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Irrigation
Irrigated immediately after planting, life irrigation – 4th day subsequent irrigation once in a week
for garden land 10-15 days in wetland after manuring. Drip irrigation – 15 lit/ plant/ day from
planting to 4th month.

20 lit/plant / day from 5th to shooting and 25 lit/plant/day from shooting till 15 days prior to
harvest.

Application of fertilizers
N P K
Garden land (g/plant/year)
Other than Nendran 110 35 330
Nendran 150 90 300
Wet land
Nendran 210 35 450
Rasthali 210 50 390
Pooven and Robusta 160 50 390

Hill banana
375 g of 40:30:40 NPK mixture and 130 g MOP/clump per application during October, January
and April. Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria – 20 g each at planting and 5th month after planting
preceding chemical fertilizer application.

Apply N as neem coated urea.

N & K in 3 splits 3rd, 5th and 7th month P at 3rd month of planting.
For tissue culture banana 50% extra fertilizer at 2nd, 4th and 6th and 8th month after planting.

For maximing productivity – fertigation.

25 litres of water / day + 200:30:300 g N:P2O5:K2O /plant using water soluble fertilizer.
For economizing the cost of fertilizers fertigate using normal fertilizers (urea and MOP) with 30%
of the recommended dose along with recommended dose of P as basal at 2nd month of planting.

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Fertigation schedule
Weeks after N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)
planting
9-18 (10 weeks) 30 100 20
19-30 (12 weeks) 50 - 40
31-42 (12 weeks) 20 - 32
43-45 (3 weeks) - - 8
Total 100 100 100

Interculture
• Mammutti digging at bi-monthly interval and earth-up
• De sucker – prune the side suckers at monthly interval Dry and dead, leaves are removed
and burnt.

• Male flower – removed a week after opening of last hand

• Bunch emergence – propping. The trees are supported with bamboos or casurina poles to
avoid damage by wind.

Growth regulator
Grade of bunch -2,4-D at 25 ppm (25 mg/lit) may be sprayed after the last hand has opened. This
also helps to remove the seediness in poovan variety. Spray CCC 1000 ppm of 4th and 6th month
after planting. Spray plantozyme @ 2ml/lit at 6th and 8th month after planting to get higher yield.

Micronutrient
ZnSO4 (0.5%) FeSO4 (0.2%) CuSO4 (0.2%) ad H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5 and 7 MAP to increase yield
and quality of banana.

Bunch cover
Use transparent polyethylene sleeves with 2% (during cool season)-4% (during summer season)
ventilation to cover the bunches immediately after opening of the last hand.

Intercropping

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Leguminous vegetables, beet root, elephant foot yam and sunhemp. Avoid growing
cucurbitaceous vegetables.

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LEC. 7 BANANA – MAJOR PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS –
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES

AND INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Physiological disorders
Kottavazhai
In certain pockets of Tamil Nadu, the banana cv. Poovan is manifested with a
peculiar development disorder which is characterized by the presence of
distinctly conical and ill filled fruits with a prominent central core having many
under developed non viable seedy structures rendering the fruits inedible. This
disorder can be overcome by spraying 2,4 D 20 ppm when the last hand of
bunch is opened. The same chemical at same dose and same stage results in
increased bunch weight and uniform grade especially in cvs. Nendran and
Monthan.

Hard lump
It is characterized by pinkish brown, firm pulp than the usual soft pulp occurs in
cv.Rasthali, tastes like immature or unripe fruits. Spraying the bunches
uniformly with 2,4 D at 1000 ppm or dipping the cut end of peduncle of the
bunches for a period of 5 minutes appears to favour the reduction of lumps and
improve the size. Sunscald

 The peduncle of the bunches may be covered with flag leaf to prevent
 'main stalk rot' and also the bunches with banana leaves to avoid sunscald.

Nematode
Bunchy top virus – Pentalonia nigronervosa.
Crop duration : bunches will be ready for harvest after 12-15 months of planting.
Viral diseases of banana
1. Bunchy top – transmitted by Aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa
Infected plants show short and narrow leaves together at the top of the pseudostem to form a bunch,
hence this disease is known as ‘Bunchy top’. The margins of leaves become wavy in advance
stage of infection and roll upward.

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Management :a) Remove all the affected plants along with complete rhizome, planting of virus
free suckers.

b). control of banana aphid - spray 0.3% Rogar or Phosphomidon

Monocrotophos – 0.05% spray

2. Banana bract mosaic virus – transmitted by Aphis gossypii

Pentalonia nigronervosa
The name is derived from the conspicuous discolouration and necrotic streaks that develops on the
bracts of the male bud. Spindle shaped discolouration found on the pseudostem.

Management : Effective control is similar to that of other viral diseases. It requires early
detection, and immediate eradication of infected plants.

3. Banana Streak - Transmitted by citrus mealy bug –Planococcus citri

Foliar symptoms resemble those of banana mosaic, especially in the early stages. Later,
development of necrotic streaks

Fungal diseases of banana

1. Panama wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cubense)
Yellowing of leaf blades, leaves wither and petiole breaks or buckles and hang
around the pseudostem. Longitudinal splitting of pseudostem and subsequent death of
entire plant.

Management :
 Removal of infected plants and application of lime @ 2kg/pit and leave it fallow for 6
months

 Growing resistant varieties like Dwarf Cavendish, Poovan and Nendran

 Crop rotation with paddy in wet land cultivation
 Capsule application of 50-60mg of carbendazim applied to the hole made at an angle of 45
degree diagonally in the diseases corm.

2. Sigatoka leaf spot disease – Mycosphaerella musicola

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Yellowish green streaks appear along the veins which later on enlarge into
elongated/cylindrical spots. Several spots join together and cause drying of the leaves.
Management

 Spray copper oxy chloride or carbendazim @ 500g/ha

 Avoid close planting

Bacterial diseases
1. Moko wilt ( Pseudomonas solanacearum)
On leaves, yellowing starts from the inner leaf close to petiole and slowly spreads up ward.
All the leaves turn yellow and wilting occurs Management

 Good drainage facilities

 Supress the wilt by bacteriazation with P.inflorescens
 Crop rotation with sorghum

2. Tip over or heart rot ( Erwinia carotovora)

 Seen mostly in tissue cultured plants . The middle tender leaf show rotting. Pseudostem
easily comes out from corm portion

 Bacterial oozing from edge of corm and pseudostem is also noticed

 Management
 Disease free suckers
 Resistant variety Poovan can be grown
Harvest
Bunches attain maturity from 100-150 days after flowering.

Yield (t/ha/year)
Poovan – 40-50
Monthan – 30-40
Robusta – 50-60
Dwarf Cavendish -50-60

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LEC .8 CITRUS - CLASSIFICATION, SOIL, CLIMATE, VARIETIES,
PLANTING, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT,
INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS

CITRUS
Citrus spp. Family : Rutaceae

Citrus fruits include oranges lamons, limes, pummelo and grape fruit.Being a native of
tropical and subtropical region of South East Asia, these have been under cultivation
from time immemorial in South China, Malaya and sub-Himalayan parts of Assam,
From here, they spread to other tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Next to
mango and banana, citrus represents the third most important group of fruits in India.
The botanical classification of the genus is highly confusing since more and more inter
specific and inter generic hybrids are going on added to the list each on deserving a
separate species status.

All the edible fruits of citrus come under subgenus Eucitrus which can be divided into
5 horticultural groups.

1. Acid group :
Acid lime : Citrus aurantifolia
Tahiti or Persean lime : Citrus latifolia
Rangpur lime : C. limonia
Lemon : Citrus limon
Rough lemon : C. jambhiri
Citron : C. medica (Kidarankai in
Tamil, used for pickling) Sweet
lime : Citrus limettoides

2. Orange group :
Sweet orange : Citrus sinensis
Sour orange : Citrus aurantium
(Narthankaai in Tamil, used for pickling)

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Multiple leaf orange : C. multifolia
Japanese summer grape fruit : C. natsudaidai
3. Mandarin group : (loose jacket)
Coorg mandarin, Nagpur
Santra and Kodai orange
: C. reticulata
Japanese Satsuma mandarin : C. unshiu
Willow leaf mandarin : C.deliciosa
King mandarin : C. nobilis
Kinnow mandarin : King x willow leaf
Tangerine orange var Dancy
(trifoliate x mandarins)
: Citrus tangerina
4. Pummelo and grape fruit group:
Pummelo : C. grandis
Grape fruit : C. paradisi
Kumquat : Fortunella sp.
5. The fifth group consists of mainly hybrids of different citrus fruits with trifoliate orange
(Poncirus trifoliata) and mainly used as rootstock.

e.g. Citrange (Poncirus trifoliata x C. sinensis) var. Troyer, var. Carrizo

Citrangor (Citrange x C. sinensis)
Tangelo (Tangerine x grape fruit)
Citrangequat (Citrange x kumquat)

Mandarinorange: C. reticulata
The group of orange is otherwise called Kamala orange. Nagpur santra of Maharashtra, Coorg of
Karnataka and Kodai orange of Tamil Nadu. This group is characterized by the loose skin of
fruits.

Soil and climate

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Subtropical 500-1500 m MSL elevation. A rainfall of about 150 cm to 250 cm is required. The
winter should be mild and there should be no strong or hot wind during summer.

A medium or light loam with a pH 5.5 to 6.5 would be ideal to grow.

Season : November – December

Planting: Seedligns and budded plants

Spacing: 6 x 6 m pit size 75 cm3 planting during May-June and September – October.

Though the crop is grown as rainfed one, the young plants should be irrigated whenever there is
failure of monsoon as well as during summer season.

Manure and fertilizers

Applied twice in a year during June and October.
For Palani hills

Manures 1year II year III year IV year V year VI year

& on wards
Fertilizers
FYM 10 15 20 25 25 30
N 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600
P 0.040 0.80 0.120 0.160 0.160 0.200
K 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.300 0.400

For shervaroyan hills (for trees above 6 years old)

700: 375:600 g/tree NPK along with VAM (Glomus fasiculatus) @ 1 kg/tree. Manures are applied
in the basin 70 cm away from the trunk and incorporated. Application of lime or dolomite at 4
kg/tree during January – February once in 2-3 years (not mixed with chemical fertilizer).

Micronutrient

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ZnSO4 – 600 g
In 450 lit of water
MnSO4 – 600 g applied
during new flush
MgSO4 – 600 g
FeSO4 – 600 g

After cultivation
Removal of water shoots
Rootstock sprouts
Dead and diseased shoots
Removal of laterals of the main stem upto 45 m from ground level
Basins should be provided for each tree with gradient slope.

Growth regulators
To increase the fruit retention spraying the trees at flowering and again at marble stage with 2,4-
D at 20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm.

Harvest: Starts bearing from 3-5 year after planting in budded plants. Incase of seedlings 5-7
years.

Yield: 15-20 t/ha/yr.

A small crop can be obtained from 4 year old tree and the yield will be higher from 7th year. From
flowering to maturity it takes 9 months.

Varieties
1. Kodai Orange (Citrus reticulate)
Trees are vigorous, fruits are very small characterized by loose rind and medium flavour.
But it is a heavy seeded variety.

2. Nagpur Santra (Citrus reticulata)

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It is the most important commercial cultivar of India. This cultivar is considered to be
one of the finest mandarins in the world orange vigorous growing variety. Fruits are
medium to subglobose having a loose rind. Flesh is fine textured with abundant juice.

Fruits mature in January – February.

3. Coorg (Citrus reticulata)
Medium to large fruits, bright orange with a loose rind. It has a good flavour, ripens
later than Nagpur Santra. It is a regular bearer. It is the commercial variety in the coorg
region of Karnataka.

In Darjeeling district of West Bengal, the variety grown is known as Darjeeling orange
and it is Desi in Punjab. In Sikkim, the mandarin cultivar grown is known as

‘Sumithira’ while in Meghalaya it is called as ‘Khasi Mandarin’ or ‘Sohniamtra’.

4. Sastuma Mandarin (Citrus unshiu)
It is a Japanese variety with small spreading tree. Fruits are seedless with thin rind having
orange colour at maturity. The quality of fruit is excellent with good blend of sugar and
acidity.

5. King Mandarin (Citrus nobilis)

It is a commercial variety of USA. The trees grow 5-6 M, petioles narrowly winged
small, flattened, orange, red fruits with distinctly sweet pulp which is juicy and f
excellent quality.

6. Willow Leaf Mandarin (Citrus deliciosa)

It is another commercial variety of USA. Trees medium sized with drooping growth
habit. The distinctive characteristics are presence of mild and pleasant aromatic flavour
in fruit juice, plump spherical seeds, high degree of seed polyembryony and marked
alternate bearing tendency of the trees.

7. Kinnow (King x Willow leaf)

It is a hybrid between king and willow leaf mandarins. It was developed by Dr.
H.B. Frost at citrus Experiment Station, California 1915. It has performed very well in
Pakistan, Punjab, Uthrangal, Haryana, Karnataka and foot hills of Himachal Pradesh. This
hybrid cultivar produces excellent quality fruits and holds export potential. Fruit medium in
size, globose to slightly oblat, rind thin rather adherent for a mandarin but peelable, tough

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and leathery, surface very smooth and glossy, colour yellowish orange at maturity.
Segments (9 to 10) do not separate easily, very juicy, flavour rich aromatic and distinctive,

TSS 10o brin, acidity 0.8%. Seeds numerous, (2 to 2H) polyembryonic and cotyledone
pale greenish yellow.
8. Dancy Tangerine (Citrus tangerine)
This is the commercial variety of Florida in united states.
[ (deliciola as male parent) experiment station California in 1915. It was first quality introduce
in Punjab.

Plants are medium to large, erect, symmetrical, dense foliage with a few scatted spaes,
leaves broadly lanceolate.]

9. Khasi Mandrin
This cultivar is commercially grown in the North – East region of India. It is mainly
grown as seedling trees. The cultivar produces excellent quality fruits with depressed
globose bright orange, surface smooth and glossy, stalk end even or obtuse, Occasionally
short necked rind thick, adherence very slight, segments 8 to 13 usually 10, pulp vesicle
uniformly orange coloured coarse but melting, flavour agreeable, juiced abundant and
orange colour, sweetness and acidity well blended, seeds 10 to 15, cotyledons green,
polyembryonic.

10. Clementine:
This cultivar is native of Algeria. The cultivar is monoembrynic, matures early and
produces fruits of excellent quality.

11.Dancy:
Dancy is the most important cultivar of USA. It matures mid season, it is of excellent
quality, productive with a tendency to alternate bearing Dancy is closely related to ladu
and keonla cultivasrs of India.

12. Beaury:
It is a popular mandarin cultivar of Australia. The cultivar is similar to Dancy is closely
related to Ladu and keonla cultivars of India.

13. Campeona:

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It is a large fruited mandarin cultivar of increasing importance in Argentina and Uruguay.

14. Ellendale:
It is the principal late ripening cultivar of Australia. The fruits are large sized with attractive
colour and good keeping quality.
15. Emperor:
It is a leading cultivar of Australia Frit large, early mid season in maturity but quality
deteriorates rapidly if stored on tree after ripening.

16. Ponkan
Ponkan is the famous and highly reputed cultivar of South China and Formosa. It is the
foremost tropical mandarin cultivar, matures in mid-season, highly productive and
strongly alternate in bearing.

17. Desi
It is mainly grown in Punjab and adjoining hills of Himachal Pradesh. Fruits orange
colour uniform, golden yellow, rind medium thick some what thicker than coorg
mandarin, segments vary between 7 and 10; pulp light reddish yellow, texture tender,
sufficiently juicy, acidic but moderately flavored; seeds few, usually 3-7.

18. Darjeeling orange

Also known as sikkim orange and is cultivated widely in and around Darjeeling hills.
The trees are vigorous and prolific bearer. Fruits are relatively small in size, somewhat
flat in shape colour yellowish to orange when fully ripe; rind thin, adherence little;
juice plenty and sweet with good flavour ; seeds are few.

Propagation
Most of the Mandarin cultivars are propagated through seeds except kinnow and
Nagpur mandarins; usual practice in coorg, Assam and North Eastern hills is to use
seedlings as planting material. But with concerted efforts made to find out suitable
rootstocks for different regions, orchardists hare shifted to vegetative methods,
particularly T. budding because budded plants bear early, tolerant to biotic and abiotic
stress. The seedling trees not only bear late but also tend to become thorny and grow
tall and slender.

By seed

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For quality planting material, select uniformly matured fruits from healthy, true to type
and heavy bearing plants to extract seeds. Freshly extracted seeds should be mixed with
ash and dried in shade otherwise, they may loose their liability seeds are sown at a
distance of 2 – 3cm. Germination may take place with in 3 – 4weeks. Since the seeds
are polyembryonic growth are rouged out and the rest that are produced from the cells
of nucleus are allowed to grow. The seedlings thus selected are more or less uniform in
growth and production.

By ‘ T ’ Budding
Budding is done using the buds of bud wood taken from the disease free mother plants
orn Rangpur lime, Cleopatra, Jatti khatti karna katta and Troyer citrange. Rangpur lime
is a vigorous, hardy rootstock with good adaptability to a wide range of soil particularly
heavy soil, tolerant to tristeza and salt; it is susceptible to footrot, exocortis and
xyloporosis. Cleopatra mandarin is the most salt tolerant root stock with the ability to
exclude sodium and chloride taken up by root system. It is tolerant to tristezz, exocortis
and fairly tolerant to foot rot. Rough lemon, well adapted to high sandy soils. IT is
susceptible to foot rot and scab and tolerant to tristeza. This is the most important
rootstock for light soils Troyer citranges are used in areas where cot of hardiness and
resistance to tristeza are necessary they are also resistant to foot rot but susceptible to
exocortis

Karna khatta (Citrus karma)

It is extensively used as a root stock in North India.
Seeds of identified root stock for a particular area should be extracted from fully
matured, healthy fruits. They are sown in lined (10-15cm deep) on raised seed beds
inside a polyethylene house. About 1 – 2 months old seedlings are shifted to secondary
beds. These are finally budded when they attain a height of 25-30cm and 1- 2cm
diameter. Scion should be selected from healthy, vigorous, matures, virus free and high
yielding trees. They should also be free from water sprouts and chimeras.

Further use of dormant scion bud wood from past season’s growth is used after it has
hardened. The bud wood should be taken from round or cylindrical green twigs. T
budding is done on one and a half to 2 years old seedling. In about 6-9 months, the budded
plants will be ready for transplanting in the main field.

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Cultivation
Planting: Generally, planting is done during monsoon in all mandarin growing areas i.e.,
June – December. In sub mountainous tracts, where planting is generally done on slopes,
proper terraces are necessary, while in plains the land should be leveled properly. Pits of
45 cubic centimeters are dug at a spacing of 6 x 6 m and filled with FYM, sand and top soil
and then basins are formed. The buddlings are planted in the center of the pits and
irrigated.

In N-E parts of India, Khasi mandarins are very closely spaced (4.5 x 4.5 m is ideal for
kinnow budded on Jattikhatti. Kinnow can be grown successfully under high density
planting by using Troyer citrange as a rootstock and by spacing the plants 1.8 x 1.8 m,
accommodating 3000 lr/ha. The optimum spacing for Nagpur mandarin is 6 x 6 m when
budded on Rough lemon. In Karnataka, coorg mandarin on Trifoliate orange and Rangpur
lime can be planted at a distance of 5 x 5, and 6 x 6 m, accommodating 400& 275 trees /
ha respectively.

In Tamil Nadu, Mandarin are planted at a spacing of 6 x 6 m in 75 x 75 x 75cm size

pits. The planting seasons are May – June and September – October.

Training and Pruning

The water shoots and rootstock sprouts should be periodically removed. Trees are trained
to single stem with 4 – 6 well – spaced branches for making the basic framework. Further
no branches should be allowed from the trunk up to height of 45-50 cm from the ground
level. An ideal mandarin tree should be low headed with dome like crown. The bearing
trees require little or no pruning. Pruning of bearing trees consists of removal of dead,
diseased, criss-cross and weak branches. Removal of water shoots and suckers of
rootstocks is also highly essential. Pruning of non-bearing trees can be done at any time
of the year, but for bearing trees, the best time is after harvesting, during late winter or
early spring when these are in somewhat dormant stage.

Root pruning is also practiced in some parts of central and southern India to regulate
flowering season. However, such prunings are not beneficial in the long run.
Crop Regulation

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In such and central India, mandarins bloom thrice a year. The February flowering is
known as ambe bahar; June flowering as mring bahar and October flowering as hast
bahar. Under such circumstances, plants give irregular and small crops at indefinite
intervals. To overcome this problem and to get fruitful yield in any of the 3 flowering
seasons’, treating mandarin trees has been practiced which is called resting or root
exposure or bahar treatment.

In this method, roots of the plant are exposed too sun by removing up to 7 -10 cm soil
around 40-60 cm radius of tree trunk. The water is withheld for a month or two before
flowering. As a result of water stress, leaves show wilting and fall on the ground. At this
stage the roots are again covered with a mixture of soil and FYM and irrigated
immediately. Subsequent irrigations are given at suitable intervals. Consequently, plants
give new vegetative growth, profuse flowering and fruiting. However, in light sandy and
shallow soils, exposure of roots should not be practiced and mere withholding of water for
2-3 weeks is sufficient for wilting and debilitation of trees.

It depends upon the choice of the grower as to which of the 3 bahars is to be taken to
get maximum profit. As the availability of water is a problem in central India during
April – May, the farmers prefer mrig bahar (June) so that the plants are forced to rest in
April – May.

Resting treatment is not feasible in North India, as mandarin plants normally rest in winter
and flower once a year. It is experienced that resting treatment in general is a devitalizing
process and should be resorted to only under the advice and direction of a technical
expert.

Manuring and Fertilizarion

Mandarin, like other citrus fruits also require judicious application of mineral nutrients for
proper growth, development and production of quality fruits. Mandarins also require zinc,
copper, manganese, iron, boron and molybdenum but not sodium and chlorine, which are
rather harmful for mandarins. Improper supply of nutrients may cause serious disorders
which may lead to orchard decline.

For palani Hills (Kg./ tree / Yr.)

Manures/

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Fertilizers
1 yr II yr III yr IV yr V yr VI on wards
FYM 10 15 25 25 25 30
N 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600
P 0.040 0.080 0.120 0.160 0.160 0.200
K 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.300 0.400
For Shervaroyan hills (For trees above 6 year old)
NPK @ 700:375:600 g/tree along with VAM @ 1 kg / tree.
The fertilizers are to be applied in two splits on in May-June and another in September
– October.

Manures are to applied in the basin 70 cm away from the trunk at a death of 10 cm, with
topsoil covered and irrigated.

In hilly areas where the pH is very low, depending upon the pH, 2 – 4 kg of lime or
dolomite should be applied for each tree once in 2 years, one month ahead of the application
of regular fertilizers.

The spray solution containing following micronutrients can be applied once in three
months at the time of new flesh production.

Zinc sulphate - 0.5%

Manganese - 0.05%
Iron - 0.25%
Magnesium - 0.5%
Boron - 0.1%
Molybdenum - 0.003%
In addition to that apply 50 g in each of ZnSo4 mn and Fe per tree per year. Application
of VAM @ 20g/tree will help to accumulate Phosphorus, Zn, Cu and sulphur.

The Fertigation treatment consisting of 500:240:70 NPK dose with 20% depletion of
available water content found best to increase the highest conopy volume, fruit weight,
TSS, Juice & yield in Nagpur mandarin. Intercropping eg: pea, cowpea and blackgram.
Irrigation

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In south India, mandarins are grown under rainfed conditions in high rain fall areas. In winter,
mandarins should be watered at 10-15 days intervals, while in summer at 5-7 days. In tarai region
of UP, soil has high moisture retention capacity, thus lesser number of irrigations are required.
However in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and AP,more number of irrigations are required.

Since root activity of mandarins is confined to a radial distance of 120 cm and to a depth of 24 cm,
too much wetting should be avoided. Plants should be irrigated at 8-10 days intervals, during
drought (April – June in North India and October – December in South-Central India) Mandarins
are highly susceptible to water logging; therefore, stagnation of water around tree trunk should be
avoided. Water should also be free of salts.

Weed control
Weeds are a serious problem in mandarin nursery and young plantations Better way to eradicate
weeds is to use weedicides. Pre-emergence application of Diuron (5kg/ha) or Terbacil (4.5kg/ha)
or postemergence application of Atrazine (5-6 kg/ha) controls weeds significantly.

Others: Bromocil (6 kg/ha) – Mono & dicotweeds.

Glyph orate (5 lt/ha) – Perennial grasses
Simazine (5 kg /ha) - Perennial grasses
Harvest and yield
Generally, mandarins start bearing from the 4th year having 15-20 fruits/tree.
However, its trees attain the level of full bearing at the age of 7-10 years. From flowering to
maturity it takes 9 months.

Main harvesting periods of mandarin in different regions of India.

Region Main crop Off season
North –Western plants Dec - Feb ----- North
–Eastern India Nov- Feb April - May

Central India Feb - March October - November

South India - Coorg December - April July - August
Nilgiris August - October Feb - March
In Tamil Nadu, the main season is November – December, Harvest should be done at right
maturity. Therefore, fruits should be harvested when they attain full size, develop attractive colour
with optimum sugar; acid blend.

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Yield
About 1000 – 1500 fruits can be harvested from a tree per year and 15 –20t/ha/year. The common
practice of harvesting is to pull the fruits from the branch, which may rupture the skin near the
stem-end leading to fungal infection and rotting. Therefore, fruits should neither be plucked nor
torn off, but should be cut off with clippers, shears or secateurs. Although mandarins may attain
optimum maturity standard but the fruits may not be attractive at the time of harvesting due to lack
of good yellow colour. Accordingly, degreening of mandarins with the application of ethrel (50
ppm) one week before the harvesting develop golden yellow colour within 5 days of the treatment.

Grading and Packing:

Generally mandarins and graded according to their size and appearance. Fruits are usually packed
in wooden boxes for distant markets, while for local marketing; baskets of split bamboo and
mulberry are used. Chopped straw and dry grasses are mostly used for padding. The fruits should
be cleaned and polished lightly with a piece of cloth, before wrapping them in tissue paper or
newspaper. Use of CFB carrions in place wooden boxes is highly beneficial. Mandarins are
generally transported by rail or road as ordinary cargos without refrigeration, which often leads to
heavy losses due to decay and fungal infection.

Storage
Green coloured fully ripe mandarins can be stored successfully at 8 -10º C with 85 – 90% RH
without impairing fruit quality. Kinnow mandarin fruit wrapped in HDPE 10G Poly bags haring
0.5% ventilation area can be safely stored up to 60 days and 80 days at ambient and cold storage
respectively without much loss of quality. In Nagpur Santra, neem leaf extract @ 20% sprayed on
fresh and fully matured fruits and packed in perforated polythene bags then stored in cool chamber.
The results indicated that after 42 days of storage a minimum PLW (18%) & rotting (18%) Fruits
(Green mature, colour break and ripe stage) dipped in 8% wax retained the freshness of fruits up
to 60-3 days under ambient condition.

Acid lime: C. aurantifolia

It is also called or sour lime. The fruit juice is rich in citric acid and ascorbic acid.
Climate and soil requirement
Tropical and subtropical. Can be grown upto 1000 m above MSL. Deep well drained loamy soils
are the best. They are sensitive to frost. The optimum temperature is 20 to 30°C.

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Soil pH should be 6.5 to 7.0.

Season : December – February and June – September

Planting: Healthy seedlings may be planted during June to December at 5 to 6 m spacing in 75

cm3 pits.

Irrigation: Irrigated copiously after planting. After establishment, irrigation may be given at 710
days interval. Avoid water stagnation.

Manures and fertilizers per plant

N to be applied in two doses during March and October. FYM, P2O5 and K2O are to be applied in
October.
Manures and 1 year (kg) Annual income From 6th year (kg)
fertilizers (kg)
FYM 10.00 5.00 30.00
N 0.200 0.100 0.600
P 0.100 0.025 0.200
K 0.100 0.040 0.300

Spray zinc sulphate at the rate of 0.5% (500 g/ 100 lit of water) thrice in a year (March, July and
October) after the emergence of new flushes.

After cultivation
Remove branches of main stem upto 45 cm from ground level. Application of green leaves 30 kg
per tree once in 3 months.

Intercropping
Legumes and vegetable crops can be raised during prebearing age.
Growth regulator
To increase fruit set spraying 2,4-D-20 ppm during flowering. Fruit retention spraying2,4-D@
20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm after fruit set (marble size).

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LEC.9 CITRUS – NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES, CORRECTIVE MEASURES,
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES AND
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

CITRUS
Fruit cracking
• It is due to sudden changes in temperature and also due to moisture stress condition.
• Cracking of fruits may be radial or transverse.
• Secondary infection is also possible due to Aspergillus, Fusarium or Alternaria
Management

• Apply light irrigation at frequent intervals.

• Application of potassium during fruit development.
Granulation
• The juice vesicles become hard, enlarged and turn opaque grayish in colour.
• The density of pulp is increased, juice contains increased minerals (Calcium, sodium,
potassium) and decreased carbohydrate and organic acid.

• It results in lignification of juice cells that leads to formation of sclerenchyma High

humidity and fluctuation in temperature are the major factors.

• Young trees are more prone to granulation than older trees.

• Application of more nitrogen, excess irrigation, large size of fruits, rootstocks are also a
cause.

• Mandarins on jattikhatti rootstock are more susceptible than sweet orange . Management

• Avoid excess moisture

• Spray lime @ 20kg in 450 l of water.
• Spray zinc (0.5%) and copper (0.5%). Sunburn or sunscald

• The portion that is exposed to sun develops yellow patches which turn brown and become
hard.

• The inner portion becomes dessicated and discoloured.

• Affected fruits are malformed and have low juice content.

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• Severely affected fruits drop off and leaves turn brown.
Management
• Spraying lime solution @ 20g//l before summer.
• Regulation of irrigation to reduce the temperature.
• Mulching the tree basins.
Citrus Decline
• Also known as citrus dieback.
• Growth becomes stunted, mottling of leaves, turn yellow and are shed.
• There is excess flowering and poor fruit set.
• Affected fruits are subjected sun blotching.
• Presence of calcium carbonate or clay is harmful and leads to decline.
• Incompatibility of rootstock and scion, salinity, water logging and mismanagement of
citrus orchard are causes to citrus decline. Management

• Provide proper drainage

• Proper management of the orchard
• Use of resistant rootstocks and disease free bud wood.

ACID LIME
Plant protection
Leaf mine
2 ml/l dimethoate + neem oil 3%

Leaf caterpillar
Endosulfan – 2 ml/l when infestation is moderate to severe.
Sucking pest
White fly : Spray quinalphos – 2 ml/lit
Nematodes : Carbofuran – 75 g/tree
P. fluroscens – 20 g

Diseases
Twig blight: Dried twigs are pruned and sprayed with 0.3% Cu oxy chloride.

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Scab: Spray 1% BM

Tristeza virus : Remove the infected trees and destroy. Spray monocrotophos - @ 1ml/lit to
control the aphids which spread the disease. Use pre immunized acid lime seedling for planting.

Harvest: Starts bearing from 3rd year after planting.

Though harvested throughout the year, the main crop is harvested during different periods in
different parts of the country. The average yield is 20-25 kg/tree/year.

Post harvest treatment

Treating the fruits with 4% wax emulsion followed by pre-packing in 200 guage polythene bags
with 1% ventilation improves the shelf life for more than 10 days. Limes can be stored at 18°C.
At HC & RI, PKM a low cost storage tank has been developed with double layer brickwork, the
interspace filled with sand which is kept wet by periodical watering.

LEC.10 GRAPES – SOIL, CLIMATE, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND

WATER MANAGEMENT, INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS

Grapes : Vitis vinifera Vitaceae

Grape is a subtropical fruit but adapted to tropical conditions. It is a vine spreading on a support,
native of Armenia, a district near the caspiansea in Russia. It was introduced into India by the in
values of Iran and Afghanistan. It is one of the most delicious refreshing and nourishing fruits.
Fifty percent of the total production of fruits in the world is contributed by grapes.

Cultivation of grapes is called Viticulture. There are about 10,000 varieties in the world.

Climate and soil requirement

It is a fruit of semi arid subtropical regions requiring warm dry summer and a cool rainy winter.
During winter the grapes shed off their leaves and take rest. During spring they put forth new
leaves and flowers. The fruits mature during summer when there is no rains. A long, warm to hot

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dry summer is needed for proper maturity and ripening. Grapes do not thrive in the region of
humid summer as it causes fungal diseases. The distribution of rains in more important than the
total amount of rainfall.

In North India heavy rains during July – September hence low production. The plant takes rest
during winter since the winter is very severe and put forth new growth in summer. When the crop
reach as ripening stage during june there is heavy rain resulting in poor production.

In Western India grapes do not takes rest because of warm winter. Hence the grape put forth new
growth twice a year. In Bombay – Deccan region and in Hyderabad the crop produced by the new
lush in April maturing during rainy season (July –August) has lower market value due to less sugar
content.

The climate in South India such as Bangalore in Karnataka, Dharmapuri and Madurai districts of
Tamil Nadu is slightly humid and tropical. Here the maximum temperature goes upto 35°C and
the minimum temperature does not fall below 12°C due to warm winter condition there is
practically no rest period. Almost rainless period during November – June favours heavy as well
as sweet crop. Here the vines are pruned twice. Early December pruning yields a sweet crop
during April and summer pruning (May) yields a slightly sour crop during September. The
climatic conditions are favourable is parts of Tamil Nadu so that 5 crops are taken in 2 years by
staggered pruning techniques.

Soil
Well – drained rich loamy soil with pH of 6.5-7.0. Soil depth should be almost 1 m.

Propagation
Propagated by hard wood cuttings prepared from matured canes (one year old shoot) of healthy,
moderately vigorous, virus tree vines. Cuttings of 25-30 cm length are prepared by making the
lower cut just below a bud and upper cut slightly above the bud. Cuttings should be tied and stored
in moist sand for a month for callusing. The callused cuttings start well in the nursery. While
planting only one bud in left above the ground level and remaining portion buried in soil. At the
end of winter the sprouted and rooted cuttings can be lifted and planted in the main yield. Grafting
and budding is practiced with a particular root stock for specific requirement.

a. Phylloxera resistant root stock

Vitis riparia, V. rupestris

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b. Nematode resistant root stock
Dogridge, Salt creek
c. Saline tolerant : Solanis, 1616
Preparation of main field and planting
Trenched of 0.6 m width and 0.6 m depth are dug at a distance of 3 m apart for Muscat. Other
varieties 1 m3 pits are drug. Well decomposed FYM or compost or green leaf manure has to be
applied in the trenches or pit and then covered with soil. The rooted cuttings are planted during
June – July.

Spacing: 3 x 2 m for Muscat

4 x 3 m for other Varieties
Irrigation
Immediately after planting 3rd day and once in a week. Irrigation with held 15 days before
pruning and also 15 days before harvest.

Manuring and fertilizer (kg pervine)

FYM Green leaves N P K
Variety
I II III I II III I II III I II III I II III
Muscat 50 50 100 50 50 100 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.08 0.16 0.16 0.30 0.4 0.60
Thom
-pron 50 50 100 50 50 100 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.40 0.80 0.120
seedless

The manures should be applied twice after pruning. Apply half the dose of K immediately after
pruning and the other half after 60 days of pruning. Foliary spray of 0.1% boric acid + 0.2 %
ZnSO4 + 1.0% urea twice before flowering and 10 days after first spray to overcome nutrient
deficiency.

Special practices
Tipping of shoots and tying of clusters in the pandal after the fruit set. Remove tendrils. Nipping
the growing shoots of axillary buds and terminal buds at 12 to 15 buds. Thinning the compact
bunches by removing 20% of the berries at pea stage.

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The clusters are dipped in a solution containing Brassinosteriod 0.5 ppm and GA3 25 ppm
at 10-12 days after fruit set to maintain vigour, yield and quality parameters.

LEC.11 GRAPES – NUTRIENT DISORDERS, CORRECTIVE MEASURES,

GROWTH REGULATORS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS
AND DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Pests
Nematode
Carbofuran – 60 g/vine a week before pruning and irrigated profusely. The soil should not be
disturbed to atleast 15 days. Application of neem cake 200 g/vine also controls nematode.

We can afforded for application of P. fluorescens.

Flea beetles
Phosalone – 2ml/lit after pruning and followed with 2 or 3 sprayings.

Thrips: Dimethoate – 2 ml/lit

Mealy bug: Monocrotophus – 2 ml/lit

Diseases
Powdery mildew: Sulphur dusting @ 6-12 kg/ha
Downy mildew: Spray 1% BM

Ripening
To get uniform ripening bunches are sprayed with 0.2% K chloride at 20th and 40th day after berry
set and clusters of seedless varieties are diped in 25 ppm GA (25 mg/lit) at calyptra fall stage and
repeated again at pepper stage to increase the size of berries.

Yield
Seed less : 15 t/ha/yr
Muscat : 30 t/ha/yr

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Pachadroksha: 40 t/ha/yr
Anab-e-shahi and Arka
hybrids : 20 t/ha/yr Grapes
should be harvested only
after ripening. The heat
requirement of most of
varieties ranges from 2900 to
3600 units.

The grape berries can be kept without spoilage for 7 days at room temperature. Grapes can
economically be stored upto 40-45 days in cold storage. The optimum storage temperature
recommended is -2 to -1.5°C.

Raisins from grapes form an important by product industry in several grape growing countries in
the world. Grapes of 17° brix and above are used for raisin making while 20-23° brix is the
standard.

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LEC. 12 PAPAYA – SOIL, CLIMATE, WATER AND NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT, PAPAIN EXTRACTION, USES,
PESTS AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT

Papaya (Carica papaya L.), caricaceae , 2n 18

The papaya is native of Tropical America was introduced to India in the 18th century. It is
now grown in almost all tropical and subtropical countries in the world.' In India, it is largely
grown in Bihar, Assam, Maharashtra,. Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh with a total area of
34,000 ha, producing about 3,50,000 tonnes.

Papaya is a wholesome fruit and is rich in vit-A (2000 IU/100g). Products such as jam,
jelly and nectar can be prepared from the fruits. Papaya yield a valuable proteolytic enzyme,
papain, which has several and varied usa in medicine and industry. Papain is used to correct certain
digestive ailments, for tenderizing meat, in the manufacture of leather and in clarifying beer. The
other uses of papain are in the treatment of ulcer, diphtheria, pre-shrinking of wool, manufacture
of chewing gum, degumming natural silk and rayon, in cosmetics, dental paste preparation etc.
The raw fruits are cooked as vegetables and consumed. Papaya is usually dioecious but
hermophrodite type and gynodioecious types are also recognized. In dioecious type, both male and
female plants are separate. The male flowers are found on long pendulous panicle. Female flowers
are solitary and are much larger than male. The ovary usually large in female flowers. In the case
of hermophrodite flowers, two kinds are often observed viz. one with long corolla type and 10
stamens and another type with a short corolla and 5 functional stamens. Fruit is a large hollow
berry elongated or globular in shape. In gynodioecious type, the female and bisexual flowers are
borne one on the same plant. The fruit develops from female flowers are globular in shape while
fruits that develop from bisexual flowers are elongated in shape.

The edible fruits are found only in Carica papaya. C. candamarcensis known as 'mountain papaya'
thrives well at an elevation between 1500 to 2000m in western ghats. C. monica is found growing
wild in Amazon basin.

Soil and climate

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It does well in varied soil types, the best performance is observed on loams of uniform texture
upto 1.8 m in depth. The most important requirement is that the soil should have good drainage.
Even two to three cm of water stagnation around the tree for a few hours is likely to damage them
due to the collar-rot disease occurrence. Papaya performs well in tropical climates where summer
temperature ranges from 35„aC to 38„aC. At higher elevations, the fruit quality is usually lower.
It cannot tolerate very hot summer or frost, this limits cultivation in Northern India. It cannot
tolerate, very hot summer or frost, a dry warm climate tends to increase the sweetness of the fruits.
In strong wind prone areas, wind breaks have to be provided to save the trees from wind damage.

Tamil Nadu is an ideal home for growing papaya because of the mild temperatures and freedom
from mosaic and leaf curl virus diseases. These features help all the year round cultivation of
papaya.

Seed production
Papaya is a highly cross-pollinated crop. Seeds taken from a fruit wouldrarely breed true to type.
If a variety is to be maintained pure, controlled pollination between selected female and male
progenies of the same parent i.e.,crossing of sister and brother, called sib mating has to be done.
This consists ofcollection of pollen from the male parent and applying it on the previously bagged
female flower. Seeds from such sib mated fruit should be used for further multiplication. Failure
to observe this precaution leads to the deterioration of the variety resulting in the progeny being a
mixture of all kinds of types within a few years.

Propagation
The most common method of propagation of papaya is from seeds. Seeds are collected from well
mature, ripe and large fruits borne on female plants to hermaphrodite plants as the case may be.
The fruits are cut open and seeds are carefully extracted in trays. They are washed and dried in the
sun or shade and are stored in bottles. Fresh seeds may be mixed with fine cold wood-ash which
absorbs the slimy coating on them and helps to keep the seeds separate on drying. About 500 g
seed is required for raising in one hectare. Seedlings can be raised in the raised nursery beds or in
polythene bags, however the seedlings from the latter one are good. Two seeds in gynodioecious
type or 5 to 6 seeds in
dioecious type' should be sown per poly bag. The papaya plant can also be propagated from
cuttings and grafts. Propagation from seeds is, however, preferred, because the vegetative methods
of propagation are not economical.

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Planting
Pits of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm size are dug at about 1.8x1.8m apart either way. This would
accommodate 3000 plants per hectare. Due to sex variations, about 40 to 60 per cent of the plants
may turn to be male in the case of dioecious varieties. Therefore, in such case 2 to 3 seedlings per
hole at 30 cm apart in the pit should be planted, so that when they reach the flowering phase, the
unproductive male trees can be removed to keep the population ratio of one male tree for every 15
to 20 female trees. In the case of bisexual varieties, such contingency may not arise. One good
seedling per pit may be planted.The best time for planting papaya is the beginning of the South-
West monsoon in most parts of India. In south India, June to October and January to March are
suitable for planting as the other months are either too hot or rainy.

Manures and fertilizers

The nutrition of papaya is different from other crops because of its quick growing, continuous and
heavy fruiting nature. Nutrient uptake studies conducted at TNAU showed that the uptake of
N,P.K is more between flowering and harvesting stage, its peak requirement being between fruit
development and harvesting. As three stages ie flowering. fruit development and harvesting
concurrently occur in papaya plant, regular fertilizer application ie., 10 kg of FYM/plant as basal
.besides 50g each of N, P and K per plant at bimonthly interval is recommended by TNAU. At
Indian Institute of Horticulture Research. BangaIore. a dose of 250 g each of N, P2O5 and 500 g
K2O per plant per year in six split application recommended to get higher yield. .

Irrigation
Papaya responds well to copious irrigation in well drained soils. Regular irrigation helps fruit
development and induces the tree to bear larger sized fruits. Water stagnation should be avoided.

In most parts of India; papaya are irrigated once in 8 or 10 days.

After cultivation
It is not possible to identify the sex at the early stage until they put forth flowers which may take
4-5 months from planting. At this stage, male trees should be removed maintaining one male tree
for every 20 female trees for proper pollination and fruit set. In each pit only vigourously growing
female/hermaphrodite tree should be retained and other plants removed. During the prebearing
age, short duration vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, onion, chillies, radish, etc. can be grown
as intercrops. Weeding should be done regularly to keep the field weed free in the young plantation

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as in the grown up field, the interspace remain well covered with the top growth which helps in
checking weeds.

Sex expression
Many sex forms such as dioecious, hermaphrodite, gynodioecious etc.,have been reported in
papaya. There, are no distinct or definite methods to ascertain the sex of the plants at the early
stage itself. Besides, many factors have been reported to influence the sex expression.

l) Environment: Low temperature tends to produce perfect flowers on the male tree and female
flower production is increased in cool weather and short days. Season of planting also affects the
sex expression. Planting during February shows more male plants while planting in March/April
produces an equal number of staminate and pistillate plants.

2) Growth regulators: such as GA (50 ppm), ethrel (200ppm) SADH (250ppm) and phosphon -
D (2500ppm) increase the femaleness in dioecious types.

Harvesting and yield

The first crop of fruits becomes available in 12-14 months from the time of planting. The cropping
is practically continuous during the life of the tree. In the plains of North India fruits continue to
mature through the spring and summer, but in the cooler places in the hills only 3 to 4 months
from February to May. Fruits should be harvested when the colour changes from green to
yellowish green. It should be harvested individually with hand, taking care to avoid injuries on the
fruits. The yield varies considerably and the yield per tree may vary from 50 to 100 fruits. The
yield may also vary according to the number of female and hermaphrodite trees in the orchard.
TNAU bred varieties yield 100-160 t/ha. Papaya gives economic crop upto 2 years and thereafter
it declines drastically. Fruits to be consumed locally should be stored in a single layer of straw
until they become yellow. For distant market, it should be packed in bamboo baskets lined with
straw to avoid bruising.

Extraction of papain
The latex or'milky juice of the unripe green papaya fruit contains a largeamount of
digestive enzyme called papain which is able to digest the protein in our feeds. Fully developed
green large sized hard papaya fruits which are about three months old are selected for tapping. The
latex is obtained by making scratches or shallow incisions on the skin of the fruit The incisions
are about 0.3 cm deep. Usually not more than four incisions per fruit at equal distance are made

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every day. To cover the whole surface around the fruit not more than five tappings at intervals of
four or five days would be necessary. Non-metallic instruments should preferably be used in
tapping and collecting, as the juice acts upon metals and gets discoloured. An ivory blade or a
sharp edge or piece of bamboo splinter may be used. The latex should be collected in porcelain
glass or earthen containers. After about 2 to 4 hours, the latex is scraped out from the tray and
dried in the sun. Tapping should be undertaken early in the morning so that drying in the sun can
be done before mid-day. This makes the material sufficiently dry by the evening. When thoroughly
dried, the latex becomes crisp and flaky. It may be then ground into a powder, preferably still
warm. The dried papain is powdered and sieved in 10 mesh sieves. The cream coloured powder
should be placed in air-tight bottles or poly bags. Papain can be also dried artificiaIly at
temperature of 50 to 55°c which will attain better colour and quality. Potassium metabisulphite
(KMS) at 0.5% may be added to it for better colour and keeping quality. The papain production is
influenced by certains factors such as fruit size, fruit maturity, varietal factor etc.

LEC.13 SAPOTA – SOIL, CLIMATE, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT,

SPECIFIC PROBLEMS AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES

Sapota: Manilkhara achras

Sapotaceae
Sapota is a delicious fruit introduced from tropical America. It is also known as sapodilla or chiku
in India. Sapota fruits are recommended to adult patients ailing from tuber culosis and children
from primary complex. This offers a high economic returns even under marginal land and low
input management. Climate and soil requirement

Sapota being a tropical fruit crop can be grown from sea level upto 1200 M. It prefers a warm
and moist weather and grows in both dry and humid areas. Coastal climate is the best suited.
Areas with an annual rainfall of 1250-2500 mm are highly suitable. The optimum temperature is
between 11°C and 34°C.

Sapota being a hardy tree can be grown on a wide range of soils. Soil should be well drained
without any hard pan. Deep and porous soils are preferred. The most ideal soils are deep alluvium,
sandy loams, red laterites and medium black soil. It can rolerate the presence of salts in the soil
and irrigation water to certain extent.

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Propagation
Grafted plants on Manilkhara hexandra (Pala) root stock.
Season of planting-June to December.

Spacing: 8 x 8 m. High density planting 8 x 4 m.

Planting
Pits of 1m3 in drug. Filled with top soil mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 1 kg of neem cake and 100 g
of lindane 1.3%.Grafts are planted in the centre of the pit with ball of earth intact. The graft joint
must be alteast 15 cm above the ground level. The plants are staked to avoid bending or damage
of graft joint.

Irrigation
Irrigated copiously immediately after planting and on the third day and once in 10 days after
words till the graft establishes.

Manures and fertilizes (kg/tree)

M&F 1 year old Annual increase 6th year onwards
FYM 10 10 50
N 0.200 0.200 1.000
P 0.200 0.200 1.000
K 0.300 0.300 1.500

Manures and fertilizers may be applied in September – October, 45 cm away from the trunk upto
the leaf drip and incorporated.

After cultivation
Removal of the root stock sprouts, water shoots criss cross and lower branches.

Intercropping: Legumes and short duration vegetable crops may be raised as intercrop during pre
bearing stage.

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Plant protection
Leaf webber: Spraying of phosalone – 2ml / lit
Hairy caterpillars : Spraying of endosulfan – 2 ml/lit of water
Budworm : Spray phosalone – 2ml/lit

Diseases
Sooty mould : 1 kg maida or starch is boiled with 5 lit of water, cooled and diluted to 20 lit (5%)
and sprayed.

Harvest: Mature fruits are dull brown in colour. When scratched the colour immediately below
the skin will of lighter shade if matured while in the immature fruits it is green. The mature fruits
are harvested by hand picking.

Fruits at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato colour.

Season: February – June and September – October. The fruits are ripen by keeping the fruits in a
air tight chamber with. 5000 ppm Ethrel + 10 g NaOH pellets.

Yield: 20-25 t/ha/year

Brown scaly materials disappear from the fruit surface as the fruit approaches full maturity. As
the fruit matures, the milky latex content is reduced.

The dried spine like stigma at the tip of the fruit falls or drops of easily when touched.
Yield start from 3rd year of planting.

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LEC. 14 GUAVA – SOIL, CLIMATE, IRRIGATION AND NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT, NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES, PHYSIOLOGICAL
DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Guava (Psidium guajava) Family: Myrtaceae

It is the fourth most important fruit of India in respect of area and production. It is said to have
been introduced from tropical America. It is grown in many parts of the world. It is also popularly
called as apple of the tropics and poor man’s apple. It occupies an area of 58,000 ha in India and
half of this area is confined to U.P and other important states are Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In Tamil Nadu it is largely grown in
Coimbatore, Ramnad and Kanyakumari districts. It is very rich and cheap source of vitamin C
(100 to 260 mg per 100 gm of the pulp) and contains a fair amount of calcium. It makes an
excellent jelly and does not lose the vitamin C in the preserved forms. Besides P:guajava, the
related species are:

(l) P. guineense, called Brazilian or Guinea guava which bears small fruits of poor
quality .

(2) P. cattleianum, known as strawberry or cattley guava - produces very small

fruits of 2.5 cm in diameter with attractive purplish red colour.

(3) P. friedrichsthalianum - (Costa Rican guava) or china guava) produces small

fruits of globose in shape.

Soil and climate

It is a hardy fruit which can be grown in poor alkaline or poorly drained soils without any manuring
or irrigation. It can grow in soils with pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5 but the best soils are deep, friable
and well drained. It is a subtropical and tropical fruit which requires a distinct winter for
developing good quality. It can thrive in semi arid tracts of India and enjoys cooler climate upto
an elevation of 1000 m but it cannot withstand frost.

Varieties – refer practicals

Guava varieties are generally named according to the shape, colour or smoothness
of skin or from their place of origin. Varieties can be classified as seeded varieties
(highly seeded to less seeded types-diploids and seedless varieties (triploids).

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Propagation
In India, guava is commonly propagated from seed which germinates in about three weeks. Boiling
the seeds for five minutes, soaking them in water for weeks prior to sowing or treating them in
strong sulphuric acid for five minutes facilitates their germination. Propagation through this
method is not desirable as the seedlings will take more time to come to bearing and seedling trees
differ greatly from the mother plants. Vegetative propagation through layering is therefore
recommended. Both air layering and simple layering have been found to be successful. In about
45 days, layers can be separated from the mother plants. These separate layers should be planted
in full size pots and they are hardened by gradually exposing them to direct sunlight. Such
hardened layers are ready for planting in about six months. Though it is hard to root semi hard
wood cuttings, treating with IBA or NAA at 2000 to 5000 ppm root well under mist conditions.
In some places, budding techniques using forkert, shield, patch, chip etc have been tried with
different success.

Planting .
Pits of 0:5 m x 0.5 m x 0.5 m size are dug at a spacing of 5m x 5m. The layers with the ball of
earth are planted in the centre of the pit.

Manures and fertilizers

It responds well to the application of inorganic fertilizers along with organic manures. Therefore
for the bearing trees, 50 kg of FYM and one kg in each of N, P and K are applied per tree in two
equal split doses, once during March and again during October. The manure and fertilizers are
spread in the entire basin of the tree, 15 cm away from the trunk upto leaf drip and incorporated
by shallow digging. It also responds to foliar spray of nutrients and spraying of urea 1 % + Zinc
0.5% twice a year during March and October increase the yield. Guava sometimes suffers from
deficiency of micronutrients. Hence, a mixed spray containing ZnSO4, MgSO4. MnSO4 @ 0.5%
and CUSO4 and FeSO4 @ 0.25% plus a wetting agent @ 1 ml per 5 litre of solution at various
stages viz. new flush, I month after first spray at flowering and at fruit set are recommended.

Irrigation
Guava though can withstand drought, it responds to irrigation at interval of 10 days.

Training and pruning

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Open centre systems or delayed open centre is generally recommended. Pruning consists of
removal of suckers arising from the base of the trunk. Dried twigs and branches have to be
removed and the cut ends may be applied with Bordeaux paste. The flowers are borne on the axils
of current season shoots. Light annual pruning after harvesting promotes vegetative growth and
flowering. In Tamil Nadu, it is recommended that the tips of 10-12 cm lengths of past seasons
shoots are pruned during September and February every year to encourage more laterals. Pruned
trees give large fruits and early ripening. When the trees become old, the branches are pollarded
leaving 30 cm in length at their origin. The cut branches produce plenty of shoots and flowers and
ultimately high yields. In the trees having upright and tall growth habits, the straight growing
branches are bent and tied on the pegs driven on the ground. In the bent branches, dormant buds
are activated and induced to produce flowers and fruits heavily. In certain parts of Maharashtra,
root pruning is practiced to produce heavy yield. In this method roots are exposed and minute roots
are cut away and irrigation is withheld so as to allow the leaves to shed. Then, the basins are
covered with the manures and soil and irrigated copiously.

Cropping
The fruit buds are borne on past season growth terminally or laterally. The flowers are borne on
the current season growth in the axils of leaves. The flowers are solitary or in cymes of 2 to 3. The
current season growth takes one or two months to bear flowers. The floral buds require 3842 days
for full development. Layers generally take 2-3 years for fruiting. Guava flowers twice a year, first
in April-May for rainy season crop and then in August – September for wiriter season crop. In
South India, there is a third crop with flowers appearing in October. As the rainy season fruits are
insipid and watery and do not keep well. In certain parts of India, some practices are followed to
avoid flowering and

fruiting during rainy season so as to get large sized fruits of better quality during winter
season. They consists of

1. Bahar treatment - consisting of root exposure and or root pruning before the onset of monsoon.

2. Deblossoming of rainy season crop - spraying NAA 200-400 ppm and

3. Withholding of water and removing the soil from around the upper roots during
rainy season and covering it again with soil and manure mixture. Guava fruits should be picked
immediately when it is mature and they should not be allowed to ripen in the trees lest the damage
by birds and squirrels. Individual hand picking is preferable to shaking the tree. Mature or half

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ripe fruits are mostly prefered for consumption than ripe or over ripe fruits. Yield varies due to
many factors. On an average 800 number of fruits weighing 20-25 kg may be obtained from guava.

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LEC .15 PINE APPLE – SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, HIGH DENSITY
PLANTING, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT,
SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS

Pineapple: Ananas sativus; Bromeliaceae

Varieties : Kew, Mauritius and Queen

Soil and Climate: Mild tropical climate as found in the humid hill slopes is best suited. Can be
grown in plains under shade. Elevation from 500 m to 700 m is ideal. A light well drained soil
with pH 5.5 to 7.0 is preferable. Heavy soils can also be used if drainage facilities are available.

Spacing: Plant in double rows either in beds or in trenches with the plants into the second rows
set in the middle of the plants in the first row.

The spacing between two trenches will be 90 cm. Row to row spacing in the same bed per trench
will be 60 cm and plant spacing within the row is 30 cm.

Planting: Use suckers and slips of 300-350 g weight for planting. Give a slanting cut to the
suckers before planting and dip in Mancozeb 0.3% or Carbendazim 0.1%.

Season: July – September

Manures and Fertilizers: FYM 40-50 t/ha. N 16 g, P 4 g and K 12 g/plant in two equal splits at
6th and 12th month after planting. Apply as foliar spray 0.5%-1.0% sulphate of Zinc and Ferrous
solutions at 15 days interval to overcome the deficiencies in the early crop phase.

Aftercultivation: To have uniform flowering apply the following when the crop attains 35-40 leaf
stage. NAA 10 ppm + 2% urea (20 g in 1 lit of water) @ 50 ml / plant poured into crown or 2%
urea + 0.04% Sodium carbonate + 20 ppm Ethephon (ethrel) @ 50 ml/ plant poured into the crown.
To increase the size of the fruit, 200-300 ppm NAA should be sprayed after fruit formation. To
avoid calcium induced Iron chlorosis adequate shade should be given.

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Plant protection
Mealy bug: Spray methyl demeton 2 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC 2 ml/lit

Crop duration: 18-24 months

Harvest: Fruits can be harvested from 18 to 24 months. Slight colour change at the base of the
fruit indicates maturity.

Yield: 50 t/ha
A plant crop and two ratoon crops are normally taken and in Mauritius variety upto five crops can
be taken.

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LEC. 16 JACK - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, HIGH DENSITY
PLANTING, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT,
SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

India is considered to be the native home of jack. In the tamil literature, jack has been given the
important second position of significant ‘three fruits’ viz., ‘Mukkani’. It is mainly distributed in
the tropical humid belt. In India, Assam, Bihar, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the main jack growing
states. In Tamil Nadu lower Palani hills of Dindigul Anna District and Panruti of South Arcot
Vallalar District are known for the best quality jack fruits. The fleshy carpel (which is botanically
the perianth) is the edible portion. Hundred gram edible portion contains 19.8g carbohydrate
mainly as sugars, 1.9f protein, 0.1f fat, 1.1 g fibre, 20 mg calium, 41 mg phosphorus 0.56 mg iron,
175 mg carotene (Vit. A), 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.13 mg riboflavin, 0.4 mg niacin and 7 mg citamin
C. one hundred grams of jack carpels supply 88 Kcal of energy. Recently it has been reported that
jack fruit could be very useful in the treatment of the dreaded disease of human being AIDS. An
extract of jack fruit was seen to have inhibited the growth of HIV infection in vitro. The power of
this substance called jacaline was discovered by Jean Favero, Department of Microbiology and
Antibacterial limmunology, Montpellier University, France. ‘Jacaline’ is inactive on lymphocytes
which hare already infected but has proved its might by protecting the healthy ones. After
modifying this molecule to make it less toxic, scientists are planning to use in vivo (technical
News from France, Centre for Documentation on Universities Science and Technology, Office of
the Counsellor for Cultural, Scientific and Technical Co- operation. Embassy of France, 2,
Aurangazed Road, New Delhi, (India).

Apart from its use as a table fruit, jack is popular fruit with the housewife for making pickles, for
dehydration into jack leather or thin round papad. Canned jack fruit, syrup, jam, jelly and candy
have also been attempted. Preservation of ripe flackes in bottles after mixing with sugar and honey
is very common in west coast. The dehydration of salted flakes for use as substitute for potato
chips after frying in oil or ghee is another practice there.

The outer pericarp of the fruit and sterile flowers (present in between the fleshy fertile
flackes) is praised as cattle feed relished by the cattle as such or after mixing with rice gruel.

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From seeds, a starchy flour is made. The seeds are also relished when boiled or roasted and eaten
out of hand or after soaking in syrub for some time. The seeds are also popular ingredients in
many culinary preparations. The latex from bark contains a large amount of resins and is often
used to plug holes in earthen containers. The timber is valuable in construction and furnishing.
The leaves are sued as fodder and particularly relished by goats.

Climatic and soil requirements :

Jack grows well and gives food yield in warm humid climate of hill slopes and hot humid climate
of plains. From sea level upto an elevation of 1200 M jack can be grown successfully. A
temperature range of 22-350 C will be ideal. It can bot tolerate frost as well as drought. Under
low humidity the bearing is poor and the fruits also do not develop and taste. The West coast
plains with high humidity are found to be very well suited. Though it tolerates a variety of soils,
a deep rich alluvial or open textured loamy soil with slightly acidic condition (pH 6.0 – 6.5) and
perfect drainage is ideal.

VARITIES
Cultivated jack types are classified into two groups (1) firm flesh (2) soft flesh.
Singapore (or) Ceylon jack
It was introduced in Tamil Nadu from Sri Lanka. Fruits are medium in size each weighing 7-10
kg. The carpels are crisp, sweet, yellow with strong pleasant aroma. It is a precocious bearer viz.,
even seedling progenies will start bearing from 3 years after plantinf (normally in other types the
seedlings progenies will start bearing only from 7-8 years after planting). Fruits will be available
from March – June and again from September to December.

Hybrid jack :
It is a cross between Singapore jack x Veliappala developed at Fruit Research Station, Kallar.
Trees are precocious in bearing; carpels are bigger in size sweeter than the parents.

Burliar – 1 : (T Nagar selection)

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It was developed at Fruit Research Station, Burliar. The trees are medium in height and prolific
in bearing.

PLR – 1 : (Palur-1)
It is a high yielding variety developed at Vegetable Research Station, Palur of Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University. A single plant section isolated in Panikkankuppam village near Panruti
of South Arcot Vallalar District of Tamil Nadu. The fully ripe fruits have flat stigmatic surface
instead of a spiny surface. The special feature of this genotypes is that the trees bear fruits twice
in a year viz., fruits will be available in the regular jack season March to June and an off season
crop during October to December is also available. Each tree bears about 60-80 fruits. The average
fruit weight is 12 kg containing 115-120 flakes. The total flake weight per fruit is 2.36 kg which
accounts for 19.68 % of the totalfruit weight. Flakes pale yellow in colour, crip and sweet; TSS
is 190brix.

PPI – 1 : (Pechiparai – 1)
It was developed at Horticultural Research Station, Pechiparai of Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University by clonal selection from Mulagummoodu local. Trees are medium tall maximum
bearing in tree truck. On average each tree bears 107 fruits weighing 1818 kg per year in two
seasons, viz., April – June and November – December. Carpels are sweet, crisp, tasty with
pleasant aroma. Suitable for commercial planting as well as for planting in home garden.

Propagation and planting :

When propagated through seeds, jack exhibits as wide variation among its progenies. Hence
vegetative propagation is recommended. Commercially inarching on 10 months old jack
seedlings is done to produce vegetative progenies. The grafts come to bearing within 4 ½ -5 years
when compared seedlinfs which take 7-8 years normally.

Soft wood grafting (cleft method) on 1 ½ months old seedlings with scion of 3-4 months old also
was found to be successful. Since the viability of seeds is very low, seeds have to be sown
immediately after extraction to raise rootstocks. Rudrakshi and A. hirsute are also used as
rootstocks. In jack modified forkhert method of budding is also done. In Malaya air layering after
etiolation is reported to be successful. At Pechiparai (tamil Nadu), patch budding on 3-5 months

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old rootstock seedlings done during January – February and October-November was found to be
very successful. In this method the budded plants are ready for planting in 8 months.

Pits of size 1 metre cube are dug at a spacing of 9-12 M pits they filled with top soil and 10 kg
FYM and the grafts are planted in the centre of the pits during June – September.

Training and manuring :

Jacks are trained to single stem, early side branches should be removed then and there so
that a uniform smooth trunk develops for a height of 1.5 – 2 M and then scaffold branches should
be permitted to arise. This trunk is going to develop fruit buds and hence should be kept free of
growths. The nutrients should be applied as detailed below :

Quantity (Kg / plant)

Manure / Nutrients 1 year after planting Annual increase 5th year

FYM 10 kg 10 kg 50 kg

N 0.150 0.150 0.750

P 0.080 0.080 0.400

K 0.100 0.100 0.500

The fertilizers are applied during rainy season. If irrigation is available they can be split into two
and applied twice in a year June – July and September – October. The manures and fertilizers can
be applied in a circular trench taken 50 -06 cm away from the trunk.

Irrigation :
Though jack is cultivated under rainfed conditions, it is very sensitive to drought. Hence irrigation
should be done depending on the type of soil, season etc. so that, there should not be any moisture
stress especially during flowering and fruitset. Similarly too much of soil moisture will affect the
quality of fruits. The flakes will develop an insipid taste when there is excess soil moisture.

Intercultivation :

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During the prebearing age pulses can be raised as intercrop and dried leaves can be spread below
the trees to serve as a mulch for moisture conservation. As the trunk increase in size, the active
buds of female inflorescence develop from the trunk as well as from main scaffold branches. This
type of bearing habit is called ‘cauliflorus’. These fruit buds should be protected from any possible
damage by rubbing body of the stray cattle such as buffaloes through spreading dried thorny
bushes. This is very essential especially when there is no proper fence in the fields.

The male inflorescence (catkins) are seen in the current season growth while female catkins are
produced as cauliflorus (on trunk and main scaffold). Some times there will be more production
of female flowers as well as male flowers but there will be no fruitset. This is mainly due to lack
of proper pollination. The male catkins show protrusion of anthers on their surface of the spikes.
The stigma becomes visible by 8 AM from 4th day after it comes from the sheath. Every day
between 8.30 AM and 9.30 AM, the male catkins showing the pollen have to be collected and
rubbed on the sticky surface of female of female spikes. This can be done for 1015 days, for each
spike. Such hand pollination will help in proper fruitset and yield.

Plant protection :
Pests :
Bud weevil L (Ochyromera artocarpi)
It bores into the tender buds, shoots and fruits.

Management :
Destroy fallen fruits and buds, collect and kill grups, adults and then spray endosulfan
(0.035%).

DISEASES :
Fruit rot : (Rhizopus artocarpi)
It causes premature fall of young fruits due to rotting and may result in heavy loss in yield under
very humid conditions.

Management

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Spraying Disthane M. 45 (0.2%0 or Bavistin (0.05%) or Fytolan (0.2%) at 15 days interval during
fruit growth.

Harvest and yield :

Normally jack starts producing fruits from 7th – 8th year onwards. Grafted plants can start yield
from 4th to 5th year itself. In Singapore jack even seedlings start bearing from 3rd year. Normally
the fruits will be available from March to June. In higher elevation harvest extends upto
September. Even in plains certain genotypes bear an off season crop during October –

December. The yield ranges from 20 to 100 fruits/tree. The fruit weight varies from 10 to 30 kg.

LEC.17 POMEGRANATE - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES,

NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL
OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

POMEGRANATE

Punica granatum Family : Punicaceae

Pomegranate is a favorite table fruit of tropical and subtropical countries. The aril around
the seeds form the edible part which contains cool refreshing juice. Besides its use as edible fruit,
pomegranate also possesses a number of medicinal properties. The juice is useful in the cure of
leprosy, rind of the fruit is useful in curing dysentery and diarrhea. The colouring matter present
in the fruit rind is also used in the synthesis of dyeing material for clothes. Pomegrante is native
of Iran and cultivated in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Iran, Afghabistan, Clifornia. In India though a
number of states cultivate pomegranate, the main state which has the maximum area is
Maharashtra. Pomegranate is a rich source of carbohydrate (14.5%), protein (1.6%), calcium (10
mg/100g), phosphorus (70mg/ 100g), iron (0.3 mg/100g) and vitamin C (65mg/100g)

Climatic and soil requirements :

Despite adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, pomegranate yields the best quality
fruits in areas of cool winter and hot dry summer (which is prevalent in Baluchisthan, Afghanistan

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and Iran). Right from sea level upto 1850 metres, it can be successfully grown. It is fairly tolerant
to low temperature, of course with differences among varieties. For proper fruit development and
maturity and sweetness, a temperature of 35 – 38 0 C is needed. Under humid condition the quality
gets affected. At higher elevation and areas of low temperature during winter the tree behaves as
a deciduous one. It is not very specific about its soil requirement. However, in deep loamy or
alluvial soil it gives very good yield. It can tolerate salinity and alkalinity in the soil to certain
extent.

Cultivars and varieties :

Because of the hard seeds though the aril is pleasant, consumption of pomegranate has been a
tedious and boredom process for centuries. But due to evolution of soft seeded genotypes, there
is a great increase in the consumption rate of this fruit.

Hard seeded types :

Kandhari :
Fruits are large with deep red rind, aril deep blood red or deep pink with sweet, slightly acidic
juice. Seeds are very hard.

Musker Red :
Medium sized fruits with medium thick red rinds. Aril is fleshy with moderately sweet juice,
seeds are medium hard.

Alandi or Vadki :
It possesses medium sized red fruits, aril fleshy, blood red or deep pink with sweet acidic juice.
Seeds are very hard.

Kabul :
Large fruits, dark red with yellow parches, aril dark red fleshy seeds hard with slightly bitter juice.

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Soft seeded types
Dholka:

This cultivar has large fruits with greenish white rind, whitish to pinkish white, thick, juicy soft
arils. It is the commercial variety of Gujarat.

Paper Shell:
Medium sized fruits with thick rind; arils are fleshy, reddish to pink with sweet juice.
Seeds are soft.

Spanish Ruby :

It has medium sized fruits with thin rind , flesh rose coloured and seeds are soft.

Ganesh :

Originally it was identified in Ganesh kind garden, Pune by raising OP seedlings of Alandi
and designated as GBG-1. Has medium sized fruits, aril is pinkish with sweet juice. Seeds are
very soft. Fruit surface smooth, yellow with red tinge, round in shape average fruit weight 325 g,
TSS 16.47%, acidity, 0.42% developed at MPKVP, Rahuri, Maharshtra.

Jothi : (GKVK-1)

At university of Agricultural Sciencs GKVK, Campus, Bangalore, through an evaluation of mixed

OP seedlings of Bessein seedless and Dholka, a promising type GKVK-1 was selected and
released. It possesses at attractive yellowish red fruit colour, medium sized fruits, red aril colour
and soft seeds. Its yield potentials is 18 tonnes / ha.

Yercaud-1 (YCD-1)

At Horticultural Research Station, Yercaud, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University one superior
type (ACC. No. 455) was selected with soft seeds and deep purple aril color. This was found
suitable to mid elevation of Shevroys hills. The fruits are medium in size with easily peelable
rind. Each tree gives 100 – 120 fruits weighing 25 kg. The average fruit weight is 350400 g.

CO-1:

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It is a selection developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore with purple aril
and soft seeds.

Miridula :

Developed at MPKVP, Rahuri through seedlings selection from an open pollinated F2 population
raised after crosses make between Ganesh x Gul-e-Shah Red. Fruit surface smooth, dark red in
colour, round in shape. Fruit weight about 250 g juice sweet, TSS 16.32%, acidity

0.47%. Seeds softer than Ganesh.

Ruby:

A multiple cross hybrid developed at IIHR, Bangalore for aril colour and seed mellowness.
The hybrid develops dark red arils in winter and dark pink or red aril in summer whereas in Ganesh
even though the pink or dark pink aril is developed in winter, it is almost white in summer. Ruby
derived certain fruit quality attributes from Ganesh, while genes for red colour of the aril was
incorporated from a Russian variety ‘Gulsha Rose Pink’. The fruit skin colour is reddish brown
with green streaks. Rind is thin, arils are bold (37.2 g/100 arils), seed soft (2.19 kg/cm2) each fruit
weighs on an average 270 g. Yield is 16 – 18 tonnes/ha.

Amlidana :

It is an F1 hybrid (Ganesh x Nana) grows well under tropical climate. With quality fruit
attributes Amlidana is superior to sour variety Daru whose trees come up naturally in temperate
regions of North India. Its fruits provide more acidic (16.18%) ‘anardana’ an acidulant
commercial product prepared by drying the arils of highly acidic pomegranate which is
commercially marketed as condiment in North India for use in culinary preparations which serves
the purpose of dried green mango (amachur) and tamarind for souring curry, chutney etc. This
hybrid fruits weigh 120 g each with pink bold arils. It yields 56 fruits / tree. Trees are short
statured and hence suited for HDP which will give higher fruit yield / unit area.

Propagation and planting:

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Pomegranate is commercially propagated by rooting of cuttings. Semi hard wood cuttings of one
year old are used for rooting. The rooting is improved by application IBA 5000 ppm through
quick dip method. (10 to 20 seconds). It can also be propagated by air layering or gootee, as well
as ground layering. Transplanting of rooted cuttings is done during monsoon season. Pits of 60
cm x 6o cm x 60 cm size are dug at a spacing of 4 to 5 M between rows and 2 M within the rows,
So that higher yield can be obtained during first 5 years. After 5 years, alternate plant within the
row can be removed so as to maintain 4 x 4 M or 5x 4 M. Before planting, each pit should be
filled up with 20 kg of FYM and top soil. Inoculation of 50 g of phosphobacterium+ 150 g of
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza in the roots at the time of planting will help better root growth
and establishment.

Manuring:

The following nutrient schedule is recommended for pomegranate (g/plant).

N P K
After I year 250 125 125
II Year 500 125 125
III Year 500 125 250
IV year and above 625 250 500

Besides this every year 20 kg of FYM should be applied / tree. The manures and fertilizers are
mixed and applied in a round basin 1 metre away from the trunk. A week before application of
fertilizer, the soil around the root zone is slightly removes and 50 g of phosphobacterium = 150 g
of Vesicular Arbuscular mycorrhiza have to be applied near the feeder roots. Besides farmyard
manure each tree is supplied with 10 kg of pressmud, by spreading on the top layer of soil. In
sandy soils press mud serves as a mulch and prevent moisture loss during summer season. Besides
this, press mud also supplies some of the nutrients.

Press mud applied plants have come to earlier bearing in sandy soil condition.
Application of 375 kg N, 1875 kg P2O5 and 187.5 kg K2O through fertigation along with irrigation
level at 20% wetted area is found best for pomegranate var. Mridula.

Irrigation :

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Drip irrigation using pitcher pot or tube will keep the soil moisture constant without much
fluctuation. This helps the pomegranate to get better establishment in the early stage as well as
regular bearing in the fruiting phase.

Training, pruning and other intercultural operations:

Pomegranate is trained as bush. Pomegranate tree has a tendency to throw out lot of
suckers. If it is trained on a single stem system and if it is damaged by stem borer then the tree
will be lost. Therefore, 3-4 stems are allowed per plant and they are pinched at a height of 1 metre
and below the pinched tip of each stem upto 25-30 cm, 2-3 branches well distributed in all direction
are encouraged. Such a training will help for good maintenance of the tree.

In pomegranate the fruits are borne terminally on short spurs produced all along the slow growing
mature wood. They bear fruit for 3-4 years. Every year during winter a light pruning is to be
given to shorten the previous season growth so as to encourage fruiting. Besides this, dead and
diseased branches, water sprouts (suckers) should be removed periodically. Water sprouts from
the base should be nipped at the start of their growth so a to avoid wastage of food material in such
growth which exhaust the maximum reserve food. IF such diversion of food is allowed then there
will be very poor bearing in the trees.

Crops regulation can be done by withdrawal of irrigation water followed by manuring and then
irrigation, Water is withheld for about 2 months in advance of the normal flowering season. After
2 months, manures and fertilizers are applied and light irrigation is given. Three to four days later
heavier irrigations at normal interval are followed. For this treatment the trees readily respond
and produce new growth, bloom and bear a good crop.

The fruits are ready for harvest in about 5-7 months after the appearance of blossoms. Fruit
cracking is a serious problem. This is mainly due to high temperature coupled with moisture stress
at the time of fruit growth and maturity some times it is due to boron and potassium deficiency.
The intensity increase if the matured fruits are subjected to drought or heavy rains. Cracking can
be controlled by avoiding moisture stress during fruit development, application of recommended
dose of 500 g of potash and bimonthly spraying of 0.25% borax =

0.1% urea during the later stages of fruit development.

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Plant protection :
Pests :
1. Pomegranate butterfly (or) Fruit borer. (Deudorix isocrates)

Infestation starts from flowering to button stage. The female lays eggs on calyx of flowers and
small fruits. On hatching, caterpillars bore inside the developing fruits and feed inside. Such
infested fruits may also be invaded by bacteria and fungi which cause fruit rot.

Affected fruits fall down.

Management :
a. Spray NSKE 5% (or) neem formulations @ 2mla /1 four times at 15 days interval
commencing from flowering (as oviposition deterrent)
b. Release egg parasite, Trichogramma chilonis (Tricho-Cards) @ 1 lakh (16 to 20cc). Tie
the tricho-card (at 4 to 5cc) per release.
c. Apply endosulfan 35 EC 2 ml or dinethoate 30 EC 1.5 ml/l when the fruits are in marble
size.

2. Sucking insects : Mealybug : Ferrisia virgata, Pseudococcus lilacinus. Whitefly:

Siphonimus phyllyreae. Thrips ; Rhipiphorathrips creutatus, Retithrips syriacus. Aphids :
Aphis puniae.

Management
a. Spray 0.04% monocrophos for control of mealybugs and scale insects.
b. Spray 0.03% dimethoate or phosphomidon for control of whiteflies, aphids and thrips.
c. Spray kelthane (50%) 500 ml in 500 lit of water for control of red mites.
d. Nicotinyl compounds viz., acetamiprid 20 Sp, Imidachloprid 200 SL and thiomethoxam
70 WS can be tried. Chitin inhibitor, diaphenthiuron is also reported effective against
sucking group of pests.

DISEASES :

1. Black spot / fruit rot : (collectotrichum gloeosporoides) Symptoms :

The disease starts as minute dull-violet black spots on leaves. The area surrounding the spot turns
yellow, then spots enlarge and cause drying.

Fruit rot :
Black pin head spot appear on the fruit at different ages. The spots will be severe on mature fruits.
Black sunken spots develop and enlarge to cover larger areas of rind. The fruit rind cracks and

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infection spreads to interior areas and petals also. The petals become blackened and complete
rotting occurs.

Management :
Spraying fruits with 0.25% mancozeb or copper oxy chloride 0.25% or carbendazim
0.1% starting from one month after flowering and repeated at monthly interval (3 sprays).

2. Bacterial leaf spot : (Xanthomonas campestris pv. punicae)

Symptons :

Several minute (2-5 mm) dark coloured irregular spots surrounded by yellow tissues occur on the
leaves. Later the leaves turn yellow and prematurely drop. The bacteria also attack fruits and
cause dark brown irregular spots.

Management :

Spraying 250 ppm streptomycin sulphate or 400 ppm streptocycline.

Harvest and yield :

The fruits are harvested when the skin turns slightly yellow and the fruit gives a metallic sound
when tapped. During 4th year, the tree bears 25 – 30 fruits and a 10 year old tree gives 150 – 200
fruits / year. The fruits can b stored for 15 to 20 days under ambient temperature. At 00 C and 80
% RH, they can be stored even for 2 months.

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LEC.18 CUSTARD APPLE - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES ,
NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL
OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Custard apple (Annona squamosa) can be called as a delicacy of dry region due to its very sweet
delicate flesh. It is a deciduous or semideciduous tall woody shrub of anout 5-6 meters height
having irregularly spreading branches. The fruits are rich in carbohydrate mainly in the from of
sugar (23.5%), protein (1.6%), calcium (17mg/100g), phosphorus (47mg/100g) and iron
(1.5mg/100g). The custard apple of India the sitaphal or sugar apple of sweet sop has many
relatives.

1. Bulock’s heart (or) Bull’s heart (or) Ramphal: (Annona reticulata) Fruits are larger in
size, heart shaped, smooth and less seeded but pulp is inferior in quality.

2. Sour sop: (A. muricata). The fruits have many soft spines. Fruits are highly acidic.
3. Cherimoyer (or) Cherimola (or) Cherimoya (or) Lakshman phal: (A. cherimola). Fruits
are most the delicious, slightly adicdic, sweet with buttery consistency of pulp and low
seed content.

4. Atemoya: A. atemoya (A. squamosa x A. cherimola). It is a F1 hybrid with a better

quality of A. cherimola and adaptability to high temperature as that of A. squamosa.

Besides used as a dessert fruit, custard aple can be used in ice cream and in preparation of jam,
jelly etc. Tropical America is considered to be the native home of all home of all Annonaceous
fruits.

The probable origin of A. squamosa is West Indies and South America, while A. cherimola
originated in mountains of Ecuador and Peru.

Climatic and soil requirements:

A warm climate (not very hot) with high humidity and milld winter will be the ideal climatic
condition for the best growth and yield of most of the Annona sp. Except A. cherimola.
Though they can tolerate extremes of temperature (beoow freezing and upto

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40oC), suchextermes won’t be ideal for production of flowers and fruits. They can be grown
from sea level up to 1000 meteres. Where the summer temperature is very high (more than
40oC) and humidity is low there willl be no fruitest though the flowering is profuse. An annual
rainfall of 500-750 mm is adequate ofr growth and fruiting. Cherimoyer (A. cherimola)
requires a lower temperature and a subtropical mild climate and it is difficult to be cultivated
at very high temperature. Atemoyas (the hybrids between custard apple and cherimoyar) have
the superior tastes of cherimoyer can tolerate fai8rly higher temperature just like A squamonsa.
Ramphal (A. reticulate) does not tolerate severe summer when compared to sitaphal.

Annonas can be grown in varied soil right from heavy claly upto sandy one. They can also be
grown on rocky, marginal and even waste lands. However for best yield, a well drained fertile
soil with neutral pH will be ideal. The plants are shallow rooted anod hence a deep soil is not
necessary. They can be grown on slightly alkaline soil and with irrigation water having slight
higher pH and salinity.

CULTIVARS:
Balanagar:
It is a cultivar of A. squamosa. The fruits are greenish yellow in colour. Each fruit weight
130-140g. TSS is 20.7o brix.

Red sitaphal:
It probably originated as chance seedling. Fruits of this cultivar through belong to A.
squamosa are pinkish dark with erythrite red pulp. Average fruit weight is 150-160g with

22.3obix TSS.
Mammoth:
It is a cultivar of A. squamosa. The weight of the fruit is about 125g, TSS is 20o brix.
African Pride:
It is a cultivar of A atemoya (Cherimoya x sugar apple). It is a popular variety grown is subtropical
region of Australia.

Pink Mannoth:

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It is another popular cultivar of atemoya. The pulp is similar to cherimoyer, being juicy with an
excellent acidic flavour.

Arka Sahan:

It is an interspecific hycrid developed at IIHR, Bangalore. Fruits are big (210g) skin is light
green in colour with waxy bloom, moderately thick with large flat eyes. Fruits have improved
shelf life viz., take 7 days to ripe, 4 days more than ‘Mammoth’. The creamy white flesh in juicy
with mild pleasant aroma and tender with sparse seeds (9/100g of fruit weight). The fruit of this
variety is also characterized by large segments or flakes and many of which are seedless. Flesh is
very sweet (30o brix) compared to 24o brix in Mammoth. Average yield is 12 tonnes/ha.

APK (Ca)-1:

It is a clonal selection from a high yielding type in State Horticultural Farm, Courtallam of
Tirunelveli District of Tamilnadu developed at Regional Research Station, Aruppukkottai. It is a
high yielder in rainfed vertisol (Black soil) 14.90 kg/tree, 30.7% more than Balanagar. Each fruit
weighs 207g. Average number of fruits would be 72/tree. TSS 24.5o Brix, acidity 0.2%.

Adapted to semiarid plains.

Propagation and planting:

Annona is propagated commonly by seeds. Fresh seeds germinate in 20-30 days. Seed
propagation results in variability in plant vigour, prolonged juvenility and inferior fruit quality.
Vegetative propagation by budding or inarching on owoon seedlings and A. reticulata ensures
genetic uniformity. Budding is usually done in early spring or in the autumn. Inarching should be
carried out in early spring using one-year old mature scion and more than one-year old root stock.
A spacing of 5Mx5M is recommended for annonas. At planting, 50g. phophobacterium +150g of
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza are inoculated on the roots and the plants are planted in the pits
filled with 10kf of FYM and top soil. This helps in rapid growth of roots and better establishment
of plants, especially in dry regions.

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Since Annonas are mostly cultivated on poor soils, manuring is necessary for production of good
crops. Application of 10 kg Farmyard manure, 250g N, 125g P2 O5 and 250g K2 O is
recommended per tree. The fertilizers hould be applied at the commencement of rainy season.

Black polythene mulch is most effective in reducing the irrigation requirement in anola cv. N.A
7 (60.86%) with an annual water requirement of 777.6 litres per tree.

Intercultivation:

Intercrops like groundnut, minor millelts, crowpea and linseed can be grown in the initial years
of planting.

The problem of poor fruit set in custard apple can be overcome to a large extent by application of
GA at a concentration of 50ppm. Dipping of freshly opened flowers in GA ensures better fruit-
set, better fruit retention, increased fruit size and weight with less seed. The crop can be sprayed
with NAA 20 ppm four times at weekly interval during flowering (March – April) to encourage
fruitset. Irrigatin and mulching during summer season also helps to prevent fruit drop.

Plant protection:

Pests:

Mealy bugs: (Ferrisia virgata, Maconellicoccus hirstus)

These cause blemishes on fruits and the pest can be controlled by spraying 0.05 per cent
dichlorvos. Refer : previoue sections for newer insecticides.
DISEASES:

Leaf spot:

Affected leaves drop down prematurely. This canbe controlled by fortnightly sprays of
0.05% carabendazim commencing from the appearance of the disease symptom.

Anthracnose: (Glomerella cingulata)

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Infection begins at blossom-end of the fruit and later spreads on entire fruit surface, affected fruits
shrivel and they may cling to the tree or fall down.

Management:

Spray Indofil M.45 (0.02%) at 15 days interval.

Harvest and storage:

The fruts are to be harvested at correct stage of maturity. Light green fruit colour, yellowish white
colour between the carpels and initiation of cracking of the skin between the carpels may be taken
as maturity indices. The fruits are hand picked. The peak harvest period is October – November.
A sugar apple tree usually produces 80-100 fruits per tree after 4 to 5 years.

The custard apples ripen with in a few days after harvest. The mature fruits can be stored at 15o
to 20oC with RH of 85-90% and low oxygen and ethylene but with 10% CO2. Under such storage
conditions, the fruts can be kept intact for 12-18 days.

Additives like Saccharified starch (1:1), high voltage treatment and packing under nitrogen gas
cover, sugar (1:2) were quite effective in extending the storage of pulp at 4oC (45 days) and –18oC
(90 days) temperature.

LEC .19 BER AND JAMUN - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES,

NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL
OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

BER
Zizyphus mauritiana (Indian ber) Zizyphus jujube (Chinese jujub) Family:
Rhamnaceae

The ber is a vigorous growing, small spreading tree with almost vine like drooping
Branches. The round to oval reddish brown are having 5.4-8.0% sugar and 85-95 mg of Ascorbic

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acid (Vit. C) per 100g. Central Asia is supposed to be the centre of origin for ber. The tree is a host
plant for rearing lac insect (Tachardia laccad). Lac insect rearing helps in the production of lac.
The powder of ber roots has very many mewdicinal properties such as cure for ulcer, fever and
wounds. The stem bark powder is a remedy for diarrhea.

Climatic and soil requirements:

India ber Zizyphus mauritiana is to grow in tropical and subtropical regions while,
zizyphus jujube, the Chinese ber is a deciduous tree found in temperate region. Ber is an ideal fruit
tree for arid and semiarid regions where copious irrigation is impossible. It can tolerate a high
temperature of even 400C.But below freezing temperature is injurious. Since it possesses a deep
tap root system, it can be grown in an extreme moisture stress and in a wide range of soil upto an
infertile one which is unsuitable for major fruits and other crops. In alkaline soils with high ph
(even upto 9.5) and sodic soil, five kg of gypsum has to be applied pr pit, mixed with top soil and
flooding the pits one wek before planting has to be done. By such a practice, the ber plant can be
established. Once it gets established. It tolerates salinity even to an extent of 21m.mhos per cm.
Z.jujuba can be used even for biological reclamation of saline soils. To certain extent ber tolerates
water stagnation too.

Varieties:
Kaithili:
It is a variety with straight thorns but not so pronounced. Leaves are ovate with minutely serrated
margin. Fruits ovate-oblong with broadly mummillate apex, 3.37 cm long, 1.9 cm thick weighing
6.22 g. stone elliptic oblong with pointed tip and furrowed surface.

Umran:
In this variety, the trees are medium sized with bushy decumbent branches almost touching the
ground. The thorn is curved. Ovate oblong leaves with prominent serrations. Fruit elliptic, 4.2 cm
long and 3.2 cm thick.

Gola:

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It has got spreading tree. Fdruits are almost round with flat stylar end. Skin is bright yellow,
smooth and glossy, fruits come to ripening during January. Each fruit weighs 14-25g. each tree
yields about 100-125kg.

Seo (Sanaur No.2):

leaves ovate to ovate oblong with obtuse base and acute apex. Fruits round resembling crab apple,
stylar end round with mild depression in the centre, stem end broad, deeply grooved. Fruits light
pinkish yellow with occasional specks at maturity. Selected from a place called Sanuar near Patiala
in Punjab.

Seb:
It is an early variety. Fruits are golden yellow in colour and slightly oblong ie., 3.0cmx
2.5cm. it yields 90-1000 kg per tree. It acts as a good pollinizer for a number of varieties.
Banarsi:
It is a mid-season variety. Trees are 8-12 M tall. fruits globose oblong to long in shape with
tapering stylar end. Unripe fruits are green in colour. After ripening they turn to golden yellow. It
has performed well under Tamil Nadu condition. Yield ranges from 100110kg/tree/year.
Chhuhara:
It is another mid-season variety with semi-tall tree having spreading branches. Fruits ovate-
oblong, size 2.9 cm x2.1cm; weight 16.8g. fully matured fruits which start ripenibg will be
greenish yellow in colour. After full ripening, the colour changes to chocolate brown and the skin
becomes very thin and soft. The flesh will be very sweet. Fruits are suitable to be heated and made
into dry fruits like dates.

Sandhura Narnaul (Sanaur No.1):

It has erect trees. Fruits are oval-oblong to longish, stylar end slightly pointed. Fruits are greenish
yellow to golden yellow. Size 4.45x2.18 cm. it has thin skin. The average yield is 80 kg/tree/year.

Elaichi:
Trees spreading with fruits having the characteristic shape of cardamom hence called
‘elaichi’. Fruits are small each weighing 6g with thesize of 2.05 cmx 1.88cm. the average yield is
115kg/tree/year.

Propagation, preparatory cultivation and planting:

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Ber is propagated by ‘T’ budding or inverted ‘T’ budding on seedling rootstock of Z.jujuba, Z.
xylocarpa and Z. rotundifolia. Fruits of wild species are taken; seeds are extracted and soaked in
17% salt solution to remove the ill filled ones which float. The seeds which sink are taken and
soaked in con. H2SO4 for 5 minutes washed and soaked for 48 hours in cold water. Then the seeds
can be sown in the poly bags (25 x 15 cm) of 300 gauge thickness. The seeds take 10-15 days for
germination. Since the development tap root system is very fast in ber as well as in wild species,
when the seedlings are with two leaves they are transplanted in the main field in pits of size 1x1x1
m filled with 20 kg of FYM + top soil and irrigated. The treated seeds can also be sown directly
in to the pits @ 2-3 seeds per pit at a depth of 3 cm. normally the required varieties are budded in
situ on this rootstock seedlings after 90 days.

If we want to bud the seedlings raised in polybags, large sized polybags have to be used, since the
tap root grows very fast. June to august is the best period for budding for getting maximum bud-
take. The scion sticks with 0.9 cm dia, about 1 year old maturity with plumpy buds should be
selected to take buds. The buds will take about 7-10 days for sprouting.

Training:
For young plant, a support should be provided by bamboo stakes. In the first year, all the branches
arising upto 75 cm-1M should be removed so that a straight trunk can be developed. Above this
3-5 primary branches should be developed so as to have a balanced frame work in all directions.
In the second year, on each primary branch, 3-4 well distributed secondary branches ca be allowed,
and during third year final frame work should be decided.

Manures and manuring:

The plant should be fertilized in the following ratio at every year.
Age FYM N P K
(kg/tree)
1 Year after planting 10 125 40 75
2 year after planting 15 250 80 150
3 year after planting 20 250 120 225
4 year after planting and then onwards 25 500 160 300

The manorial dose can be split into two equal halves and applied once during June and another
after pruning. The manure fertilizer mixer should be placed in trenches of 30 cm width formed at

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1.0-1.2 M away from trunk.
Irrigation:
For young trees, irrigation should be done once in a work. As the trees grow older, it can
restricted once in 15 to 20 days. At the time of flowering and fruiting, there should not be any
moisture stress. In rainfed condition, rain water harvest can be done by forming a saucer basin
giving a 0.1% slope towards the trunk of the tree from a distance of 3 M.

Interculture and pruning:

The interpace can be utilized to raise a crop like pulses such as greengram, blackgram,
cowpea etc., for about 3 years. If sufficient irrigation facilities are available papaya or phalsa can
be grown as inter crop for first three years.

In ber, the fruit buds are borne on current season growth in the leaf axils. Therefore the plants
should be pruned every year to induce new growth to provide maximum fruit bearing area. After
the harvest of fruits, the plants have to be pruned by heading back 25% of one year old shoot. If
severe pruning is attempted, it will adversely affect the growth leading to poor yield. Dry, dead,
diseased wood and criss-cross branches should be removed.

Plant protection:
Pests:
Fruit fly: (Carpomyia vesuviana)
The flies puncture the young developing fruits by inserting their ovipositor and lays eggs
singly. Hatching of eggs completes in two to three days. The larvae (maggots) feed inside the fruit
pulp and make small holes in the rind and come out of the fruit when fully grown. The affected
fruits become misshapen and their growth is retarded.

Management:
a. Collect infested fruits and destroy them
b. Spray monocrotophos(0.04%) or Rogar 30EC(0.06%).
c. Spray with a mixture of 100 ml Malthion 50EC and one kg jaggery or sugar in 100 lit of
water twice starting from September to October at 7-10 days interval (3 sprays).

d. Cultivate ber orchard soil during April-May and apply 10% BHC to destroy pupae.
e. Grow fruitfly tolerant varieties like Umran, Sanaur
2.Bark eating caterpillar: (Inderbela quadrinotata)

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The caterpillar maks holes in the trunk while feeding. Affected trees become stunted and yield
potential is reduced.

Management:
Remove frassy galleries and paint the bark with 0.05% monocrotophos 40EC.
3. Hairy caterpillar: (Euproctis freterna) caterpillar
feed on leaves and cause damage.

Management:
a. Dust 10% BHC.
b. Spray carbaryl at 0.15% a.i.
4. Ber beetle or leaf chafer: (Adorentus pallers)
Beetles feed on leaves mainly during night. The leaves become just like a sieve.
Management:
a. Spray with one kg carbaryl in 300 litres of water.
b. Use light traps.
Diseases:
Powdery mildew: (Oidium emysiphoides)
Affected fruits show white powdery spots which later cover whole area of fruits. The white
powdery mass also spread on flowers and leaves. Later white spots turn brown and fruits drop.

Management:
Spray dinocep 0.1% at 15 days interval after fruit set preferably at pea stage.
Harvest and yield:
In ber, fruits harvested at correct stage of maturity alone will ripe properly. Aftr attainment of full
size of a particular cultivar and turning of colour to yellow or golden yellow, the normal harvesting
season is October-November, while in North India it varies from place to place viz., December to
April. The average yild from a 10-20 year old tre would be 100-200 kg/year. If the fruits have to
be stored, they can be stored at 30C and 85-90% for 30 to 40 days.

JAMUN
Syzygium cumini (Syn: Eugenia jambolana) Family : Myrtaceae

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It is a tall handsome evergreen tree of tropical and subtropical regions and has its origin
probably India or East Indies. It is one of the most hardy fruits and best suited for wastelands. It
is drought tolerant, at the same time can tolerate water stagnation and marshlands, where other
fruit crops can not be grown successfully. The wood is used as a timber in building and railway
sleeper. One hundred gram of fruits contain 19.7 g carbohydrate, 0.7 g protein, 1.0 g iron, 0.02 f
calcium, 0.01 g phorus 0.1 g fat and 0.9 g fibre. Besides taken as a dessert fruit, it is also used to
make beverages, squash, jam, jelly and wine. Fruit syrup is used in curing diarrhea.

Climatic and soil requirements :

It is adapted to tropical and subtropical conditions requiring a dry climate during flowering
and fruiting. Early rains resulting in better soil moisture will help in growth and development and
ripening of fruits. Well drained deep loam would be ideal though it can grow on a wide range of
soil conditions. In the initial stages of establishment there should not be any drought. When the
tree has grown sufficiently it can tolerate drought as well as flooding.

Cultivars :
In North India a cultivar known as ‘Ra Jamun’ with big sized fruits is being cultivated.
One seedless type (with under developed ovule) was isolated at Horticultural Research Station,
Periyakulam is being grown in Agricultural Research Station, Paramakudi. But the fruits are very
small.

Propagation and planting :

Though it is propagated by seeds, for true to type progenies vegetative propagation is
recommended. Air layering and application of 1000 ppm NAA or IBA as lanolin paste can give
80 – 90% rooting. Inarching, veneer grafting and forkert method of bedding are also used. The
plants are planted at a spacing of 10-12 m in pits of 1 cubic metre size.

Pruning, manuring and irrigation :

The plants should be trained initially in such a way that the branches develop from a point 100
cm above the ground level. Only during the initial 2 – 3 years the plants require regular irrigation.
In later years the irrigation is required mainly during fruit growth and ripening. Only in poor soil
the plants require manuring, 20 kg of FYM at prebearing and 80 kg at bearing age per tree is

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recommended. When the soil is fertile the manuring and irrigation are withheld to encourage fruit
bud production.

Flowering and fruiting :

The flowering starts in first week of March and continues upto April end. The pollination
is done by honeybee, houseflies and wind. By natural fruit drop only 12 – 15% of flowers reach
maturity. Excessive fruit drop can be reduced by two sprays of 60 ppm GA, one at full bloom and
second 15 days after fruit set.

Common insect pests :

Fruit fly Bactrocera (Dacus) correctus
Leaf caterpilar Carea angulata
Purple winged moth Bombytelia delatrix
Psyllid Trioza jambolanae
Thrips Leeuswenia ramakrishnae
White fly Dialeurodes eugeniae
Plant protection :
Leaf eating caterpillars can be controlled by spraying dimethoate / malathion. White fly damages
all parts and even fruits get wormy. Affected, dropped fruits should be collected and burnt. At
the time of flowering if spraying has to be taken up only a safe insecticide to honeybees like
endosulfan has to be sprayed. Leaf spot and fruit spot caused by Glomerella can be controller by
Indofil Z. 78 (2 g/lit.) Harvest and yield :

The seedling trees start bearing after 10 years, while the vegetatively propagated progenies
come to bearing in 5- 6 years. The fully ripe fruits should be picked by hand by climbing on the
trees and collecting in a bag. Since the jamun fruits are highly perishable and hardly stand only 5
days, they should be immediately sent to market. However if necessary they can be stored for 3
weeks at 90 C and 85 – 90% RH. They yield ranges from 70 – 100 kg /tree/ year.

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LEC. 20 AMLA - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT
AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS,
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

INDIAN GOOSE BEERY (OR) AONLA

Emblica officinalis (Syn : Phyllanthus emblica)

Family : Euphorbiaceae

Being a member of Euphorbiaceae to which most of the xerophytes, the cacti and succulents
belong, aonla is a hardy drought resistant fruit tree. A rare combination of character is its ability
to withstand water stagnation too. It is also known as amla, amali and nelli etc. The amla fruits
are a rich source of Vitamin C. The special attribute is its capacity to retain Vitamin C even in a
dried state which is not possible in other fruits. The vitamin C supplied by its fruits and dried
powder is even superior to synthetic Vitamin C. One part or other is used in the cure of cough,
bronchitis, jaundice, diabetes, dyspepsia, diarrhea and fever. Hundred grams of fruit pulp contains
14 g of carbohydrate, 0.5 g protein, 1.2 g iron, 0.3 mg vitamin B and 600 mg of Vitamin C. Because
of the high content of iron (1.2mg/100g) and B vitamin C. Probably this fruit extract is used in a
number of ayurvedic and homeopathic preparations which are said to prevent greying of hairs and
falling of hairs. The probable centres of origin are the South and Central India, Sri Lanka,
Malaysia and South China.

Climatic and soil requirements :

Though amla is a subtropical fruit, it thrives very well and comes to yield in tropical humid
conditions also. If young plants are protected from both extremes of temperature, the mature trees
can tolerate right from freezing (00C) to as high as 460C. Similarly if the young plants are protected
from severe drought during summer and water stagnation during heavy rains, then the adult trees
tolerate these two adverse conditions.

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Though in a well-drained loamy soil the amla trees grow faster, they can grow in a heavy clay
also provided slight drainage is arranged during heavy rains in their early crop growth phase of
first 2 – 3 years. They also fairly tolerate alkalinity in soils (pH 8.5) and irrigation water.

CULTIVARS AND VARITIES

Chakaiya :
It is a prolific bearer. The fruits are flat, with smooth skin which is greenish in colour. Fruits are
small to medium in size weighing 26 g having a TSS of 10.70 brix. The trees are spreading in
nature.

Banarasi :
The fruits are large in size flattened oblong with smooth skin, yellowish with
characteristic three raised segments. On an average each fruit weighs 38g. It is a shy bearer.
Trees are having upright growth habit.

Krishna : (NA – 4)
A chance seedling of Banarasi developed at Narendra Deva Agrl. University, Faizabad with
medium to large size (40 g) conical, angular, smooth yellowish fruits with red blush on the exposed
surface. It has fibreless flesh which is semitransparent and hard. It is a moderate bearer.

Kanchan : (NA-5)
It is supposed to be a chance seedling of Chakaiya. A profuse bearer with small to medium-sized
fruits (32g) flattened oblong; skin is smooth, yellowish in colour. It was also developed at
Narendra Deva Agrl. University, Faizabad.

Francis :
Fruits are large (41.5g) with a TSS of 12.00 brix, flattened oval, greenish yellow in colour, soft
and almost fibreless. The branches have dropping habit.

BSR-1 :

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It was developed at Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar of Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Tamil Nadu. The trees are medium in height and spreading and hence suited for
accommodating more number of trees per unit area (can be planted at 6M x 6M spacing). Fruits
are medium in size (27g) with flat stylar end and round calyx end. Each fruit has 6 segments, the
juice has a TSS of 18.10 brix.

Propagation :
Seed propagation which has been in practice has given lot of variation in the progenies.
Hence vegetative propagation was resorted to. Building using 1 year old rootstocks through “T”
method (shield) or patch method is successful. In-situ budding will be better than budding in
nursery and transplanting the budded plants. To raise rootstock seedlings, from the fully ripe
mechanically or by drying in sun and the seeds are extracted. The seeds are hard and take long
time to germinate. Hence the seeds should be treated with con. H2SO4 for 3 minutes and then
washed with water and soaked in 500 ppm of Gibberellic Acid for 24 hours. Such treated seeds
can be sown in nursery bed or polybag filled with pot mixture.

Field preparation and planting :

After deep and thorough ploughing, pits of 1 cubic metre size can be dug at a spacing of 9 Mx9M
during May – June and filled up with 10-15 kg of well decomposed FYM. The budded plant or
seedlings for in-situ budding (especially in dry areas) can be planted at the onset monsoon rains.

Training, pruning, intercultivation and irrigation :

In training the trees, initially all the rootstock sprouts should be nipped off then and there. The
growth of scion should be trained to develop a low headed one. At about 75 cm to 1 M height the
first two main laterals are allowed to grow out. Five to six such laterals with wide angled crotches
should be encouraged at fairly well spaced on the truck so as to have a modified leaser fashion.

When the crops started bearing early year after the harvest of fruits, dead, diseased, weak and
criss-cross branches should be pruned. The water sprouts and rootstock growth should be watched
and periodically removed. During early stages of establishment, the plants should be watered

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periodically especially during summer. Fully mature trees are seldom watered. However,
irrigation during April-June one in 15 days will help to encourage fruitset and prevent fruit drop.
During early stages of crop growth an inter crops like cowpea, greengram can be grown upto 4 –
5 years.

Black polythene mulch is most effective in reducing the irrigation requirement in aonla cv. N.A7
(60.86%) with an annual water requirement of 777.6 litres per tree.

Manures and manuring :

At the end of first year 20 kg FYM = 30 g N should be applied. An additional quantity of 30 g of
N should be added eary year as the tree grows. For a bearing tree, 800 g N, 640 gP2O5, 750 g K2O
should be applied along with 30 – 40 kg of FYM every year during rainy season. If irrigation
facilities are available, this dose can be split into two equal halves, one half applied during April
– May (at fruit set) and irrigated. The other half can be given during September – October.

Common insect pests :

Aphid Setaphis bougainisillia
White fly Trialeurodes rara
Bug Scutellera nobilis
Leaf roller Caloptila acidula

Plant protection :
Bark borer makes tunnels along the bark. This can be controlled by injecting kerosene oil
in the holes and plugging with cotton and clay during September – October and February – March
and spraying with phosphomidon 0.03% Shoot gall maker can be controlled by pruning the
affected shoots and spraying 0.1% monocrotophos. Amla rust can be controlled by spraying
dithane Z.78 ot M.45 at 0.2%. blue mould develops water soaked lesions on fruits which is
ultimately covered by bluish green pustules. This can be checked by a weak solution of borax or
sodium chloride.

Harvest and yield :

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The trees will start yielding from 8 – 10 years after planting. Grafted or budded plants will yield
from 5th year or 6th year. The average yield is about 150 kg/tree/year.

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LEC .21 WOOD APPLE AND BAEL - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING,
VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL
CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS,
PESTS AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

WOOD APPLE
Feronia limonia L.
Family: Rutaceae

Wood apple, a native of India and Sri Lanka is one of the hardy trees of arid and semi arid
regions. The fruit is a hard- shelled many seeded berry with its pinkish brown aromatic soursweet
pulp being the edible portion the seeds embedded in it. The pulp contains 18.1% carbohydrate,
7.1% protein, 3.7%, fat, 5.0%, fibre and 1.9% mineral matter. The pulp is a rich source of calcium
(130 mg/100g), phosphorus (110mg/100g) and iron (0.48 mg/100g). the vitamins supplied by one
hundred gram of pulp are carotene 61 µg, riboflavin 0.17 mg, niacin 0.8 mg, thiamine 0.04 mg
and vitamin C 3 mg. the ripe fruit pulp makes excellent chutney and it is also consumed afresh
along with sugar. It is used as an adjunct in jelly preparation along with the pulp of guava.

Climatic and soil requirements:

Wood apple can be grown in dry tracts of tropical and sub-tropical regions right from sea level,
upto 1400 m above MSL. It is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions including degraded soil.
It can also tolerate salinity to certain extent. It is an ideal tree to be exploited for growing in
wasteland.

Cultivars and propagation:

No named cultivars are available. However sour and sweet types, high yielders with big
fruit size exist in the variable seedling progenies in nature. High yielders with big sized and sweet
tasting fruits should be selected for propagation through vegetative means. At present though seed
propagation is done mainly, budding has been reported to be successful if done during late summer
and early monsoon. Budded plants are dwarf and precocious in bearing. In dry regions where

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irrigation potential is limited. The seedlings can be planted in the field and in situ budding has to
be done on established seedling.

Field preparation ands planting:

Normally wood apple is not planted in fertile or rich soils. In wasteland, if mass planting is to be
done, then pit lines are drawn across the slope and pits can be dug at a spacing of 8Mx8M each pit
with a size of 1 Mx1Mx1M. Planting should be done at the onset of monsoon after filling the pit
with 20 kg FYM, sand and top soil. The basins should be formed immediately after planting in
such a way that water harvesting is facilitated.

Interculture:
Training is done by Central leader method allowing well spaced branches in all directions.
Intercrops can be taken during rainy seasons for the first 5 years. In the post monsoon season, the
basins can be mulched with dry leaves. Every year 25 kg of FYM is to be applied for each tree at
the beginning of the monsoon rains. This will help in increasing fruit- size and quality. During
early stages of crop growth, if pot watering is done during summer it will be beneficial. Being a
member of citrus family it is attacked by the leaf-eating caterpillar of citrus which completely
defoliate the plant. Spraying of any contact insecticide should be done after hand picking and
destruction of larvae.

Harvest and yield:

Budded plants come to bearing 3-4 years after planting. But to reach optimum productivity
it will take about 10 years. The crop flowers in February to May depending on the climatic
conditions of a locality and fruits will be available from July to December depending on the
flowering month. A well grown tree will give 200-250 fruits/year.

BAEL

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Aegle marmelos Corr.
Family : Rutaceae

Beal, one of the oldest fruits cultivated in India has a mythological significance viz., a
sacred tree whose leaves are used for worship of Lord Shiva. The fruit pulp which is carbohydrate.
One hundred gram of pulp contains 55 µg of carotene, 0.13 mg thiamine, 1.19 mg riboflavin, 1.1
mg niacin and 8 mg vitamin C. from its pulp sherbet and syrup can be made. The marmalade
prepared from its fruits is used in curing diarrhea and dysentery. From the stem, gum is obtained.
The wood is used for making agricultural implements. The leaves are used as fodder.

All parts of the plant are medicinally important due to a substance called ‘marmelosin’.

Climatic and soil requirements:

A subtropical condition with hot dry summer and mild winter would be ideal for the cultivation
of bael. It can be grown even upto an altitude of 1200 M MSL and it is not damaged by temperature
even as low as -70 C. Since it is a hardy tree, it thrives well in a wide range of soil right from pH
5 upto pH 10 where many other fruit trees fail. it can tolerate even every alkaline soil as well as
stony soils. however, well drained sandy loam is the best.

Cultivars and propagation:

There are lot of variation seen among the progenies raised from seeds for size and shape
of fruits, bearing habit, pulp quality, colour, texture, sugar percentage etc., Cultivars like

‘Mirzapuri’, ‘Kaghli’, ‘Gonda’ and a few selections from Faizabad like KB 11, KB 1, Dhar Road
and Ayodhya are found to be better. Root stocks are raised from seeds. On 6 months old seedlings,
patch budding is done during June-July.

Planting and interculture:

Pits of size 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 m are dug at spacing of 10 M x M. The top soil should be
mixed with 10 15 kg of FYM and pits filled up. Planting can be done during June-July or at
beginning of monsoon. Every year regular application of 20-30 kg FYM should be done at the
beginning of monsoon. Young plants are irrigated whenever there is monsoon failure. Any legume
or forage crop can be taken as inter crop during early years. Young plants are trained with the help
of stake. No annual pruning. However, criss-cross, weak and broken branches have to be removed
periodically.

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Harvest and yield:

Seedlings take 7-8 years for bearing, while budded plants start bearing at the age of 4-5
years. Flowering is seen in May-June and fruits become ready in 8-10 months viz., April-May
matured fruits to be harvested individually along with fruit stalk and they should not be allowed
to fall on the ground. A well grown tree of about 12-15 years age gives 300-500 fruits/year.

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LEC .22 DATE PALM - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES,
NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL
OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

DATE PALM
Phoenix dactylifera Family : Palmae
Date palm is a nutritive fruit rich in sugar and iron and predominantly seen in desert oasis. It is
believed to have originated in countries around persian gulf such as Iraq (Mesapatomia) and
Egypt. The flesh contains 60 – 65 percent sugar, 2 percent protein, 2.5 per cent fibre, 0.4 per cent
fat and 2 per cent mineral matter. It is a good source of easily assimilable iron (7.3 mg/100g) and
hence prescribed to anemic patients along with honey.

Climatic and soil requirements :

Dates can be successfully cultivated in areas having long hot summer and mild temperature during
flowering (February to April) and fruit ripening (May to August) should be 25 to 290C. As in the
case of grapes, this crop also requires specific heat units (above a base of 100C nearly 3000 units
for successful fruit maturation. Three should not be any rains or high humidity during fruit
maturity and ripening. Otherwise the fruits will be spoiled. The crop is susceptible to frost.

Deep sandy loam are the best suited though it is very hardy and can be grown in a wide range of
soil conditions. Better water holding capacity with good drainage is desirable. It can grow in
alkaline and saline soil, however, the growth and productivity are affected.

Cultivars :
Depending on the season of ripening, the cultivars are classified as early, mid and late cultivars.
Though there are nearly 40 cultivars imported from Middle East and North Africa, few only were
found to be promising, under Indian conditions.

Halawy :

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An early variety with small fruits. At full maturity before ripening (doka stage) the fruits are
yellow in colour and free from astringency.

Khadrawy :
Small to medium sized fruits; light yellow at doka stage.

Barhee :
Mid –season to slightly late cultivar with small to medium sized fruits, yellow colour and low
astringency at doka stage.

Zahid :
Mid – season cultivar with small to medium sized fruits ; it is tolerant to rain and humidity.

Medjool :
A late cultivar; fruits are large, broad, oblong-ovate, orange yellow with reddish brown stippling
at doka stage.

Propagation and planting :

Though it is propagated by seeds, the seedlings exhibit a very long juvenile phase nearly taking 7
– 8 years for flowering. Besides this, the population segregates for male and female plants and
the resulting all female plants also may not be uniform in bearing. Hence vegetative propagation
through off-shoots produced by a female mother plant of particular cultivar can be used for
planting . After about 4- 6 years, 2-3 off shoots can be obtained from a mother plam for a period
of 8 – 10 years. To encourage rooting, the base of off-shoots arising from the mother plant are
applied with moist soil by putting a soil boxes at least for a period of one year before separation.
Each matured off-shoot may weigh 25-35 kg. Planting of off-shoots can be done during late spring
or early summer by cutting with a help of a specially designed chisel. Most of the basal leaves are
removed and only the terminal bud with 10-12 leaves around it are retained. Depending on the
soil fertility, the spacing varies from 4M – 9M. Commercially as spacing of 6 to 8 M is adopted.

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In India a spacing of 3 M – 4M is adopted. For effecting pollination under commercial cultivation
2-3 male plants are planted for every 100 female plants.

Irrigation, manuring and interculture :

Light and frequent irrigations have to be given immediately after planting and the basins can be
mulched. Though date palm is drought tolerant, 2-3 M around root zone is to be kept moist for
maximum growth. The irrigation frequency varies with season. Date palm is highly tolerant to
saline water (even upto 2500 ppm). But to overcome drainage problem arising out of saline water
usage, periodical leaching with food water should be done. Each palm should be applied with 50
kg of FYM, 600 g N, 100 g p and 700 g K. In date palm older leaves which are in surplus than
required are normally pruned. To get optimum yield with food palm are retained. The leaf pruning
is done during June. By this pruning, the bunches will be better ventilated during July and early
August, which will be otherwise spoiled. The spines from the leaves around the bunches are also
cut during spring to facilitate pollination.

Hand pollination is done by inserting 2-3 strands of male flowers between strands of female
flowers when the female spathes have crack open. Though the dried pollen can be stored at 4-50C
until next season, the fresh pollen produces the best fruit. The spathes emerge during February –
March and flower opening starts during March – April. Immediately, the flowers should be
pollinated (2-3 days after spathes open). Pollen grains of certain varieties can advance ripening
of certain varieties. So specific polliniser varieties should be identified for specific varieties of
female plantation.

Fruitset :
Fruit thinning has to be resorted to so as to retain 1300 – 1600 fruits in 8-10 bunches per palm
will be optimum. Bunch thinning can be done either by removal of entire strand or shortening of
strands. Spraying ethephon @ 200 ppm 10 – 30 days after fruitset will help to thin fruits
effectively. It also helps to overcome biennial bearing and encourage earlier ripening and to get
better fruit weight and soluble sugar.

The different stages of development of fruit are as follows :

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Name Arabic name Stage Fruit quality

Gandara Chimiri 4-13 Weeks after pollination Hard, Green Colour

Doka Khalal 13-17 weeks after pollination Hard, yellow pink or red may
be sweet or astringent, Edible
stage.
Dang Rutab 17-21 weeks after pollination Fruits soften at tip, edible
stage.
Pind Tamer 21-22 weeks after pollination Fully ripe 60-84%
TSS, edible stage.

Plant protection :
Termites in young plantation can be controlled by application of BHC 10% dust. Rhinoceros
beetle and red palm weevil are also attacking as in coconut. The control can be achieved by dusting
BHC 10 % in manure pit for former while for later injecting Monocrotophos or a fumigant like
celphos will give good control. To control black headed caterpillar (Nephantis serinopa) which
fees on leaves hiding inside the tunnels in the folds of the leaves, root feeding with 10 mil of
monocrotophos mixed with 10 ml of water per tree and releasing the predator Gonioyis nephantidis
can be done. False smut a disease caused by Graphida phoenicus characterized by dark brown or
black pustules full of yellow spores particularly under humid conditions can be controlled by
spraying 01.% Bavistin or 0.2 % Copper oxyhloride. Fruit rot can be controlled by collected and
destruction of infected fruits followed by spraying indofil Z78 (0.2%). To prevent birds damage
wire gauges can be used.

Harvest, yield and processing :

Under Indian condition, since the fruit ripening period is not free of rains, the fruits have to be
harvested at doka stage during June – August. The fruits harvested at doka stage have to be dipped
in boiling water for 5 minutes followed by dehydration in electric oven at 500C for 160 hours or
in solar drier to obtain best quality ‘Chhuhara’ which is the commercial date or produce of
commerce. The Chhuhara recovery would be 33 – 35%.

LEC .23 SUBTROPICAL FRUITS - MANGOSTEEN - SOIL, CLIMATE,

PLANTING, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT,

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SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS,
PESTS AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia mangostana)

Mangosteen is queen of fruits bearing beautiful at the same time very delicious globose deep
purple fruits. Large tree growing upto 10-15 m without angular branches. It is considered as the
finest fruit of the world.

• Native to Malay Arrhipelago and moluccas islands.

• Fleshy soft, well developed arid is the edible portion.
• 100 g of edible portion contains –

19.8 g CHO

0.5 g protein Vit A – 14 IV

11 mg Ca The fruit hull (pericarp) is used as an astringent
in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery and
17 mg P also in chlora.

0.9 mg Fe

66 mg Vit.C

• Mangosteen cultivar is popular in Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Sri Lanka and

Malaysia.

• In Tamil Nadu  Selected places on slopes of Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu), Kanyakumari

district.

Climatic and soil requirements :

Loves humid tropical conditions viz., high humidity and high temperature without abundant
Rainfall and shady environment.

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Maximum temperature should not go above 35°C. If the temperature goes below 20°C, retardation
in growth occur.
Severe drought – Sunburn and drying of leaves. Should not have strong wind  cause injury to
leaves and branching.

Soil : Deep clay to silt loam will be ideal.

Types : Occurrence of natural variability is limited because, the seeds are of asexual origin, they
are formed from the nucellar tissue in the ‘parthenocarpic’ fruits.

Propagation :
Sets fruits by parthenocarpy (without pollination and fertilization) and also sets germinable seeds
without fertilization propagated through seeds and the plants resemble the mother plant.

When seedlings attain 2 leaf stage – transplanted seedling growth is very slow seedlings do not
reach more than 15 cm height ever after 2 years of girth (due to lack of adequate fibrous lateral
roots).

Vegetative propagation
• Air-layering, grafting or budding
• Plants are planted at 10 m x 10 m spacing.
• For young plants, protection from scorching sun should be given.

Manuring and fertilization :

Time of
Before flowering After flowering After fruit set
application

N (g/tree) 250 250 250

P (g/tree) -- -- 500

FYM (kg/tree) -- -- 25
• Irrigation needs regular irrigation in places where rainfall is light and good drainage
where and rainfall is heavy.

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• Frequency of irrigation – decided on the basis of weather and soil moisture.
• Mulching without grass and dried leaves – conserves soil moisture.

Harvest and yield :

Harvested at 90 days after full bloom when they are completely mature but still green. They will
become soft and slightly purple in clear after 14 days if kept in ambient temperature. If the trees
are allowed to sipe on the trees (115 days after full bloom) – they develop deep purple colour).

Starts bearing in 7 years.

2 crops (August – October (main crop) and April-June)
A 20 years old tree will yield 23-25 kg.

Physiological disorders
Gamboge and fruit splitting – Physiological disorders
• Yellow exudation of gum on fruits and branches. Fruit splitting results in swollen arils
without mushy pulp.

• More pronounced in fruits exposed to direct sunlight and in crop that matures in
summer.

Heavy and continuous rains during fruit ripening favour gambridge and fruit splitting in
certain locations.

LEC .24 FIG - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND

WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS,
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Fig was an important food crop for the ancient civilization of the eastern Mediterranean
region. It is a highly nutritious fruit valuled as fresh fruit as well as in a dried state. The fruit has
a laxative property. The main countries that produce fig are Afghanistan, Greece, lraq, Syria,
Spain, Portugal etc.,

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Climatic and soil requirements:

The fig is a subtropical fruit the optimum temperature for its good growth being 15.5 to
21oC. Buds of most cultivars requires some winter chilling. In mild tropical and subtropical areas,
figs exhibit continuous growth without a distinct rest period. However, the tree usually has a semi-
deciduous habit and enters into mild dormancy during October-January. Fruit qualities are also
got influenced by climate. A dry climate with temperature especially at the time of fruit
development and maturation produces the best quality figs. High temperature like 35 to 38oC will
result in premature ripening of fruits. Similarly very low temperature will result in splitting and
poor quality fruits.

Fig can be grown on a wide range of soil type. But deep, clay-loams are the best suited.
Well drained alluvial clay loams or medium black soils are also good for fig cultivation. The fig
is one of the most drought tolerant crops. It can tolerate sulphate and chloride salts. Soils having
a high lime content produce fruits of better quality suitable for drying. But even a small amount
of sodium carbonate in soil is injurious to fig. Major portion of the root system is distributed
within 50-60 cm depth and hence the fig can also be grown in shallow soils of 2 feet where other
fruit trees cannot be accommodated.
TYPES AND CULTIVERS
The figs are classified into four types based on the nature of flowers and the methods of
pollination.

Common Fig
The flowers are pistillate, Fruits develop by parthenocarpy viz., without the stimulation of
pollination and fertilization. Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, Brown Turkey, Celeste and Conadria are
some cultivars of this type. Poona is one of the most important commercially grown fig.
Introduction and evaluation of exotic figs from California at IIHR Bangalore reveals that varieties
like ‘Deann’, ‘Conadria’ and ‘Excel’ have uperior fruit and plant characters. These new varieties
when grown on ‘Brown Turkey’ root stock (through chip budding) hold great promise for
exploiting marginal lands in arid and semiarid regions.

Capri fig:

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This type has short styled pistillate and functional staminate flowers. Most caprifigs are not
edible, but are grown because they harbour a small wasp viz., Blastophaqa psenes which is
necessary for pollination and fruit set in other types like Smyrna fig by transferring the pollen
grains from caprifig.

Smyrna fig:
It is commercially the most important one. However, the fruits develop only when the flowers
are pollinated with pollen from the male flowers of the caprifig transmitted by the Blastophaga
wasp. Calimyrna is the common cultivar of this type.

Sanpedro fig:
In this type, the first crop is completely parthenocrpic, but the second crop develops only if the
flowers are pollinated. The common cultivars of this type are Sanpedro, King and Gentile. In
India, common fig is mostly grown. Some of the cultivars grown are Black Itchier, Brown Turkey,
Turkish White, Kabul and Marseilles. Yercaud Timla fig is a drought tolerant cultivar. Fruit are
large and reddish purple in colour.

Propagation and plantings

Rooting of hard wood cuttings is the common method of propoagtion in fig. Rooting was the best
in cuttings from 3 year old wood with 30-40 cm length and 1.5 cm dia. Cuttings from the base of
the shoot and lower part of crown have to be used as they root better.

Cuttings are taken during January-February at the time of pruning in North India whereas, the
cuttings are taken during rainy season in South India.

Fig can also be propagated by air layering, shield or patch budding and side grafting. Focus
glomeration rootstock offers resistance to root knot nematode.

A spacing of 5-7 M is recommended depending upon the fertility status of the soil for maximum
yield. Planting season varies from place to place viz., South India – August – September, Western
India – June – July, North India – January – February.

After cultivation
To keep the trees more productive and to facilitate inter cultivation operations, the fig trees are
trained to a desired height and shape. The fig tree bears tow crops in a year, the first crop on the

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wood of previous season and the second crop on new wood of current season. Pruning is necessary
to induce growth of flower bearing wood. The time and amount of pruning are adjusted according
to the growth habit and bearing capacity of the tree. Notchin stimulates production of laterals on
vigorous upright branches.

Manuring and irrigation

Fig responds well to manuring. A quantity of 20kg of FYM, 500-600g N and 350-400g P2 O5 per
year per tree can be recommended. Since it is a drought tolerant crop is is mostly grown as rainfed
crop. However, irrigation helps to increase the yield. During summer, the crop can be irrigated
once in 10-12 days. Frequent irrigation leding to excess soil moisture will cause splitting of fruits.
It should be borne in mind that during fruit ripening, the plants should not be given any irrigation
because it will result in insipid fruits viz., fruits with bland taste.

Plant protections:
Insect pests:
Leaf feeders : Glyphodes sp
Hypsa ficus
Phycodes radiata
Borers : Olenecamptusbilobus
Thrips : Gigantothrips elegans.
Fig Fly (Lonchaea aristella)
If warranted, these pests can be controlled by spraying endosulfan @2.5ml/lit. which is safer to
Blastophaga especially when the caprifigs are interplanted for pollination.

DISEASES:
Rust:
It is caused by Cerotolium fici Small, round brownish to black eruptive lesions occur on the
leaves. The rust causes heavy defoliation of leaves. It can be controlled by dusting with sulphur.

Fruitset, harvest and storage:

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It has been observed even in common fig or Adriatic fig, the phenomenon of parthenocarpy is
altered by climatic condition of a particular location. Hence there is a possibility of failure of
furitset by a particular variety in a particular location. The parthenocarpic fruitset can be enhanced
by spraying 25 ppm of NAA or IBA on the flowers. For Smyrna figs, inter planting of Capri figs
should be done for effective fruitset.

The fruits should be picked when they are soft and wilt at the neck. If the fruits are picked before
proper maturity, milky latex exudes.

Fresh figs are highly perishable. Slightly immature fruits are to be harvested for transporting to
distant markets. Ripe fruits are picked either form the tree by twisting the necvk at eh stem end
or by cutting it or gathered after thy drop. The harvesting season is mid February to June. Yield
ranges from 180 to 360 fruits per tree.

Fully ripe fresh figs can be kept only for about a week at 0oC with a 90 per cent relative humidity.
To preserve in a dried state, first the fig fruits are soaked in boiling saltwater for half a minute and
subjected to sundrying for a few hours. Then they are dried under shade for 8 days and stored in
polythene containers. Another from of preservation of fig is drying in an electric drier at 70 –
72oC with prior sulphur fumigation.
LEC. 25 LITCHI - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT
AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS,
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

LITCHI (OR) LYCHEE

It is a native fruit of warm subtropic zone of China having juice of excellent quality. The fruits
are a rich source of sugar (6-20%), protein 0.7% abd faurkt rucg ub fat (0.3%), minerals like
calcium (10mg) phosphorus (35mg) and vitamins like vitamin C (64mg), vitamin B1 (0..2mg), B2
(0.03 mg and B3 (0.1 mg) per 100g. The fruits can be canned, made into squash, pickles, and
wine or dried to form litchi nut. The tree is a medium large evergreen one with more branches.
The fruits are borne in bunches. Each fruit is a one seeded nut, the pericarp is the skin, which has
papillate projection like strawberry. The fleshy aril surrounding the seed is the edible portion,

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which separates easily from seed and skin. China, Taiwan, Thailand, India, South Africa,
Australia and Madagascar are the main litchi growing countries.

Climatic and soil requirements:

A warm subtropical climate is ideal for the growth and flowering in litchi. The winter should be
cool as well as dry and devoid of frost (minimum temperature 150C). This should be followed by
fairly long hot (16-22oC) climate with light rainfall during flowering and then by high temperature
during fruitset (18-24o) with medium humidity. During harvest the temperature should be around
24-28oC with bright sunlight and high relative humidity. During new flush, the temperature should
be 28-30oC with high RH and heavy rainfall. An alluvial soil with good drainage and easy access
to the water table is the best for the growth of litchi. The plants have a low ability to transport
water from roots to leaves. The soil pH should be around 5.5.
CULTIVARS:
Haak Yip:
The fruit is heart shaped each weighing 20-22g, skin is thin, soft and purplish red. Flesh has an
excellent aroma and is sweet in taste. It separates easily from flesh. It is the commercial cultivar
of Thailand, Taiwan and China.

Taiso:
The fruits are eggshaped each weighing 22-26g, bright red skin changing to dull red at maturity,
flesh is sweet. It is the commercial cultivar of Australia, Queensland and South Africa (Where it
is known as Mauritius).

Waichee:
Fruit are small (16-18g) round with deep red skin. It possesses soft flesh with abundant sweet
juice. It is cultivated in China and Australia.

Rose secented:
Fruits are oblong conical with deep rose pink skin, pulp grayish white. The aril has a delicate
rosy flavour. It is an important cultivar of India.

Muzaffarput:
The fruits are deep orange to pink with medium juicy sweet pulp. It is grown in India.
Bombai:

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Fruit is heart shaped, 15-20g in weight usually with another under-developed fruit attached to
stalk. Tubercles are carmine red with uranium green interspace. It is an important commercial
cultiver of West Bengal.

China:
Fruits are globose with a blend of nasturtium red and marigold orange. Fruits are large, 25-27g
having a sweet flesh with good juice and pleasant aroma. It is also one of the important cultivars
of India.

Propagation and planting

To avoid the high variability and long juvenile period, seed propagation is not recommended.
Semihard and hard wood cuttings of 15-20cm length which were previously ringed while attached
to mother plant and then treated with 10000 ppm of IBA and Ferulic acid will root easily. Air
layering done during spring and early summer season is commercially used.
Stooling, apical grafting, approach grafting, approach grafting and shield budding are other
methods of propagation.

The land should be prepared thoroughly by ploughing and leveling. A windbreak should be
established around the litchi orchard using eucaluptus, casuarinas, jamun preferably before one
year of establishment of litchi orchard.

Pits of 1 M x M 1M x1 M are dug, allowed for a week, filled with 25kg FYM +2 kg of bone meal
and 300g of muriate of potash +1 basket of soil from litchi orchard containing mycorrhizal fungi.,
The spacing recommended is 10 M x 10 M . If the soil is not fertile and the climate is
comparatively dry, the spacing can be reduced to 8 M x 8 M. The young plants should be staked.

Irrigation and manuring:

Frequent irrigation is necessary so as to maintain the adequate soil moisture for proper
establishment of young plans. If there is moisture stress the plants will not establish. Manurial
requirement of lithchi is as follows.

Tree’s age
N (g) P (g) K (g/tree)
(Years)

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1 75 25 75

2 100 25 100

3 150 50 150

4 250 75 250

5 250 75 250

6 years & above 600 200 250

For bearing trees also there should not be any moisture stress in soil.

Training and interculture:

Branches with narrow crotches should be removed. Terminal buds in long branching cultivars
should be removed to encourage branching. However intensive removal of vegetative growth
should be avoided as otherwise it will delay the next season flowering. Sorghum stubble, wheat
straw, groundnut shells can be used as mulch to conserve soil moisture.

Plant protection:
The bark feeder (Indarbela tertronis) can be controlled by plugging the holes after application of
carbondisulphide or formalin. Leaf rollers can be controlled by an insecticide like Nuvan which
has fumigant action also. Red rust can be controlled by spraying lime – sulphur 3 times during
autumn and 3 times during spring.

Leaf galls, caused by eriophid mite Aceria litchi is a common problem. This cab be reduced by
pruning and spraying of conventional (or) new avermectin compounds viz., spinosyn, emanectin,
spiromesifen etc.

Flowering, harvest and yield:

Litchi trees vegetatively propagated come to flower at the age fo 3 –5 years. The new flush arising
in spring end in inflorescence. Fruits are harvested after full maturity and ripening on the tree
itself. Fruits are harvested as bunches, precooled and then stored at 0oC to 1oC.

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LEC .26 AVOCADO - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, RACES, VARIETIES,

FLOWERING BEHAVIOUR, NUTRIENT AND WATER
MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS,
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

AVOCADO
Avocado, one of the most nutritive fruits, has orighinated in Central America. Avocado is now
grown in most of the tropical and subtropical countries. The pulp of Avocado the so called butter
fruit, has a buttery consistency and the fruit has very high fat content (26.4 g /100g).

As the sugar content is low, it can be recommended as a high energy food for diabetics.
Climatic and soil requirements:
Avocado trees of the West Indian race perform well in humid tropical climate, but the other two
races viz., Mexican and Guatemalan fail to flower or set fruit in the tropics. On the other hand,
the West Indian race sets little or no fruit in subntropical climte. In between Mexican and
Guatemalan races, the Mexican race alone survives in regions where minimum winter
temperatures goes to – 0.5oC to 3.5oC. If proper race and cultivars are chosen, avocadoes can
thrive and produce a good crop in climatic conditions ranging from true tropical to warmer parts
of the temperate zone.

Though avocadoes can be grown successfully in varying soil conditions, they are extremely
sensitive to poor drainage and saline conditions. They will be happy in soils with pH ranging from
5-7.

Mexican Race:
This group is characterized by small fruits weighing less than 250 g and ripening in 6-8 months
after flowering. Oil content of the fruit is 30 per cent, the highest of all the three races.

Guatemalan Race:
Fruits are fairly large each weighing upto 600g and ripen in 9-12 months after flowering.
Oil content ranges from 8 – 15%.

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West Indian Race:

The fruits are medium sized and ripen in 9 months after flowering. The oil content of fruit is low,
ranging from 3 – 10%.

CULTIVARS
Fuerte:
It is the most popular cultivar of avocado. It is a hybrid of the Mexican and Guatemalan races.
Fruits are pyrifrom, each weighing between 225 and 450 g having 18 to 26 per cent oil. It is fairly
resistant to cold, better suited to subtropics than tropical climate. It belongs to groupB.

Hass:
It originated as a seedling from the Guatemalan race. It matures much earlier than Fuerte. Fruits
are medium sized, roundish and turn purple on ripening. This is also more suitable to subtropical
climate. It belongs to group –A.

Pollock:
A West Indian race bears large fruit that weights upto 1 kg or more having an oil content of 3-5
per cent suited to be grown in a tropical climate.

Purple:
It belongs to the West Indian race. Fruits are pear-shaped, skin is deep crimson or maroon in
colour. Suited to humid tropics.

Green:
This belongs to the Guatemalan race. Fruits are large, oval, with yellowish green skin. It is suited
to subtropical climate.

TKD 1:
Developed at Horticultural Research Station, Thadiyankudisai of TNAU, Tamilnadu. The fruits
are medium sized and round. Trees upright and semispreading hence suited for high density
planting. Yield 264kg / tree. Fruits are sweet TSS8o brix, fat 23.8%, protein 1.35%.

Propagation and planting:

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Avocado is normally propagated by seeds. The viability period of avocado seed is very short (2-
3 weeks), and can be improved by storing the seed in peat or sand at 5oC. Removal of the seed
coat before sowing helps to speed up the germination. The seed can also be split lengthwise into
4-6 parts, leaving a piece of embryo on each.

Avocado can also be propagated vegetatively by cutting and grafting. The Mexican race is
relatively easy rooting whereas, the West Indian race is relatively easy rooting whereas, the West
Indian race is quite difficult to root. The Guatemalan race is intermediate in rooting ability of
cuttings. Cleft, whip and tongue and whip grafting are the most successful methods.

The normal planting distance for avocado is 6-12 M depending on the vigour of the
cultivar.

Manurings:
Avocado requires heavy fertilization. Application of nitrogen is the most essential. Nitrogen
deficiency causes restricted growth, with reduced, pale coloured leaves and smaller fruits. An
average crop of avocado removes 40 kg N, 25kg P2O5, 60 kg K2O, 11.2 kg Ca O and 9.2 kg
MgO/ha from the soil. Therefore, to maintain the soil fertility for getting consistent yields, it
becomes necessary to replenish these nutrients.

Problems in fruitset:
Avocado starts bearing at 5-6 years after planting and has a marked tendency to biennial bearing
which is prevalent in a number of other fruit trees. But there is specific problem in fruitset as far
as avocado concerned.

In avocado, the inflorescence is a compound panicle. The individual flowers are morphologically
bisexual having fertile male and female organs. But they exhibit dichogamy viz., the male and
female organs coming to maturity at different time thereby avoiding selfpollination of an
individual flower. In dichogamy, they are protogynous viz., the female parts coming to maturity
before male organs. The type of dichogamy in avocado is a complicated one unique to avocado-
the diurnally synchronous dichogamy. The female parts of all flowers that open at a time in a
particular tree will mature simultaneously and hence behave functionally as female flower. The
male parts of same flowers will come to maturity when the flowers open next time and hence all
of them behave as male flowers during that period. By this the cross pollination between flowers

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of the same tree are also ruled out. The situation is further worsened by the fact that all the trees
of a particular group will be exhibiting the same sex phase at a particular time and the opposite
sex phase during the next opening of the same flower. So if the trees of single group are planting
in mass, they will not set fruit and each group requires inter planting of trees of mother group, the
two groups being compatible with one another.

Based on this unique flower behaviour, avocado cultivars can be divided into two groups A & B.
In group A, first opening takes place in the morning, second opening during the afternoon of the
following day. In group B, first they open in the afternoon then agin next morning. Therefore,
every morning A-pistils can be fertilized by B-pollen, while during afternoon B-pistils are ready
to receive A-POLLEN.

Honey bees are the chief pollinating agents.

Interculture and weed management:
Deep cultivation in avocado orchards should be avoided because of surface roots. Intercropping
with legumes or shallow-rooted crops can be done in young orchards which can smoother weeds
also.

Avocado trees are pruned sparingly mainly by heading back the central shoot in upright growing
cultivars such as Pollock, to develop a spreading habit. Branches are thinned and shortened in
spreading cultivars like Fuerte.

Plant protections:
Pests:
Mites, mealy bugs, scales are the important insect pests of avocado. Spraying of systemic
insecticides will effectively check these pests.

Fruitspot:
It is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosprotioides. Infection results in shedding of young fruits.
Ramaining fruits become deformed. This can be controlled by spraying of IndofilM.45@2g/lit .
Controlled atmospheric storage of fruits in 2% O2 at 7.2oC for 3-4 weeks will prevent the
development of the fungus in storage.

Root rot:
Root of avocado is caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Soil drenching of Ridomil

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(1gai/10 lit) controls root rot.
Harvest and storage:
Fruits should be cut from the tree using hand clipper or a long pole equipped with a clipper and
cloth catching bag. Average yield is about 100-500 fruits per tree.

Avocado fruit does not soften while on the tree, but does only after it is picked. The matured
avocado fruit ripen in 6-12 days at 20oC.

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LEC. 27 DURIAN AND CARAMBOLA - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING,
VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL
CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS,
PESTS AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

DURIAN
[Durio zibethinus Bombacaceae]

Native to Borneo, an Island in the Malaysian region. It is tall evergreen tree of humid tropics with
ovoid oblong fruits, each weighing 2-5 kg characterized by trough fibrous rind covered with
greenish, coarse, sharp, pointed, short spines. The edible portion inside the fruit is buttery with
yellowish while pulp with very strong odour. People have strong like or dislike for this fruit. Many
like it, because if its sweet, delicious and filling taste, while others dislike it for its highly
objectionable odour. The penetrating odour is comparable to that of rotten onion and is
unacceptable to many. The chemicals that are responsible for the flavour are hydrogen sulphide,
ethyl hydrosulphide and dialkyl polysulphide.

100 g of edible portion  28.8 g CHO

2.5 g protein
2.5 g fat
20 mg Ca
63 mg P
37 mg Vitamin C
Indonesia, Philippines, India, Thailand, Myanmar and South China.

The fruits are believed to have aphrodosiacal qualities. Root decoction is used to cure fever and
leaves for curing jaundice.

Cultivars :
Frog, Gibbon, Longstem, Deception. Cha-Nee, Golden Pillow are important varieties of
durian.

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Climate and soil requirements :
Perform well in areas with high humidity and high temperature, frequent showers and low wind
velocity Annual Rainfall 200 cm, but heavy rains prior to flower initiation affect normal
flowering. The trees cannot tolerate temperature below 8°C. Deep fertile soil or clay loam heavy
good drainage and organic matter are the best suited. Salt in soil or water will result in fruit drop.

Propagation and planting :

Vegetative propagation by patch budding on seedling rootstock is recommended. Seeds should
be sown immediately after extraction from fruit as they loose viability very rapidly. Though
propagation through cuttings is easy, not recommended as the adventitious root system will be
insufficient to bear such tall stem. Plants of atleast 2 cultivars have to be planted for effect
pollination. Spacing is 10-12 m.

Pruning :
The tree usually takes pyramidal shape by itself. However, after harvesting the tree can be cleared
off dried and old twigs.

Manuring :
It needs manuring at early stages of crop growth. Upto 7 years absorption of nutrients and
retention on the vegetative part is more –

20 kg Nitrogen, 5 kg Phosphorus and 10 kg K/ha Potassium can be applied during 3 rd year and
can be increased to 40 kg, 10 kg and 20 kg of NPK during 7th year. Beyond 7 years.

Only very little quantity can be applied.

Plant protection :
Hawk moth is serious problem, larvae feed on leaves, soil incorporation of Lindane 1.3 D and
creation of light traps recommendation, harvest, yield and post harvest management. Grafts
produce crop in 4-5 years, seedlings take 10 years. Fruiting available 2 times / year. Durian has
cauliflorous flowering in older branches. Self incompatibility noticed in Durian.

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Yield – 100 fruits/year. Harvesting done when the fruits are smooth, flat with far – apart spines.
Ripe fruits last for 4 days under refrigeration, while mature fruits can be stored upto 14 days at
10-15°C.

CARAMBOLA

Carambola is a warm tropical and subtropical fruit with five star shaped projections and having
juice with characteristic acidic taste. It is also known as five corner fruit or five edge fruit. The
juice content is about 60 – 70%. The acidity is mainly due to oxalic acid and malic acid. One
hundred gram of fruit contains 3.5 – 11.0 g sugar, 0.75 g protein, 560 IU of vitamin A. The
probable origin of carambols is Malaysia or Indonesia. Besides consumed as dessert fruit,
carambola can also be served as juice, jam, jelly and pickle. The star shaped cross section slices
of fruit can be used in fruit-salad and to decorate cakes. A close relative of carambola is Bilimbi
(Averrhoa bilimbi) which produces more acidic fruits.

Climatic and soil requirements:

Carambola loves a warm, humid condition with long hours of sunshine. Though it can be grown
in a wider range of soils viz., right from sand to heavy clay loam, it will be at its best on well
drained deep clay loam with a pH of 5.2 to 6.2.

CULTIVARS:
Golden Star:
Developed by Florida, Queensland, Singapore, Taiwan and Japan. The wing edges are slightly
rounded. Fruits are golden yellow, crisp each weighting 90m- 200 g.

B1:
Developed at Malaysia having lemon yellow fruit which are crisp each weighing 100-300 g. The
edges are rounded.

B6:
Another variety developed at Malaysia with orange fruits. The edges are slightly rounded.

Maha:
Commonly grown in Florida. Fruits pale lemon yellow each weighing 100-200g. Besides this a
number of varieties like Thai kinight, wheeler F wang Tung are grown in Florida. In Australia a
number of local selections like Jungle Gold. Chujuba, Giant Siam are being cultivated.

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Propagation and Planting:
Approach grafting, wedge grafting and airlayering of one year old terminal shoots (treated with
IBNA 10,000 ppm at the time of layering) are the common methods of vegetative propagation
recommended. The plants can be planted in pits of size 1 M x 1 M x 1 M dug at a spacing of 8 M
x 6 M.

Irrigation, pruning and manuring:

Caramnola is very sensitive to water stress. It demands very high quantity of water (2000 lit /
week/tree/in maximum demanding months). Mulching the tree basin will jelp to prevent moisture
stress. In young trees 4-6 wide – crotch angled branches are allowed. Low hanging criss – cross
branches should be pruned one year after planting. Each tree is applied 40 g N, 10g P and 70 g K
in 4 equal splits during April, June, September and January. Every year it can be increased in the
same ratio to reach 600 g N, 120 g P and 1000 g K/ tree at 8th year.

Plant protections:
Fruit borer can be controlled by spraying chlorpyriphos 1 ml/lit. To control fruit sucking moth,
enclosing the fruits with mesh less than 10 mm is recommended. Cercospora leaf spot can be
controlled by Indofil M. 45@ 2g/lit.

Flowering, harvest and yied:

In India flowering is seen in three flushes April – May, July – August and September –
October and fruits are harvested in July – September, November – December and January –
February. Grafted trees start bearing 3 year after planting. The yield ranges from 200 – 300 kg /
tree from 7-8 years onwards. Even at 21oC, carambola fruits can be stored for two weeks.

LEC .28 RAMBUTAN AND LONGAN - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING,

VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL
CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS,
PESTS AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

RAMBUTAN
[Nephelium lappaceum] Family : Sapindaceae

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Rambutan is called “hairy litchi” as the fruits have red soft spines on the surface. The white
translucent, sub arid – seet flavoured aril is the edible flesh of the fruit. Its appearance differs from
the litchi by having red and soft spines (hairs) covering the whole surface of the fruit.

Origin :
Malay archipelago, from there it has spread to South East Asia, Central America and Africa.
RAmbutan growing countries are Thailand, Myammar, Sri Lanka, India.

100 g fruit contains 14.5 CHO

0.9 g protein
0.1 g fat
31 mg/100 g Vitamin C.
TSS : 14.9 – 21.2%

Uses :
Rambutan mainly serves as fresh fruit or a dessert mixed with other fruits or used for canning or
made in to fruit syrup. The oil of seed is used for soap making. The root has medicinal uses while
the tannin it contains is used for dyes. The whole tree with its beautiful leaves, flowers and
colourful fruits also serves as an environmental tree in landscape.

Tree is large, round-topped, much branched every green tree reaching upto 15 m or more in height.
Fruits are one-seeded, large, ovoid in shape, 10-12 fruits are borne in clusters. Fruits are 3.5 – 8
cm long, 2-3.5 cm wide, soft, with curved spines weighting 14.3-43.7 g.
The soft curved spines (hairs) covering allt he pericarp may be red or yellow in colour.
Inside the fruit, a big seed is surrounded by pearl-while aril/flush) which is fixing, subacid-sweet
in flavour but the taste is rather flat or insipid as compared with the sweeter litchi.

Climate and soil

It is a high-temperature bring plant. A warm humid tropical climate would be ideal. Mean
minimum temperature 23°F. Mini temperature should not be below. 13-15°C, it comes well under
humid condition. It requires 2000-2800 mm annual rainfall which should be evenly distributed
over the year.

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A rich sandy or clay loam with high organic matter and good drainage will be ideal for the growth
and flowering. When reference is insufficient, the land should be irrigated in time to provide
sufficient moisture to the soil.

Cultivars :
Rohug-Rian – Thailand cv.
Oval bright red fruits spines are red which green tip. The aril is juicy, tough and sweet.
Seematjan
Fruits deep red with soft curved spines.
BR.1 (Boting Rambutan No.7)
Fruits are big (30g), ovate, red etc. spines are fine and dense. Aril is juicy, crisp and sweet.

New cv. Developed in China.

Propagation :
Seed :
Dioecious tree, about 1/3rd of the total number of the progeny become male plants.
Seed propagation not recommended as seedlings are very variables and may produce low quality
infirm fruits. Used only for raising seedling rootstock for grafting seeds are sown immediately
when taken out from fleshy fruits because they loose viability within a few days, if left day.

Vegetative propagation :
Patch or forkert budding on 1-2 year old seeding rootstock is recommended.
Air-layering is another method.
Planting :
Spacing given for planting 10 m x 7 m
Planting of different cultivars is advised to encourage pollination. Temporary shading of young
plants necessary. Training and pruning :

Modified leader system of training is practiced. Light unusual pruning of crossing branches, dead
and diseased twigs and water shoots are suggested.

Manuring and interculture :

Fertilizer application done similar to litchi.
Mulching can be done to conserve soil moisture. Given manuring cover crops may be grown and
twened into the soil to supply organic matter.

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Flowering :
Rambutan is androdioecious with separate male and hermaphrodite frees. The male is seldom
found since now a days rambutan is planted from budded material. Hermaphrolite trees are often
referred as female because it bears fruits. Flowers are apetalons, greenish white in colour, about 2
m in diameter.

Male flowers :
5-7 stamens, each stamen has a whitish to mentose filament with a yellowish bilobed anther. At
the centre of the file is the abortive ovary which is highly pubescent.

Hermaphrodite flower :
6-7 stamens, but the anthers do not dehisce to release the well developed pollen grains inside.
Functionally it serves as female flowers. Ovary is two or three-lobed and bears a bifed or trifid
stigma.

Flowers at all the time of the day, but peaks at 6.30 am. Fruits can be harvested 13 weeks after
fruitset.

Some rambutan trees may set a few parthenocarpic fruits which are smaller and somewhat
flattened in form but the aril maintains normal flavour as the one-seeded fruits.

Harvest and yield :

Average yield 25-35 kg/tree/year fruit colour is often used as guide for harvesting.

Storage :
Non-climateric fruit. Fruits can be kept for 4 days at 25-30°C.
Desiccation, loss of red colour, browning and drying of spintern fleshy pliable spines) are the
principal causes of deterioration.

Storage of fruit in sealed polyethylene bags at 12°C retarded skin colour loss and extended shelf
life (18 days).

Plant protection
 Litchi stink bug, bark borer, fruit weevil, leaf roller are major pests.

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 Downy mildew, anthracnose are the diseases.
 Both can be controlled by application of pesticides and fungicides whenever necessary.

LONGAN

Longan is a close relative of lychee having similar growth and fruiting habit, but somewhat hardier
than lychee. The fruits are smaller, smooth surfaced with yellow tan to brown colour. It originated
in subtropical region of China or in between Myanmar and India. Fruits contain 25.2%
carbohydrate, 1% protein, 0.5% fat, vitamin A (28 1U/100G) and vitamin C.

Climatic and soil requirements:

Longan requires a warm subtropical climate with high rainfall. The winter should be short and
frost free. The summer should be long, hot, humid and wet. The best temperature for flowering
and fruitset is 20 to 25%C. Temperature above 40oC will cause damage to fruit resulting in fruit
drop. A deep well drained fertile soil with pH 5.5 to 6.0 with low salinity will be ideal for its
growth.

CULTIVARS:
Fu yan: (Lucky Eye)
It is the major cultivar of fujian province of China. Fruits are large (18g), thin skin, crisp flesh
and small seed. It is the best variety for canning.

Wu long line: (Black Dragon peak)

Medium sized fruits (15g) with thick skin, good flesh having sweet flavour.
Wu yuan: (Black Round)
Fruits are medium in size (15g), seed large, flesh soft and juicy.
Daw:
It is the popular cultivar of Thailand. Fruit is large with big seed, thin skin and crisp sweet flesh.

Propagation and plantings

Longan cultivars have to be propagated by air layering or marcotting the most recently flushed
growth with maximum maturity at about 45-60 cm from the tip. Land preparation has to be done
3 to 6 months ahead of planting. Water ways (grassed) to carry run off water, and formation of

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terraces especially in slopes and mounds of 0.5 M to help drainage have to be formed. A planting
distance of 6 M x 6 M can be allowed in hdp system. Plants should be planted in pits of 1 M x 1
M x 1 M size.

Training, pruning, irrigation and manuring:

Early growth is to be encouraged so as to get a good tree size and canopy within 3-4 years.
Frequent irrigation and regular application of nutrients will help this. Organic manures like
poultry manure should be supplemented with fertilizers like Urea. The trees can be trained to
height of 2M and 3-4 vigorous young growth with wide crothes are allowed to form main frame
work. Each lateral can be allowed to have w secondaries. The trees should be trained to get food
light penetration through the canopy. Each tree should be earthed up to make mound (a height of
0.8 – 1.0M). Irrigation is given to encourage bud burst. Before flower emergence it should be
withheld. Again irrigation is to be continued from panicle emergence, flowering, fruit set, harvest
and post harvest flushing. Aagin when the tree undergoes a rest period, irrigation ahuld be stopped.
Just like irrigation, the fetilizer appliation should also be done 3 –4 times during the different
growth periods in a year. For a five year old tree 625gN, 150g P and 800 g K have to be applied
and increased by 20% every year till 10th year.

Interculture:
Alternate bearing is a common phenomenon. In an „on‟ year, 40% of the flower spikes and 30%
of young fruits can be thinned. In an „off‟ year, a portion of th eshoots produced is spring should
be thinned to reduce the competition between shoots and fruits.

Plant protections:
Fruitfyl (Bactrocera dorsalis) is a serious pest, which can be controlled by any safe insecticide like
malathion. (Refer Mango section for details).

Harvest and yield:

Longan fruits are harvested after full maturity and ripening. A fully matured tree yields 100 –
120 kg /year. The fruits can be stored for 4-6 weeks at 5oC.

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LEC .29 APPLE - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, HIGH DENSITY
PLANTING, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT

APPLE
Malus pumila
[Syn: M. commumis , Pyrus malus ; Family : Rosaceae]

‘An apple a day keeps the doctor away’. This is the old proverb which significe the nutritive
importance of apple in human diet. Apple is a rich source of easily assimilable carbohydrate
(13.4%) and it is also fairly rich in calcium (10mg/100g), phosphorus (14 mg/100g), and potassium
(120mg/100g). it supplies vitamin B and C. apple has been under cultivation since time
immemorial and today more than 80% of the world’s supply is produced in Europe where the
major producers are Italy, France, and Germany. Other countries which also produce apple are
Hungary, USA, N.C.America, China, Old USSR, India, Spain, Switzerland, Iran and South
America.

Climatic and soil requirements

Apple is essentially a temperate crop and grown in temperate region of the world. Under
subtropical zone at an altitude of 1600 – 2500 M above MSL also, apple can be grown. Very low
temperature during the bud rest favours better crop production. The typical temperate types require
1000 hours of uninterrupted chilling below 7o C for winter rest. After the bud break, during the
growth, long day hours with high light intensity, warm days (not hot days) viz., 12 – 15o C and
cool nights (not freezing nights) viz., 7 – 8o C are favourable for production of quality fruits in
large quantities. The freezing soil temperature can kill the trees. A well drained, slightly acidic
(pH 6.5 – 6.7) loamy soil with good depth (45cm or more) is considered to be ideal for apple
culture.

Propagation
Apple varieties are propagated by whip and tongue method of grafting. The root-stocks are either
related species such as Malus sylvestris (crap apple), M. prunifolia, M. sikkimensis or their hybrid
derivatives or seedling progenies of cultivated varieties. The main aims in developing rootstocks

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are either to dwarf the trees, or to have resistance to below freezing soil temperature or high soil
temperature, to wooly aphid, root knot nematodes etc. The East Malling Research Station in
England developed Malling Stocks (M). John Innes Horticultural Institute, Jointly Merton and
East Malling Research Station jointly developed rootstocks (MM) which, are clonally propagated
by either cutting or stooling. Some of the important rootstocks developed for specific purposes are
as follows:

M9, M – 27 : Dwarfing
M7, MM-106 : Tolerant to below freezing (-40o C to – 35o C) resistant to wooly aphids.
Northern spy : Resistant to wooly aphids (Eriosoma lanigera).
Robusta-5 : Developed at Ottawa. Canada as a selection of Malus robusta – Resistant to
wooly aphid. Other rootstocks used are Merton 779, 793.

Varieties
In India at himachal Pradesh, varieties like king of Pippins, McIntosh, Golden Delicious,
Red Gold, Starking Delicious, Yellow Newton and Granny Smith are grown. In Jammu and
Kashmir, Irish Peach, Cox Orange Pippin, Kerry Pippin, Ambri, Lal Cider, Golden Delicious, Lal
Ambri, Red Delicious, Sunehari and Razakwar are important varieties under cultivation. In utter
Pradesh and Fanny, Cortland, Early Shanburry, Golden Delicious, McIntosh, Red Delicious and
Buckingham are important varieties.

In the hills of tropical region where warm winter conditions exist, Parlin’s Bearty and Tropical
Beauty have been judged as the best performers. They require only less chilling for bud break and
flowering. Red Delicious

It is a midseason variety. Widely grown cultivar throughout the world. Evolved as a chance
seedling in Iowa, USA. Fruits are large, oblong conical with 5knob like projections at calyx end.
Smooth skin covered with red streaks on a plain background. Flesh creamy white, tender, crisp,
fine grained, sweet and highly aromatic. A number of strains like Starking Delicious (Royal
Delicious), Ruby Red, Red Spur, Red Chief, Richard Delicious have been developed from this
cultivar.

Jonathan
It is also a mid season variety, fruits are round to conical in shape medium to small in size and
reddish in colour.

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Golden Delicious
It is a late variety with moderate vigour. Fruit medium to large, oblong, skin golden yellow
with russetted prominent small dots scattered all over. Flesh creamy white, firm, crisp, sweet with
a blend of acidity. It is a good pollinizer for all Delicious group.

McIntosh
It is a mid season variety. Trees are vigorous. Fruits are medium in size, oblate round, skin
smooth, shining carmine colour on pale green background. Flesh White, develops red shade after
storage, tender, crisp, sweet with a good acid blend, juicy and mild flavoured. But this cultivar is
scab susceptible.

Bramely Seedling
It is an English cooking apple ideal for stewing especially baking. Skin deep green, waxy
sometimes with a slight orange red blush. Jona gold

(Triploid) Golden Delicious x Jonathan. Developed in New York. Fruits large with
attractive red strips and have good storage life.

New Jona Gold

A virus free clone of Jona Gold at Japan with super grade having high red colour intensity.

Kent
A hybrid between (Diplod) Cox and Jonathan. Late maturing variety; fruit slightly conical with
dark red colour on a green background. For this, Golden Delicious and Sparten are good
pollinizers.

Chaubattia Anupam
Developed at Chaubattia from a cross Early Shanburry x Red Delicious. Fruits medium in size,
skin smooth, thin shining yellow almost entirely flushed are striped red; flesh is firm, crisp, creamy
white, juicy, sweet with distinctive aroma.
Shamrock
A cross between irradiated McIndosh x Starkspur strain of Golden Delicious. It is green
apple identical in appearance and taste with Granny Smith but matures six weeks earlier.

Romus-2

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Released from Romania, resistant to scab. Early maturing (mid july onwards). Fruits are
medium sized (120g) red in colour with good flavour.

Kodaikanal-1
A clonal selection made from Parlin’s Beauty at Horticultural Research Station,
Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu. Adapted very well to warm winter conditions prevailing in South
Indian Hills. Fruits is medium weighing 150g, global in shape with crisp flesh which is moderately
juice. Fully rips fruits are attractive yellow in colour with crimson drop.

Applethrope Summerdel
Cross between Delicious x Earliblaze, fruits medium in size 6.5 – 7.5 cm dia. Globose to
flat globose. Flesh creamy white to yellow, medium coarse texture, firm, juicy and sweet.

Developed at Granite Belt Horticultural Research Station, Queensland, Australia.

Richelien Apple
Developed at Canada Agricultural Research Station by a multiple cross involving Melba,
McIntosh, Jonathan, Rome Beauty and Malus floribunda. Even after full ripening, it hangs on the
tree for 10 days without loosing its firmness. It has good flavour.

Freedom
Developed at New York. Highly resistant to scab. Fruit is large in size and oblate in shape
with firm moderately coarse flesh.

Planting
Pits of size 60 x 60 x 60 cm are dug at a spacing of 5 M x 5M. For effective fruit set (since
self incompatibility exists in most cultivars) pollinating varieties are interplanted. Usually one in
six or one in nine plants is used as pollenizer in self-unfruitful varieties. In intensive system,
planting is done at 4M X 2.5 M or less. A complete row of pollenizer is used for every two rows
of main variety.

High Density Planting (HDP) and Medium Density Planting (MDP)

For this dwarfing rootstocks like M9,M4,MM106 and M26 have to be used. The grafts are
planted at a close spacing of 2M X 1M, so that 5000 plants/ha. Are accommodated. But in
comparison with M. D. P. where in the total number of plants accommodated was 1666 trees/ha

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(3 M X 2 M), the H. D. P. did not give much yield. An additional yield of 50% more than HDP
can be obtained from MDP. The fruit colour and quality also better in MDP than HDP.

Training and pruning

Training is done to give a desired shape as well as to get a canopy for intercepting
maximum sunlight so that all the portions of the tree get sunlight and become productive. The trees
are trained as central leader, open centre, modified leader, cordon, dwarf pyramid, espalier, tatura
trellis and Lincoln canopy.

The apple bear fruit buds in a past season growth called spur. In the established spur
system, permanent fruit spurs are obtained on laterals by heading back the leader every year. The
strong erect laterals near the central leader are removed leaving wide angled vigorous laterals for
formation of spurs. In regulated syatems, the crowed weak and shaded branches are removed
leaving leader and strong laterals are grow.

Manures and manuring

Apple trees require all the mineral elements. Depending on the soil type, rootstock, a
quantity of 500g of N, 250g of P, 750g of K/ tree can be applied.

Deficiency of calcium will lead to physiological disorder in apple fruit called ‘bitter pit’ or
‘cork spot’. Bitter pits appear as slight indentation in the skin usually towards the calyx of the
fruit. These areas turn brown and soft dried pits of collapsed tissues develop. In fruits, colour
changes and cracks develop. Spraying 0.5 % calcium chloride during the later development of the
fruit. 4 times at 14 days interval will help to reduce the deficiency symptom.

Boron deficiency also causes internal browning of fruit and corking spots on the flesh
(internal cork) and sometimes as cork tissue in the skin (external cork). Sparying sodium borate
@ 10g/ lit. 3 times during flowering and fruit set will help to correct the disorder.

LEC .30 APPLE - SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL

DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Special cultural operations

The drip or trickle irrigation system has high water use efficiency in apples. It also suits the tree
in hill slopes. Mulching can be done with straw, hay or sawdust and other organic matter. Weed

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control can be achieved by application or herbicide such as Pitezin (Atrazine + Simazine +
Propazine) @ 8 – 10 kg/ha, after weed emergence in 1.5 M band along tree rows. Nearer to
rootzone littering of straw is advised to maintain organic matter and earth warm activity. Since
herbicide can result in a significant reduction of earthworm population.

When there is chilling deficiency , the bud break will be poor. For bud break, application of
Sandolin – A (Dinitro Ortho cresol) at 0.5% in 2% mineral oil emulsion during January is
recommended. After bud break, flowring and petal fall. Alar @ 3000 ppm is applies which will
encourage the duration of flowering.

To prevent fruit drop, AVG (Amino ethoxy Vinyl Glycine) 200 pm is sprayed which can
increase the fruit set to 10 fold when applies between pink and petal fall.

Plant protection
Pests
1. Aphids (Eriosoma lanigerum and Aphis pomi)
Symptoms
They feed on new wood and roots to farm galls. Cold and wet condition favour the development
of this pest.

Management
1. Destruction of eggs before hatching should be done by spraying tar oil or DNOC –
petroleum oil, thoroughly wetting the bark of the tree. Spraying of organophosphorous
insecticides (malathion 0.2%, phosphomidon 0.2% or dimethoate

0.2%) at green cluster stage will be effective.

2. Use wooly aphid resistant rootstocks like Northern spy, Robusta - 5
3. Its main natural enemy, are the parastoid, Aphelinus mali is an important control agent.

2. Blossom thrips (Thrips flavus)

Symptoms
The attacked flowers show withering symptoms, as a result either the fruits do not set or may
fall off in the early stage of development. Heavily infested bloom produces distorted flowers

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that open on one side. Excreta are often deposited near the feeding site, which provides a
suitable site for fungal infection.

Management
Chrysopa sp. And lady-bird beetle ( Coccinella septumpunctata) are the most voracious
predators of thrips.

Pre bloom spray at green tip stage with fenetrothion (-0.05%) reduces the population of thrips.

3. Red spider mites (Panoychus ulmi) symptoms the mites suck sap from the leaves, which
may turn bronze. In severe infestation. the growth of the plant is markedly reduced.

Management
The component of integrated management of red spider mites is the regulation of predators
Typhlodromus pyri and Amblyseius andersoni

Diseases
1. apple scab (Venturia ineequalis) symptoms velvety brown to olive green powdery lesions
which turn mousy black with age, appear on the leaves and lead to premature yellowing of leaves,
defoliation and fruit drop.

Scab spots n fruit results in misshapen and knotty fruits. Fissures or cracks develop in the scabbed
areas which allow the entry of other pathogens, causing rot of fruit.
Management
Spray schedule
Spray
Tree stage Fungicide/ 100lit of water
No.
1. Silver tip to green tip Captafol (300g)/mancozeb (400g/ captan 50 WP
(400g)
2. Pink bud stage Mancozeb (300g)
3. Fruit set (pea stage) Captan 50 WP (300g)
4. Petal fall Thiophanate methyl (50g)/ carbendazim (50g)
5. Fruit set Mancozeb (300g)
6. Repeat fungicide of 5th
spray after 14 days
7. Pre harvest (20 – 25 days Captafol (150g)/ mancozeb (300g)
before)

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2. Powdery mildew (Podossphaera leucotricha) Symptoms whitish powdery growth
develops on both sides of leaves and twigs. The affected leaves are desorted in shape and small in
size; become hard and brittle. The powdery coating on twigs finally disappears and a brown. Felt
– like covering with black fruiting bodies is seen, in case of severe infection, leaf fall and
premature fruit drop may occur. The young infected fruits show signs of rusting.

Management
Destruction of over wintering fungus structures reduction of inoculam by pruning shoots.
Spraying triadimephon (0.05%) or pyrazophos (0.021%).

Harvest and yield

Fully mature when start developing colour can be harvested. The normal yield ranges from 100 –
150 tonnes/ ha in medium density planting.

LEC .31 PEAR - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, VARIETIES, NUTRIENT

AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL CULTURAL OPERATIONS,
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND DISEASES,
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

PEAR

The probable origin of the Pyrus genus is mountainous China. From there it moved to
East and West and in the different ecological conditions, the evolution would have taken place.
Pear is next to apple in the temperate fruits. It is a rich source of carbohydrate as sugars, starch
and cellulose and minerals like calcium (8 mg/100g) phosphorous (15mg/100g) and sulphur
(14mg/100g).

Climatic and soil requirements:

Pear is adapted to a wide range to climatic condition from as low as –26oC (in dormancy) and as
high as 45oC (in growing period). However most of the pear cultivars require about 1200 hours
below 7oC during winter to complete their chilling requirement in order to flower and fruit to a
satisfactory level. However after bud break, at blossoming and fruiting phase, below freezing

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temperature will affect the crop severely. Because of its tolerance to wide range of climate and
soil, it is grown both in temperate and subtropical conditions. In the tropical belt pear can be
grown at an elevation of 1300-2100 M above sea level. Deep, well drained, fertile, medium
textured clayey loam soil is the bet for pears. A neutral pH range of 6.0-7.5 will be ideal. A
minimum soil depth of 180 cm is required. When compared to apple, pear is less tolerant to
drought but more tolerant to wet soils.

VARIETIES:
Pear cultivars can be classified in to 3 groups viz., European types, Asian types and the hybrids
of European and Asian types.

The Asian types (oriental pears) are mainly derived from Pyrus pyrifolia, Pyrus ussuriensis or
their hybrids. The European types are derived from Pyrus communis.

European types (Tail pears)

Bartlett (or) William’s Pear
It is the most popular commercial cultivar throughout the world (except Chin & Japan). It requires
more chilling hours (1500 hrs) for bud break and flowering. The fruit is ovate pyriform, medium
large, green at the time of harvest turning to bright yellow after ripening. Flesh is white, melting,
firm and juicy. It has originated in England. High yielding clones like Bartlett Improved I,
Verona-25, Ferrera have been identified.

Anjou:
Originated in France. It is fairly resistant to very low temperature and fire blight. Large fruit, skin
bright green when harvest and turning to greenish yellow on ripening. Flesh is fine, mildly acidic.
Fruits have high dessert quality and very long keeping quality.

Flemish Beauty:
The trees are bigger with more branches. Fruit is large obovate and smooth. The flesh is pure
white, very juicy free of grit cells. It is a self-fruitful variety. It can also be used a good pollenizing
cultivar.

Max Red Bartlett:

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A bud mutant of Bartlett; plants and fruits resemble parent except that the fruit colour is dark
cranberry red and shoots and leaves have a reddish tinge.

‘Moonglow’ and ‘Magness’ are two fire blight resistant varieties evolved in USA, Flesh is free
from grit cells.

Jorgonelle:
It is an European type with superior quality and adapted to South Indian Hills like Kodaikanal
(warm winter conditions).

Starcrimson:
Trees are medium sized fairly upright and spreading, Fruits medium sized, oblong ovate,
pyriform, dark red change to attractive Crimson red in cold storage. Flesh cream white,
moderately juicy, aromatic, high in TSS, sweet with excellent eating quality.

Early China
Trees are upright and compact. Fruits round, small, greenish with red blush and very attractive.

Asian types and Hybrids (common pears)

Kieffer:
It is well adapted to different climatic conditions and moderately resistant to fire blight.
The fruit is brownish, gritty and hard. It is a self unfruitful variety.
Gola:
It is found to be suitable for lower altitude. Fruits are large, round and possess excellent keeping
quality. Hence it is suitable for long distance transport.

Le Conte:
Suitable for lower aremid hills as its chilling require-ment is low. Fruits are round in shape, small
in size, yellowish green in colour. But it is a blight susceptible variety.

Patharnakh:
This is another low chilling variety. Tolerant to very high temperature and hot winds. It possesses
a peculiar quality combination of drought tolerance as well as tolerance to water logged condition.
Fruits are round with prominent dots. Fruits have tough skin and hence suited for long distance
transport.

Propagation:

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Pears are commercially propagated by shield or ‘T’ budding and also by whip and tongue
grafting.

The root-stocks are raised from the seeds of commercial pear varieties. A number of F1 hybrids
of Pyrus communis such as Old Home x Farmingdale are multiplied clonally and used as rootstock.
Quince (Cydonia oblonga) is another related genus which shows very good compatibility with a
number of commercial cultivars and it is resistant to wooly aphids, nematodes but susceptible to
Oak rooto fungus, fire blight, cold and excess of lime in soil. Quince clones are easily propagated
by semihardwood and softwood cuttings. Some of the commercially used clones of quince are
QA, QB, QC. But commercial cultivars of pear like pear

Bartlett, Bosc, Eldorado need ‘Old Home’ as interstock as they don’t have compatibility with
Quince.

The chilled scions of Doyenne du comice grafted at 1.0 m height on 1.0m long shoots of Pant pear
–18 stock found to be the best for higher fruit yield and quality.

Preparation of Field and planting:

One year ahead of planting, the field should be prepared by removing stems and roots of previous
trees and shrubs, leveled giving a gentle slope for drainage of excess water during heavy rains.

For a crop on its own rootstock (pear), an initial spacing of3 Mx2 M is given which is changed to
6 M x 4M after 4-5 years. For pear on Quince, a planting distance of 3.5 M x 1.1 M is enough
since quince he has the effect of dwarfing the trees.

The pit size should be 1M x 1M x 1M and the pits are filled with a mixture of soil and compost.
The planting can be taken up during late fall or early spring. Immediately after planting the basin
should be formed and irrigated.

Training and pruning:

Pears are trained in a number of systems like pine shaped, pyramid, spindle, palmette and
trellis. Among these, palette system and tatura trellis are found to be commercially superior. In
tature trellis, the rows are oriented North-South. Each tree is topped to develop two arms to from
‘Y’ shape in East – West direction within 50o-600 crotch angle. Tensioned wires on steel frames

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support the arms to a height of 4-5 M and the branches on each arm are trained on each arm are
trained on these trellises.

Bearings trees are pruned by combining heading back and thinning out. Pear bears fruit bud on
spurs arising on two year old wood and a spur continues to bear for more than six years.

Manures and manuring:

An optimum dose of major nutrients is 600g N, 150 g P and 300g K er tree to get the maximum
yield. Normally in pears, the response to P and K can be seen only in soils of low availability of
P&K. At higher altitudes where soil pH will be less than7, the ‘P’ will not be available. Similarly,
when the soil pH is more than 7 (alkaline condition) too, the ‘P’ availability will be less. Under
these conditions, application of additional ‘P’ will increase the yield. Nitrogen @60g/tree in two
splits (2/3rd in January and 1/3rd in May) along with a basal dressing of 40g each of phosphorus
and potash was potash was found the best in Bagugosha cultivar of low-chilli pear.

Harvest, yield and storage:

Fully mature fruits are harvested while still firm and green for distant market. Fort local market,
they are left on the trees to get better quality fruits. At an interval of 3-4 days, two or three pickings
are taken up. Fruits should be carefully handled while storage and transit as the bruising is possible
by rubbing with one another as well as stalk damage. From a wellmaintained orchard an yield of
30 – 40 tonnes/ha/year can be expected. The unripe fruits harvested at optimum maturity can be
stored for even 5 months at a temperature of –1oC. Ripening can be accomplished by keeping at
15 to 21 and 21 to 25oC and 80-85% RH in 3-6 days depending on the cultivar. Most of the
commercial cultivars require this post harvest chilling treatment for proper ripening. When such
post harvest chilling treatment for proper ripening. When such post harvest chilling treatment for
proper ripening. When such post harvest cold treatment are not available, the fruits can be treated
with ethylene, so that they ripen properly and get good quality (both taste and colour).

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LEC .32 PLUMS AND PRUNES - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING,
VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL
CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS AND
DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

PLUMS Prunus sp. Family : Rosaceae

‘Prune’ – dried whole without fermentation (high sugar).

Production  Yugoslovia – tops in production
India, USA.

Area :
Sub-tropical plants of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh to high hills of Himalaya in Himachal
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir.

Great scope exists in NE

Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh – important states.
Uses :
Rich in minerals, vitamins, sugars and organic acids, protein, fat and CHO2’s
Jam, jelly, marmalades and pies.

Prune : Plum with high sugar content, dried which fermentation.

Dried plums used for chutney preparation
Wine and brandy from varieties of high sugar and sorbitol
Seed oil -40-50% - cosmetic and medicinal value.

Climate :
More and wide adaptability of many species and cultivars adapted to different ecology
Cold winters
Hot summer suitable
High rainfall

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The chilling …………can be compensated by environment and cultural practices.
Environment

Warm winter - Bending branches with holding irrigation

Light winter - reduce apical dominance

Rain summer pruning

Chemicals spray, rootstocks

Climate :
Japanese plum – sensitive to frost (spring flowering) if no spring frost – good.
Rainfall :
As rainfed crop, 100-125 cm rainfall, well distributed throughout the year.
High wind velocity – not suitable
Hail prone areas – not suitable.

Soil :
Avoid water logged, poorly drained, very shallow soils with high salts.
Soil depth should be 1.5 m
High alkalinity (5 mg/100 g) + acidic soil  toxic, apply lime. Origin
European plum – Europe
Japanese plum - China
Cherry plum - Europe, West Asia
American plum - N. America

Pollinizer should be planted in every 3rd row as 3rd tree.

One bee colony / acre – improves fruitset.

Flower initiation
Flower initiation in one season and flowering seen in the next year, flower development greatly
affected by age of wood, position of bud on tree, temperature, water, CH2O, N and others, PGR.

Flowering takes ploace on one year old shoot and 2 year old spurs.
Propagation
Cuttings – heard, semi-hard wood and soft wood
IBA treatment in winter, rooting in 4-6 weeks.

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Clonal
Rootstock
Myrobalan 29°C, Myrobalan – 2261, GF 1246.
Peach - Suits to light soil, resistance to nematodes
Almounds - Suits to deep soil, but graft incompatibility
Apricot - high immunity to nematodes
Rootstocks seeds - dormancy problem is seen, so stratification is necessary @
3-5°C.

Planting :
Rootstock vigour and soil fertility decides spacing.
Square system – suits to all situations.
Hexagonal system – fertile and expensive lands.

Training systems :
Branching at 1 m height is practiced
Training system depends on growth habit
Spreading type – open centre
Upright type – Central modified leader
Open centre – more common in Europe
Modified leader – more common in India Other
systems :

Hedge rows
Pyramid for mechanical farming
Palmette
Pruning
Intensity differs with varieties
Japanese plum – over bearing – heavy pruning
European plum – light pruning to renew old spurs.
Fruit thinning :

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Increase fruit size
Increase colour and quality.

Reduce breaking of limbs.

Harvest
Total economic life span 25-35 years.
Maturity indices :
1. Colour development
2. Flesh firmness
3. Days after full bloom
4. TSS – 12.5°B for European plum
5. TSS/acid ratio – 12 to 15

Post-harvest management
For distance market  harvest in the early morning or in Afternoon and leave it for over might
cooling.

CA storage O2 – 2-3%
2-3 months
CO2 – 2.8%

LEC. 33 PEACH AND NECTARINES - SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING,

VARIETIES, NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, SPECIAL
CULTURAL OPERATIONS, PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS, PESTS
AND DISEASES, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

PEACH
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch
Family : Rosaceae

This is a stone fruit in warm temperate climate also grown in sub-tropics, but of inferior quality.
It is most popular because of its attractive colour, excellent quality and taste. Grown in warm

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temperate zone of Europe, North America, South Africa, Asia and Australia. Nectarines are
smooth skin mutants allied to peach. It is non-pubescent peach of smaller size.

Use : Favourite table fruit, highly valued for its taste, nutritive properties and therapeutic uses.
Canned, dried, frozen peaches, jam, juice and beverages are popular. Nutrient rich fruit, used as
baby food also.

Nutritive value
Good source of sugars, vitamins and minerals.
TSS - 8-13°B
Total sugars - 8%
Ascorbic acid - 6-13 mg
Carotenoids - 0.19-0.53% - white flesh cultivars
0.75-0.79% - yellow flesh cultivars
Peach kernel contains
Fats, proteins, fibre and minerals
39-55% Fat
23-30% Proteins
14.8% Crude fibre
2.7% Minerals
Glycosides
‘Prunacin’ – Pulp
‘Amygdalin’ - Seeds

Medicinal properties :
Peach kernel oil - Food, cosmetics, cattle feed, pharmaceuticals, bio-fertilizer
Flower & leaves - Pulgative and anthelmintic, urinary stone, kidney
function, indigestion

Origin : China

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India : Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Nilgiris
North eastern staters viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur.

P. behmi a natural hybrid of almond and peach used as rootstock for plum, peach, almonds
Nectarinc P. persica var. nucipersica.

Morphological description :
Fruit is low headed, wide spread tree, drupe from superior ovary and velvety skin.

Climate and soil

 Limiting factors : Low winter temperature
Spring frust
Hail storms
High humidity
 Chilling hours at 7.2°C more effective
 Temperature < 2-3°C – does not break dormancy.
 High temperature in December – January  bloom abnormality and failure of fruit set is
noticed.

 High temperature is winter  prolongs dormancy and multifies chilling requirement.

Soil
 Mild to moderate steep hill slopes are ideal
 Deep valleys not prefused, because sensitive to water logging.
 Sandy soils with a depth of 7.0 m is ideal.
 Oxygen supply to the root zone is important, so compact soils with <10-20% pores should
be avoided.

 Ideal pH – 5.8 to 6.8.

Propagation :
 T-budding is practiced.
 Autumn season  preferred.
 Leafy succulent soft wood and hardwood cuttings also preferred.

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Peach itself is a successful rootstock :

 For raising rootstock, seeds from late cultivars are used. If early cv. Is used – germination
is poor.

 Removal of seed coat GA3 treatment – reduce stratification period.

 Nematode attack is common. But ‘Nenaguard and Okinoura’ exempted.

Others rootstock :
 Apricot  P. armeniaca – Root knot nematode rest.
 Almond  P. amygdalis – dwarfing rootstock
 Western sand cherry – P. berseyi, P. tomentosa – dwarfing.
 Namking cherry – P salicina – medicinal to large trees.
 Micropropagation of both rootstock and scion is possible, axillary shoots and embryo
culture are successful.

Planting
 One year old plants.
 Spacing 4-6 m in square
 Spring planting better than autumn planting
 Trees bare to be white washed to protect it from sun.

Training and pruning

Unpruned trees  Tall and dense
Weak crotches
Surplus scaffold branches
Suckers and water sprouts
Various training systems
1) Modified leader
2) Open centre
3) V-shaped tatura trellis
4) Pillar
5) High density vase

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6) 2=scaffold vase – most efficient for low density (277 to 625 plants/ha) 7) Belgium
bench

For HDP

Hedge row - 519-889 plants/ha

Tatura trellis - 666 plants/ha

Medow - 13,333 plants/ha

Pruning :
1st year : Stem cut at 61 cm from ground, 3-4 branches allowed, well spaced and well
developed on all sides., All other new growth are removed.

2nd year : 2 well spaced secondary branches on each main branch (Dormant season).

2nd summer : Water sprouts suppressed, Secondary branches encouraged.

Forked branches cut to make crotches strong / outside buds are pruned to have
speedy shape. In the 3rd dormant pruning  diseased, criss-cross branches,
water sprouts removed. No severe pruning in early seasons.

II Pruning – bearing trees

Annual pruning

– to maintain open centre

– since it stimulates new wood for production
– It allows penetration of sunlight
– Colour development
– Fungal diseases Annual heading back

- to maintain low canopy

- 2-3 year old branches to be removed.
- Side branches to be shortened and thinned
- Annual new growth to be maintained @ 41-61 cm length.

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Nutrition
 Balanced nutrition – health and productivity FYM 40 kg/tree.
 For Indian conditions :
 Nitrogen : 55-65 kg/ha, phosphorus : 55-65 kg/ha, potassium : 110-135 kg/ha bearing
orchard.

 NPK : 20:15:15 g/year

 This should be increased annually. Apply fertilizers as band than broadcasting.

Micronutrients
0.5% ZnSO4, 0.2% Boric acid and 0.2% CuSO4 corrects respective deficiency.
Irrigation
Soil moisture important particularly at the time of fruit maturity. Deep well drained soils is wetting
upto 1.8 m depth. Shallow soils is irrigation at frequent intervals with less water.

Stress – less winter hardiness.

Inter cultivation
Desirable but confined to 10 cm soil depth by light hoesing or shallow ploughing.

Advantages : Weed competition decreased, good physical condition, soil erosion, soil moisture
conserved.

Intercropping : Short duration crops can be grown till peach comes to bearing. Eg: Cowpea,
soyabean, turmeric and pineapple.

Green manuring :
 Short duration legumes.
 Incorporate before flowering
 Soil condition will improve and fertility status increased  Eg: Pear, beans, fenugreek,
daincha, sunhemp.

Mulching : Peach normally grown under sod – permanent sod cover, depletion of nitrogen.

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Crop regulation :
To regulate heavy flowering and fruiting, thinning can be done to get quality fruits of marketable
size.

 Ethrel 50-100 ppm effective in increasing fruit size, fruit weight increased. Pulp – stone
ratio increased, twit quality increased

 Spraying : 1000-2500 ppm DNOC prior to full bloom effective.

 Time of thinning : Depends on maturity.
 Early cultivars – blossom thinning.
 Mid & early – at petal fall or fruitset.

Physiological disorder :
1) Split pit and gumming – At pit hardening stage splitting at joint of dorsal and ventral side.
Exudation of gum and the gum fills the pit cavity and seeds become abortive, fruits become
unfit for consumption.

Causes : prolonged drought followed by sudden rain – temperature and humidity increased –
splitting.

2) Sunscald – Constant exposure to sun  Sunscald on trunk, twigs and branches.

Control : Painting the exposed area with time and propride shade.
Harvest : Maturity at harvesting decides the post harvest quality and storage.

Maturity indices :
1) Days after full bloom
2) Fruit size
3) Fruit firmness
4) Pit discolouration
5) Freeness of pit 6) Ground colour

7) Sugar , TSS-arid ratio.

Flowering to maturity = 78-127 days

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Grand colour change and flesh firmness is the best index.

Yield :
 7-10 tonnes/ha
 High Density Planting – 78 MT/ha
 Climacteric fruit
 Application of growth retardants Alar (SADH) and ethrel
 Enhance ripening
 Increase flesh colour and ……….. colour
 Increase fruit quality
 Uniform ripening
 Alar @ 500 ppm at pit hardening, Ethrel – 100, 700 ppm before harvest – effective

Storage :
 Soft textured high moisture is highly perishable, spoil within 2-3 days.
 Pre-cooling – reduces field heat.
 Hydrocooling with running H2O @ 10°C
 Precooling + 0°C storage with 85-90% RH  28-36 days storage.
 CAS – Very effective
 Packing material of weed, fibre, jute, plastics can be used.
 Recently corrugated paper board boxes.  Plastic film with entrapped air bubbles

Storage diseases
Brown rot, Whiskers rot, grey mould, green mold, blue mould, black mould.
To control
Radiation treatment, hot H2O dipping - reduces spoilage.

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