CLE 2005 - TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Unit 1 - Highway Engineering

Dr. S. Vasantha Kumar, Associate Professor, SCE, VIT University
Email: [email protected], Ph: 9444050435
Classification of roads
Our Indian roads are classified into following 3 classes
1). Primary system
o Expressways
o National highways (NH)
2). Secondary system
o State highways (SH)
o Major district roads (MDR)
3). Tertiary system
o Other district roads (ODR)
o Village roads (VR)
Expressways
• Designed exclusively for high speed vehicular traffic
• Provided with 6 or 8 lanes with divided carriageways and full access controlled
Access controlled means there will not be any intersecting cross streets. All intersections are
replaced by grade separated interchanges. Access to adjacent property will be prohibited by
means of fencing.
National Highways
They are the main highways running through the length and breadth of India, connecting major
ports, capitals of states and large industrial and tourist centers. They are generally provided with
2 or 4 lanes (divided or undivided) with partial or no access controlled.
National Highway Development Project (NHDP)
NHDP Phase 1 – Golden Quadrangle: Road which connects Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
was upgraded from 2 lanes to 4 lanes.
NHDP Phase 2 – NS and EW corridors: Road which connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari and
Silchar to Porbandar was upgraded from 2 lanes to 4 lanes.

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State highways
Arterial roads of a state connecting up with the national highways of adjacent states, district
headquarters and important cities within the state.
Major district roads (MDR)
Important roads within a district connecting areas of production and market within a district .
Other district roads (ODR)
Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers, taluk
headquarters and other main roads.
Village roads
Roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to the nearest road of a higher
category.
Highway alignment

The position or layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called the highway
alignment. An ideal alignment should be short, easy, safe and economical. There are several
possible routes between the two points of interest and the following points should be considered
during highway alignment.

1). When it is necessary to cross hill range, mountains or high ridges, the two alternatives are
either to cut a tunnel across or to go round the hills. The figure below shows the straight
alignment AB is deviated along the hill side pass, thus avoiding a tunnel or heavy cutting.

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2). In case of river crossings, it is preferred to have perpendicular crossing with straight
approaches so that bridge and pier can be properly founded as shown below.

3). While aligning a road between two stations, it may often be desirable to connect some of the
intermediate towns or important places. In such cases, the link roads may be provided to the
towns avoiding the deviation of the straight alignment. Or the straight alignment itself may be
changed to connect/pass through all the towns as shown below.

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4). A lake, pond or valley which falls on the path of the straight alignment will also necessitate
the alignment to deviate from the straight path as shown below.

5). Religious places like temples, mosques, church, graveyards, etc. should be avoided .

6). Should not involve acquiring of costly structures as it involves heavy compensation.

7). Marshy and water logged areas should be avoided.

8). Both horizontal and vertical bends should be gentle and should not be steep.

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9). Adequate sight distance to avoid collisions need to be ensured.

10). Favorable sub grade soil and foundations for culverts and bridges should be available.

11). The alignment should involve minimum earth work and balanced cut and fill.

12). Availability of construction materials at reasonable and economical distances should be

ensured.

13). The alignment should be free from landslides, avalanches, and other natural hazards.

14). Well developed areas such as agriculture, industrial, schools, hospitals, business places and
residential areas should be avoided.

15). Forest and natural valuable resources should be avoided.

Cross section elements

Camber or cross slope

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 • Slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water
from the road surface

• Centre of the carriageway is raised w.r.t. edges

• To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil through pavement.

• Under wet condition, the skid resistance of the pavement decreased.

• Expressed as n%, i.e., for 100 horizontal movement, the vertical movement is n.

• Value of camber (n%) depends on the type of pavement and rainfall. The suggested
values as per IRC guidelines are given below.

Shape of camber

P1). In a district where the rainfall is heavy, state highway of cement concrete pavement 7m
wide has to be constructed. What should be the height of the crown with respect to edges? A
camber of 2% is recommended as per IRC guidelines.

Solution:

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 = (7/2)×(2/100) = 0.07m

P2). Find the height of the crown for a major district road of WBM pavement of 3.8 m wide in
the same district. The recommended camber is 3%.

Solution:

= (3.8/2)×(3/100) = 0.058 m

On divided highways with median, either 2 way camber (or) one way camber sloping towards
the outer edge is usually provided as shown below.

Width of carriageway

• It is the main width of the road responsible for providing a strong, stable, and smooth
riding surface.

• Made up of either single lane or two lanes or multi lanes

• Width of each lane is determined on the basis of width of vehicle and the minimum side
clearance for safety purposes.

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Traffic separators or medians

• A median is a portion of a divided highway which separates the traffic in two opposite
directions.

• The main functions of median are,

• To prevent head-on collision

• Recovery area for out-of control vehicles

• Facilitates speed changes

• For storage of U-turning vehicles

• To avoid head light glare during night driving by planting tress

Types of median

• Pavement markings

• Mechanical separators (barricades)

• Area separators (dividing islands/strips)

IRC recommends a width of 3-5m for median.

Shoulders

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 • Provided along the road edge for accommodating stopping vehicles in case of
emergencies and lateral support to the carriageway

• Paved and unpaved

• The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5m.

Kerbs (curbs)

• It is a raised structure made up series of cut stones, precast cement blocks, brick masonry
walls provided between the pavement and footpath.

• Mainly used in urban roads

Types of kerbs

1). Mountable kerbs: Not strictly restrictive; It is possible to ride over the kerb and enter the
footpath. Height is 7.5 to 15 cm depending upon its slope.

2). Low-speed barrier kerbs: Provided where pedestrian traffic is high. Restrict entry to footpaths
by vehicles like two-wheelers.

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3). High speed barrier kerbs: Provided in hill roads and bridges to prevent the vehicles from
leaving the road under any circumstances. Height is usually 40 to 50 cm

4). Submerged kerb: Provided to protect the pavement edge. Will be at same level as the
carriageway

Road land or land width

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The width of the land acquired for the road along its alignment is called as land width or road
land. The suggested values as per IRC guidelines are given below.

It is desirable to control the building construction activities on either side of the road boundary,
beyond the land width acquired for the road, in order to reserve sufficient space for future
improvement of roads. Therefore, it is necessary to disallow building activities upto “building
line”. In addition it is desirable to exercise building control activities upto the “control lines”.
The recommended values as per IRC guidelines are given below.

Sight distance
• It is the actual distance along the road surface which a driver from a specified height
above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects.

• Classified into 3 types

• Stopping sight distance (SSD)

• Overtaking sight distance (OSD)

• Intersection sight distance (ISD)

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Stopping sight distance (SSD)
• The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient
length to stop a vehicle traveling at the design speed safely without collision with any
other obstruction. This minimum sight distance is called as SSD

• The worst case scenario is to consider a stationary object as an obstruction (eg., parked
vehicle, pedestrian)

• SSD is made up of two components

• Lag distance

• Braking distance

Lag distance

The distance traveled by the vehicle during the reaction time is known as lag distance.

Lag distance = Design speed × Reaction time

= v (in meters/sec.) × t

Braking distance

The distance traveled by the vehicle after the application of the brakes to a dead stop position is
known as braking distance. The expression for braking distance can be derived by equating the
kinetic energy of the moving vehicle to the work done by the frictional force of the road surface
to stop the vehicle.
(1 / 2)m(v1 − v2 ) = f *W * l
2 2

Where, m is the mass of the vehicle; v1 is the initial speed of the vehicle; v2 is the final speed of
vehicle, which is equal to zero in the present case; f is the friction coefficient; W is the weight of
the vehicle; l is the braking distance.

(1 / 2)(W / g )(v 2 ) = f *W * l

v2 / 2g = f * l

l = v 2 / 2 gf
Thus, SSD = vt + (v 2 / 2 gf )
SSD on sloped road (ascending gradient)

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When there is an ascending gradient of say n%, the component of gravity adds to the braking
action and hence the braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel to
the surface which adds to the braking force is given as,

(1 / 2)(W / g )(v 2 ) = [ fW + (W * 0.01n)] * l

Thus braking distance is l = v 2 / 2 g ( f + 0.01n)
and thus,
SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 g ( f + 0.01n)]

In case of descending gradient, the braking distance decreases as the component of gravity now
opposes the braking force.

(1 / 2)(W / g )(v 2 ) = [ fW − (W * 0.01n)] * l

l = v 2 / 2 g ( f − 0.01n)

SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 g ( f − 0.01n)]

The general equation for SSD is,

SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 g ( f  0.01n)]

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P1). Calculate the safe stopping sight distance (SSD) for a two lane road with a design speed of
50 kmph. Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37 and reaction time of driver as 2.5 sec. (Note: 1
km/hr = 0.278 m/sec.)

Solution:
SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 gf ]
= (13.9  2.5) + [(13.9) 2 /( 2  9.81 0.37)]
= 61.365 m.

P2). A vehicle is travelling at a design speed of 100 kmph under the following conditions.

a). Level surface

b). Upward gradient of 1.98%

c). Downward gradient of 2%.

Assume reaction time as 2.5 sec. & coefficient of friction between vehicle tyres and pavement
surface as 0.35. Determine SSD.

Solution:

a). Level surface

SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 gf ]
= (27.8  2.5) + [(27.8) 2 /( 2  9.81  0.35)]
= 182.04 m.

b). Upward gradient of 1.98%

SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 g ( f + 0.01n)]

= (27.8  2.5) + [(27.8)2 /( 2  9.81  (0.35 + (0.01)(1.98))]

= 176.018 m.

c). Downward gradient of 2%.

SSD = vt + [v 2 / 2 g ( f − 0.01n)]
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 = (27.8  2.5) + [(27.8)2 /( 2  9.81  (0.35 − (0.01)(2))]
= 188.86 m.

Definition for horizontal curve

A horizontal curve is a curved section of a road in plan between two consecutive straight sections
of the road by means of which a change in direction is accomplished.

Types of horizontal curves

1). Simple circular curve: Curve with a single constant radius as shown below.

2). Compound curve: Consists of combination of two or more circular arcs having different radii
joined together in the same direction. Curve centres fall in same side of the curves.

3). Reverse curve: Consists of circular arcs of different (or same) radii with their centres lying in
opposite directions. They are not usually recommended as there is a sudden change in alignment.

Superelevation:

In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus

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providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This transverse
inclination of the pavement surface is known as superelevation or cant or banking.

NL
e = tan θ =
ML
Since θ is very small,
𝑁𝐿
tan 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 =
𝑀𝑁
E
e=
B
Where, E = Total rise in outer edge of the pavement and B is the width of the pavement.
Generally, e is expressed as %.

P1). How much distance the outer edge should be raised for a 7m wide carriageway if the
superelevation is 7%?

Solution: E=e*B

=(7/100)*700 = 49cm

Deriving an expression for superelevation

The forces acting on a vehicle which is moving on a circular curve of radius R are,

1). Centrifugal force which is acting horizontally outwards through the centre of gravity.
𝑊𝑣 2
𝑃=
𝑔𝑅

Where, W is the weight of the vehicle, v is the speed of the vehicle, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, R is the radius of the curve.

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2). Weight “W” of the vehicle acting vertically downwards through the centre of gravity.

3). Frictional force developed between the wheels and the pavement.

Centrifugal force is opposed by frictional force and component of the weight of the vehicle due
to the superelevation provided.

𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐵
𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓𝑅𝐴 + 𝑓𝑅𝐵

𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 )

𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓(𝑊 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃 sin 𝜃 )

𝑃(cos 𝜃 − 𝑓 sin 𝜃 ) = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓𝑊 cos 𝜃

Dividing by 𝑊 cos 𝜃

𝑃
(1 − 𝑓 tan 𝜃) = tan 𝜃 + 𝑓
𝑊
𝑃 tan 𝜃 + 𝑓
=
𝑊 1 − 𝑓 tan 𝜃

Since f is usually 0.15 and e also won’t exceed 0.07 ,

𝑃
= tan 𝜃 + 𝑓
𝑊
𝑃
= 𝑒 +𝑓
𝑊
But
𝑃 𝑣2
=
𝑊 𝑔𝑅

So,
𝑣2
𝑒 +𝑓 =
𝑔𝑅

P2). The radius of a horizontal curve is 100m. The design speed is 50 kmph. and the coefficient
of lateral friction is 0.15. Calculate the superelevaion required?

Solution:

𝑣2
𝑒 +𝑓 =
𝑔𝑅

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 13.92
𝑒= − 0.15
9.81 ∗ 100
𝑒 = 0.046 𝑜𝑟 4.6% 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑖𝑛 21.2

(Note: 1/0.046 = 21.2)

Types of vertical curves

The two types of vertical curves are summit (or crest) and valley curves (or sag curves) as shown
below.

When the point of intersection of the two grade lines, if it falls above the curve, it is called as
summit curve. If it falls below the curve, it is called as sag curve.

Design criteria for summit curves

Sight distance is the major design parameter for determining the length of the summit curve.
Because driver’s visibility is restricted by the high point of the curve.

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If L>S,

|𝐺 |𝑆 2
𝐿= 2
2(√𝐻𝑑 + √𝐻0 )

If L<S,
2
2(√𝐻𝑑 + √𝐻0 )
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
|𝐺 |

Where, G = |𝑔2 − 𝑔1 |, angle of deviation. 𝐻𝑑 is the height of the driver’s eye level above the
road surface. 𝐻0 is the height of the obstacle above the road surface.

If S=SSD, then 𝐻𝑑 = 1.2𝑚 and 𝐻0 = 0.15𝑚

If S=OSD, then 𝐻𝑑 = 𝐻0 = 1.2𝑚

Design criteria for valley curves

In sag curves, during day time, there is no restriction to sight, but at night sight distance is
limited to the length of the spread of light of the vehicle headlights. So, length of the spread of
headlights is taken as the major design parameter in designing sag curves.

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If L>S,

|𝐺 |𝑆 2
𝐿=
2(𝐻ℎ + 𝑆 tan ∅)

If L<S,

2(𝐻ℎ + 𝑆 tan ∅)
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
|𝐺 |

Where, 𝐻ℎ = 0.75m, height of the head lamp above the road surface.

∅ = 10 , angle of spread of headlight or light cone focused angle.

P1). A vertical summit curve is formed when an ascending gradient of 1 in 30 meets a

descending gradient of 1 in 40. The curve is to be designed to provide OSD of 470m. Calculate
the suitable length of the summit curve.

Solution:

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𝐺 = 𝑔2 − 𝑔1 = (−2.5) − 3.33 = −5.83%

|𝐺 | = 0.0583

Assume L<S,
2
2(√𝐻𝑑 + √𝐻0 )
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
|𝐺 |
2
2(√ 1.2 + √ 1.2)
𝐿 = 2 ∗ 470 − = 775.33𝑚
0.0583
Our assumption is not correct, since S is only 470m.

Assume L>S,

|𝐺 |𝑆 2
𝐿= 2
2(√𝐻𝑑 + √𝐻0 )

0.0583 ∗ 4702
𝐿= 2
= 1341.5𝑚
2(√ 1.2 + √ 1.2)

P3). A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of 1 in 30 meeting an ascending gradient

of 1 in 50. If the SSD is 120m, calculate the length of the valley curve.

Solution:

𝐺 = 𝑔2 − 𝑔1 = (2) − (−3.33) = 5.33%

|𝐺 | = 0.0533

Assume L>S,

|𝐺 |𝑆 2
𝐿=
2(𝐻ℎ + 𝑆 tan ∅)

0.0533 ∗ 1202
𝐿= = 135𝑚
2(0.75 + 120 ∗ tan 1)

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