Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.

com/

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP

PROCESSES

m
co
After reading this chapter, you would be able to:

.
ns
understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed,
examine the influence of group on individual behaviour,

io
describe the process of cooperation and competition,

ut
reflect on the importance of social identity, and
ol
understand the nature of intergroup conflict and examine conflict resolution strategies.
ks
oo
rtb

Introduction
ce

Nature and Formation of Groups

.n

Groupthink (Box 7.1)

w

Type of Groups
The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments (Box 7.2)
w

Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour

//w

Social Loafing
s:

Group Polarisation
Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience
tp

The Autokinetic Effect (Box 7.3)

ht

CONTENTS Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment (Box 7.4)
Cooperation and Competition
Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments (Box 7.5)
Determinants of Cooperation and Competition
Key Terms
Social Identity
Summary
Intergroup Conflict : Nature and Causes
Conflict Resolution Strategies Review Questions
Project Ideas
Weblinks
Pedagogical Hints

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you
have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family
members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and
classmates; and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends.
Introduction In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides
you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and
development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where
you were without your family, school, and friends? How did you feel? Did
you feel there was something vital missing in your life?
Our lives are influenced by the nature of group membership we have. It
is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us
positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall
try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour.

m
At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others

co
influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others

.
and the society. The benefits of cooperation and competition and how they

ns
influence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will also

io
see how identity develops — how we come to know ourselves. Similarly,

ut
we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examine
ol
the perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolution
ks
strategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a harmonious
oo

and cohesive society.

rtb

family, class and playgroup are examples

ce

NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS

of groups and are different from other
.n

What is a Group? collections of people.

A group may be defined as an organised
w

The preceding introduction illustrates the system of two or more individuals, who are
w

importance of groups in our lives. One interacting and interdependent, who have
//w

question that comes to mind is: “How are common motives, have a set of role
s:

groups (e.g., your family, class, and the relationships among its members, and have
group with which you play) different from
tp

norms that regulate the behaviour of its

other collections of people?” For example, members.
ht

people who have assembled to watch a Groups have the following salient
cricket match or your school function are characteristics :
at one place, but are not interdependent • A social unit consisting of two or more
on each other. They do not have defined individuals who perceive themselves
roles, status and expectations from each as belonging to the group. This
other. In the case of your family, class, and characteristic of the group helps in
the group with which you play, you distinguishing one group from the
will realise that ther e is mutual other and gives the group its unique
interdependence, each member has roles, identity.
there are status differentials, and there are • A collection of individuals who have
expectations from each other. Thus, your common motives and goals. Groups

130
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

function either working towards a given is also a collection of people who may be
goal, or away from certain threats present at a place/situation by chance.
facing the group. Suppose you are going on the road and an
• A collection of individuals who are accident takes place. Soon a large number
interdependent, i.e. what one is doing of people tend to collect. This is an example
may have consequences for others. of a crowd. There is neither any structure
Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket nor feeling of belongingness in a crowd.
team drops an important catch during Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational
a match — this will have consequence and there is no interdependence among
for the entire team. members.
• Individuals who are trying to satisfy a Teams are special kinds of groups.
need through their joint association Members of teams often have comple-
also influence each other. mentary skills and are committed to a
• A gathering of individuals who interact common goal or purpose. Members are

m
with one another either directly or mutually accountable for their activities. In

co
indirectly. teams, there is a positive synergy attained
• A collection of individuals whose through the coordinated efforts of the

.
ns
interactions are structured by a set of members. The main differences between
roles and norms. This means that the groups and teams are:

io
group members perfor m the same • In groups, performance is dependent

ut
functions every time the group meets on contributions of individual
and the group members adhere to
ol
members. In teams, both individual
ks
group norms. Norms tell us how we contributions and teamwork matter.
ought to behave in the group and • In groups, the leader or whoever is
oo

specify the behaviours expected from heading the group holds responsibility
rtb

group members. for the work. However in teams,

Groups can be differentiated from other although there is a leader, members
ce

collections of people. For example, a crowd hold themselves responsible.

.n
w
w
//w
s:
tp
ht

Picture A Picture B

Fig.7.1 : Look at these Two Pictures

Picture A shows a football team — a group in which members interact with one another, have roles and
goals. Picture B depicts an audience watching the football match — a mere collection of people who by
some coincidence (may be their interest in football) happened to be in the same place at the same time.

131
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

An audience is also a collection of • Satisfaction of one’s psychological

people who have assembled for a special and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s
purpose, may be to watch a cricket match social and psychological needs such as
or a movie. Audiences are generally passive sense of belongingness, giving and
but sometimes they go into a frenzy and receiving attention, love, and power
become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite through a group.
sense of purpose. There is polarisation in • Goal achievement : Groups help in
attention, and actions of persons are in a achieving such goals which cannot be
common direction. Mob behaviour is attained individually. There is power in
characterised by homogeneity of thought the majority.
and behaviour as well as impulsivity. • Provide knowledge and information :
Group membership provides knowledge
Why Do People Join Groups? and information and thus broadens our
All of you are members of your family, view. As individuals, we may not have

m
class and groups with which you interact all the required information. Groups

co
or play. Similarly, other people are also supplement this infor mation and
members of a number of groups at any knowledge.

.
ns
given time. Different groups satisfy
Group Formation

io
different needs, and therefore, we are
simultaneously members of different In this section, we will see how groups are

ut
groups. This sometimes creates pressures formed. Basic to group formation is some
ol
for us because there may be competing contact and some form of interaction
ks
demands and expectations. Most often we between people. This interaction is
oo

are able to handle these competing facilitated by the following conditions:

demands and expectations. People join • Proximity : Just think about your
rtb

groups because these groups satisfy a group of friends. Would you have been
ce

range of needs. In general, people join friends if you were not living in the
groups for the following reasons : same colony, or going to the same
.n

• Security : When we are alone, we feel school, or may be playing in the same
w

insecure. Groups reduce this playground? Probably your answer

w

insecurity. Being with people gives a would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions

//w

sense of comfort, and protection. As a with the same set of individuals give us
result, people feel stronger, and are less a chance to know them, and their
s:

vulnerable to threats. interests and attitudes. Common

tp

• Status : When we are members of a interests, attitudes, and background

ht

group that is perceived to be important are important determinants of your

by others, we feel recognised and liking for your group members.
experience a sense of power. Suppose • Similarity : Being exposed to someone
your school wins in an inter - over a period of time makes us assess
institutional debate competition, you our similarities and paves the way for
feel proud and think that you are better formation of groups. Why do we like
than others. people who are similar? Psychologists
• Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of have given several explanations for this.
self-worth and establish a positive social One explanation is that people prefer
identity. Being a member of prestigious consistency and like relationships that
groups enhances one’s self-concept. are consistent. When two people are

132
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

similar, there is consistency and they group, the goal, and how it is to be
start liking each other. For example, achieved. People try to know each other
you like playing football and another and assess whether they will fit in.
person in your class also loves playing There is excitement as well as
football; there is a matching of your apprehensions. This stage is called the
interests. There are higher chances that forming stage.
you may become friends. Another • Often, after this stage, there is a stage
explanation given by psychologists is of intragroup conflict which is referred
that when we meet similar people, they to as storming. In this stage, there is
reinforce and validate our opinions and conflict among members about how the
values, we feel we are right and thus we target of the group is to be achieved,
start liking them. Suppose you are of who is to control the group and its
the opinion that too much watching of resources, and who is to perform what
television is not good, because it shows task. When this stage is complete, some

m
too much violence. You meet someone sort of hierarchy of leadership in the

co
who also has similar views. This group develops and a clear vision as to
validates your opinion, and you start how to achieve the group goal.

.
ns
liking the person who was instrumental • The stor ming stage is followed by
in validating your opinion. another stage known as norming.

io
• Common motives and goals : When Group members by this time develop

ut
people have common motives or goals, norms related to group behaviour. This
they get together and form a group
ol
leads to development of a positive group
ks
which may facilitate their goal identity.
• The fourth stage is performing. By this
oo

attainment. Suppose you want to teach

children in a slum area who are unable time, the structure of the group has
rtb

to go to school. You cannot do this evolved and is accepted by group

members. The group moves towards
ce

alone because you have your own

achieving the group goal. For some
studies and homework. You, therefore,
.n

groups, this may be the last stage of

form a group of like-minded friends and
w

group development.
start teaching these children. So you
w

• However, for some groups, for example,

have been able to achieve what you
//w

in the case of an organising committee

could not have done alone.
s:

Stages of Group Formation

tp

Identifying Stages of Group Activity

Remember that, like everything else in life, 7.1
ht

Formation
groups develop. You do not become a
group member the moment you come Select 10 members from your class
randomly and form a committee to
together. Groups usually go through
plan an open house. See how they go
different stages of formation, conflict, ahead. Give them full autonomy to do
stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. all the planning. Other members of the
Tuckman suggested that groups pass class observe them as they function.
through five developmental sequences. Do you see any of these stages
These are: forming, storming, norming, emerging? Which were those? What
was the order of stages? Which stages
performing and adjourning.
were skipped?
• When group members first meet, there Discuss in the class.
is a great deal of uncertainty about the

133
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

for a school function, there may be Four important elements of group

another stage known as adjourning structure are :
stage. In this stage, once the function • Roles are socially defined expectations
is over, the group may be disbanded. that individuals in a given situation are
expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the
However, it must be stated that all
typical behaviour that depicts a person
groups do not always proceed from one
in a given social context. You have the
stage to the next in such a systematic role of a son or a daughter and with this
manner. Sometimes several stages go on role, there are certain role expectations,
simultaneously, while in other instances i.e. including the behaviour expected of
groups may go back and forth through the someone in a particular role. As a
various stages or they may just skip some daughter or a son, you are expected to
of the stages. respect elders, listen to them, and be
During the process of group formation, responsible towards your studies.
groups also develop a structure. We should

m
• Norms are expected standards of
remember that group structure develops

co
behaviour and beliefs established,
as members interact. Over time this agreed upon, and enforced by group

.
ns
interaction shows regularities in members. They may be considered as
distribution of task to be performed, a group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In your

io
responsibilities assigned to members, and family, there are norms that guide the

ut
the prestige or relative status of members. behaviour of family members. These
ol
ks
Box
7.1 Groupthink
oo

Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggested
rtb

that cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions.
ce

Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns for
unanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”.
.n

It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions.
w

Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement

within a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision
w

or a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it would
//w

undermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shown
that such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tends
s:

to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order to
tp

preserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasingly
ht

out-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesive

groups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives,
and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions at
the international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. These
decisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to
1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam War
thinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisions
were made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000
American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits.
Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: (i) encouraging and rewarding critical
thinking and even disagreement among group members, (ii) encouraging groups to present
alternative courses of action, (iii) inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions,
and (iv) encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others.

134
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

nor ms represent shared ways of some are short-lived (e.g., a committee),

viewing the world. some remain together for many years (e.g.,
• Status refers to the relative social r eligious groups), some are highly
position given to group members by organised (e.g., army, police, etc.), and
others. This relative position or status others are informally organised (e.g.,
may be either ascribed (given may be spectators of a match). People may belong
because of one’s seniority) or achieved to different types of group. Major types of
(the person has achieved status groups are enumerated below :
because of expertise or hard work). By • primary and secondary groups
being members of the group, we enjoy • formal and informal groups
the status associated with that group. • ingroup and outgroup.
All of us, therefor e, strive to be
members of such groups which are Primary and Secondary Groups
high in status or are viewed favourably
A major difference between primary and
by others. Even within a gr oup,

m
dif ferent members have dif ferent secondary groups is that primary groups

co
prestige and status. For example, the are pre-existing formations which are
usually given to the individual whereas

.
captain of a cricket team has a higher

ns
status compared to the other members, secondary groups are those which the

io
although all are equally important for individual joins by choice. Thus, family,
caste, and religion are primary groups

ut
the team’s success.
• Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, whereas membership of a political party is
ol
an example of a secondary group. In a
ks
binding, or mutual attraction among
group members. As the group becomes primary group, there is a face-to-face
oo

more cohesive, group members start to interaction, members have close physical
proximity, and they share warm emotional
rtb

think, feel and act as a social unit, and

less like isolated individuals. Members bonds. Primary groups are central to
ce

of a highly cohesive group have a individual’s functioning and have a very

greater desire to remain in the group in major role in developing values and ideals
.n

comparison to those who belong to low of the individual during the early stages of
w

cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to development. In contrast, secondary

w

the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense groups are those where relationships
//w

of belongingness to the group. It is among members are more impersonal,

difficult to leave a cohesive group or to indirect, and less frequent. In the primary
s:

gain membership of a group which is group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e.
tp

highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness members do not have the option to choose
ht

however, may sometimes not be in a its membership as compared to secondary

group’s interest. Psychologists have groups where it is easy to leave and join
identified the phenomenon of another group.
groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a
consequence of extreme cohesiveness. Formal and Informal Groups
These groups differ in the degree to which
TYPE OF GROUPS the functions of the group are stated
explicitly and formally. The functions of a
Groups differ in many respects; some have formal group are explicitly stated as in the
a large number of members (e.g., a case of an office organisation. The roles to
country), some are small (e.g., a family), be performed by group members are stated

135
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

in an explicit manner. The formal and differently and are often perceived negatively
informal groups differ on the basis of in comparison to the ingroup members.
structure. The formation of formal groups Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect
is based on some specific rules or laws and our social lives. These differences can be
members have definite roles. There are a easily understood by studying Tajfel’s
set of norms which help in establishing experiments given in Box 7.2.
order. A university is an example of a Although it is common to make these
formal group. On the other hand, the categorisations, it should be appreciated
formation of informal groups is not based that these categories are not real and are
on rules or laws and there is close created by us. In some cultures, plurality
relationship among members. is celebrated as has been the case in India.
We have a unique composite culture which
Ingroup and Outgroup is reflected not only in the lives we live, but
Just as individuals compare themselves also in our art, architecture, and music.

m
with others in terms of similarities and

co
differences with respect to what they have Ingroup and Outgroup Activity
and what others have, individuals also Distinctions 7.2

.
ns
compare the group they belong to with
Think of any interinstitutional

io
groups of which they are not a member.
competition held in the near past. Ask
The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own

ut
your friends to write a paragraph
group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another olabout your school and its students,
group. For ingroup members, we use the and about another school and
ks
word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the students of that school. Ask the class
oo

word ‘they’ is used. By using the words and list the behaviour and
characteristics of your schoolmates,
they and we, one is categorising people as
rtb

and students of the other school on

similar or different. It has been found that the board. Observe the differences
ce

persons in the ingroup are generally and discuss in the class. Do you also
supposed to be similar, are viewed see similarities? If yes, discuss them
.n

favourably, and have desirable traits. too.

w

Members of the outgroup are viewed

w
//w

Box
7.2 The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments
s:
tp

Tajfel and his colleagues were interested in knowing the minimal conditions for intergroup
behaviour. ‘Minimal group paradigm’ was developed to answer this question. British school-
ht

boys expressed their preference for paintings by two artists — Vassily Kandinsky and Paul
Klee. Children were told that it was an experiment on decision-making. They knew the
groups in which they were grouped (Kandinsky group and Klee group). The identity of other
group members was hidden using code numbers. The children then distributed money
between recipients only by code number and group membership.
Sample distribution matrix :
Ingroup member — 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Outgroup member — 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
You will agree that these groups were created on a flimsy criterion (i.e. preference for
paintings by two artists) which had no past history or future. Yet, results showed that
children favoured their own group.

136
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL associates who asked group of male

students to clap or cheer as loudly as
BEHAVIOUR
possible as they (experimenters) were
We have seen that groups are powerful as interested in knowing how much noise
they are able to influence the behaviour of people make in social settings. They varied
individuals. What is the nature of this the group size; individuals were either
influence? What impact does the presence alone, or in groups of two, four and six.
of others have on our performance? We will The results of the study showed that
discuss two situations : (i) an individual although the total amount of noise rose up,
per for ming an activity alone in the as size increased, the amount of noise
presence of others (social facilitation), produced by each participant dropped. In
and (ii) an individual performing an activity other words, each participant put in less
along with the others as part of a larger effort as the group size increased. Why
group (social loafing). Since social does social loafing occur? The explanations

m
facilitation has been briefly discussed in offered are:

co
Chapter 6, we would try to understand the • Group members feel less responsible for
phenomenon of social loafing in this the overall task being performed and

.
ns
section. therefore exert less effort.
• Motivation of members decreases

io
Social Loafing because they r ealise that their

ut
contributions will not be evaluated on
Social facilitation research suggests that ol
individual basis.
presence of others leads to arousal and can
ks
• The performance of the group is not to
motivate individuals to enhance their
be compared with other groups.
oo

performance if they are already good at

• There is an improper coordination (or
solving something. This enhancement
rtb

no coordination) among members.

occurs when a person’s ef forts ar e • Belonging to the same group is not
ce

individually evaluated. What would happen important for members. It is only an

if efforts of an individual in a group are
.n

aggregate of individuals.
pooled so that you look at the performance
w

of the group as a whole? Do you know Social loafing may be reduced by:
w

what often happens? It has been found • Making the ef forts of each person
//w

that individuals work less hard in a group identifiable.

• Increasing the pressure to work hard
s:

than they do when performing alone. This

points to a phenomenon referred to as (making group members committed to
tp

‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction successful task performance).

ht

in individual effort when working on a • Increasing the apparent importance or

collective task, i.e. one in which outputs value of a task.
are pooled with those of other group • Making people feel that their individual
members. An example of such a task is the contribution is important.
game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for • Strengthening group cohesiveness
you to identify how much force each which increases the motivation for
member of the team has been exerting. successful group outcome.
Such situations give opportunities to group
Group Polarisation
members to relax and become a free rider.
This phenomenon has been demonstrated We all know that important decisions are
in many experiments by Latane and his taken by groups and not by individuals

137
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

alone. For example, a decision is to be view is validated by the public. This is

taken whether a school has to be a sort of bandwagon effect.
established in a village. Such a decision • When you find people having similar
has to be a group decision. We have also views, you are likely to perceive them
seen that when groups take decisions, as ingroup. You start identifying with
there is a fear that the phenomenon of the group, begin showing conformity,
groupthink may sometimes occur (see and as a consequence your views
Box 7.1). Groups show another tendency become strengthened.
referred to as ‘group polarisation’. It has
been found that groups are more likely to
Assessing Polarisation Activity
take extreme decisions than individuals 7.3
alone. Suppose there is an employee who Give the class a short, 5-item attitude
has been caught taking bribe or engaging scale developed by your teacher to
in some other unethical act. Her/his assess attitudes towards capital

m
colleagues are asked to decide on what punishment. Based on their responses,
divide the class into two groups, i.e.

co
punishment s/he should be given. They
those pro-capital punishment and
may let her/him go scot-free or decide to

.
those anti-capital punishment. Now

ns
terminate her/his services instead of seat these groups into two different
imposing a punishment which may be rooms and ask them to discuss a recent

io
commensurate with the unethical act s/he case in which death sentence has been

ut
had engaged in. Whatever the initial given by the court. See how the
position in the group, this position becomes
ol discussion proceeds in the two groups.
ks
After the discussion, re-administer the
much stronger as a result of discussions in
attitude scale to the group members.
the group. This strengthening of the group’s
oo

Examine if, in both groups, positions

initial position as a result of group have hardened in comparison to their
rtb

interaction and discussion is referred to as initial position as a result of group

group polarisation. This may sometimes discussion.
ce

have dangerous repercussions as groups

.n

may take extreme positions, i.e. from very

w

weak to very strong decisions. CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE, AND

w

Why does group polarisation occur? Let OBEDIENCE

//w

us take an example whether capital

punishment should be there. Suppose you Groups and individuals exert influence on
s:

favour capital punishment for heinous us. This influence may force us to change
tp

crimes, what would happen if you were our behaviours in a particular direction.
ht

interacting with and discussing this issue The term ‘social influence’ refers to those
with like-minded people? After this processes whereby our attitudes and
interaction, your views may become behaviours are influenced by the real or
stronger. This firm conviction is because of imagined presence of other people.
the following three reasons: Throughout the day you may encounter a
• In the company of like-minded people, number of situations where others have
you are likely to hear newer arguments tried to influence you and make you think
favouring your viewpoints. This will in ways they want. Your parents, teachers,
make you more favourable towards friends, radio and television commercials
capital punishment. create one or the other kind of social
• When you find others also favouring influence. Social influence is a part of our
capital punishment, you feel that this life. In some situations, social influence on

138
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

us is very strong as a result of which we a norm. For example, a member of a

tend to do things which we otherwise community group for ‘clean environment’
would have not done. On other occasions, requests you to put a sticker on your bike
we are able to defy influence of others and that reads, ‘Say No to Plastic Bags’. You
may even influence them to adopt our own agree to do so, not because of a group
viewpoint. This section describes three norm, or even because you personally
important group influence processes, i.e. believe in banning plastic bags, but because
conformity, compliance and obedience. you see no harm or problem in putting such
Imagine the following situation in your a sticker on your bike. At the same time,
school. Some of your friends come to you you find it easier to say ‘yes’ rather than ‘no’
with a letter of protest against a rule that to such a har mless (and eventually
has been recently announced, i.e. banning meaningful) request. Identification,
use of mobile phones in the school. according to Kelman, refers to influence
Personally you believe that the rule is very process based on agreement-seeking or

m
sensible and should be enforced. But you identity-seeking. Internalisation, on the

co
also know that if you do not sign the letter, other hand, is a process based on
you will lose many friends and get a bad information-seeking.

.
ns
name for not keeping ‘student unity’. What Yet another for m of behaviour is
would you do in such a situation? What ‘obedience’. A distinguishing feature of

io
do you think most people of your age obedience is that such behaviour is a

ut
would do? If your answer is that you would response to a person in authority. In the
ol
agree to sign the letter, you have expressed example given above, you may sign the
ks
a for m of social influence called letter more readily if a senior teacher or a
oo

‘confor mity’ which means behaving student leader asks you to do so. In such
according to the group norm, i.e. the a situation, you are not necessarily
rtb

expectations of other group members. following a group norm but rather carrying
ce

Persons who do not confor m (called out an instruction or an order. The presence
‘deviants’ or ‘non-conformists’) get noticed of an authority figure immediately makes
.n

more than those who do conform. this behaviour different from conformity.
w

Kelman distinguished three forms of For instance, you may stop talking loudly
w

social influence, viz. compliance, in the classroom when the teacher asks you
//w

identification, and internalisation. In to keep quiet, but not when your classmate
compliance, there are external conditions tells you to do the same thing.
s:

that force the individual to accept the We can see that there are some
tp

influence of the significant other. similarities between confor mity,

ht

Compliance also refers to behaving in a compliance, and obedience, but there are
particular way in response to a request also some differences. All three indicate the
made by someone. Thus, in the example influence of others on an individual’s
described above, you may sign the letter behaviour. Obedience is the most direct
with the thought that you were accepting and explicit for m of social influence,
the request, not because you agree with whereas compliance is less direct than
other students, but because you have been obedience because someone has requested
requested to do so by a significant member. and thus you comply (here, the probability
This would be a case of compliance also of refusal is there). Conformity is the most
called ‘exter nal/public confor mity’. indirect form (you are conforming because
Compliance could take place even without you do not want to deviate from the norm).

139
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Conformity disapproval and obtaining approval from

others. Third, the norm is seen as
Why do people follow group norms, when
reflecting the views and beliefs of the
the only ‘punishment’ they may face if they
majority. Most people believe that the
do not, is the displeasure of the group, or
majority is more likely to be right rather
being perceived as ‘different’? Why do
than wrong. An instance of this is often
people conform even when they know that
observed in quiz shows on television. When
the norm itself is not desirable? a contestant is at a loss for the correct
It seems that the tendency to follow a answer to a question, s/he may opt for an
norm is natural, and does not need any audience opinion, the person most often
special explanation. Yet, we need to tends to choose the same option that the
understand why such a tendency appears majority of the audience chooses. By the
to be natural or spontaneous. First, same reasoning, people conform to the
norms represent a set of unwritten and nor m because they believe that the
informal ‘rules’ of behaviour that provide

m
majority must be right.
information to members of a group about

co
The pioneering experiments on
what is expected of them in specific conformity were carried out by Sherif and

.
situations. This makes the whole situation

ns
Asch. They illustrate some of the
clearer, and allows both the individual and conditions that determine the extent of

io
the group to function more smoothly. conformity, and also methods that may be

ut
Second, in general, people feel un- adopted for the study of conformity in
comfortable if they are consider ed
ol
groups. These experiments demonstrate
ks
‘different’ from others. Behaving in a way what Sherif called the ‘autokinetic
that differs from the expected form of effect’ (Box 7.3) and the ‘Asch technique’
oo

behaviour may lead to disapproval or (Box 7.4).

rtb

dislike by others, which is a form of social What lessons are to be learned from
punishment. This is something that most the results of these experiments on
ce

people fear, often in an imagined way. conformity? The main lesson is that the
.n

Recall the question we ask so often: “What degree of conformity among the group
w

will people (‘then’) say?” Following the members is determined by many factors
w

norm is, thus, the simplest way of avoiding which are situation-specific.
//w

Box
7.3 The Autokinetic Effect
s:
tp

Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms,
and members make their judgments according to these norms.
ht

Participants were seated in a darkroom, and asked to concentrate on a point of light.

After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through
which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials.
After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the
members. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in
a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this
experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all. The light was only seen
as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’).
Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the
distance the light moved, but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants
were not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgments
over trials.

140
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Determinants of Conformity Suppose the subject finds that after some

rounds of judgment of the lines, there is
(i) Size of the group : Conformity is
greater when the group is small than when another participant who starts agreeing
the group is large. Why does it happen? It with the subject’s answer. Would the
is easier for a deviant member (one who subject now be more likely to conform, or
does not conform) to be noticed in a small less likely to do so? When the dissenting
group. However, in a large group, if there or deviating minority size increases, the
is strong agreement among most of the likelihood of conformity decreases. In fact,
members, this makes the majority it may increase the number of dissenters
stronger, and therefore, the norm is also or non-conformists in the group.
stronger. In such a case, the minority (iii) Nature of the task : In Asch’s
member(s) would be more likely to conform experiment, the task required an answer
because the group pressure would be that could be verified, and could be correct
stronger. or incorrect. Suppose the task involves

m
(ii) Size of the minority : Take the case giving an opinion about some topic. In

co
of the Asch experiment (see Box 7.4). such a case, there is no correct or incorrect

.
ns
Box

io
Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment 7.4

ut
Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a group
ol
experiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way, or to give a
ks
particular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a
oo

‘vision test’. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants were
associates of the experimenter, or ‘confederates’ as they are called in social psychology.
rtb

These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this was
not known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line)
ce

that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B, and C (comparison
lines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B, or C, was equal to the
.n

standard line.
w

Standard Line Comparison Lines

w
//w
s:
tp

A B C
ht

When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her/his answer.
The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The true
subject’s turn came last-but-one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of
5 persons giving incorrect answers before her/him. The last person (also a confederate)
gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons. Even if the true subject felt that
these answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her/him. There were twelve
trials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did s/he give her/his own
judgments ?
It was observed that 67 per cent subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrect
answer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were to
be given publicly.

141
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

answer. In which situation is there likely members. Conformity may also occur
to be more conformity, the first one where because of nor mative influence, i.e.
there is something like a correct or an influence based on a person’s desire to be
incorrect answer, or the second one where accepted or admired by others. In such
answers can vary widely without any cases, people conform because deviation
answer being correct or incorrect? You may from group may lead to rejection or at the
have guessed right; conformity would be least, non-acceptance of some form of
less likely in the second situation. punishment. It is generally observed that
(iv) Public or private expression of the group majority determines the final
behaviour : In the Asch technique, the decision, but in certain conditions, a
group members are asked to give their minority may be more influential. This
answers publicly, i.e. all members know occurs when the minority takes a firm and
who has given which response. However, uncompromising stand, thereby creating a
there can be other situations (for example, doubt on the correctness of the majority’s

m
voting by secret ballot) in which the viewpoint. This creates a conflict within the

co
behaviour of members is private (not group (see Box 7.4).

.
known to others). Less conformity is found

ns
under private expression than it is seen Compliance

io
under public expression. It was stated earlier that compliance refers

ut
(v) Personality : The conditions described simply to behaving in response to a request
above show how the features of the
ol
from another person or group even in the
ks
situation are important in determining the absence of a norm. A good example of
degree of conformity shown. We also find compliance is the kind of behaviour shown
oo

that some individuals have a conforming when a salesperson comes to our door.
rtb

personality. Such persons have a tendency Very often, this person comes with some
to change their behaviour according to goods that we really do not wish to buy.
ce

what others say or do in most situations. Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we
.n

By contrast, there are individuals who are find that the salesperson has spoken to us
for a few minutes and the conversation has
w

independent, and do not look for a norm

ended with a purchase of what he or she
w

in order to decide how to behave in a

wished to sell. So why do people comply?
//w

specific situation. Research has shown

that highly intelligent people, those who In many situations, this happens
s:

are confident of themselves, those who are because it is an easy way out of the
situation. It is more polite and the other
tp

strongly committed and have a high self-

esteem are less likely to conform. party is pleased. In other situations, there
ht

Conformity takes place because of could be other factors at work. The

informational influence, i.e. influence that following techniques have been found to
results from accepting evidence rather work when someone wants another person
than reality. This kind of rational to comply.
conformity can be thought of as learning • The foot-in-the-door technique : The
about the world from the actions of others. person begins by making a small
We learn by observing people, who are the request that the other person is not
best source of information about many likely to refuse. Once the other person
social conventions. New group members carries out the request, a bigger request
lear n about the group’s customs by is made. Simply because the other
observing the actions of other group person has already complied with the

142
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

smaller request, he or she may feel experiment was conducted on pairs. One
uncomfortable refusing the second person in each pair was the “learner”,
request. For example, someone may whose work was to memorise pairs of
come to us on behalf of a group and words. The other participant was the
give us a gift (something free), saying “teacher”, who would read these words
that it is for pr omotion. Soon aloud and punish the learner when s/he
afterwards, another member of the made errors by giving her/him shock. The
same group may come to us again, and learner would make errors according to
ask us to buy a product made by the prearranged instructions. The teacher was
group. asked to deliver a shock each time the
• The deadline technique : In this learner made errors. The teacher was
technique, a ‘last date’ is announced further told to increase the strength of the
until which a particular product or ‘an shock each time the learner made an error.
offer’ will be available. The aim is to In reality, no shocks were given. The

m
make people ‘hurry’ and make the instructions were so arranged that the

co
purchase before they miss the rare teacher was faced with a dilemma —
opportunity. It is more likely that should s/he continue shocks even when

.
ns
people will buy a product under this they wer e increasingly painful? The
deadline condition than if there is no experimenter kept on motivating the

io
such deadline. teacher to continue. In all, 65 per cent

ut
• The door-in-the-face technique : In showed total obedience. Some participants,
this technique, you begin with a large
ol
however, protested and asked the session
ks
request and when this is refused a later to end. Milgram’s study suggests that even
request for something smaller, the one ordinary people are willing to harm an
oo

that was actually desired, is made, innocent person if ordered by someone in

rtb

which is usually granted by the person. authority.

Why do people obey even when they
ce

Obedience know that their behaviour is harming

.n

When compliance is shown to an others? Psychologists have identified

w

instruction or order from a person in several reasons for this. Some of these
w

authority, such as parents, teachers, reasons are :

//w

leaders, or policemen, that behaviour is • People obey because they feel that they
called obedience. Why people show are not r esponsible for their own
s:

obedience is easy to understand. Most actions, they are simply carrying out
tp

often it is because if we disobey, some orders from the authority.

ht

punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is • Authority generally possesses symbols

because we believe that persons in of status (e.g., uniform, title) which
authority must be obeyed. People in people find difficult to resist.
authority have ef fective means for • Authority gradually increases
enforcing their orders. Milgram conducted commands from lesser to greater levels
an experiment to show that individuals and initial obedience binds the
obey commands from people who are followers for commitment. Once you
strangers. The experimenter informed the obey small orders, slowly there is an
respondents in the study that they were escalation of commitment for the
participating in an experiment to study the person who is in authority and one
effects of punishment on learning. The starts obeying bigger orders.

143
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

• Many times, events are moving at such example, you can come first in a
a fast speed, for example in a riot competition only if others do not perform
situation, that one has no time to think, to such a level that they can be judged as
just obey orders from above. first. A cooperative goal, on the other hand,
is one in which each individual can attain
the goal only if other members of the group
Activity Demonstrating Obedience in also attain the goal. Let us try to
7.4 Daily Life understand this from an example from
athletics. In a hundred metres race
Do you believe the results of Milgram
studies on obedience to authority? See between six people, only one can be the
for yourself whether obedience occurs winner. Success depends on individual
or not. performance. In a relay race, victory
Take permission from your teacher depends on the collective performance of
to go to one of the junior classes. Go all members of a team. Deutsch
and make a series of requests to the

m
investigated cooperation and competition
students. Some examples of such

co
requests are :
within groups. College students were
Ask students to change their seats assigned to groups of five persons and

.
ns
with another student. were required to solve puzzles and
Ask students to croak like a frog. problems. One set of groups, referred to as

io
Ask students to say ‘jai hind’. the ‘cooperative group’, were told that they

ut
Ask students to put their hands up. would be rewarded collectively for their
(Feel free to add your own ideas) ol
performance. The other set of groups,
What did you see? Did students
ks
obey you? Ask them why they did so? labelled as ‘competitive group’ were told
that there was a reward for individual
oo

Explain to them that you were studying

why we obey seniors. Come back and excellence. Results showed that in
rtb

discuss what you saw in the class with cooperative groups, there was more
your teacher and classmates. coordination, there was acceptance for
ce

each other’s ideas, and members were

.n

more friendly than those in the competitive

w

COOPERATION AND COMPETITION group. The main concern of the members

w

of the cooperative group was to see that the

//w

People interact with each other in different group excels.

contexts. Behaviours in most social Although competition between
s:

situations are characterised by either individuals within a group may result in

tp

‘cooperation’ or ‘competition’. When groups conflict and disharmony, competition

ht

work together to achieve shared goals, we between groups may increase within group
refer to it as cooperation. The rewards in cohesion and solidarity.
cooperative situations are group rewards Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, which is a
and not individual rewards. However, when two person game in which both parties are
members try to maximise their own faced with cooperation or competition, and
benefits and work for the realisation of self- depending upon their choices both can win
interest, competition is likely to result. or lose, is often used to study cooperation
Social groups may have both competitive or competition. This game is based on an
as well as cooperative goals. Competitive anecdote. Two suspects were quizzed by
goals are set in such a way that each detectives separately. The detectives had
individual can get her/his goal only if only enough evidence to convict them for
others do not attain their goals. For a small offence. Separately the two convicts

144
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Box
Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments : A Journey from Ingroup Formation to 7.5
Intergroup Competition and Finally Intergroup Cooperation

Sherif conducted a series of experiments on 11–12 year old boys who did not know each
other. The boys were attending a summer camp. Unknown to the boys, there were
researchers in the camp who examined their (the boys) behaviour. The experiment consisted
of four phases, viz. friendship formation, group formation, intergroup competition, and
intergroup cooperation.
• Friendship formation : When the boys arrived at the camp, they spent their initial
time together. They mixed freely with each other and chose their friends for games and
other activities.
• Ingroup formation : The boys were then divided into two groups by the experimenter.
The boys belonging to the two groups lived separately. Members within the group
engaged in cooperative projects to increase cohesiveness. The groups were given separate

m
names. Over time, they developed their own norms.

co
• Intergroup competition : The two groups were brought together in several competitive
situations. Matches were organised in which the groups competed against each other.

.
ns
This competition brought in tension and hostility against each other as a group; so
much so that the groups started calling each other names. At the same time, ingroup

io
cohesion and loyalty became stronger.

ut
• Intergroup cooperation : To reduce the hostility generated by intergroup competition,
ol
the researchers created a problem which affected both the groups, and both groups
ks
wanted to solve them. Superordinate goals could be achieved only through cooperation
between the groups. The water supply of both groups was disrupted. Members of both
oo

groups helped each other to overcome this. This intergroup cooperation phase reduced
the hostility. This resulted in the development of a superordinate goal, i.e. a goal to
rtb

which personal goals were subordinated.

ce

This research is important as it showed that antagonistic and hostile behaviour can be
generated by group situations. At the same time, it shows that hostility between groups
.n

can be reduced by focusing on superordinate goals, which are important and beneficial to
w

both groups alike.

w
//w

were offered a chance to confess. If one Player A

Cooperation Competition
s:

confesses and the other does not, the one

who confesses will get no punishment and
tp

Cooperation

her/his confession will be used to convict

ht

3 5
the other with a serious offence. If both
confess, the punishment to both will be 3 0
mild. If neither confesses, each will receive
Player B

a light sentence. This game has been used

in hundreds of experiments to demonstrate 0 2
Competition

that when two parties are involved, there

is a conflict between motive to cooperate
and motive to compete (see Figure 7.2). 5 2
For example, there are two players, A
and B. If both cooperate, both get three
points each. If player A competes and wins, Fig.7.2 : Cooperation vs. Competition

145
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

s/he gets 5 points and B gets 0 points. If you are a hard-working, happy-go-lucky
B competes and wins s/he gets 5 points girl/boy. This answer tells you about your
and A gets 0 points. If both A and B social identity which is one’s self-definition
compete, both get two points each. What of who s/he is. This self-definition may
outcomes do you expect? Why do you include both personal attributes, e.g. hard
expect so? Give reasons. working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes
which you share with others, e.g. girl or
Determinants of Cooperation and boy. Although some aspects of our identity
Competition are determined by physical characteristics,
What factors determine whether people will we may acquire other aspects as a
cooperate or compete? Some of the consequence of our interaction with others
important ones are given below: in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves
(i) Reward structure : Psychologists as unique individuals and at other times we
believe that whether people will co- perceive ourselves as members of groups.

m
operate or compete will depend on the Both are equally valid expressions of self.

co
reward structure. Cooperative reward Our personal identities derived from views
structure is one in which there is of oneself as a unique individual, and social

.
ns
promotive interdependence. Each is identities derived from groups we perceive
ourselves to be members of, are both

io
beneficiary of the reward and reward is
possible only if all contribute. A important to us. The extent to which we

ut
competitive reward structure is one in define ourselves either at personal or at
ol
which one can get a reward only if social levels is flexible. From your own
ks
others do not get it. experience, you would realise that
oo

(ii) Interpersonal communication : When identification with social groups can have
there is good interpersonal a great deal of importance for your self-
rtb

communication, then cooperation is the concept. How do you feel when India wins
a cricket match? You feel elated and proud.
ce

likely consequence. Communication

facilitates interaction, and discussion. You feel so because of your social identity
.n

As a result, group members can as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that
w

convince each other and learn about aspect of our self-concept which is based
w

each other. on our group membership. Social identity

//w

(iii) Reciprocity : Reciprocity means that places us, i.e. tells us what and where we
people feel obliged to return what they are in the larger social context, and thus
s:

get. Initial cooperation may encourage helps us to locate ourselves in society. You
tp

more cooperation. Competition may have a social identity of a student of your

ht

provoke more competition. If someone school. Once you have this identity of a
helps, you feel like helping that person; student of your school, you internalise the
on the other hand, if someone refuses values emphasised in your school and
to help you when you need help, you make these values your own. You strive to
would not like to help that person also. fulfil the motto of your school. Social
identity provides members with a shared
SOCIAL IDENTITY set of values, beliefs and goals about
themselves and about their social world.
Have you ever asked the question “who Once you internalise the values of your
am I?” What was your answer to this school, this helps to coordinate and
question? Probably your answer was that regulate your attitudes and behaviour. You

146
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

work hard for your school to make it the there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict
best school in your city/state. When we results.
develop a strong identity with our own • Another reason for intergroup conflict
group, the categorisation as ingroup and is relative deprivation. It arises when
outgroup becomes salient. The group with members of a gr oup compare
which you identify yourself becomes the themselves with members of another
ingroup and others become the outgroup. group, and perceive that they do not
The negative aspect of this own group and have what they desire to have, which
outgroup categorisation is that we start the other group has. In other words,
showing favouritism towards our ingroup by they feel that they are not doing well in
rating it more favourably in comparison to comparison to other groups. This may
the outgroup, and begin devaluating the lead to feelings of deprivation and
outgroup. This devaluation of the outgroup discontentment, which may trigger off
is the basis of a number of intergroup conflict.

m
conflicts. • Another cause of conflict is one party’s

co
belief that it is better than the other,
and what it is saying should be done.
INTERGROUP CONFLICT : NATURE

.
AND

ns
When this does not happen, both
CAUSES
parties start accusing each other. One

io
Conflict is a process in which either an may often witness a tendency to

ut
individual or a group perceives that others magnify even smaller dif ferences,
(individual or gr oup) have opposing
ol
thereby conflict gets escalated because
ks
interests, and both try to contradict each every member wants to respect the
norms of her/his group.
oo

other. There is this intense feeling of ‘we’

and ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’). • A feeling that the other group does not
rtb

There is also a belief by both parties that respect the norms of my group, and
the other will protect only its own interests; actually violates those norms because
ce

their (the other side’s) interests will, of a malevolent intent.

.n

therefore, not be protected. There is not • Desire for retaliation for some harm
w

only opposition of each other, but they also done in the past could be another
w

try to exert power on each other. Groups reason for conflict.

//w

have been found to be more aggressive • Biased perceptions are at the root of
than individuals. This often leads to most conflicts. As already mentioned
s:

escalation of conflict. All conflicts are costly earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to
tp

as there is a human price for them. In biased perceptions.

ht

wars, there are both victories and defeats, • Research has shown that when acting
but the human cost of war is far beyond in groups, people are more competitive
all this. Various types of conflict are as well as more aggressive than when
commonly seen in society, which turn out they are on their own. Groups compete
to be costly for both sides as well as for over scarce resources, both material
society. resources, e.g. territory, and money as
Mentioned below are some of the major well as social resources, e.g. respect
reasons for group conflicts. and esteem.
• One major r eason is lack of • Perceived inequity is another reason for
communication and faulty communi- conflict. Equity refers to distribution of
cation by both parties. This kind of rewards in proportion to an individual’s
communication leads to suspicion, i.e. contributions, if:

147
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Your friends’ • Communication between the groups

Your rewards rewards becomes poor. The groups do not trust
= each other, thereby leading to a
Your contributions Your friends’ breakdown in communication and this
contributions generates suspicion for each other.
• Groups start magnifying their
But, if you contribute more and get differences and start perceiving their
less, you are likely to feel irritated and behaviour as fair and the other’s
exploited. behaviour as unfair.
Conflicts between groups give impetus • Each side tries to increase its own
to a series of social and cognitive processes. power and legitimacy. As a conse-
These processes harden the stand of each quence, the conflict gets escalated
side leading to ingroup polarisation. This shifting from few specific issues to
may result in coalition formation of like- much larger issues.

m
minded parties, thereby increasing the • Once conflict starts, several other

co
apprehensions of both parties resulting in factors lead to escalation of conflict.
misperceptions, and biased interpretations Hardening of ingroup opinion, explicit

.
ns
and attributions. The result is increased threats directed at the outgroup, each
conflict. Present-day society is fraught with

io
group retaliating more and more, and
various intergroup conflicts. These are

ut
other parties also choosing to take sides
related to caste, class, religion, region,
ol lead to escalation of conflict.
language, just to name a few of them.
ks
Gardner Murphy wrote a book entitled
‘In the Minds of Men’. Most conflicts begin CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
oo

in the minds of men and then go to the field.

rtb

Explanations of such conflicts can be at the Conflicts can be reduced if we know about
structural, group, and individual levels. their causes. The processes that increase
ce

Structural conditions include high rates of conflict can be turned around to reduce it
also. A number of strategies have been
.n

poverty, economic and social stratification,

suggested by psychologists. Some of these
w

inequality, limited political and social

are :
w

opportunity, etc. Research on group level

//w

factors has shown that social identity, Introduction of superordinate goals :

realistic conflict between groups over Sherif’s study, already mentioned in the
s:

resources, and unequal power relations section on cooperation and competition,

tp

between groups lead to escalation of showed that by introducing superordinate

ht

conflict. At the individual level, beliefs, goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced.
biased attitudes, and personality A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial
characteristics are important determinants. to both parties, hence both groups work
It has been found that at the individual cooperatively.
level, there is a progression along a
continuum of violence. Very small acts that Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also
initially may have no significance, like be reduced by altering perceptions and
calling the other group a name, may lead reactions through persuasion, educational
to psychological changes that make further and media appeals, and portrayal of groups
destructive actions possible. differently in society. Promoting empathy
Deutsch identified the following for others should be taught to everyone
consequences of intergroup conflict. right from the beginning.

148
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict there is a conflict. Sometimes it is difficult

can also be reduced by increasing contacts to dissipate conflict through negotiations;
between the groups. This can be done by at that time mediation and arbitration by
involving groups in conflict on neutral a third party is needed. Mediators help
grounds through community projects and both parties to focus their discussions on
events. The idea is to bring them together the relevant issues and reach a voluntary
so that they become more appreciative of agreement. In arbitration, the third party
each other’s stand. However, for contacts has the authority to give a decision after
to be successful, they need to be hearing both parties.
maintained, which means that they should
be supported over a period of time. Structural solutions : Conflict can also be
reduced by redistributing the societal
Redrawing group boundaries : Another
resources according to principles based on
technique that has been suggested by
justice. Research on justice has identified
some psychologists is redrawing the group

m
several principles of justice. Some of these
boundaries. This can be done by creating

co
are : equality (allocating equally to every
conditions where groups boundaries are
one), need (allocating on the basis of

.
redefined and groups come to perceive

ns
themselves as belonging to a common needs), and equity (allocating on the basis
of contributions of members).

io
group.

ut
Negotiations : Conflict can also be Respect for other group’s norms : In a
resolved through negotiations and third
ol
pluralist society like India, it is necessary
ks
party interventions. Warring groups can to respect and be sensitive to the strong
resolve conflict by trying to find mutually norms of various social and ethnic groups.
oo

acceptable solutions. This r equires It has been noticed that a number of

rtb

understanding and trust. Negotiation refers communal riots between different groups
to reciprocal communications so as to have taken place because of such
ce

reach an agreement in situations in which insensitivity.

.n
w

Key Terms
w
//w

Arbitration, Cohesiveness, Competition, Compliance, Conflict, Conformity, Cooperation, Goal achievement,

Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Intergroup, Negotiation, Norms,
s:

Obedience, Outgroup, Proximity, Roles, Social facilitation, Social influence, Social inhibition, Social
loafing, Status, Structure, Superordinate goals.
tp
ht

• Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles,
status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups.
• Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals.
• People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of
one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge and
information.
• Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation.
• Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive
and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur.
• Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and
ingroup and outgroup.

149
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

 Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

• Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are two
important influences of groups.
• Conformity, compliance, and obedience are three important forms of social influence.
• Conformity is the most indirect form of social influence; obedience the most direct
form; compliance is in-between the two.
• People interact in social situations by either cooperating or competing.
• One’s self-definition of who s/he is referred to as social identity.
• Group conflicts occur in all societies.
• Group conflicts can be reduced if we know the causes of such conflicts.

Review Questions
1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups.
2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that
group.

m
3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups?

co
4. How do groups influence our behaviour?
5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social

.
ns
loafing in school. How did you overcome it?
6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of

io
conformity?

ut
7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming
others? Explain. ol
8. What are the benefits of cooperation?
ks
9. How is one’s identity formed?
oo

10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict.
Reflect on the human price of this conflict.
rtb
ce
.n

Project 1. “S/he who does not ask will never get a bargain.” Collect the newspapers of last one
w

Ideas month. List the different bargains that were offered by shopkeepers. What compliance
w

techniques were used by them? Ask your friends how many were attracted by these
bargains.
//w

2. Make a list of different conflicts that have occurred among different houses in the
school. How were these conflicts resolved?
s:

3. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapers
tp

of that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian and
ht

rival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments?

4. Imagine that you have to collect money to help an NGO working for the girl child. What
techniques of social influence would you use? Try any two techniques and see the
difference.

Weblinks
http://www.mapnp.org/library/grp_skill/theory/theory.htm
http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm
http://www.stanleymilgram.com/main.htm
http://www.psychclassics.yorku.ca/sheriff/chap1.htm

150
Psychology

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/

Pedagogical Hints
1. In the topic of nature and formation
of groups, students should be made
to understand the importance of
groups in real-life. Here, it needs to
be emphasised that they should be
car eful in choosing groups.
Teachers can ask a few students
how they have become members of
different groups, and what do they
get from membership in these
groups.
2. For explaining social loafing, simple
experiments can be conducted in

m
the class by asking students to

co
perform some activities in groups
and then asking them about their

.
ns
contributions in the activities
undertaken. Learning experience

io
for students should be on ways to

ut
avoid social loafing.
3. In the topic of cooperation and
ol
competition, students should be
ks
told the benefits of both cooperation
and competition. They should be
oo

able to appreciate that cooperation

rtb

is a better strategy in society. Some

cases of real-life where cooperative
ce

efforts have been successful can be

discussed.
.n

4. Students should be able to

w

appr eciate that identities are

w

important and how our identities

influence our social behaviour.
//w

5. In the section on intergroup conflict,

emphasis should be on conflict
s:

resolution strategies rather than

tp

conflict per se.

ht

151
Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes

Downloaded from https://www.ncertbooksolutions.com/