DIY

SOLAR POWER
FOR BEGINNERS
A TECHNICAL GUIDE ON HOW TO
DESIGN, INSTALL AND MAINTAIN
GRID TIED AND OFF GRID SOLAR
POWER SYSTEMS FOR YOUR HOME

DIY SOURCE
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE: DIY Solar Power System
What is a solar power system?
Types of Solar Power Systems
DIY Installation of a Solar Power System
Factors to Consider before Setting up a PV System
Steps to Install a DIY PV System
CHAPTER TWO: Basic Electricity Rules, Formulas, and Circuits
Primary Factors of Electricity
Watt’s Law
Kirchhoff’s Law
Electrical Circuits
Types of Connection (series, parallel)
CHAPTER THREE: Essential Tools and Equipment
Safety Tools
Power Tools
Wiring Tools and Equipment
Solar Racking Equipment
Battery & Maintenance Tools
CHAPTER FOUR: Types of Solar Power Systems and Their
Components
Grid-Tied Solar Power System
Components of a Grid-tied System
Grid-Tied Solar Power System with Battery Backup (Hybrid Solar
System)
Components of a Hybrid System
All-in-One Solar Power Systems
 Off-grid Solar Power Systems (Standalone Solar Power Systems)
Components of an Off-Grid Solar Power system
CHAPTER FIVE: Solar Panels (PV Modules)
Types of PV Modules
Solar Panel Specification Sheet
PV Module and Shading Effects
Shading of the PV Array/String
Irradiance and PV Performance
Tilt and Orientation of the PV Array
PV Sizing for Grid-Tied Systems
How to Size Hybrid Solar Systems
How to Size an Off-Grid PV System
Roof Sizing
Choosing Suitable Solar Panels
Where to Mount Solar Panels
Pros and Cons of Roof Mount PV System
Pros and Cons of Ground Mount PV System
Mounting Systems
Roof Mounting Installation Process
CHAPTER SIX: Solar Charge Controllers
What is a solar charge controller
Why do we need a charge controller?
Charge Controllers and Stages of Charging
Charge Controller Technologies
How to Size a PWM Controller
Size an MPPT Charge Controller
Choose the Right Solar Controller: PWM versus MPPT
Programming Solar Charge Controllers
Connect the Charge Controller
CHAPTER SEVEN: Solar Battery Bank
What Is a Deep Cycle Battery?
 Types of Batteries
Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-Acid Battery Features and Terminologies
Monitoring a flooded lead-acid battery
Temperature Effect on Lead-Acid Batteries
VRLA versus FLA Battery Charging and Maintenance
Lithium-Ion Battery
Lithium-Ion Battery Mechanics
Comparing Lithium-Ion and Lead-Acid Battery
A SHORT MESSAGE FROM DIY SOURCE BOOKS
About DIY SOURCE BOOKS
CHAPTER EIGHT: Solar Inverters
Inverter’s Function
Common Features of Inverters
Voltage and Power Ratings (Wattage)
Off-Grid Inverters
Grid-Tied Inverters
AC-Coupled and DC-Coupled Configurations
How to Size an Inverter
CHAPTER NINE: Conductors and Connectors
Composition of Wires and Cables
Wire Color Codes and their Solar Application
Basic Principles of Wire Sizing
Sizing Conductors for PV Circuits
PV Source Wire
PV Output Wires
Battery to the Inverter Wires
Inverter Output Cable
PV Module Connectors
Wiring Solar Panels (stringing)
CHAPTER TEN: Connecting Overcurrent Protection Devices,
Wrapping It Up, and Troubleshooting
DC and AC Load Centers
Basic Rules for OCP Device Sizing
How to Crimp
Final Checklist and Troubleshooting
Issues to Look Out For
Common Mistakes Solar Installers Make
Final Words
References
 INTRODUCTION
The desire to use green sources of energy and be energy independent has led
to the increased use of PV solar power. This comprehensive guide covers
everything from designing and assembling rooftop racking systems or
ground-mount structures to setting up an electrical circuit connection for your
household devices.
Our guide is beginner-friendly as it provides you with easy steps on how to
design and install a solar power system from scratch. People who haven’t
mastered the installation process can follow the guide to install a solar array
to maximize their power output.
In this DIY solar power guide, you will learn:
• The critical aspects you need to know before installing a solar system.
• Basic electrical rules and circuits.
• Solar installation tools and equipment required.
• The different types of solar setups to help you choose the best type of
solar system to install based on your energy needs.
• How to determine the size of your solar array and some examples of
cost-effective solar panels.
• How to size your roof and install a racking system on your rooftops or
on the ground.
• How to maximize solar output based on your location, tilt angle,
azimuth angle, and panel orientation.
• Different types of charge controllers and how to size them.
• Types of battery systems, AC-coupled versus DC-coupled systems.
• Sizing battery for your solar system.
• How to size and connect a solar inverter to your system.
• Wire and circuit breaker sizing and different types of connectors for
your solar setup.
• Mistakes to avoid when installing a solar power system.
• How to troubleshoot your solar power system.
These simple steps will guide you on how to choose, design, and install a
reliable and efficient solar power system that meets your energy demands and
cuts down on your utility bills. You need this eBook!
 CHAPTER ONE: DIY Solar Power System
The increasing cost of electricity has left many people asking themselves,
should I go solar? If you look around your town or city, you’ll probably see
more and more solar panels. People are welcoming the idea of living off the
grid and still having a reliable power source.
A solar power system provides you with sustainable clean energy that can
save you a considerable amount of money per year. Solar-powered systems
utilize a renewable source of energy with zero emissions of greenhouse
gasses. This type of energy is classified as green energy because of its
environmental and economic benefits.
What is a solar power system?
It is a collection of solar panels that converts energy harnessed from sunlight
into electricity. Solar panels use photovoltaic (PV) technology that converts
the energy harnessed from the sun into an electric current.
Solar setup generates electricity to use for lighting and heating buildings,
cooling, and more. You can have a single solar panel that provides electricity
for charging your batteries or lighting. Or you can scale up to a large array of
panels that provides energy for your entire home.
A majority of homeowners in the developed countries have installed or are
planning to add a solar power system into their grid to supplement the
conventional sources of energy. Even in less developed nations, solar energy
is believed to be the solution to the world’s impending energy crisis.
If you’re looking forward to designing and installing a solar setup in your
home, our guide will walk you through the whole process of setting up a DIY
solar power system.
In the end, you not only can supplement your energy sources, but have an
efficient solar power system that meets your energy needs.
Want to find out how? Keep reading!
How does the solar power system work?
Tiny packets of energy (photons) from the sun strike the earth’s surface,
generating enough solar energy that can satisfy a great portion of global
power consumption. When the photons hit the solar cells in a solar panel,
they create free electrons that generate the flow of electricity.
Solar setups utilize photovoltaic (PV) technology to capture solar radiation
and turn it into a useful form of energy Solar panels made of varying
numbers of cells are used to generate electricity. The cells are made of a
semiconductor material called silicon that absorbs the sun ray’s energy. This
results in the creation of electrically charged particles that move in response
to the internal electric field inside the PV cell and convert the solar radiation
into electricity.

Silicon in PV cells is arranged in two layers; the positively charged and the
negatively charged layer. When sunlight hits the cells, the electric field
between the two layers causes electricity to flow and generate a direct current
(DC). You can draw this current for external use in your home.
Though you don’t always need bright sunlight for your solar panels to work,
the intensity of the light determines the amount of electricity that can be
generated. As the generated electricity exceeds your needs, you can invest in
batteries to store power for use at night or during cloudy days.
Types of Solar Power Systems
A solar power system’s integration into electrical grids and homes can be
classified under three methods:
• Grid-tied
• Off-grid
• Hybrid
Grid-tied Solar Power System
It requires a connection to a network or a utility power grid in order to
generate and supply solar energy. There are no batteries connected to the
system and any excess energy generated is sent back to the network.
If the solar energy generated into your switchboard is more than your power
consumption, then the excess electricity is directed to the grid through the
meter. This specific meter records the amount of KWh sent to the grid. Your
utility company will record this figure in every billing cycle and pay you
accordingly.
Off-grid Solar Power system
An off-grid system doesn’t require a connection to the electricity grid. You
only need to connect to the battery to store the excess electricity. The battery
capacity will enable you to store enough electricity to be used at nights and in
cloudy days. The power generated can meet residential, industrial, and
commercial user needs even during the winter months.
Hybrid Solar Power System
This is a mix of both grid-tied and off-grid systems. When the grid is
available, they work as on-grid solar systems; otherwise, they perform like
the off-grid system. They generate electricity similar to a conventional grid-
tied solar system. The lithium or lead-acid battery connected acts as a backup
power supply. If you want to have a continuous power supply in case of a
power outage, you should consider a hybrid PV system.
How long does it take to pay off (grid-tied and hybrid systems)?
When you go solar, you reduce your monthly electricity bill paid to the utility
company. If you have a grid-tied solar system, you can export the excess
solar energy to the utility company and receive payment on a quarterly basis
based on how much electricity you send to them.
When your solar panels don’t generate enough electricity, you can import
more electricity from the utility company. This will reduce your electricity
bill compared to when you’re solely dependent on the utility company.
Investing in solar energy is a decent decision you can make to reduce your
expenditure and keep the environment safe. Though the initial cost of setting
up a solar system is high, over time, it will pay you back. The state and
federal tax incentives accelerate the payoff schedule.
If you install a grid-tied solar system, it can pay itself off within three to six
years if you install it yourself, and around five to nine years should you hire a
professional contractor. In addition, solar panels come with a 25-year
warranty, and any amount of energy generated beyond the initial payback
period is considered a return on your investment (ROI). The payback period
is how long it takes you to recover from your initial investment installing a
solar system. You can easily use an online solar ROI calculator to calculate
your payback period.
Alternatively, you can use the solar payback formula to determine how long
it will take to pay off. You can start by calculating the total cost of installing
the solar system after deducting the incentives. Then compare this figure
against the cost of electricity from the utility company.
Payback period = (Total Installation Cost - Value of Incentives) / (Cost of
Electricity per Unit * Annual Electricity Consumption)
Your total installation costs include the cost of solar equipment, permit,
installation cost, contractor wages, and any other costs associated with the
project. Value of incentives represents a reward such as tax credits you get
for installing solar power. The solar investment tax credit is usually 26% of
federal taxes and you’re entitled to claim it. Check other local or state
incentives in your country when calculating the payback period.
The cost of electricity is the billing rate per KWh of electricity. You can get
information about the cost of electricity from your utility provider. Electricity
consumption or usage is usually printed in your electricity bill. Annual
electricity consumption is th
e total monthly usage multiplied by twelve to get your annual consumption.
Alternatively, you can gather full-year monthly bills from the utility company
and get an accurate amount.
Decreasing Costs of Solar Power
Due to the development of cost-effective and efficient power systems, energy
costs have dropped. According to the International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA) 2019 report, the energy costs were reduced by 82%, while
that of photovoltaic solar energy dropped by 47%.
The reduction in costs was a result of improved technology, changes in the
economies of scale, and the competitiveness of the supply chain. This led to
the rise of the global capacity of solar from 40 GW (gigawatt) to 580 GW
between 2010 and 2019, according to IRENA. Today, PV projects aimed at
utilizing renewable green sources of energy are increasingly becoming less
expensive.
DIY Installation of a Solar Power System
The use of solar power in residential areas has highly contributed to the
reduced installation costs. You can use the DIY option to keep the installation
cost within your budget.
So can you install a solar power system by yourself?
Yes, if you live in the US, for example, you can definitely install your own
solar system and save money; but if, for instance, you live in Australia, you
have to work with an accredited electrician and comply with the set standards
and legislatures.
Solar system installation may seem highly complex, but it is doable! You
only need to have basic electrical knowledge and you will be ready to do it
yourself. However, you have to take into account a number of other
considerations before installing a solar power system in your home. To start
with, you have to estimate your electricity needs and whether you will use
solar power all year round. Different homes have different electricity needs.
In some homes, electricity is needed to power lights and charge cell phones,
while, in other homes, they need to run their television, refrigerator, and other
items.
Factors to Consider before Setting up a PV System
Before buying any solar components and installing them, there are a number
of factors you have to consider. Since solar system installation is a very large
investment, you have to be accurate in your calculations and your choices.
Knowing these key facts will make it easy for you to select the right products
for your solar setup. Some of these factors are as follows:
1. How long will you live in your house?
Though you may notice an immediate drop in your electricity bills after
installing a solar power system, it will take at least five to six years for your
solar investment to pay off. If you intend to live in the same house for the
long term, then your investment in solar power is worth every cent.
Otherwise, the cost of solar powering your house will be considerably high.
2. How much energy do you need to power your house?
Another important fact you have to consider is the amount of energy you
need to run all the appliances in your home. Of course, different households
have different electricity needs based on the type of devices they’re using and
the number of people living in that house.
If you have a lower consumption level, you can go for fewer solar panels. So
it is important to know your average power consumption to estimate how
many solar panels are sufficient for your energy needs. Generally, the size of
your solar power system depends on insolation (sun exposure) and how much
energy you need.
3. Cost of solar system
The cost of solar equipment varies from one manufacturer to another, making
it difficult to know which equipment is appropriate and not overpriced.
Though the prices of solar panels have gradually reduced, other equipment
and installation expenses might be high. It can take you five to six years to
offset the initial cost of deploying a solar system in your home.
4. Roof type
Although you can install solar panels on almost every rooftop, some of them
require more effort and have to incur extra costs to install the solar panels.
For example, it is very difficult to install solar panels on regular wood shingle
rooftops. If you have this type of rooftop, you should consider hiring an
experienced professional for rooftop mounting.
5. Location
The amount of energy generated depends on where you live and the amount
of direct sunlight exposure to your panels. If you live in areas where there are
tall trees and buildings, it can affect sunlight exposure to your panels.
If you live in the US and in a state like California, Texas, or Arizona, you
may experience high energy output from your solar system since these areas
receive full sunlight for long hours. However, if you live in areas with less
direct sunlight like Montana or Minnesota, you may still need to rely on the
grid, while utilizing solar energy as much as possible by equipping a more
efficient PV system with extra number of solar panels.
6. Permits
Before you install solar panels in your home, you have to file for an electrical
permit, a structural or building permit, and a dedicated solar photovoltaic
permit. Consult a local professional to know all the legal issues and zoning
laws within your country.
You should also obtain relevant information in regard to building permits to
avoid the risk of having to re-do the installation of the whole system or be
fined. This is especially true regarding ground-mounting solar panels.
Mostly, building permits are issued at the local level, so it is important to
follow all the state rules and regulations that apply to your municipality.
Steps to Install a DIY PV System
1. Design and size your solar power system based on your power needs.
2. Buy solar power equipment.
3. Mount your solar panels either on the rooftop or in your garden.
4. Connect your solar panels to the charge controller and then to the
battery (in battery-backed systems).
5. Install solar inverters and set up stands for your inverter and battery.
6. Install a smart meter/net metering (for grid-tied and hybrid systems).
7. Complete your power system by connecting it to the main electrical
board.
8. Request your local utility company to give you Permission to Operate
(PTO) on the net metering system and connect to the grid (if applicable).
Following these steps will help you set up your solar power unit. The
financial return can be reaped later since solar energy is a green source of
energy and also cost-effective. To learn more about how to set up your own
system, stick around and keep reading. But before we can go into detail on
how to go about the installation process, let's look at basic electricity rules
and formulas in the next chapter.
Chapter Summary
Solar energy is a renewable, green energy source generated from the sun that
is converted to electricity by photovoltaic (PV) technology that harnesses this
energy and delivers it to different electrical appliances. Solar energy is cost-
effective. Deciding to go solar will reduce your monthly electricity bill from
the utility supplier and can lead to utility independence.
There are different types of solar power systems you can choose based on
your needs and installation process. Deciding on whether to be grid-tied or
not is based on clear-cut benefits of grid-tied solar systems and individual
options. The majority of homeowners prefer grid-tied connections. However,
there are those who prefer off-grid or hybrid solar power systems.
 CHAPTER TWO: Basic Electricity Rules,
Formulas, and Circuits
Electricity uses are everywhere, hence the need to have basic knowledge on
laws that govern how electricity operates. To understand these laws, you need
to understand the key foundation of basic electrical concepts such as voltage,
resistance, current, Ohm’s law, circuit theory, and others.
Let’s start by defining what electricity is.
Electricity is the flow of an electric charge. An electric charge can either be
positive or negative, and its movement creates an electric field. The charge is
generated from primary sources (natural sources of energy such as sunlight)
and secondary sources.
No matter how the charge is created, the flow of this charge results in an
electric current. In this tutorial, you will learn the basic electrical concepts
that help you better utilize them while designing and installing your PV
system.
Primary Factors of Electricity
The fundamental forces of electricity that control all electrical circuits
include:
➢ Voltage
➢ Current flow
➢ Resistance (Impedance)
Voltage
Voltage or potential difference is an electromotive force that pushes the
current to flow through an electrical circuit. It is measured in volts and
denoted by the letter “V”. Scientifically, a volt is defined as the electromotive
force (E) required forcing a single ampere of current to flow through a
resistance of one ohm.
Let’s compare voltage to water pressure in a water hose. If the pressure is
very high, the water will flow through the system much faster. Similarly, if
the voltage (electrical pressure) is high, then electricity will flow through the
circuit at a faster rate.
Current
As explained previously, the flow of electrical charge results in an electric
current. The rate of flow of the current is measured in amperes (A), and it is
represented by the letter “I”. The scientific definition of the current is the
flow of 6.25*1023 electrons per second.
Considering the same water hose analogy, just as voltage resembles the water
pressure, current can be compared to the amount of water passing through the
hose pipe. And just like the rate of flow of water through the pipe, current
represents the rate of flow of electrons through the conductor. For example,
the number of electrons flowing through a circuit with 12A current will be
three times as those flowing through a circuit with a current of 4A.
The current flowing through a circuit can either be direct current (DC) or
alternating current (AC). DC has a constant voltage polarity that allows it to
flow in only one direction. By contrast, AC flows in both directions along
with its voltage polarity. The diagram below shows the difference between
two types of electric power.
AC Power
Alternating current (AC) power is the standard electricity emitted from the
power outlets. The flow of electric charge periodically changes from either
positive (upward) to negative (downward) direction. The movement of
electrons results in the formation of sinusoidal AC waves.
AC power produced by an alternator switches its polarity; this is due to the
movement of the stationary coil in relation to magnetic flux. As depicted
above, both AC current and voltage follow a particular sinusoidal pattern.
Depending on the type of the load of the electrical device used, these
waveforms may be in phase or out of phase in relation to each other.
Sinusoidal AC waves vary from -1 (located under the horizontal line) to +1
(located above the line). For example, a sine of 90 degrees is considered 1
while a sine of 0 degrees is equal to 0. The voltage and current waveforms
flowing on an oscilloscope have sine waves that overlap each other. The
oscilloscope is the device used to measure the AC sine waves.
Each complete sine wave is called a cycle, which consists of two negative
and positive peaks (+1 and -1) each located between two points of zero
(illustrated in the AC diagram above). Frequency is the measure used to
describe the alternating rate of both voltage and current. The unit used to
measure the wave's frequency is called Hertz. The standard power frequency
in the US is 60 Hertz, which is equal to 60 complete sine waves (cycles) in
one second.
DC Power
Direct current is a linear electrical current that moves in a straight line. DC
power is drawn from batteries, fuel cells, and solar cells. You can also obtain
DC from AC power by using an inverter or a rectifier that converts AC to DC
power.
Most electronic devices use DC power from batteries because it offers
consistent voltage. Other devices have a built-in rectifier in the power supply
unit to enable them to convert AC from the power outlet to DC power. Not
all electronic devices use DC power; there are those that use AC power
sourced directly from the power grid.
Resistance/Impedance
Resistance measures the ratio of voltage across an object to the current
flowing through it. In fact, it measures the opposition of the current as it
flows through the circuit.

Resistance is measured in ohms denoted by the omega symbol (Ω). When

current passes through a material, it experiences some resistance to a certain
degree.
Conductor materials offer less resistance, and electrons can move freely
through the material. For example, aluminum, copper, gold, and silver
materials offer less resistance, while insulator materials have high resistance
and restrict the flow of electrons through the material. Examples include
glass, paper, plastic, rubber, and wood. The higher the resistance is, the lower
the flow of current would be. If the resistance of the circuit is constant, then
you can use Ohm’s law to determine the behavior of the material.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law is one of the most practical laws of electrical circuits. It states that
the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
across it provided temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
It measures the relationship between the potential difference and current
flow;
V = I * R, I = V / R, or R = V / I,
Where,
V is the voltage across the conductor (measured in
volts) and measures the potential difference required to move a
unit of charge between two points,
I is the current passing through the conductor
(measured in amperes), and
R is the resistance of the conductor (measured in
ohms).

For example, if a battery has a voltage of 10V with a resistance of 100Ω, then
the current that is flowing through the circuit is 0.1A.

I = V / R, so:
10 V / 100Ω = 0.1 A
Resistance of the conductor (R) describes the ability of the circuit to resist or
impede the flow of electrons moving through the circuit. This opposition
results in the production of heat. For example, the current passing through the
circuit in a tungsten light bulb heats up the filament, which acts as a
resistance causing the bulb to emit light.
Ohm’s law holds true only if the temperature and other conditions remain
constant. In some components, if the current increases, the temperature rises.
In such instances, you can’t apply Ohm’s law.
Water Analogy for Ohm’s Law
Since electrons are invisible, the water analogy can help to easily understand
the flow of current within a circuit. The water that flows through the pipes is
similar to how current flows through the circuit.

The water pressure voltage here, while the amount of water flowing through
the pipe represents the current that flows through the circuit. If you have a
bigger pipe, it offers less resistance as more water flows through the pipe
(current) while pressure (voltage) is unchanged. Similarly, if your water pipe
is smaller, less water flows out of it with the same pressure.
Watt’s Law
Watt’s law states that the power dissipated in a circuit is a product of its
voltage and the current flowing through the circuit. It describes the
relationship between the power, current, and voltage drop in a circuit.
Power = Voltage * Current
Or
P=I*V
For instance, if you have several 500-watt electrical devices, you probably
want to know how many of them you can plug into your circuit without
blowing the fuse. To determine how devices you can plug in, you need to
first determine the total amount of current you can draw from the circuit. If
the circuit has a 15A circuit breaker and if the voltage required is 110 V, then
the power dissipated in the circuit will be:
110 V * 15 A = 1650 W.
This is the available power for your circuit, so whatever device you plug into
your circuit should be less than this. In our case, we can plug a maximum of
1650 W / 500 W = 3.3 (rounded down to 3) 500-watt electrical devices into
the electrical circuit.
Variation of Watt’s Law
Power is the rate at which a circuit uses energy and is a product between
voltage and current.
P=V*I
When electrons flow through a resistance, they collide with each other and
with the atoms in the circuit. The collision results in the generation of heat
which in turn leads to energy loss.
V=I*R
This results in a variation of Watt’s law and it is expressed as
P=I*R*I
Or

P = I2 * R.
Watt’s law and Ohm's law use the same quantities, and you can combine both
equations to come up with individual quantities. For example, if the power
and voltage are indicated, you can determine the current flowing through the
circuit using the Watt’s formula.
Similarly, you can combine both Watt’s and Ohm’s law equations to
determine resistance across an electrical circuit.
For example, if you have a 60 watt light bulb in a 120 volt circuit, you can
calculate the current flowing through will be 0.5 amperes.
Current = Power / Voltage = 60 / 120 = 0.5 amperes.
Common DC Circuit Terms
To better understand the next electrical laws, you need to know a couple of
circuit terminologies such as nodes, loops, and branches. Below they have
been covered in brief:
➢ Circuit: A closed-loop conductor that provides a path for the
current to flow through. The diagram below illustrates a closed circuit.

➢ Node: It acts as a junction or connection terminal in a circuit

that allows you to connect two or more elements together. It resembles
a dot and forms a connection point between branches. For example, the
above circuit has four nodes.
➢ Branch: Consists of a single component or a group of
components (like resistors, capacitors, etc.) which are connected
between two nodes. The diagram below has five branches (resistors
plus battery).
 ➢ Loop: A loop is formed when a closed path goes through a
node or any circuit element. A loop is, in fact, a pathway in which the
current can flow. To draw a loop, select the first node as your starting
point and draw a path through the elements or nodes until you go back
to the starting point. Rule: You can go through each node/element only
one time to form a complete loop. In the diagram below there are six
pathways or loops for the electrical current to flow.

➢ Terminal: A point at which the conductor from a component of

a circuit comes to an end.
Kirchhoff’s Law
The concept of Kirchhoff’s law is ideal for dealing with complex circuits.
The law describes a relationship between the current flowing in a node and
the voltage across a loop.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Since all electrical components are connected together by nodes, the total
current going through the node should be equal to the total current leaving
that node. In other words, the current in is equal to the current out.

∑ I in= ∑ I out
The sum of current entering into and out of the node must be equal to zero.

I in + I out = 0
In this case, the node acts as a connector or junction between two or more
elements or current paths. A closed-circuit path must exist for the current to
flow in and out of the node.
The current coming to a node is measured positive, while the one exiting is
measured negative; thus, the sum of them is zero.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
This law states that the algebraic sum of all the potential differences
(voltages) of all the elements connected in series in a loop is equal to zero. It
also ensures there is the same voltage (potential difference) across each
branch in the circuit. In other words, all the electrical components in the
circuit have the same current flowing through them.
V1 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5

V1 + (-IR1) + (-IR2) + (-IR3) + (-IR4) + (-IR5) = 0

Or

∑Vtotal = 0
As illustrated above, the voltage of the source (V1) is considered positive,
while in the resistors (R1, R2, R3, R4) it is dropping (negative), and that is
why the law states the algebraic sum of voltage drops must be equal to zero.
Electrical Circuits
An electrical circuit consists of components that allow transmission, storage,
and conversion of energy. The energy transmitted through the circuit flows
through one or more sources and exits via one or more outlets.
Every circuit has three basic elements: the voltage source, load, and
conductive path.
A voltage source consists of a battery that enables the current to flow through
the circuit, while the conductive path allows current to flow through the
conductive material. The load is an electrical device that consumes the power
in the circuit.
The conductive circuit establishes a relationship between the voltage source
and the load. Circuits have a switch that you can turn on or off, and a fuse
connected between the source and the load.
Therefore, before you build your own solar system, you have to know about
the circuits and how to successfully create one.
Components of a simple Electrical Circuit
Different electrical components are connected together to form a circuit.
Understanding these components will make it easy to build your own system.

Switch
A switch can be in the form of a pushbutton, momentary, or rocker, and it
interrupts electrical current when you turn the circuit off.
Resistor
A resistor is a basic component that controls the voltage and how current
flows through the circuit. Before designing your circuit, it is important to
know the size of the resistor. You can use Ohm’s law to determine the
amount of resistance in a circuit. In other words, you can determine the
voltage and the amperage from the battery and the light-emitting diode.
Capacitor
A capacitor is another basic electronic component that stores electricity and is
also responsible for discharging electricity back into the circuit when the
voltage drops. It acts like a rechargeable battery that is charged or discharged.
Diode
This allows the generated electricity to flow in only one direction. The
diode's main role is to route and block electricity from flowing in the opposite
direction or unwanted path in the circuit.
Light-emitting diode (LED)
The LED acts as a standard diode that allows electricity to flow in only one
direction. The insides of the LED component have both an anode (+) and
cathode (-), and by the electrical current flowing, it emits light. Electricity
always flows from the positive side (anode) to the negative side (cathode)
and not in the opposite direction.
Transistor
A transistor acts as a tiny switch, and, when triggered by an electrical signal,
it turns the current on or off. It can also amplify
signals.
Types of Circuits
If you have two or more electrical components to connect in a circuit, there
are certain situations in which the current and voltage of the circuit are
critical to know. Electrical components such as resistors form a two-terminal
object (circuit with two endpoints).
1. Closed Circuit
A closed circuit works like a circle that allows electricity to flow from one
end of the circle all the way back to the starting point, forming a complete
loop. The current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of
the capacitor uninterrupted. As illustrated below, a closed circuit provides a
low resistance path for the electrical current to pass through.
2. Open Circuit
When you switch off the circuit or if there is a fault in your electrical wire,
the current stops flowing, forming an open circuit. In such cases, there is no
continuity of current flow because of the broken wire as depicted below.

Switching the light switch on or off opens or closes the circuit that connects
lights to the energy source. If you disconnect the battery, it creates an open
circuit. Open circuit voltage is considered a significant feature in order to size
main PV equipment.
3. Short circuit
When you directly connect two points that are not supposed to be connected,
they form a short circuit. For example, if you connect two end terminals of a
power supply, the electricity will flow through the conductive path with the
least resistance.

The current can bypass the parallel conductive paths and flow through the
direct connection path. However, in real life, this can shut out your power
supply, which is usually due to your fuse function. The high current flowing
through the circuit can emit large amounts of heat due to high energy voltage.
The circuit has little or no resistance to the flow of current. As you will notice
in the entire book, short circuit current is of great importance regarding sizing
different PV equipment and wires.
Types of Connection (series, parallel)
Elements of a circuit may be connected in series, parallel or a combination of
both.
Series Connection
In a series connection, the electrical components follow a single electrical
path, and the same current flows through each of the connected components.
The voltage across the circuit is equivalent to the sum of the voltages across
each of the connected components (as mentioned in Kirchhoff’s voltage law).
Components of a series circuit are connected in line with the power source,
and the current is constant throughout the circuit. If you open or break a
series circuit, the entire circuit will stop operating. For example, if one of the
light bulbs connected to a string of lights in a Christmas tree burns out, the
entire series of Christmas tree lights will not work until you replace the
broken one.
A series circuit consists of several resistances that are connected one after the
other forming an end-to-end connection.
In this configuration, depicted above, the current flows in a clockwise
direction from point 1 to 2, 3, 4, and back to point 1. The resistors (R1, R2,
and R3) are connected in series and in a single chain to the battery:

R total = R1 +R2+R3+…R n

The voltage supplied in the circuit is the sum of individual voltage drops
across the resistors, while the current passing through all elements is equal.

V total = V1 + V2+ V3 +…V n

I total =V total / R total

Parallel Connection
In a parallel connection, electrical components connect along multiple paths,
and the voltage across each of the components is the same. Components
connected in parallel have a constant voltage and branch off from the
battery.
The current that flows through the circuit is equal to the sum of currents
across each of the components (resistors).

Again, the circuit above has three resistors, but the current has to flow
through multiple paths. The first path flows from point 1 to 2, 7, 8, and back
to point 1. The second path flows from point 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, and back to 1.
And the third path flows from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and back to 1. Each path
flowing through R1, R2, and R3 is called a “loop.”

1/Rtotal=1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3

Series-Parallel Configuration

The above series-parallel configuration consists of two loops to allow the

flow of current. The first loop allows current to flow from point 1, 2, 5, 6, and
back to point 1. And another flows from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and back to 1. Both
currents flow through R1 (from point 1 to 2), while R2 and R3 are configured

in parallel to each other. Therefore, while the total voltage of this circuit is
equal to the sum of voltage in R1 and either voltage of R2 or R3, the current
passing through R1 is equal to the sum of the currents of R 2 and R3.

Electrical Load
Any device that consumes electrical power is known as an electrical load.
Devices such as light bulbs, laptops, TVs, refrigerators, cell phones, etc., are
part of an electrical circuit and will consume electrical energy. An electrical
load transforms the electricity into other forms such as heat, light, or motion.
The term load can also describe the power requirements of a particular supply
unit or the amount of electrical current flowing through the circuit. The type
of load consumed depends on the demand, diversity, power, and utilization of
your system. It can either be Resistive, Inductive or Capacitive.
Resistive load
A resistive load consists of lights and heating elements such as ovens,
incandescent lights, coffee makers, and toasters. These devices consume
active power since power only flows from the voltage source to the load, and
there will be no power flowing in the opposite direction. In addition, the
voltage and the current waveforms of the loads are usually in phase with each
other and reach the peak at the same time. As explained before, sinusoidal
waveforms are characteristic of AC power and are due to the oscillating
movement of stationary coils in electrical stations. Below is depicted a
resistive load’s current and voltage sine wave:

Inductive load
This type of load only consumes reactive power. Examples include: electrical
motors, transformers, and generators. The coil in the load stores magnetic
energy as current flows through it. A number of household items with
moving parts such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, air
conditioners, and compressors use this type of load. Some of these devices
need peak surge current to start, which must be taken into account while
calculating your daily electricity consumption.
The current waveform lags behind the voltage wave causing lagging of the
power factor of the inductive load. Both voltage and current are out of phase
and lag by 90 degrees. In such cases, when the current is at zero, the voltage
is at its maximum.
Since inductive loads consume reactive power, the power can flow either
from the load to the source or from the source to the load.
Capacitive load
In this type of load, the current wave reaches its maximum peak point before
the voltage wave. The two waves are out of phase and the current waves are
always leading by 90 degrees. Capacitive load is widely used in capacitor
banks, and in three-phase induction motors.
Since the capacitive load doesn’t exist in the form of a stand-alone format,
there is no specific device that is categorized as capacitive. Large circuits use
capacitors to control power usage. Electrical substations use capacitors to
improve the power factor of the system.
Chapter Summary
Having knowledge of basic electrical rules, circuits, and formulas is essential
if you want to build your own solar power system. Electricity rules will
enable you to know how to connect different electrical components and sizes
based on the amount of power you want to draw. There are also different
types of circuits, and they have different ways of functioning.
A proper understanding of how electricity is used for different household
purposes will help you during different steps in your solar journey. In the
next chapter, you will learn essential tools for solar power design, installation
and maintenance.
 CHAPTER THREE: Essential Tools and
Equipment

The shift to solar power has led to the invention of highly specialized tools
for solar power installation. Though some of these tools are easy to find
around your home, there are others designed specifically for solar power
installations. These tools range from simple devices that allow you to
disconnect the solar connections to highly complex tools.
If you want to install the system yourself, then you need to learn about the
basic tools required to set up your PV system. DIY installations lower your
solar power costs, but if you don't have the basic installation tools and want
to hire a contractor, your upfront costs will rise.
In addition to having the necessary installation skills, you also need to
consider your safety. As with any DIY situation, accidents and injuries can
happen, and you obviously want to avoid that. Therefore, before you start
your DIY installation project, you must collect all the required tools. In some
cases, you have to hire the services of a professional electrician to help you
with more complicated procedures such as wiring and bending of the conduit.
But if you have the basic electrical skills, you can utilize them. Remember to
observe all the safety precautions!
Let’s have a look at some of the common tools needed for solar installation.
Safety Tools
The installation of solar panels requires heavy lifting, climbing on the roof,
and electrical wiring; thus, your safety is of utmost importance. Some of the
protective equipment you need to consider includes the following.
Gloves and boots
Always wear gloves and closed-toe boots to avoid cuts, scrapes, and other
injuries when installing panels. Boots with flat soles provide you with the
grip required when working with shingle roofs, tiles, or metals.
You can also wear long-sleeved clothes to prevent the burning of your skin
when working outside or on the roof.
Goggles
Wear eye protection glasses and other protective gear to prevent eye injuries
when working. Since you will be exposed to direct sunlight while working on
the roof, some sunscreen lotion is a good idea as well.
Roof anchors
Roof anchors protect you from falling when installing a roof-mount system.
Always attach a safety harness to the anchor when working on the roof to
provide you with an extra layer of protection.

Scaffolding
A scaffold helps you to climb to the roof and can act as a boom-lift for
getting the equipment to high places. You can make a temporary scaffold
structure that aids in your installation of panels at higher places. Regular
ladders can be also used in simpler projects.

Multimeter
Use a multimeter to check whether there is voltage before you work on the
system. Ensure the conductors and terminators have zero voltage before
starting any installation—that way, you’ll avoid an electric shock.
Guardrails
When installing solar panels on a roof, especially in more extensive projects,
you are at risk of falls. Thus, there’s a need for having solar safety hacks like
temporary guardrails. A roof safety harness tool also protects you from
falling.
Ladder
You need a sturdy ladder to help you climb up and down with ease. The
ladder should extend at least three feet above the edges of your roof.
Power Tools
Pitched and sloped rooftops require different mounting systems and,
consequently, different tools. Additionally you will need a majority of these
tools for other solar components installation. Below are some of the common
solar installation tools you should consider.
Cordless drill
A cordless drill is a powerful tool that simplifies your DIY work. It helps you
drill pilot holes, drive in lag screws, and tightly fasten them into the roof. A
cordless drill has a variety of functions, and every homeowner should have
one. A general-purpose drill with a 12V or 18V battery is suitable for most
solar purposes.
Impact driver
Just like the cordless drill, impact drivers are efficient in driving long deck
screws, tightening module clamps, and fastening racking bolts on surfaces.
An impact driver is built for driving screws, but cannot drill. It is suitable
when dealing with large screws and bolts because it exerts an extra rotational
force on hard material.
Drill bits & sockets
Drill bits act as cutting tools that create holes of different sizes and shapes on
different types of materials. Always choose a drill bit larger than the hole size
you want to create.
The twist bits are the common drilling bits for plastic, timber, and metal
materials, and you can drill them with your hand or use an electric drill. If
you want to drill into concrete, stone, or brick material, you should use
masonry bits.
A drill bit socket is a tool that adapts sockets for use in a drill. They have an
adapter fitted on a tapered shank drill to a tapered hole that is larger than the
created hole size. The sockets fit on the nuts or bolts to tighten the drill bits as
depicted below:
Caulking gun
This is a tube filled with cartridge material (roof sealant) that seals up any
gaps or holes left after fastening screws on your rooftop. The cartridge
material used may be either silicon or latex, and you can use it to bond
together a range of materials such as glass, metal, or ceramic.

A caulking gun regulates how much caulk gets out of the tube when you
squeeze it. The roof sealant prevents any leaks due to drilling installation
holes. When buying a roof sealant, go for one that is appropriate for your roof
sealing purposes.
Jigsaw
This is a powerful tool that allows you to cut rails after installing the solar
modules, for instance. It enables you to have more control when cutting
complicated patterns or shapes to avoid damaging your roof.
Reciprocating saw
A reciprocating saw is a handheld tool that allows you to quickly cut through
a number of materials. The saw has a large blade just like a jigsaw blade, and
an oriented handle that allows you to comfortably cut materials on vertical
surfaces. A chargeable saw is preferred on the roof.
Hole saw/Hole cutter
A hole saw is a ring-shaped blade that makes holes on a surface without
cutting the core material. It is suitable for drilling, and the hole creator has a
pilot drill bit at the center to prevent the saw teeth from moving. You can use
this tool to cut through thin metal plates and roof material, etc.
Screwdriver
A screwdriver allows you to tighten or loosen different types of screws.
Although impact drivers have dominated most screw driving applications,
manual drivers might come handier in certain situations.
Pliers
Crimping pliers have jaws that allow you to grip objects when you squeeze
the two handles together. Though most pliers are designed to perform
general-purpose work, there are those designed specifically for certain
purposes.
If you have long nose pliers, it can bend wires or squeeze out tight spaces.
Pliers with sharp edges can shear through thick electrical wires. You can also
use pliers to grip objects when doing the installation. Holding wires with
pliers helps prevent electrocution.
Measuring tape/String line/Chalk line
A measuring tape is obviously needed for your project. For instance, you can
measure the distance between the drilled holes on your panels and mark
corresponding areas on your rooftop to know where to drill the holes.
A chalk line tool marks straight lines on a flat surface. You can use it to lay
straight lines between two points and ensure the panels are mounted on the
chalk lines.
A string line ensures that your solar panels are installed in perfectly leveled
squares. Everyone appreciates well-organized solar panels on the roof.
Roof sealant
A roof sealant helps prevent leaks from the drilled holes. Always make sure
to buy a sealant suitable for your roof material.
Wiring Tools and Equipment
You will need to know how to use several tools and equipment specifically
used for wiring.
Junction boxes and splices
A junction box is n electrical box that encloses electrical wires and cables. If
you cut electrical cables or splice the wires together, then you need a junction
box to protect against short-circuiting of the wires.
These safety measures prevent electrical shock from live wires in your home.
All wires connected to your switches and lights should be enclosed in a
junction box which will serve as an enclosure for all spliced wires. Each box
consists of a connection splice that accommodates two or more circuit cables.
Cables entering the box are secured by either conduit connectors or cable
clamps.
When buying junction boxes and splices, ensure they meet the voltage and
current requirements of your circuit. Always use approved splicing devices or
insulated lugs.

AC breakers
An AC circuit breaker prevents damage to your appliances by cutting off the
power supply when it detects an overload. It functions by interrupting current
flow when it detects a fault. The circuit breakers can also import and export
power from your equipment. Below you can see a subpanel containing a few
circuit breakers:
Sub-panels
This is an essential component that helps you add additional circuits in your
home when slots of the main panel circuit breaker are full. It extends the
distribution of power to specific areas in your home. A subpanel has its own
breakers, making it easy to extend your wiring using multiple branch circuits
to your home or buildings if they’re far away from the main panel.
PV meters
If you’re installing a grid-tied or a hybrid solar system, you have to install a
dedicated PV meter that measures the amount of energy generated by your
solar array. In most cases, you have to install the base of the meter socket,
and once your solar system is approved, the utility company will install the
meter face and activate your PV system.
Conduits
A conduit is a tube used to protect your electric wiring from moisture,
impact, and chemicals in exposed areas. The plastic sheath enclosing the
wires is prone to damage. To avoid this, you can pull single strands of wires
into a metal conduit to protect sensitive electrical circuits.
Electrical metallic tubing (EMT) conduit is a rigid steel raceway which not
only protects the wires but also grounds the panels. Always make sure you
have the right size of conduit before starting the installation process. Once
you place the conduit correctly, you can tighten the joints using a set of
channel locks.
Channel locks
Channel locks look like pliers that you can use to grab, hold, and turn nuts or
bolts. The tool is also great for crimping metal objects or the end of pipes.
They come in a set of 6.5, 9.5, and 12 inch pliers.
Equipment Grounding Conductor (EGC)
This is a bare copper wire used to ground the solar components. It connects
solar panels, EMT conduits, and other metal enclosures together. EGC
provides a path for connecting electrical components to the ground to avoid
ground faults.
Wire cutters
A wire cutter allows you to cut wires made of aluminum, brass, copper, iron,
and steel material. The insulated handles help prevent electrocution from the
wires while working, and they provide a comfortable grip. If you have a
diagonal flush cutter, they enable you to cut wires at an angle close to the
base.
Wire strippers
Wire stripper is another must-have tool, as they allow you to remove
insulation from an electrical wire when you want to make a contact. There are
different types of wire strippers with varying notch sizes.
Wire crimpers
A crimping tool fixes connectors at the end of the cable. Though it looks like
a pair of pliers, it joins together two pieces of a metal plate. There are three
types of crimping tools; ratcheting, hydraulic, and hammer.
A ratcheting crimping tool allows you to secure insulated wire connectors,
terminals, and heat shrink butt splices. You have to apply a threshold
pressure to join the connectors on the two pieces of the wire. Ratcheting
crimpers come in a variety of sizes, and you can interchange them to crimp
connectors of different widths. Before buying the crimping tool, confirm the
type of wire or cable it can crimp.
A hydraulic cable crimping tool is a special crimping tool that crimps
terminals of wire ropes and conjoins two pieces of metal together. A hammer
crimping tool can crimp connectors, terminals, and splicers together. A
hammer is needed to apply force on the crimping tool.

Fish tape
This is a useful tool that allows electricians to route a wire through the wall
or pull it through an electrical conduit. The fish tape has a flat, long, and thin
steel wire which is wound up inside a round-shaped wheel. The fish part
allows you to attach the wire and then pull the wire through the conduit. A
conduit is a pipe similar to a plumbing pipe that protects your electrical
wiring.
Torque wrench
A torque wrench is a unique t-shaped tool that allows you to use a specific
torque to fasten bolts, nuts, and lag screws on solar panel rails. It is ideal in
situations where the tightness of screws and bolts is very important. A high-
quality torque wrench helps you tighten bolts and nuts on the rails. Though
this may consume a lot of time, it ensures the components of your setup are
in place and tightly fixed.
 Solar Racking Equipment
Roof rafters
A roof rafter is a structure that forms part of the roof design and runs from
the hip of your roof (ridge) to the wall plate. In fact, it is not really a solar
tool or piece of equipment. However, it provides base support for mounting
solar panels.
Your decision on where and how many panels to install is significantly
influenced by the position of rafters on your roof.
Rails
Rails are mounted on the roof to support solar panel rows.
For installing the solar panels you need to place each of the panels vertically
or in portrait position and use two rails with clamps to secure the panels on
the roof or on the ground. The rails are secured to your roof using screws or
bolts.
Roof-mount flashings
This is a thin metal material in the form of galvanized steel, aluminum or
copper. Its main function is to avoid any water leakage around the holes
drilled in the roof in order for the rails to be secured. Below you can see a
schematic of a racking system and the relation between flashings, rails and
clamps:
End Clamp, Mid Clamp
Clamps allow you to hold or position the panels on the rail. While end clamps
secure the panels at rail ends, mild clamps are located between two panels
and keep them attached to the rails.
Solmetric sun eye/Pathfinder
These are solar assessment or shade analysis tools that provide accurate
measurement of the amount of solar energy generated per day, month, or on
an annual basis. The tools can also measure shading patterns within a
particular area.
Battery & Maintenance Tools
Hydrometer
This measures the relative density of electrolytes in a flooded lead-acid
battery to determine the state of charge of your battery. If there is a higher
concentration of sulfuric acid in the battery, it means that there is a higher
level of electrolytes. A higher density results in a higher state of charge.
Distilled water
Distilled water refills the level of electrolytes in your flooded lead-acid
battery. The amount of distilled water added to the battery depends on your
battery condition. If you have a new battery, you should add distilled water
up to the bottom of the filler tube. An old battery requires distilled water to
cover up to the level of the electrode. You can use a small flashlight to view
the electrolyte level in the battery.
Baking soda
If sulfuric acid from the battery leaks on the surface, you can pour baking
soda on the spot to neutralize acid spills.
Funnel
This is used to guide liquids through the small opening of the lead acid
battery case for refilling distilled water into the battery.
Rubber apron
Before handling any dangerous chemicals and toxic materials, you have to
wear a rubber apron to protect your body and clothes against any spills. Even
a drop of sulphuric acid or any other powerful chemical could cause a serious
injury to your skin.
Rubber gloves
If you work with toxic chemicals and other harmful detergents, you have to
wear gloves to protect your hands.
Chapter summary
As effective design, installation and maintenance of solar power systems
requires a deep knowledge of solar equipment, the most essential solar-
related tools were explained in this chapter to make your solar plan more
feasible.
If you are interested in various features of different types of solar power
systems, move on to the next chapter.
 CHAPTER FOUR: Types of Solar Power Systems
and Their Components
The ever-increasing technological advancements in the solar field have led to
the introduction of several distinct systems harnessing solar power to be
utilized for residential and commercial purposes. This chapter will help
you understand different PV systems’ indications and recognize
their differences in order to select the one that suits your situation.
When you install solar panels, the generated energy must be converted to
usable electricity. This can be accomplished through various ways:
connecting your system to the grid, going off-grid completely, or having a
hybrid system that combines both on-grid and off-grid.
Grid-Tied Solar Power System
A grid-tied (on-grid) solar power setup is a system that connects to an
electrical power grid. This type of system first satisfies all your power needs
before delivering the excess power to the electrical grid. When the solar
system cannot satisfy your power demands, especially at night or days
without sunlight, you can draw power from the grid.
It is the least expensive system of generating energy since no battery backup
is required. The excess energy produced is directly sent to the power grid
utility company. In this case, the electrical grid acts as the battery backup for
your system.
The amount of power fed to the electrical grid slows the rate at which the
electric meter measures the power usage. It causes the meter to spin
backward. In other words, if the meter spins backward, it is an indication that
solar power is being fed into the grid.
When unused power is delivered to the grid, the utility company uses “net
metering” to credit homeowners with the per kWh price they pay for energy
consumption when drawing power from the grid.
A grid-tied system is the preferred solar power system in the market because
it is the least expensive and least complicated PV setup. Homeowners can
enjoy more than fifteen years of profits after the break-even on solar system
investment.

The panels should be installed in a place where there is maximum sunlight

exposure. This can either be a roof or ground mount. Proper wiring is
required to transport power between the connected solar equipment, your
home, and the local electrical grid.
Advantages of Connecting to the Grid
Lower initial cost: Grid-tied systems don’t need any
special equipment compared to an off-grid system. Since the
system uses less equipment, there will be less installation work,
and this reduces your labor cost. This makes it the least expensive
type of solar power system installation.
Net metering: You take advantage of net-metering to
save on your electricity bills and limit wastage of energy.
Backup energy source: It helps improve electrical
 grid efficiency during its peak usage period.
Reliable: Grid-tied systems are more reliable and
require little maintenance compared to other types of solar
systems. The fewer types of equipment required mean there is a
lower potential for failure.
Short payback period: Installing a solar power
system is a decent investment for your home. Grid-tied systems
have a short payback period compared to battery-backed systems.
On average, you can break even the total installation cost within
three to five years.
Passive income: When you sell excess power to the
grid, the utility company pays for the energy received using the
current per kWh price.

Disadvantages of Grid Connection

Not suitable in undeveloped countries: Installing a
grid-tied solar system is not feasible in undeveloped countries or
remote areas without power lines.
No power in case of grid outages: If the main power
grid goes off, the solar grid-tied system will shut down—therefore,
no energy is delivered to the system. And since there are no
connected batteries to the system, there will be no backup power
during a power outage.

Components of a Grid-tied System

Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels
A grid-tied PV system consists of an array of panels that are electrically
connected or tied to the local grid. This setup is permanently connected to the
electrical grid. The number of panels required is determined by your decision
on what share of your total electricity consumption your system is supposed
to generate. You also need racking or mounting equipment that ensures your
solar panels are in place. Racking also ensures there is enough ventilation to
allow cooling of the panels.
Solar inverter
PV panels generate DC power while most home appliances and other
electronic devices use AC power. Therefore, an inverter converts the DC
electricity into AC power. A grid-tied inverter also analyzes the real-time
flow of energy to determine whether the generated energy output is enough
for home use or needs to be exported.
Always look for a quality inverter that fits your budget and your electricity
needs. Additionally, you have to consider the efficiency with which the
inverter converts solar power to alternating current.
Electricity meter
The electricity meter records electricity flowing into and out of the local grid.
You can use twin kWh meters where one records the amount of electrical
energy consumed, and the other records the amount of energy sent to the
local grid. A bidirectional kWh meter can also be used to record the net
amount of power drawn from the grid.
Electricity grid
You need the utility grid to connect your solar system. Otherwise, without the
grid itself, the system will not be a grid-tied PV system. Further, a grid-tied
system is not an independent power supply source. If there is an interruption
of the main power supply from the grid, you might not have lights even if
there is enough sunlight. This is because of your grid-tied inverter that shuts
the power off for safety purposes.
Wiring/cables
Wiring and cables transport power generated by panels to the inverter, and
then to your home or to the electricity meter (net metering).
How Changes in Seasons Affect Grid-Tied Systems
Changes in the seasons and the time of the day affect the transfer of energy
from homes to the electrical grid. When there is a change in the season, there
is also a change in the amount of sunlight that hits the solar panels. These
changes determine whether your grid-tied system will import or export power
to or from the electrical grid.
Grid-Tied Solar Power System with Battery Backup (Hybrid
Solar System)
This is another grid-connected solar system that has battery backup within its
design. This photovoltaic solar system works closely with a local electricity
grid company to supply you with power if the battery runs out of power. You
can also sell surplus electricity to the utility company.
The battery meets short-term demands during nights or days with bad
weather without having to draw power from the grid at an extra
charge. Adding batteries into your grid-tied solar system requires more
components, which consequently results in an increase in the installation cost
while reducing the efficiency of the system.
The energy generated by panels passes through the hybrid inverter, which can
decide whether to convert it to usable AC electricity for household use and/or
direct it to the grid or to store it in the battery backup. In other words, the
hybrid inverter is a smart, two-in-one device: a solar inverter and a battery
charger/inverter.
The main advantage of having a hybrid system is that you will always have
electricity even at night, on cloudy days, or when there are blackouts. If you
use up all the power in the battery and your panels cannot generate more
power, you can draw power from the electricity grid to meet your power
demands.
There are two maim configurations with which you can set up the major solar
components in a hybrid PV system: AC-coupled and DC-coupled. Depending
on which one you choose, both the wiring and the converting components
might significantly differ from each other.
Components of a Hybrid System
Solar panels
Depending on your energy requirements and the efficiency of your system,
you can choose panels that help meet your demands. You have to determine
the right size for your system to meet your energy needs. As for any PV
system, specific racking system is required for panels’ installation.
Hybrid inverter
As mentioned above, a hybrid inverter combines two separate devices in one
unit: a battery charger to charge the storage, and a solar inverter to convert
the panels’ generated power to AC electricity. Due to having more
complicated functions than conventional inverters, hybrid inverters are more
expensive but slightly less efficient than grid-tied inverters.
If you are anticipating adding batteries to your existing grid-tied system in
the future, it is wise to consider a hybrid inverter when planning your system.
A hybrid inverter, in this case, works similarly to the traditional grid-tied
inverter.
Once your budget lets you add batteries, your hybrid inverter acts as a battery
charger/inverter, as well as a solar inverter. Alternatively, you can add a
battery charger/inverter separately to your grid-tied inverter in case you want
to add a backup to the existing, totally grid-tied setup.
Battery bank
Depending on the size of the batteries, they can store power for use ranging
from several hours to several days. If you often experience interruptions of
grid power supply, especially during bad weather conditions, they will be of
great benefit.
Tesla Powerwall is one of the most popular home battery systems because of
its battery capacity of 14kW that can store half of the average daily energy
consumption for homes in the US. It allows you to keep lights on 24/7.
Additionally, Powerwall’s unique technology allows you to use all the stored
energy in the battery without damaging it.
Charge controller
The basic function of all charge controllers is to prevent battery overcharging,
as well as blocking reverse current from batteries. Some charge controllers on
the market provide extra functions, such as controlling proper voltage in
relation to temperature and battery type, as well as protecting the battery
against over-discharging.
Solar charge controllers are required in DC-coupled hybrid systems, where
the solar panels’ generated DC power is used to charge the batteries directly.
Wiring
The cables transport the power from the panels to the charger controller, then
to the inverter, and then to your home, battery, and the net metering. Wire
configuration depends on your solar array configuration (series and parallel)
and whether the AC or DC coupling battery configuration is used.
In an AC coupled wiring, the generated DC power from panels is converted
to AC power for household use and/or sent to the grid. Then another
inverter/charger converts the AC power to DC again to charge the batteries.
The same device converts the battery’s DC power to usable AC power again.
In a DC coupled, however, the DC-generated power passes through a charge
controller to charge the battery, and then an inverter discharges the battery to
generate AC power for household uses. Both types of battery coupling have
their advantages and disadvantages and will be covered in detail in chapter
Eight.
Net metering
This type of meter records the amount of power sent to and received from the
electrical grid company for credit.
Advantages of Hybrid Systems

Continuous power supply: Hybrid systems ensure you

can have access to power supply 24/7. The backup battery
provides you with power for night use or during cloudy days. The
electricity grid provides extra power that meets your energy needs.
Saves you money: Although the upfront cost of
installing the system is considerably high, it saves you a lot of
money in the long term. It lowers your electricity bill and makes
the investment cost worth it.
Stores excess power: The battery stores the excess
power for use later, reducing your reliance on the utility company.
Easy to switch power load: You can easily switch
from using battery backup power to using grid power at any time.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Solar Systems
 Higher upfront cost: The installation cost of a hybrid
system is higher than that of a grid-tied one due to the additional
components. In addition, the price of a backup battery is
significantly high.

For instance, Tesla Powerwall 2 system including battery, inverter, and other
components will roughly cost you 10,000 to 16,000 USD (before incentives),
and this is excluding solar panel costs and installation expensive.

Requires a larger installation space: Due to the extra

components needed for installation, you need a larger installation
space for your system.
Not suitable for remote areas: There are no grid power
lines in remote areas, so you can’t use hybrid systems in these
places.

All-in-One Solar Power Systems

Recently, all-in-one PV technologies have been introduced to the market, like
Growatt and Renogy. Also known as inverter chargers with a built-in charge
controller, these devices provide lower upfront and installation costs, as well
as less required space.
As the name implies, the system is a combination of AC charger (to charge
your batteries by grid or a generator), solar inverter (to convert PV’s
generated power to usable AC power) and a solar charge controller (to
manage battery charging and discharging).
These space efficient technologies are available in 12, 24 And 48 Volts and
can be utilized in off-grid as well as hybrid PV systems.
Off-grid Solar Power Systems (Standalone Solar Power
Systems)
Off-grid solar systems allow you to be energy-independent by generating
your own power from the sun. You will not rely on the electrical grid to
supplement your energy needs. An efficient solar power system coupled with
an excellent battery storage system is required to be installed in your home.
 An off-grid PV system allows you to have complete control of your energy
production at the site of power consumption.
Installing a standalone system requires more installation space and higher
upfront costs. Over recent years, PV equipment has become more efficient
and cost-effective. So not only do you power your home, but you can also
install it in your RVs and cabins.
Unlike the other types of solar power systems, the off-grid system doesn’t
connect to other external sources of power, so utilizing a power generator
might be extremely beneficial for cold, cloudy winter days.
An off-grid solar system has components that allow you to generate power,
store it, and supply it onsite.

Uses of Off-Grid Solar Power Systems

The scalability of solar energy is one of the biggest reasons why it is the most
preferred source of independent energy. A combination of various system
components increases the flexibility and uses of solar power.
It ranges from a simple PV system to an extensive power system that will
power a factory. Some of the common uses of off-grid solar power include:
• Providing energy needs for portable devices like cell phones or tablets.
• Providing energy-efficient homes.
• Generating electricity to power RV appliances and small cabins.
Advantages of Off-Grid Solar Power systems
• Available in remote areas: It is a suitable option for those who live in
remote areas where there is no access to grid power.
• Self-sufficient: Designing an efficient solar system ensures you meet all
your energy demands.
• No downtime: If there is grid failure, it will not affect your power
supply.
Disadvantages of Off-Grid Power Systems
• Expensive: An additional cost of installing the batteries and other
components increases the installation cost when compared to grid-tied
systems. In some cases, you need to install generators as an alternative source
of energy that will add to the initial expenses.
• High-maintenance: Additional components used in the installation
require frequent maintenance. For example, some lead acid batteries require
regular refilling.
• Battery replacement: Generally, battery banks last for around seven to
ten years, and you have to replace them. This increases the cost of
maintaining your solar system.
Components of an Off-Grid Solar Power system
For your system to function efficiently, you must select components that
meet your energy demands. The main equipment required includes:
Solar panels
Solar panels are the key element in your installation process. When buying
solar panels, you should evaluate them in terms of cost, efficiency,
technology type, and the warranty. The most commonly used solar panels for
residential uses include the monocrystalline and polycrystalline.
Monocrystalline panels are the most expensive and efficient panels on the
market.
The number and size of solar panels you buy depends on:
• Your energy requirements.
• Efficiency ratings.
• Size of your roof area.
• Peak sunlight exposure in your location.
Solar charge controller
The charge controller allows you to use DC power directly, as well as
regulate the DC power generated by solar panels to charge the batteries.
It is connected between the panels and the battery to maintain proper
charging of the battery. It regulates the voltage and current flowing to the
battery to prevent overcharging of the battery.
Solar inverter
An off-grid inverter converts the DC power generated by panels to AC power
that’s required to run appliances in your home.
Battery bank
A backup battery stores the excess energy for later use. The battery bank
enables your PV system to continue operating with minimum sun
exposure.
Mounting/racking system
A racking system’s function is to secure the panel(s) on the roof since you
can’t directly mount the panels on your house’s roof..
Hybrid System versus Off-grid System
If you go off-grid, you will only have the backup battery to supply your
energy needs. A hybrid system will allow you to draw power from the battery
or the grid.
An off-grid PV system allows you to have complete control of your power
generation. However, you have to properly manage your power consumption
so that your batteries don’t run out. If you have a hybrid system; however,
you don’t have to worry about your energy consumption. Even if you overuse
your battery power, you can still get more power from the grid.
A hybrid solar power system is suitable for you if you have enough funds and
don’t want to take the chance of your power running out. So, if your energy
demand is high and you need a constant power supply, you can go for this
option.
Chapter Summary
Setting up a grid-tied system without batteries is less complicated because it
is less expensive, and there is no need to incur the maintenance cost of the
batteries. Although it is more efficient, a grid-tied system is not an
independent power supply source. If there is an interruption of the main
power supply from the grid, you will not have lights even if there is enough
sunlight.
Alternatively, you can set up a grid-tied system with a battery backup to
provide you extra storage of energy for use during off-peak periods. This
system allows you to draw power from the battery bank or from the power
grid.
Off-grid PV system is a standalone setup that uses its own photovoltaic
panels and battery to store solar energy. The system is not connected to any
local utility company or a power grid, as is the case with grid-tied systems.
Off-grid systems can work well in remote or rural areas where there are no
power lines and the cost of extending a power line from the grid is
considerably high.
In the next chapter, we will discuss in detail the most well-known solar
component: solar panels. In fact, you will learn the practical steps for setting
up a PV system.
 CHAPTER FIVE: Solar Panels (PV Modules)
The photovoltaic (PV) system utilizes a sustainable source of energy and it’s
more affordable than ever before. PV effects cause solar panels to convert the
light energy from the sun into electrical energy. When sun rays shine on the
surface of the panels, they are absorbed, reflected, or even pass through the
cells to generate electricity.
PV module and PV cell
Since solar panels utilize photovoltaic (PV) technology, they’re referred to as
PV modules. PV modules are composed of a certain number of PV cells
depending on their power-generating capacity.
PV modules are made of PV cell circuits enclosed in an environmentally
protective laminate; they act as the building blocks for the PV solar system.
PV cells act as a semiconductor material (silicon) that converts light energy
into DC electricity.
A group of PV modules is wired together to form a PV array. PV modules
may be wired in parallel, series or both to deliver enough current and voltage
required to run appliances.
The front surface of the PV modules is covered with a transparent material,
such as tempered glass, and a waterproof material at the back. Also, a
weatherproof material covers the edges of the module, while the aluminum
frame holds all the components together to form a mountable unit. Each PV
module has a junction box or a wire lead at the back to allow you to connect
the modules to other solar system components.
How PV Modules Generate Electricity
A single PV cell can generate one to two watts of power. The PV module
boosts the power output by connecting a number of PV cells together. When
PV cells absorb light energy from the sun, the photons produced are absorbed
into the semiconductor material. This forces electrons to flow through silicon
in the form of an electrical current. The cells only act as an electron pump
since they don’t have storage capacity.
The number of electrons flowing depends on the photons produced. Exposing
bigger and more efficient PV cells to intense sunlight will increase the flow
of electrons. The more electrons, the more electricity is generated.
Types of PV Modules
There are three common manufacturing techniques for PV modules. These
technologies result in the production of solar panels that vary in terms of
appearance, cost, performance, and method of installation.
Single crystalline/Monocrystalline silicon
This is a form of crystalline silicon (C-Si) PV module with a high energy
efficiency of 17% to 20%. It is the most efficient solar energy production
technology on the market. These PV modules are space-efficient, expensive,
and have a high energy-bearing capacity. Due to the high lifetime value of
these panels, they’re optimized for commercial and residential purposes. The
panels have rounded edges; a uniformly darker blue color compared to multi-
crystalline modules, and are less affected by high-temperature changes.
Multi-crystalline/Polycrystalline silicon
This works similarly to the single crystalline but has a lower conversion
efficiency of between 13% and 16%. The cells of these modules are made of
several silicon crystals, making them cost-effective. They are easy to identify
due to the square shape of the panels, and they have a blue speckled look.
The panels have a slightly shorter lifespan and are more affected by high
temperatures.
Amorphous silicon (A-Si)/Thin-film PV module
This thin-film PV module has a lower light absorption rate than the
crystalline silicon modules. These modules have the lowest efficiency of 10%
but are more installation-friendly. These modules have a thickness of a few
nanometers to micrometers, hence the name thin-film. They are the most
portable, flexible, easy-to-install, and lightweight panels on the market.
If you’re on a low budget, you may want to select this option. Many people
prefer these panels because of their flexibility and the fact that they're less
affected by high temperatures. The lightweight nature of thin-film panels
makes them easy to install on any surface, such as glass, metal, and plastic.
They occupy the least possible space, making them suitable for installation
on an RV or van.
Solar Panel Specification Sheet
Solar panel specifications sheets provide detailed information about how to
operate the panels and how to configure the PV system. You will also know
the power production capacity and the efficiency, how temperature changes
affect the operation of the panels, and information on the dimensions of the
panels. This information allows you to analyze the performance of the panels
accurately. You can review this information at the back of the panels or
review what your installer recommends so that you know what you’re
buying. You can find the datasheet information in PDF format under the
product, from the support, or download it from the manufacturer’s website.
There are a number of terms and ratings you need to understand to avoid
confusion when reading your solar panel’s datasheet. The main ratings are
reflected in the datasheet below:

Specifications
Electrical performance at STC
Maximum power 125 W
Maximum power current (Impp) 7.18 A
Maximum power voltage (Vmpp) 17.4 V
Short circuit current (Isc) 7.14 A
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 20.92 V
Maximum system voltage 600 V
Temperature coefficient of Isc 0.0045 A / 0C
Temperature coefficient of Voc -0.085 V / 0C
 Efficiency 19.8%
Electrical performance at NOCT
Maximum power 90 W
Maximum power current (Impp) 5.96 A
Maximum power voltage (Vmpp) 15.1 V
Short circuit current (Isc) 6.124 A
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 19.5 V
Efficiency 18.4%
You need to learn theses terms to understand and utilize the above-mentioned
specifications for your system applications.
Standard Test Conditions (STC)
STC measures the performance of solar panels based on a set of criteria.
Typically, the voltage and current generated by the panels vary based on the
intensity of light and temperature changes, among other criteria. The standard
test conditions for testing all solar panels include an ambient temperature of
0-2 0C, cell temperature of 25 0C (770F), an atmospheric density of 1.5, and a
light intensity of 1000 watts per square meter. For instance, for a 370-watt
Sunpower solar panel, the module’s maximum generated power would be
370 watts only under standard test conditions.
Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)
There are periods when the normal temperature is not 77 0F, especially during
the summer months. Extreme temperature ranges can affect the operational
parameters of your solar panels. NOCT considers real-world conditions and
provides actual power ratings of your solar system. Instead of using 1000
watts, NOCT uses 800 watts/square meter which represents a sunny day’s
irradiance, cell temperature of 450C, and air temperatures of 200C (680F). As
explained, panel specifications are measured and mentioned in both STC and
NOCT to help you figure out which and how many panels are required to
meet your specific needs.
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve
I-V curve is an important feature that provides performance information on
an open circuit voltage, short circuit current, maximum rated power,
maximum current, maximum voltage, and module’s efficiency. These
functions are important in designing, utilizing, testing, maintaining, and
controlling PV systems.

Using the I-V curve is the simplest way to illustrate the relationship between
the current flowing through PV cells and the voltage applied across them.
Understanding this curve helps you determine the efficiency and output
performance of the panels.
The intensity of sun rays that hit the PV cells controls the generated current,
while the increase of the PV cell’s temperature reduces the voltage. When the
PV cells are not connected to any load (open circuited), the current will be
zero and the voltage will be at its maximum (open circuit voltage). On the
other hand, if the cells are short-circuited (both positive and negative leads
are connected to each other), the voltage across the cell is at zero while the
current is at its maximum (short circuit current).
Typically, in the I-V curve, the current and voltage figures range from the
maximum current (Isc or short circuit current) with an output of zero volts to
the current of zero and maximum voltage at Voc (open circuit voltage).
Currently, many PV modules are equipped with a maximum power point
tracker (MPPT) that utilizes the I-V characteristic to assess the performance
of the PV module.
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
The short circuit current indicates the amount of current (how many amps)
produced by the solar panels when not connected to a load (top left of the
curve). In this condition, the solar panel’s positive and negative terminals are
directly connected to each other. You can use an ammeter to read Isc across
the positive and the negative leads. This indicates the highest amount of
current generated by your panels under STC or NOCT.
Generally, you need the Isc to determine the maximum amps the conductors,
charge controller, and inverter should be able to handle within your setup.
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
Voc describes the voltage output of solar panels when there is no load
connected. You can use a voltmeter to measure the positive and negative
leads to read the open circuit voltage. Since solar panels are not yet connected
to any other device, there is no load on it and no current flowing through
them.
It is very important to note the Voc figure because it represents the maximum
voltage produced by solar panels. As observed in I-V curve, Voc is located at
the bottom right where the current shows zero. It helps you determine how
many solar panels you need to connect in series through the charge controller
or the inverter.
Early morning, when the sun first shows up and the panels are at their coolest
condition, is the right time to measure the Voc number since most
household’s heavy loads are switched off. Because your system fuses and
circuit breakers will only protect against overcurrent and not overvoltage,
exposing your electronic devices to higher voltage levels will damage them.
Maximum Power Point (Pmax)
Pmax represents the maximum power output of the solar panels. As you can
observe in the previous I-V curve, the knee of the curve, where both current
and voltage are high enough to generate the highest power (wattage) possible,
corresponds to the maximum power point or MPP:
Watts = Volts * Amps
If you’re using a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller,
the knee of the curve (Pmax) is where MPPT devices try to maintain the volts
and the amps to maximize power output.
If voltage is increased, for example, because of lower temperatures in the
morning, the current is decreased accordingly, and, as a result, the generated
power would be less than the maximum power point.
Therefore, the wattage listed for the solar panels refers to the maximum
power point:
Pmax = Vmpp * Impp.
Maximum Power Point Voltage (Vmpp)
This is the voltage of your solar panel when the power output is at its highest.
It is the voltage your MPPT charge controller or a grid-tied inverter displays
at noon when your panels are converting the intense sunlight to maximum
power (Pmax) at STC or NOCT.
Maximum Power Point Current (Impp)
Impp is the current generated when the power output of the panels is at its
highest. It is the amperage displayed by the MPPT charge controller while the
panels are generating the maximum power (Pmax) under STC or NOCT.
Nominal Voltage
Nominal voltage is not the actual voltage measured from solar panels. It is
just a category and shouldn’t be confused with the actual voltage output of
the panels.
Nominal voltage helps you match your solar equipment; that is, know what
equipment goes together.
For example, a nominal solar panel of 12 V with a Voc of 22 V and Vmp of
17 V should only be connected to a 12-volt charge controller and inverter to
charge a 12-volt battery backup.
If you decide to utilize a 24-V battery and charge controller, you have to
connect two (strings of) 12-V solar panels in series to raise your system's
nominal voltage to 24 volts.
Solar Panel Efficiency
The efficiency of solar panels depends on how much incoming sunlight
generates electricity. Higher efficiency means having fewer solar panels to
produce the same power output and consequently, less needed roof space and
racking equipment, and reduced labor costs.
The only tradeoff of having high-efficiency panels is the higher cost of each
module, which will be compensated by the fewer number of panels needed.
In case you decide to utilize one micro-inverter or optimizer per panel, the
high-efficiency panels are an advantage. Since you need fewer panels, fewer
micro-inverters are required, hence the lower upfront cost.
You will find the efficiency of panels listed on the datasheet as a percentage.
As solar technology keeps on changing, there are several PV modules with
higher efficiency percentage than 20% on the market, like SunPower SPR-
X22-360 with 22.2% efficiency, and LG 375W with the efficiency of 21.7%.
Monocrystalline panels have the highest efficiency and can absorb light
energy both at the front and from the rear.
If it’s your first time buying the panels, you can lay out your system with
both high-efficiency panels and low-efficiency ones to analyze the result and
know which meets your energy demands as per your budget. You can also
ask your solar installer to do so.
By doing some simple calculations which you will learn in this chapter, you
can compare as many different panels as you want.
Temperature Coefficient of Power
Just like any other semiconductor device, PV cells are sensitive to extreme
temperature changes. An increase in temperature affects the open circuit
voltage of your panels.
Temperature coefficient is an indicator of how temperature affects PV array’s
power output. If the cell's temperature increases, the power output decreases.
Most manufacturers provide coefficient information on their brochures.
If the value of the temperature coefficient of power is not indicated on the
brochure, you might see a graph that shows the normalized performance
plotted against the PV cell temperature or a table showing Isc and Voc for
different temperatures as depicted below:

In this example, the sloping power line (Pmax line) illustrates the negative
effect of higher temperatures on the generated power. You can also see the
short circuit current and a normalized open circuit voltage.
Generally, the PV module’s power is rated at 250C. Any increase in
temperature to above 250C will result in a power loss of about 1% for every
20C increase. In most sunny countries, temperature can go high up to 500C
and above.
Voc and Isc Temperature Coefficients
Temperatures that are lower or higher than 250C have a significant impact on
the open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc) of the solar
panels. Low temperatures will result in higher Voc than test conditions.
Unlike voltage, the short circuit current significantly goes high in higher
temperatures.
Each PV cell has its own temperature coefficient for Voc and Isc, and you
can easily determine the Voc and Isc of your system according to your local
temperature. As the previous example specification sheet implies, the
temperature coefficient for Voc is -0.085/0C, and the Voc under NOCT is
19.5 volts. It means when the ambient temperature is 50C, then:
50C - 250C = -200C difference
-200C * -0.085 = 1.7V increase in Voc
19.5 volts + 1.7 = 21.2 volts, Voc at 50C
Assuming that the highest local temperature reaches 450C, let’s calculate the
Isc at 450C:
450C - 250C = 200C temperature difference
200C * 0.0045 (Temperature coefficient for Isc) = 0.09 amps increase in Isc
6.12 amps + 0.09 amps = 6.21 amps Isc at 450C
Depending on your weather conditions, you need to find the adjusted figures
to design the right size of other components like charge controllers, as well as
conductors.
PV Module and Shading Effects
PV cells in the solar modules are sensitive to radiant light energy emitted by
the sun. In order to maximize the energy generated by the modules, you have
to first understand the PV cell’s wiring inside the modules. Additionally, it’s
important to identify factors that influence the performance of the cells.
To obtain the desired voltage output from the PV module, the 0.5-volt cells
are connected in series. However, cells wired in series may experience some
issues when one of the cells cannot generate power due to shading. The
amount of electricity generated will be lower than that of unshielded cells. As
you may recall the Christmas light string example, if one light does not work,
the whole string will shut off.
The shaded cell dictates the total electricity of the module. As a result, it will
lead to power loss. When some cells are shaded, a higher amount of electrical
current generated by the unshaded cells passes through the shaded ones;
therefore, the affected cells might act as a load and increase the temperature.
This shading effect will lead to “hot spot” problem.
The hot spot is where the increased temperature will result in a change of cell
characteristics and will lead to irreversible damage to the PV cells within the
module, such as having a cracked glass or melted cells.
How to Overcome Shading
To prevent hot spot problems, as well as improve power output from shaded
cells, PV modules are equipped with bypass diodes. A bypass or internal
diode will block the shaded cells so that no current will pass through them.
The diode is either integrated into the module itself or installed in the module
junction box. Each module has three strings of series cells; left, middle, and
right strings, each of which has one diode. For example, if one or two rows of
cells are shaded, their diode blocks them and bypasses the current so that the
unshaded cells are not affected.
Assuming you have a 60-cell module, you will have three strings of twenty
cells wired in series, each protected with a single diode. The three strings are
connected in parallel with each other.
Shading of the PV Array/String
A PV string consists of one or several modules connected in series. Do not
confuse PV string with the strings inside each solar module (panel). Wiring
the modules in series increases the voltage output while the current will
remain the same.
A solar array, however, is usually composed of one or several strings
containing the same number of panels. These PV strings are connected in
parallel, so the current will be scaled based on the number of strings while the
voltage will be the same as that of the individual string’s voltage.
The intensity of sunlight in a particular area rarely affects the voltage output
of your system. However, the current generated by the PV module is
dependent on the amount of sunlight the modules are receiving.
Shading of individual modules affects the performance of your PV array. A
reduced generated power by one shaded module will result in a reduction in
the rest of the modules connected in series in the same string.
The most efficient method to avoid the shading effect in PV string is the use
of Module Level Power Electronics (MLPEs). These include power (DC)
optimizers and micro-inverters, which can be connected to an individual PV
module to increase its performance under shading conditions. By using
MLPEs, maximum power point tracking is done at the module level.
DC optimizers
The DC optimizer adjusts the voltage and current flowing through each PV
module so as to maintain a maximum power output without affecting the
performance of other modules.
For instance, if a shaded module generates lower current output, the DC
optimizer boosts its current output and reduces the voltage by the same
amount. This ensures the flowing current matches the current flowing
through the unshaded modules connected in series in that string.
Micro-inverters
Instead of using a single central inverter, you can have each panel connected
to a small inverter. That’s because each micro-inverter has MPPT and each of
the panels will operate at its maximum power point without affecting the
output of other panels. Unlike power optimizers, micro-inverters convert the
generated DC power to usable AC electricity on the roof.
Irradiance and PV Performance
Just as an increase in temperature reduces power output, irradiance also
influences PV performance. Lower exposure to sunlight will result in reduced
production of current and, consequently, it will affect the power output.
Irradiance is defined as the instantaneous amount of solar power per unit area
that hits the surface at a particular angle. The irradiance unit of measurement
is watts per square meter (W/m2) or kilowatt per square meter (kW/m2).
As our planet rotates around the sun, the distance between them always
changes. As a result, the amount of solar irradiance varies from one period to
the next. According to NASA, the solar constant or the average irradiance
value on a flat surface perpendicular to the sun is 1370 W/m2. However,
irradiance measured on the Earth’s surface in real life is lower than this. This
is because the climatic conditions affect the scattering and reflection of
sunlight as it penetrates through the atmosphere and then reaches the Earth’s
surface.
Annual climatic conditions such as time of the year, temperature variation,
cloudiness, and the angle at which sun rays strike the Earth’s surface have an
impact on the amount of solar irradiance in a particular area. During sunny
days, especially in summer months, solar irradiance is higher than that of
winter months.
Measurement of Solar Irradiance
When designing your PV system, you have to estimate the amount of sunlight
available in your location at any given time. Solar radiation values are mostly
dependent on your location and the local weather.
Direct radiation measurements are taken throughout the day and released
periodically as the Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI).
You can download the global horizontal irradiance maps to identify the
amount of sun exposure in your own location. These maps indicate annual
and monthly average geospatial data stored in the National Solar Radiation
Database (NSRDB) on a Physical Solar Model (PSM). The PSM mostly
covers the United States.
Countries like the United States receive more solar energy because they lie in
the middle of latitude where the sun is nearly overhead.
They receive more sunlight in the summer months because days are longer.
During the shorter days of winter months, the sun’s rays are slanted.
Further the Earth’s rotation results in hourly variation of sunlight. At noon,
the sun is at its highest point. In the early mornings and afternoons, it is low
in the sky.
Peak Sun Hours
Peak sun hour is defined as an hour of sunlight with an average intensity of
1000 Watt/m2 (around 10.5 square feet). Before switching to solar power,
you have to determine how many peak hours you receive in your location.
This will give you an accurate estimate of how much power you will generate
with your system.
The peak sun hours per day influence the number of panels needed to cover
your power consumption. These peak hours vary from daylight hours.
On average, the panels get exposed to sunlight for seven hours a day.
However, the average peak sun hours in a day are generally four to five in the
United States, and the sun reaches its peak point at noon.
The number of peak hours per day increases as you get near the equator and
during the summer months. For example, if you live in Phoenix, you can
experience higher peak hours than someone living in Seattle.
You can use the Renewable Resource Data Center that provides you with
peak sun hours from state to state. Alternatively, you can use the peak sun
hours map to estimate the high, low, and average sun hours of your specific
city. Keep this number to use for calculating your system power capacity.
To maximize your solar output, you have to install your panels in such a way
that they receive direct sunlight. The panels should face south and away from
any shading from trees.
Even shading in a small area in the panel can affect the power output since
the solar cells are connected in series.
How Irradiance Affects PV Output
If all the parameters remain constant, a higher irradiance will result in higher
current output and generate more power.
The above curve shows the relationship between voltage and power of PV
modules at different amounts of irradiance. When irradiance increases, the
module produces a higher electrical current, and consequently more power,
as indicated in the vertical axis.
You can also observe the relationship between voltage and power at different
irradiance levels. An increase in irradiance will result in a high generation of
power, and the high peaks on the curve represent output power.
This relationship between current and power in the PV module is expressed
as:

Where,

G1 and G2 are irradiance levels measured in W/m2, I1 and I2 represent current

(measured in amps), and P1 and P2 represent the power at different irradiance
levels (measured in watts).
Tilt and Orientation of the PV Array
When mounting solar panels, you should ask yourself the following
questions:
At what tilt you should mount the modules.
Whether to use portrait or landscape orientation.

Tilt Angle
Tilt angle is defined as the vertical elevation angle at which modules are
mounted on the roof. When installing the modules, you can set the orientation
or direction of the tilt to optimize the panel’s performance. If you have a
pitched roof, however, the preferred module's tilt angle will be the same as
the tilt of the roof.
In a flat roof, the tilt is 0 degrees, while for a vertical wall-mount module; the
tilt angle is 90 degrees. The amount of energy generated depends on the tilt
angle.

Tilt angle and latitude

At noon, the sun is not always above us. By tilting the panels slightly on the
south if you live within the Northern Hemisphere, you can maximize the
annual output. The tilt angle depends on the latitude; the further you move
from the equator, the higher the tilt angle.
Electricity generation will be at its peak in the afternoon and in the early
evening if the panels are facing toward the west. In this case, panels can give
the maximum yields over panels facing toward the south because they tilt
toward the setting sun.
If the PV array has exactly vertical exposure to sunlight throughout the day,
the output from the array will be at its highest. However, the sun moves
throughout the day, making it impossible to face direct sunlight unless you
use a dual tracking system, such as (2-axis solar tracker). This tracker ensures
the array tilts at an optimal angle throughout the day and in different seasons
to maximize the output.
Alternatively, you can install a single-axis tracking system on the titled arrays
to enable the panels to rotate to face the sun as it moves from east to west.
This increases the output during the early and late daylight hours.
A one-axis-solar tracker will increase your initial cost by around 40% to 50%
while raising your power output by 30% to 35%.Since adding solar trackers
will significantly increase your upfront costs, most homeowners ignore this
option and prefer a fixed mounting.
Tilt Angle for Flat Roofs and Ground-Mounted Systems
As a rule of thumb, your mounted solar modules’ tilt angle should match the
latitude of the selected location. Panels mounted at angles between 300 and
450 work well in most locations. Additionally, lower tilt angles result in
higher energy production during the summer months, while a high tilt angle
can scale up power generation during the winter months.
By using the System Advisor Model (SAM), a free software model provided
by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), you can calculate the
output from different tilt angles.
Array Tilt Angle Portland, OR (450 North)
(Degrees) Annual Production (kWh) Delta
(%)
0 (flat) 3624 0%
10 4019 9%
 20 4239 15%
30 4355 18%
40 4368 18%
50 4279 16%
90 (vertical) 2967 -20%
The example above explains how tilt angle affects the amount of power
generation. Assuming you have a 3.4 kW PV system with sixteen HIT-215A
PV panels located in Portland, OR (450 North), the annual production output
is calculated for different tilt angles.
As you can observe, the tilt angle of 40 degrees indicates the greatest amount
of energy output. Cities in the Northern parts have a higher positive effect
(delta) of tilt angle than those near the equator, meaning that the modules are
highly required to be angled equal to the locations latitude in order to
generate the largest possible amount of power.
Generally, if the panels are installed facing directly east or directly on the
west, they will produce less electricity than if they’re facing south.
Tilt angle and wind
Wind direction and speed and the inclination of PV arrays influences the
efficiency of solar energy production, especially in hot seasons. Since high
temperatures affect the performance of solar panels, the wind cools down the
panels. As a result, the panel’s energy output will increase.
The inclining angle of the panels determines how incoming airflow is
distributed under the panels. The speed with which air flows between or
under the panels determines the panels’ cooling effect.
Tilt Angle for Small Cabins and Portable Systems
There is no fixed tilt angle that provides you with maximum power because
the sun moves across the sky during the day and alters throughout the year.
The amount of energy generated depends on the season and time of day.
Therefore, to calculate an optimal tilt angle, you have to determine the
direction where your panels should face. This depends on:
Where you live.
 Time of the year in which you need the most energy.

As a rule of thumb, you should mount the panels more vertically during the
winter in order to get the most of the winter sun. And the lower you tilt the
panels during summer, the higher the energy output will be. You can
calculate the optimal tilt angle for small cabins based on your latitude.
To get an optimum tilt angle, you should add 150 to your latitude during
winter and subtract 150 during summer. For instance, if you live within
latitude of 42 , then your tilt angle will be 42 + 15 = 570 during winter months
0

and 42-15 = 270 during summer months.

Alternatively, you can calculate the optimum tilt angle during the winter
months by taking latitude multiplied by 0.9 and then add 290.
In the above location with a latitude of 42 degrees, the tilt angle will be (42 *
0.9) + 29 = 66.80. This method is more effective in tapping the midday sun
than the previous method and gives you better results.
During the summer months, the optimal tilt angle can be calculated as
follows:
Latitude multiplied by 0.9 and subtracted by 23.50:
(42 * 0.9) - 23.5 = 14.30.
During spring and fall, just subtract 2.50 from the local latitude.
Azimuth Angle
The azimuth angle is the horizontal orientation of PV panels in relation to the
equator. Finding the right tilt and azimuth angle helps you get maximum
power output from your solar array.
To get optimal output from your array, you should mount them facing south
if you live in the Northern Hemisphere, but if you live in the Southern
Hemisphere, the panels should face north.
If you’re relying on your compass to mount the panels on the ground , you
may find that it’s not giving you an accurate direction. And, depending on
your location, the compass can give an inaccurate reading of more than 250. If
you live in the US, for instance, you should mount the panels facing the true
south instead of relying on a compass that points to the magnetic south. This
is because the magnetic forces in the Earth’s core tend to pull the compass
needle away from true south or true north.
The difference between true north and magnetic north, as shown in your
compass reading, is known as magnetic declination. This means extra
compensation degrees from the compass are required to obtain true north.
A positive figure indicates the declination of panels to the east of the compass
reading to form a true north. A negative figure indicates a western
declination, and this represents true north to the west of the compass reading.
Therefore, to find the azimuth angle for your panels, first, you have to find
the magnetic declination using either NOAA.gov’s calculator or the available
online charts.
Based on your location, you can adjust the magnetic declination value to
position the panels at an angle that gives you the maximum yield.
If you live in the Northern hemisphere:
Rotate the panels to face east if the magnetic
declination (positive) points to the east.
Rotate the panels to the west if the magnetic
declination (negative) points to the west.

If you live in the Southern hemisphere:

Rotate panels to face west if the magnetic declination
value (positive) points to the east.
Rotate panels to the east if the magnetic declination
(negative) points to the west.

For example, if you live in San Diego, which is in the Northern Hemisphere,
your magnetic declination is 11 degrees east. Therefore, you should find the
magnetic south and adjust the panels 11 degrees to the east.
But if you live in Chile, which has a magnetic declination of 11 degrees east
in the Southern hemisphere, you have to adjust the panels to face north. So,
you should adjust to 11 degrees west to find the ideal azimuth angle.
Making these adjustments ensures your panels face directly to the equator
and maximizes exposure of panels to the sunlight, giving you optimal power
output. For home roof installations, however, the best option is a south facing
roof in northern hemisphere because the panels’ horizontal angle follows the
roof’s orientation.
PV Module Orientation
The array orientation can either be portrait or landscape. Portrait orientation
is the vertical layout of modules where the short side of the module is
mounted parallel to the ground. The landscape is the horizontal layout in
which the long side of the module is parallel to the ground.

Mounting panels in the landscape orientation requires more railing materials

as compared to having vertical rows of panels. In most cases, the size of solar
panels makes them suitable for vertical (portrait) installation.
Whether to choose portrait or landscape depends on the number of panels you
can install on your roof, the tilt angle, and the shape of the mounting area.
There are cases where portrait works better than landscape and vice versa.
Therefore, your decision on how to mount the panels is influenced by your
location, shading as well as snow. If you live in areas that experience snow, it
is best to mount the panels in landscape (horizontally) because the string of
cells in the module will run lengthwise, leading to more energy production.
By installing them horizontally, snow will settle at the bottom of the panels,
thus only blocking one string of cells in one panel while leaving the rest of
the cells clear from snow and exposing them to sufficient sunlight.
But if you mount panels vertically, snow will slide downward to the bottom
of each panel. This will partially block all strings of cells on solar modules,
reducing the power output due to the partial shading effect. In addition, the
amount of sunlight exposure on the roof can also impact the direction you
mount the panels. If one or more cells are shaded, current will not flow
through that cell. This shading will affect the total energy output generated by
the panels.
Solar Panel Sizing
Investing in solar systems is a smart move for every homeowner. However,
to make the most of your system, you have to know how to choose the
correct size that covers your energy needs.
Before you begin to size your PV system, ask yourself the following
questions:
Budget constraints: Do you intend to build a PV
system that fits your target budget?
Energy production: Do you intend to build a system
that offsets a certain percentage of your monthly energy
consumption?
Special constraints: Do you want to design a system
that is space-efficient?

Once you decide on the type of PV system to design, you should consider the
following factors that might affect the sizing of your solar system:
Level of sun exposure in your location.
PV array orientation and tilt angle.
Future expansion plans.
Ratings on PV efficiency.
 Degradation of the system over time.

After establishing your energy needs and design approach, you should follow
these steps to estimate your load
PV Sizing for Grid-Tied Systems
Method 1:
Step1. Estimate your energy (Calculate your kWh usage)
The first step to sizing your solar system is to determine your average daily
power consumption (kWh). This will help you in knowing how many panels
you need to install in your home.
Start by gathering your electricity usage (Kilowatt-hours) based on your
electricity bills from the utility company to determine your consumption for
the last twelve months. From this, you can identify your peaks in electricity
usage throughout the year. Mostly, your energy usage spikes during the
winter and summer months because of the heavy use of the heating and
cooling systems. In the summer months, your grid-tied system tends to
produce more electricity due to peak sun exposure. Below is an example of
an electricity usage history.
Electricity Consumption History KWH
June 14 850
July 13 1123
Aug 13 1148
Sept 13 1058
Oct 13 1127
Nov 13 834
Dec 13 945
Jan 14 869
Feb 15 705
Mar 14 682
Apr 14 679
May 14 680
From your annual power consumption bill, you can get your average daily
electricity usage. Add up your power consumption for twelve months. In the
example above, the annual consumption is 10700 kWh. Then divide the total
number by 365 days to get the average daily power consumption:
(10700 / 365) = 29.31 kWh, average daily consumption
Step2. Determine peak sun hours
Your local peak sun hours depend on your location and climate in the area.
You have to determine the peak hours of sunlight per day in order to get the
most of your solar power.
Identify peak sun hours in your geographical area to estimate how much
energy the panels produce during the peak hours. You can use the sun hours
map chart to get the average peak hours for your city. Assuming you live in
Arizona, your array will experiences 5.5 sun hours per day.
Using annual average daily sun hours will help you roughly estimate your
average daily power generation. However, it does not reflect the actual power
generation potential of your system on sunny, summer days and cloudy,
winter days. Instead, you can consider the winter daily average sun hour to be
more conservative.
Step3. Calculate the panels output
To obtain the power output of your PV system, take your daily power
consumption and divide it by peak sun hours. In this case, let’s calculate how
much energy your panels generate each hour.
Start by multiplying your hourly power usage by 1000 to convert your power
consumption into watts. Then divide it by the number of daily peak hours.
29.72 kWh * 1000 = 29720 watts
Solar Panels Output = Daily Power Consumption (kWh) / average peak sun
hours
Assuming you live in Arizona, which experiences 5.5 peak sun hours per day,
your array’s output per hour is:
29720 watts / 5.5 sun hours = 5403.6 rounded to 5404 watts
PV setups do experience system losses from the solar inverter, connected
cables, and others which amount to 25% of the system’s total power.
Therefore the actual size of the system is derived by adding 25% to the solar
array’s output:
5404 watts * 1.25 = 6755 watts
Based on your roof size, location, peak sun hours, and grid reliability, you
can decide what percent of power consumption to cover by your panels. For
the example above, we decided to cover 75% of the daily consumption.
However, most homeowners consider 50% to 60% when they first install a
PV system.
5404 watts * 75% = 4053 watts desired output
Step4. Calculate the size of your PV system
Lastly, divide the solar array’s output by energy rating for each individual
panel. Since panels are rated based on individual consumption, most of the
panels are in the range of between 275 and 380 watts.
If you choose a 360W High-Efficiency LG Solar Panel, we can refer to the
datasheet and figure out the Pmax under NOCT is 325W, therefore the
number of panels needed for your system will be:
4053 watts / 325 watts = 12.47 panels
Since there are no partial panels, you can round up this number. So, you need
fourteen 360-watt panels to meet 75% of your energy needs. As you observed
here, using the power output under NOCT provides more realistic results than
when considering STC.
Method 2:
Once you know you have enough roofing space to mount the panels, identify
the tilt angle and the direction the panels should be facing, and you can use
the PV Watts Calculator to determine your monthly power output from the
panels.
The PV Watts calculator works as follows:
Enter the address and click on the orange button on
the right.
 On the open system info page, enter your previously-
calculated DC size of the system.
Pick a standard module.
On array type, choose “fixed (roof)” if you have roof
mounts or “fixed (open)” if you’re dealing with ground mounts.
Leave an allowance for system losses of around 15%.
Enter the azimuth angle of 180 for southern facing
roofs, and the solar panels tilt angle, which would almost always
be your roof’s tilt angle.
Once you enter all the details, you can click the
orange arrow on your right to obtain your monthly solar system
output.

The PV Watts Calculator provides an accurate breakdown of your energy

output based on your location and the characteristics of your building.
Important hints for designing your solar system:
To get an accurate estimate for your solar system, you have to take into
account the size of the panels that fit your solar design, the type of roof
mount, and the direction to mount the panels. You can fine-tune your system
design through:
1. Selecting type of panel mount
Your location and surrounding objects are the most important contributing
factors in determining your type of mount.
Your location: If you can’t install the panels facing south within the preferred
angle, then you have to add more panels to your system. Solar panels should
always face the equator. If you live in the Southern Hemisphere, you should
install the panels facing north. A sloping roof maximizes the efficiency of the
solar panels.
Your surroundings: If you have tall surrounding objects or any potentially tall
tree nearby, there is a high chance that your system’s output will be less than
estimated above. To overcome this problem, you should either remove the
cause of potential shading or increase the number of panels. In these
conditions, it is wise to consider micro-inverters and power optimizers in
your design rather than conventional string inverters.
Roof mounts not optional: If mounting on the rooftop is not an option, you
can try a ground mount or use pole-mounting solutions. If you want to lay
them on the ground, you can position the panels in any direction. This helps
to maximize the sun’s exposure.
2. Roof characteristic
Your roof orientation (azimuth angle) and pitch (tilt angle) determine the
direction and angle of the solar panels.
If your panels are installed facing east or west, they will produce an output
that is less than that produced by panels facing south. In this case, you have
to increase the number or efficiency of your solar panels in order to account
for that.
Odd-shaped and small rooftops are an important factor when determining the
size of the solar system. If you have a large rooftop, you can purchase several
large panels that generate the required energy output.
However, if you have a smaller rooftop or most areas of the rooftop are
partially shaded, then you must purchase a few high-efficiency, cost-effective
panels to provide you with the target energy needs.
Later, you can increase the number of panels to accommodate your increasing
energy demands.
How to Size Hybrid Solar Systems
The hybrid solar system is a grid-tied system connected to a battery bank.
Therefore, it possesses characteristics of both grid-tied and off-grid systems.
Since you are connected to the grid, there is no reason to worry much about
your daily consumption. Additionally, in the event of an outage, you can take
advantage of your backup.
In most hybrid systems, a subpanel or essential load panel is designed with
which you can supply your essential electrical devices. Below, you can see
the steps needed to design a hybrid system:
Step 1: Estimating your energy needs (as shown above)
By using the example below, we can better explain the different steps:
Assume you live in a house in California with 5.2 peak sun hours where you
consume 1100 kWh per month. Your system is supposed to be supported by a
12 V battery and 200 Watt Renogy solar panels with a power output of 170
under NOCT.
To determine the power consumption per day, we divide monthly usage by
30, or if yearly consumption is available, divide by 365:
1100 kWh / 30 days = 36.66 kWh per day;
36.66 kWh * 1000 = 36660 Wh
Step 2: Determine peak sun hours (as shown above)
Determine the peak sun hours based on your location. This will help you
know how much energy the panels generate during peak sun hours.
Wh per day/peak sun hours = required power output
36660 watt hour / 5.2 = 7050 watts
Number of panels needed = power output/PV module rate
7050 watts / 170 = 41.47 rounded up to 42 panels required to provide the
whole daily consumption. Depending on your essential loads and available
roof space, you might just cover 60% to 70% of your daily consumption and
install fewer panels than mentioned above.
Step3: Sizing your battery
Unlike off-grid systems, in hybrid power systems, you just need to cover
your essential loads by the battery bank. Therefore, you need to collect and
list the consuming load of all your essential (desired) appliances to figure out
how big your battery should be. Here is the list of most preferred appliances
as the essential loads.
Loads Power Duration Daily Energy Usage
(Watts) (Hour) (Watt hour)
(8)* 10 watt LED 80 6 480
lights
 (1)* 110 watt laptop 110 3 330
(1) *90 watt TV 90 3 270
(1) *300 watt fridge 300 12 3600
(1) *70 watt fan 70 2 140
(1) *320 watt washing 320 1.5 480
machine
5300 Watt Hours

Since the battery cannot be 100% efficient, you have to account for an
estimated battery loss of 15%. Divide watt-hours per day by 0.85 battery
efficiency:
5300 Wh / 85% = 6235 Wh total battery capacity.
Since batteries are rated in amp hours, not in watt hours, convert the Wh to
Ah by dividing the battery’s capacity by the battery voltage (12 V, 24 V, or
48 V). As you’re using a 12V battery, then:
Battery capacity = 6235 Watt hour / 12 V = 519.5 Amp hour.
Once you get the battery capacity, you can divide it by the battery’s rating to
know how many batteries you should use in your system. For instance, you
need Six 100-Amphour Lithium Ion battery that can store 600 Amp hour ( >
519 Ah), and consequently, you need an array that produces at least 7200
Watt hours (600 *12 Volt = 7200 Watt hours).
You should keep in mind that this amount of power is the minimum amount
required to be supplied by the array. You can either go with this or scale it up
to your entire daily consumption (36660 watt hours).
How to Size an Off-Grid PV System
Calculating your power needs for an off-grid system is different from a grid-
tied system. Since you live off-grid, you have to focus on the daily power
usage (kWh) instead of the monthly or annual electricity bills.
An off-grid system makes you energy-independent since it can cover your
day-to-day energy needs. For this reason, your system should offset 100% of
your energy consumption demands and store more energy to run your home
smoothly.
Without an electricity bill to guide you, you have to start by listing all the
major appliances in your home and how much electricity you use on a daily
basis. This will help you determine your load.
You can use a load evaluation calculator to determine the size of your off-
grid system. Alternatively, you can check how much electricity each
appliance consumes from the appliance electrical consumption guide or the
energy guide sticker. And determine their usage duration. Let’s look at the
step-by-step procedure regarding how to size your system based on your
location and your energy needs.
Step 1: Determine your energy needs
You need to evaluate the energy needs for each piece of equipment you have
in your home. Have a look at the user manual to confirm the device power
consumption rate or confirm the rate from the manufacturer’s website. Once
you obtain the power consumption rate, you can multiply this figure by the
number of hours you run the item every day.
For example, if we have a 300-watt fridge that runs for 14 hours a day, an
oven rated at 2 kW (2000 W) and intend to use it for half an hour each day
and we need two 10-watt light bulbs that run 24 hours per day, the total load
list will be as follows:
Load (watt) Duration ( hours) Power( watt hour)
300 watt fridge 14 4200
2000 watt oven 0.5 1000
10 watt light bulbs * 2 24 480
Total power 5680

Step 2: Add inverter load

If you’re using an inverter to convert DC to AC power for your consumption,
you have to account for inverter and system efficiency losses. Inverters
consume a fraction of generated power when running.
Therefore, you have to add the consumption rate of the inverter to your daily
total. Different types of inverters have different consumption ranges. So, have
a look at your inverter spec sheet to determine how much it consumes. If your
inverter consumes 30 watts and runs for eight hours in a day, for instance,
you need to add that to your power load.
Inverter load = 40 W
Watts * 8 hours = 320 Wh
Total load = 5680 Wh + 320 Wh = 6000 Wh
You also have to account for inefficiencies in your system. Efficiency losses
range from 5% to 15%, depending on the specific type of inverter and how
much load is connected. This is important when sizing the battery, hence the
reason why you should buy a quality, efficient inverter.
Step 3: Calculate battery size
Batteries store the collected solar energy for later use. The size of the battery
depends on the required backup power to effectively run your appliances.
During winter months, when there is not enough sunlight to power the panels,
you can rely on a backup generator since battery storage might not be
enough.
When choosing your battery size, you have to consider system inefficiencies
and temperature coefficients associated with your off-grid system. These
inefficiencies have an impact on solar output. The rate of inefficiency
depends on the solar equipment and the system design. You have to
compensate for these inefficiencies by oversizing your solar panels
appropriately.
Typically, the battery’s voltage output is 12 V, 24 V, 48 V, or 120 V.
Therefore, the first step is to select the battery voltage. Lower voltages like
12 V work perfectly for smaller systems, while 24 V and 48 V better suit a
medium and large system, respectively. Another consideration is the inverter
and charge controller capacity, solar array configuration, and wire sizes.
Assuming your total daily power consumption equals 6000 Wh, you then
have to account for inverter inefficiencies. You can look at your inverter spec
sheet to determine its efficiency. For example, if your inverter’s efficiency
ate is 90%, you should add 10% to your daily power consumption. So the
amount of energy drawn from the battery to run your inverter will be:
6000 Wh * 1.1 inefficiency = 6600 watt hours
Next, you have to account for temperature changes in your battery’s capacity
to deliver power. If you’re using a lead-acid battery, you should expect a loss
in battery capacity in lower temperatures. For example, if the battery
temperature is around 200F during the winter months, you can multiply your
battery capacity by 1.59. Do not worry—this topic is covered in detail in
chapter Seven. Here, our main focus is on sizing the array.
6600 Wh * 1.59 = 10494 watt hours
You also have to factor in the efficiency loss that occurs when charging and
discharging the battery. For lead-acid batteries, the efficiency loss is 20%,
while lithium-ion batteries have an efficiency loss of 5%. Therefore if you
decide to add lead-acid battery to this system:

Minimum energy storage capacity of battery = 10494 * 1.2 = 12592.8 Wh

Days of autonomy
After sizing your battery, you will also be able to know how much power
you need to fully recharge it. You also have to record battery autonomy; that
is, the number of days you want your battery to store energy. This is
considered to compensate for consecutive cloudy days when the solar array
receives significantly fewer peak sun hours. Generally, it should be between
two to five days. If you’re to run the battery for three days, you can multiply
your battery capacity by the number of days of autonomy.
12592.8 Wh * 3 = 37778.4 Wh
As you can see, temperature changes and autonomy days significantly
increase the size of your battery. And since batteries are measured in amp-
hours (Ah) instead of watt-hours (Wh), you have to convert Wh to Ah. To do
this, divide battery capacity by its voltage:
37778.4 Wh / 12 V = 3148.2 Ah for 12 V battery bank
If we are supposed to use 100-watt, 12-Volt Lithium Ion batteries, then we
need:
3148.2/ 100 =31.5 rounded up to 32 lithium ion batteries. Therefore our solar
array should be able to generate:
32 * 100 Amp hour * 12 Volt = 38400 Watt hour
Further, when sizing a battery bank, you have to account for the amount of
energy discharged from the battery. Lead-acid batteries have a discharge
depth of around 50%. This helps in extending the battery’s life. Lithium
batteries can allow deep discharge without affecting the battery life.
Therefore, if you use lead-acid, you should double the above number: 38400
Watthour*2=76800 watthour. However using lithium-ion technology will let
you size your panels based on the above number.
Step 4: Calculate peak sun hours
Our next step is to calculate solar input based on where to install the panels
(your location). You can use the available PV resources like the sun-hours
map to provide you peak sun hours. During peak sun hours, the energy
production is at its highest amount.
Pay close attention to how much you consume each day. During December,
for instance, power consumption tends to be very high, while in January, your
consumption is lower. Alternatively, you can use the online resource map
available for solar radiation from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL).
You should install solar panels in an area where they receive full sun
exposure during the day and are free from any shading.
Step 4: Determine the number of panels required
Since you’re able to determine your battery capacity, you can determine the
size of your charging system. In this case, the charging system should store
enough energy to replace energy drawn from the battery, and also be able to
account for system losses and inefficiencies.
Assuming the peak sun hours in your location is 5.2 hours and battery
capacity of 76800 Watt hour as calculated above, then your array size will be:
76800 Watt hour/5.2 hours =14769.2 Watts.
There is no system that is 100% efficient. So, you have to account for the
system losses caused by inefficiencies in the system, such as voltage drop,
rotation of the panels, and shading.
Assuming the overall losses are 15%, the minimum PV array size will be:
14769.2 Watts / 85% =17375.5 Watts
By dividing the PV size by individual PV modules’ power output you can
calculate how many panels are needed for your specific use.
This PV array generates the amount of energy needed to charge your battery
and run your loads for three autonomous days.
Adding a backup generator will assist the solar array to keep your battery
bank always fully charged in bad weather conditions and cloudy winter days.
Roof Sizing
So far, you already have an estimate on the number of panels you need to
generate the required electricity needs. But the biggest question is, will all the
panels fit on your roof?
Though you already know the square footage of your house, this doesn’t
mean the available roof space is fit for installing solar panels. However, if
you have a big rectangle area facing south or west, that should be great for
installing panels.
The east-facing roof can also work in some cases.
Most rooftop designs, such as mustard roofs and gable roofs, do not have a
simple rectangular shape. They have different geometry that interferes with
the available mounting space.
Sometimes, you may have enough mounting space, but it might be shaded by
trees or nearby buildings.
Coming Up with the Design Layout
Most solar installers use professional software to come up with a design
system layout for installing panels. Others use satellite images from Google
Earth as the starting point.
There are a number of websites that allow you to use online satellite maps to
map out your roof area and determine square footage for installing the panels.
One of the online tools you can use to estimate your roof area is the Map
Developers. By joining the site, you can try this area calculator to have a
satellite view of your rooftop.
You can follow the steps below:
Step 1: Enter your address; you should enter your street address, city, and
state.
Step 2: Click on “zoom to address” to find the location of your house on the
Google map.
Step 3: Click “satellite”; the satellite view provides you with an actual view
of the house rooftop.
Step 4: Zoom in on your house by clicking the + icon on the lower right
corner.
Having an image alone is not enough however; you have to look for other
factors such as shading and roofing issues on your actual house.
Step 5: Map out your roof area by drawing some points on the rooftop. You
can join the points to create a polygon. This is the area where you will mount
the panels.
Step 6: Get your square footage by calculating the areas around the polygon.
The area is usually displayed at the top of the map.
You can now use this figure to roughly estimate the number of panels you
can install.
Other Ways to Measure Your Rooftop Space
Another way to know the available space is to climb up and take a direct
measurement of all the open areas. This method can have obvious risks when
walking on the rooftop, though.
For your safety, you can identify a rectangular section on your roof and then
take measurements of the area from the ground.
You only need to take measurements from the corners of the house where the
roof’s corners meet the ground. Measure the length (x) and width (y) of your
house.
Multiply the x and y to get the area on the ground. If your x = 24 feet and y =
12 feet, then your mounting space from the ground will be 288 feet. How
does this help you figure the number of panels to install?
Most PV modules measure 3 by 5 feet on average. So, for each panel, you
need 15 square feet (3 * 5) space.
To know how many panels you can to install, divide the amount of square
footage by 15.
288 square feet / 15 square feet = 19.2 rounded to 19 panels.
You can install a maximum of 19 solar panels on your roof. As the number of
panels must be an even figure for wiring and voltage purposes, 18 panels
must be the accurate number. If your selected panel’s size is different from
the above, use the right size from the manufacturer’s specification sheet.
Choosing Suitable Solar Panels
When buying solar panels, there are a number of factors you have to consider
when looking for the best panels for your solar system such as:
1. Cost
This is one of the major considerations for those who are on a tight budget.
Panels come in the range of 200 to 400 watts, although there are other smaller
panels on the market, especially if you’re designing a small off-grid system.
The cost-per-watt helps you compare the prices of the panel with the level of
energy output. That is, divide the price of the panels by the amount of output
generated to know whether it is worth the price.
2. Efficiency
Efficiency ratings present the amount of sunlight that a panel converts into
usable energy. Most panels have an efficiency rating of between 14% and
22%. The efficiency of panels directly influences the panel’s output.
3. Temperature coefficient
Temperature coefficients have an impact on the output of the panels. The
coefficient is a measure of how much efficiency is lost for temperatures
above or below the ideal testing conditions.
Manufacturers test panel output in a climate-controlled factory as well as
real-world weather conditions. Sometimes, your system lags behind the
efficiency level based on climatic conditions during that period.
For example, if your local highest ambient temperature is 650C, and the
temperature coefficient is mentioned 0.4% watt power in the product’s
datasheet, then you can multiply the coefficient by the temperature difference
(65-45=200C). Now your panels are operating at 20 * 0.4% = 8% below the
rated efficiency rate. Note that 450C refers to the ambient temperature under
NOCT.
If you live in places that experience high temperatures, you should consider
monocrystalline solar panels that can perform better under high temperatures.
Extremely hot areas can also reduce the panel’s output because excess heat
reduces the panel’s efficiency.
4. Warranty
You should also consider the performance and workmanship warranty of the
panels. The performance guarantees that the panels will work above the
stated efficiency. Most manufacturers guarantee 80% efficiency for over 25
years, while the workmanship warranty covers defects and other physical
problems with the panels.
A workmanship warranty is an indication of the reliability of the panels and
is usually shorter than the performance guarantee. The standard workmanship
warranty is usually 10 years. Some companies do offer a 20-year guarantee.
5. Company’s reputation
Another factor you have to consider is the longevity and reputation of the
manufacturing company. Look for customer reviews about the company. If
the company demonstrates a stable track record, you can rest assured you’re
getting value for your money.
Examples of Cost-Effective Solar Panels on the Market:
1.SunPower Maxeon 3
SunPower Maxeon 3 is a 400 W panel that ensures you get the best solar
output in your home. The panels can deliver 35% more energy from the same
space for over 25 years compared to conventional solar panels. They have an
expected lifespan of 40 years and the rate of return is less than 0.005%.
These panels have the lowest degradation rate and they are four times
stronger and more reliable than conventional panels. This makes them the
market leader with an efficiency of 22.6%.
The back-contact conductivity of Maxeon cells makes them absorb more
sunlight since there are no metal gridlines. As a result, they generate more
energy than other types of panels.
2. SunPower SPR-X22-360
The X-series is another efficient and sought-after panel in the US because of
its unmatched power and performance. It has an efficiency of 22.2%. The
panel is ideal in situations where there is premium space, and there may be
future expansion of the panels.
It provides maximum performance given real-world conditions, especially in
higher temperatures. They record a 0.25% degradation rate each year, making
them more reliable. The panel comes with an integrated micro-inverter that
converts the DC energy to AC and also optimizes the performance of each
PV module on the roof.
3. Panasonic VBHN 330SA17
Panasonic PV modules feature an innovative monocrystalline cell structure
that consists of 96 cells and produces 36% more energy compared to 60-cell
panels. The 330 W PV modules produce an extra 10% of electricity when the
temperature increases.
The PV module efficiency is 21.76%, while cell efficiency is 19.7%.
Manufacturers of these panels guarantee a 100% on power rating, a
performance guarantee for 20 years, and a 10-year workmanship warranty. If
you’re on a budget, you should consider this type of module.
Where to Mount Solar Panels
Once you buy your solar panels, it’s time to decide where to mount them.
Your decision on the type of mount to use depends on your installation space,
budget, and energy needs. There are four different types of solar mounts:
Rooftop mount: It is the most common type of installation that allows you to
mount the panels in an existing roof structure. It’s the less expensive type of
mount. If you install panels on the rooftop, there are only limited
opportunities for expanding your array size in the future, unlike a ground
mount which doesn’t have such restrictions.
Ground mount: Ground mounts allow you to fix a foundation on the ground
level. Though it occupies a lot of space, ground mounts are easy to install and
provide you with maximum control over the orientation of the array panels to
maximize energy production.
A ground mount system allows you to align the panels at an optimal angle so
they face directly toward the sun. This makes them more efficient as they
have maximum exposure to sunlight. In addition, the panels are raised off the
ground, and this allows airflow under the panels to cool them. As a result, the
panels generate more energy.
Carport mount: These panels are built to cover a parking area and provide
you with more efficient use of your living space than the ground mount
panels.
Pole mounts: This allows you to mount an array of panels on a single pole
that is elevated higher off the ground. Pole mounts may incorporate a
tracking system that automatically tilts the panels to the direction where they
can receive optimal sunlight exposure.
The rooftop and ground mounts are the most common racking systems, and
each has various merits based on your solar project specifications.
No matter the type of mount you choose, make sure the panels get maximum
sun exposure. For example, if you live in the USA, where the sun leans to the
south, installing the panels facing true south will produce the best results. But
if you live in South America, installing panels facing true north will produce
better results.
Pros and Cons of Roof Mount PV System
Pros

Less expensive
Requires few installation tools
Requires lower labor costs
Easy to utilize unused roof space

Cons

Hard to troubleshoot panels and other accessories

High temperatures reduce panel output
Hard to access the roof, especially slippery or steep
roofs
Available roof space constraints limit the size of the
panels
Can cause water leakage via the installation holes

Pros and Cons of Ground Mount PV System

Pros

Easy to install and access

 Easy to clean
Easy to troubleshoot panels and other accessories
More efficient
Easy to expand your system
Strong racking system
System not defined by the roof dimensions

Cons

Expensive
More labor-intensive
Require more installation tools
Require more installation space

Your decision on whether to go for ground or rooftop mount depends on:

Budget: how much are you willing to spend on

designing the system, including upfront costs?
A rooftop mount is ideal if you’re looking forward to maximizing your
return on investment (ROI).

Type of soil: if the soil in the area makes it difficult to

dig, then you can consider a rooftop mount.
Future expansion: do you plan to expand your solar
system? If you want to go off-grid, a ground mount one will be
more suitable since it provides room for expansion.

Mounting Systems
Before installing the panels, there are different categories of mounting
systems that secure your solar panels on your rooftop or ground mounts.
If you’re new to the solar installation process, identifying these categories
will help you install your panels easily. They include:
1. Sloped roof mounting system
Installation of solar panels in most homes is usually on sloped rooftops.
There are various options for mounting the panels in this kind of roof; railed,
shared rail, and rail-less. All these options require certain penetration or
anchoring to securely attach the panels to the rafters or directly to decking.

Rail system
Most of the residential solar systems use rails mounted on the roof to support
several rows of panels. Rows of panels are usually placed in a portrait
position, rails and clamps are bused to connect them. Rails are secured by
using screws or bolts.
Rail-less system
In a rail-less mount system, the panels are connected directly using screws
and bolts that penetrate through the roof instead of attaching the panels to the
rails. This reduces the manufacturing and shipping costs of the system and
makes installation much faster. The panels require the same number of
attachments penetrating into the roof, just like in the rail system. If you’re
using rail-free mounting, you can position the panels in any orientation.

Shared-rail system
On the other hand, the shared-rail mount system works the same as the rail
system, but it has a different number of rails. In the rail system, every two
rows of panels connect to four rails, while in shared-rail, the middle rail is
shared between two rows, and only three rails are needed. In this case,
connect two rails on the edges of the panel and clamp the other rail in the
middle of the two rows of panels.
You can use any orientation to position the rails and consequently, the panels.
After determining the accurate position of the rails, installing panels is quick
and straightforward since you don’t need mid and end clamps or more rails as
is used in a regular railed system.
2. Flat roof mounting system
These are mostly used in building structures that have flat rooftops,
especially commercial or industrial buildings. One of the advantages of a flat
roof mounting system is usually the large space available for installing the
panels. This makes it easy to install the panels.

This system uses a flat roof, ballasted mounting system approach. It uses
“foot” as the base assembly for the mounting structure. The foot is tray-like
equipment positioned on the rooftop with a tilted design and holds ballast
blocks at the bottom and PV modules at the top and bottom edges. The panels
are tilted to an angle that captures the most sunlight based on the location.
The roof load limit determines the amount of ballast needed to install the
panels. Clamps or clips are utilized to fix the panels securely on the mounting
system. If you have a large, flat roof space, install the panels facing south.
You can also generate electricity with panels facing east or west. You can
also use a dual-tilt configuration to utilize your roof space.
3. Solar shingles system
As more people are now interested in a unique and aesthetic solar installation
design, the shingles mounting system is increasing in popularity. Solar
shingle is a building-integrated PV (BIPV) system where the solar panels are
part of the built-in structure.
Tesla Solar Roof does not require a separate mounting system because the
panels are already integrated into the roof (they’re part of your roofing
structure).
Roof Mounting Installation Process
Now that you already know the different mounting systems, let’s look at how
you can carry out the installation of the panels. In this instance, we will
discuss the steps to follow when building a railed mounting system.
Step1: Prepare system components
Start by assembling the required components for installing the panels: drilling
tool, rails, bolts, clamps, screws, fall protection kit, pencils, etc.
Step 2: Check the guidelines to know where to position panels
Take into account the installation limits related to where to position rails and
panels from the edges of the roof in your panel’s guideline.
Step 3: Determine where to drill holes on the roof
Measure the distance between the pre-drilled holes on your solar panels to
match with the distance between the rails on the roof.
Step 4: Find rafters on the rooftop
Rails must be attached to the roof rafters by screws. Therefore we need to
find the rafters. Drill a spot hole into the attic through the roof. Find this drill
position from the inside and then adjust the truss at the center in order to fix
the rails in position and provide base support. Drill your first hole to confirm
the exact center of the rafter. Then, mark another spot on the same rafter by
using the same distance between the first confirmed hole and the edge of the
roof. Connect the two spots on the rafter using a chalk line.
Depending on the number of rows and railing system, you may need to add
one or two more holes on the same rafter. There is no doubt that the distance
between the first two holes on the first rafter is determined by pre-drilled
holes on the back of your panels.
Once you chalked your first rafter, you can easily find other rafters by
measuring the standard 24-inch distance between rafters. Chalk as many
rafters as you need. Then, drill the holes on the rafters using the bit that fits
your flashing’s lag bolts.
Step 5: Mount the flashings
After drilling the holes in place, mount the flashings that act as a supporting
structure to aid in the installation of the rails on the roof.
Using a ratchet, fasten the lag bolts to tighten the flashings in place. Most
systems have a cap that sits on the bolt to seal as well as prepare a place to
keep the rails.
Step 6: Mount solar racking system
In this step, put the rails in place and properly line up and elevate the rails
using the flashings.
Rails are kept in place by their brackets connected to the flashing caps in
some railing systems. In other systems, rails just click into the flashing’s
connector, making the system installation much easier.
Step 7: Wiring panels
Attach the wires to the management clips and fasten the grounding bolts
attached to the copper wire connected to the grounding system of the house.
Step 8: Install micro-inverters or power optimizers
You can connect each panel to a micro-inverter to boost the efficiency of the
panels. Secure the wires using the management clips.
Step 9: Secure panels to the mounting system
The last step is to tighten the clamps and T-bolts to ensure the panels are
securely fixed on the mounting system. There are two types of clamps for
securing panels on the rails: mid clamps and end clamps. They both have a T-
bolt structure that goes in the rails and turns 90 degrees to get locked. Mid
clamps are located between two panels, while end clamps keep the panels at
the two ends of the rails.
Chapter Summary
Learning how to read panel specifications helps avoid confusion and lets you
understand the normal operating conditions of the PV modules. Using the
current-voltage (I-V) curve, you can easily understand the performance
information regarding efficiency, maximum rated power, maximum voltage,
and maximum current, among other factors.
Furthermore, the datasheet provides information on how to install and operate
the panels. You’re also able to size your panels based on your daily load.
Sizing solar panels is an important step to achieving energy independence.
Once you estimate your energy needs, you can calculate the required PV
output and the number of panels you need to meet your energy demands.
The performance of the PV modules depends on tilt angle, sun peak hours,
the orientation of the panels, and shading effects.
Next, you have to estimate the design of your solar system. This is highly
dependent on your roof type, roof characteristics, choosing the right type of
solar panels, and calculating solar power output. Determine where to mount
the panels. If you’re planning on rooftop mounts, you have to size your roof
to make sure you have enough space to install the panels. Once you take into
account all the factors, you can go ahead and install the panels.
In the next chapter, you will figure out how batteries can help you get more
energy independent.
 CHAPTER SIX: Solar Charge Controllers
Charge controllers are an essential component of battery-backed PV systems.
In fact, off-grid systems, as well as DC-coupled hybrid PV systems, should
utilize a controller in order to regulate the process of charging the batteries.
The DC power generated by your solar array flows to the charge controller to
charge the batteries. This chapter will walk you through the essential features
of charge controllers and guide you on how to select, install, and program
your device properly.
What is a solar charge controller?
Basically, solar charge controller's main task is to regulate voltage and
current from the solar array in order to protect batteries from overcharging, as
well as over-discharging.
Charge controllers are critical components used in off-grid and DC-coupled
hybrid PV systems to regulate the PV output for battery charging. As
explained before, grid-tied and AC-coupled hybrid PV systems do not require
a charge controller. And that is because no battery is used in the former one,
and an inverter/charger regulates the battery charging in the latter one.
Why do we need a charge controller?
Charge controllers carry numerous functions in PV systems; however, they
play two critical roles in relation to batteries:
1. As explained in the previous chapter, a solar array with a
nominal voltage of 24, for instance, is often supposed to
store its excess power in a matching nominal (24-volt)
battery. However, this setup will generate a Vmpp
(maximum power point voltage) of around 36 V, which will
definitely damage the battery bank if directly connected to
it. Here is where the solar charge controllers come in handy.
Most 24-volt batteries need a voltage of around 27 to 28
volts (larger than their nominal voltage) to get fully charged.
 The same rule applies to 12- and 48-volt batteries.

2. Additionally, at nighttime, when solar panels generate no

power and therefore no voltage, the higher voltage of
batteries compared to the array can drain the batteries and
push the current toward solar panels. Charge controllers
prevent this.

Other than the main tasks mentioned above, most charge controllers provide
a range of functions, like load control and lighting. Below are some of the
optional features you may find helpful in some controllers:
LED or LCD displays are available in some controllers.
Additionally, some controllers like Victron can be monitored
remotely by connecting to your phone or other devices by
Bluetooth.
An alternative to a display is MT 50 screen which is included
in some models and can be connected to some other models,
such as Epever charge controller, for programming the
device, as well as displaying the charging data.
Temperature compensation: most modern controllers can
adjust the battery input according to the battery’s
temperature and temperature correction voltage to improve
the battery-charging process.
Low voltage disconnect: when your DC loads are connected
to these charge controllers, this feature will protect the
battery by disconnecting the current while the voltage is too
low.
Lighting: some controllers can turn the lights on and off at
dawn and dusk, respectively.

Charge Controllers and Stages of Charging

Charge controllers help batteries undergo the stages of charging properly.
There are three to four stages of charging, depending on the type of battery.
These stages are important for all batteries to perform properly and last for a
long time:
 Stage 1, bulk charging. When the sun is out, the charge controllers
will send all the available current to charge the battery.
Stage 2, absorption. As the battery reaches the regulation voltage,
the controller keeps the voltage constant. The battery is therefore
protected from overheating and over gassing (in lead-acid
batteries).
Stage 3, equalization. Only flooded lead-acid batteries undergo
this stage. The periodic boost charge in this stage can lead to better
stirring of the electrolytes and completing the reactions, as well as
leveling the voltage of the battery.
Stage 4, float charge. This is the stage where the battery is fully
charged, so the controller reduces the voltage to avoid over
gassing and battery overheating.

The graph below illustrates the above-mentioned stages of charge:

Charge Controller Technologies

Charge controllers are available in two different technologies, PWM and
MPPT.
PWM Solar Charge Controllers
A Pulse Width Modulation or PWM solar controller directly connects the
solar array to the battery. During bulk charging of the batteries in the
daytime, the continuous connection between the array and the battery will
pull the array's voltage to the battery's voltage. As the battery is getting
charged, its voltage will rise, and so does the array’s voltage. That is the
reason why you can only use a matching nominal voltage of battery and array
when using a PWM charge controller.

To explain the essence of matching nominal voltage when using a PWM

charge controller, we can connect a PWM controller to two matching and
non-matching PV systems and observe the results.
But first we need to identify the Voc and Vmp of the two PV systems. The
table below shows the approximate open circuit voltage and maximum power
voltage of three different panel types. Manufacturers include the exact figures
in the datasheet for each nominal voltage of the solar panel.
Nominal Number of Open Circuit Maximum Power
Voltage Cells Voltage (Voc) Voltage (Vmp)
12 36 22 18
20 60 38 30
24 72 44 36

Now we can compare a 12-volt and a 24-volt solar panel charging a 12-volt
battery being connected to a PWM controller:
 100-Watt, 12-Volt solar panel to 12-Volt battery:

As you can observe in the left-hand diagram, the12-Volt battery output power
will be as calculated below:
P=I*V
P = 5.56 Amps * 13 Volts = 72.28 Watts
Therefore, the system’s efficiency would be:
72.28 watts / 100 watts = 72.28 %
The efficiency rate of PWM controllers is less than the premium (80-90%)
efficiency of MPPT controllers, which is due to the direct connection and not
benefiting from the maximum power tracking in MPPT controllers. Note that
a 12-volt nominal battery would have a voltage around 13–14 V when fully
charged. And that is the reason why we used 13 V as the battery’s voltage
here.

100-Watt, 24-volt solar panel to a 12-volt battery:

In the right-hand diagram above, the 12-volt battery output would be as
follows:
P = 2.78 A * 13 V = 36.14 watts
The system efficiency would be 36.14%.
As simply calculated above, the PWM controller only performs fairly well
when the PV module and battery nominal voltage are the same. This example
is intended to explain the way PWM controllers work. They should always be
connected to matching voltages of the solar array and the battery.
As explained above, even when PWM controllers are connected to matching
panels and batteries, they perform at an efficiency rate of around 75%, which
would be lower than the decent MPPT controllers.
PWM controllers are the least expensive controllers on the market. Some
PWM controllers are available in multiple nominal voltages, meaning that
they can charge a 12-volt battery using a 12-volt array and a 24-volt battery
storage using a 24-volt nominal array. PWM should not be used for a 24-volt
array to charge a 12-volt battery because it will result in energy loss.
How to Size a PWM Controller
Sizing a PWM charge controller is pretty straightforward. They are rated in
amps as well as the previously-mentioned nominal voltage.
By looking into your solar panel specification sheet, you can find the short
circuit current (Isc) of the panels. By multiplying the Isc of the panel by the
number of parallel strings, you can find the maximum total current of your
solar array.
According to the National Electrical Code, you should also consider two
safety factors.

1. 25% for over irradiance conditions when sun exposure is

more than Standard Test Condition (STC).
2. 25% for more than three hours of continuous use, that is
often the case with PV systems.
Total amperage = Number of strings in parallel * panel’s Isc * 1.25 (over
irradiance) * 1.25 (continuous use).
To better explain the process of sizing, let’s try an example:
Assume that we have two strings each composed of two Renogy solar panels
rated at 100 watts and 12 volts, to set up a 24-volt nominal solar array. The
panel’s specification sheet indicates an Isc of 5.86 amp and 22.3 volt Voc.
The maximum current is calculated as below:
2 strings * 5.86 amps (Isc) * 1.25 * 1.25 = 18.28 amps
So, the 20 amp Renogy charge controller can easily handle our off-grid setup.
Do not forget to check if the selected controller can handle our PV system’s
voltage.
MPPT Charge Controllers
As their name implies, Maximum Power Point Tracker or MPPT controllers
have the capability to track the Vmp (maximum power voltage) of the solar
array to regulate it into a usable voltage to charge the battery. By using a
MPPT, you can have a 20- or 24-volt nominal solar array charge a 12-volt
battery bank.
These controllers are more common and also more expensive; however, they
can increase the system’s efficiency by 20% to 30%. As explained under
Kirchhoff’s law, the power that enters the MPPT equals the power that comes
out of it. Therefore, when charging a 12-volt battery via a 24-volt nominal
voltage array, the MPPT reduces the voltage to around 14–15 Volts and
increases the current so that the power output remains equal:
Power (Watts) = I (Amps) * V (Volts)
MPPT controllers can let you be more flexible while choosing your system’s
voltage. For instance, you can use a 20-volt nominal voltage array to charge a
12-volt battery, or two of those panels connected in series to charge a 24-volt
battery, or even three 20-volt panels in series to charge a 48-volt battery.
The most significant advantage of increasing your array’s voltage is the fact
that higher voltages mean lower current, hence the smaller wire size and
lower cost. Additionally, you need lower battery voltage, and this can
significantly decreases your upfront costs as well.
Size an MPPT Charge Controller
To select an MPPT controller, you need to consider three separate features of
your PV system including, current (amps), voltage as well as the temperature.
1. Size the Amp Rating
MPPT charge controllers often reduce the array's voltage to the charging
voltage of the battery. Since the power into the MPPT is equal to power out
of it, this will result in a rise in the output current. So by dividing the array’s
power by the battery’s voltage, we can estimate the amperage.
Don't forget to multiply the number by 1.25 (NEC safety factor).
So,
Amp rating = total power output/battery voltage * 1.25 (NEC safety factor)
2. Size the Voltage
Although the MPPT controller can handle higher nominal voltages than the
batteries, the Voc (short circuit voltage) is the limiting factor. For instance, a
24-volt solar panel has a Voc of around 44 volts. Therefore we need to select
a controller which can handle the open circuit voltage (Voc) of the string. As
a reminder, the Voc of the string is calculated as below:
Voc of the string = Voc of panel * number of panels in series.
3. Temperature compensation
When exposed to low temperatures, solar panels generate voltages higher
than the open circuit voltage (Voc) measured under Standard Test Condition
(STC).
Lower temperatures can increase the Voc of each string of panels by
approximately 0.03% per each degree Celsius below 25°C. This feature is
referred to as the Voc temperature coefficient of the solar panel, usually
mentioned in the specification sheet.
For instance, if a solar panel has a Voc temperature coefficient of -0.03% per
degree Celsius, it means that we need to add 0.030% to the Voc for each
degree Celsius below 25°C, and decrease the Voc by 0.030% for each degree
Celsius above 25°C.
Higher temperatures than 25°C have no effect on sizing the controller.
However, it must be considered when programming the controller.
An alternative way to find the highest Voc on cold winter days is to check the
NEC, table 690.7 A, to find the temperature correction factor for each
temperature range below 25°C. For instance, for ambient temperature range
of - 6°C to -10°C the factor is 1.16. Simply multiply your array’s Voc by this
number to calculate the highest Voc possible.
We can formulate the sizing procedure as below:
Maximum volts = number of panels in series * Voc of the solar panel + [solar
panel’s Voc temperature coefficient * (difference between 25°C and the
lowest ambient temperature)].
The example below better explains how to size MPPT for your off-grid setup:
Assume that we want to connect two 12-volt 190 watt HQST solar panels
with Voc of 24.3 volts and Voc temperature coefficient of -0.33%/0C, in
parallel to a 12-volt battery bank.
As explained above,
MPPT amp rating = total power output / battery voltage * 1.25 (NEC safety
factor).
So,
MPPT amp rating = 2 * 190 watt / 12 volts * 1.25 = 39.58 amps.
Therefore, the controller should at least handle 39.58 amps. If the lowest
ambient temperature in the area is -10°C, then,
Maximum voltage = number of panels in series * Voc of solar panel + [solar
panel’s Voc temperature coefficient * (difference between 25°C and the
lowest ambient temperature)].
So,
MPPT Volt rating = 2 * 24.3 volts + [0.33% * (25°C-(-10C))] = 48.6 + 11.55
% = 54.21 volts.
In this case, the 60 amp Renogy MPPT with a maximum voltage input of 150
volts can easily regulate the charging of batteries.
Choose the Right Solar Controller: PWM versus MPPT
The PWM is an inexpensive option for smaller systems and is perfect for PV
modules with nominal voltage of 12, 24, and 48 volts to charge 12, 24, and
48 volt battery banks, respectively.
The MPPT controller, on the other hand, is more suitable for larger systems
where additional percentages of efficiency will lead to generating tens or
hundreds of more watts per hour. Additionally, only MPPT charge controllers
can efficiently charge a 12-volt battery bank, for instance, using a residential
20-volt nominal PV module.
Other than considering the battery voltage, some important considerations
must be taken into account to select the controller. The most important one is
your battery type
Most flooded and sealed lead-acid batteries are easily handled by most charge
controllers. However, if you are charging a custom (DIY) lithium-ion battery,
you will need a charge controller like the Epever charge controller, which can
be programmed using an MT 50 screen connected to it.
An MT 50 screen is a useful monitor with the ability to be connected to the
controller via a cable. This will enable you to monitor and program your
controller. Charge controllers like the Victron MPPT make the programming
of lithium batteries even easier. You can connect your phone to the MPPT via
Bluetooth and adjust the features accordingly.
Other available solar charge controllers that do not come with an MT 50
screen or Bluetooth connection options are not recommended to be used with
custom batteries because they are hard to program accordingly.
Programming Solar Charge Controllers
Different battery manufacturers recommend various voltages for their
products. Added to that, batteries may need compensation as the temperature
goes higher or lower than 25°C. Therefore, the charge controller must be
programmed accordingly. You need to get familiar with the different features
of controllers and batteries to program. These features are as follows:
1. Charge profile: The different stages of charging each battery
undergoes is referred to as the charge profile and include: bulk, absorption,
equalization, and float charging. Batteries need different voltages depending
on their charging profile.
By looking inside your battery specification sheet, you can easily find the
appropriate charging voltage for each stage.
2. Temperature compensation voltage: The chemical nature of lead-
acid batteries indicates less activity in cold weather, and higher chemical
reactions when it is hot. Therefore, the input voltage of lead-acid batteries
needs to be increased and decreased in lower and higher temperatures than
25°C accordingly.
The temperature compensation voltage is referred to as the amount of voltage
(in volts) needed to be adjusted for charging voltage of lead-acid batteries in
temperatures higher or lower than 25°C. This is usually mentioned in the
battery’s specification sheet. Typically for most lead-acid batteries, it is
around -3 millivolt per 0C per cell. This means that a 2-volt (1 Cell) battery in
24°C needs 3 millivolts more than the recommended voltage of the
manufacturer to be properly charged.
So, first you need to divide the battery's voltage by two to see how many cells
your battery is composed of. For instance, a 12-volt battery has 12/2 = 6 cells.
In our case and under 24°C, the 12-volt battery needs (12 / 2 volts * 3
millivolts =) 18 millivolts more than recommended to be charged in 24°C.
As emphasized above, only lead-acid batteries need the voltage to be
compensated in ambient temperatures higher and lower than 25°C. The
example below explains the process of adjusting the battery’s charging
voltage:
Assume that you are using a lead-acid battery in an area where, in
summertime, the battery experiences a high of 45°C; so you need to program
your controller as follows:
From the lead-acid battery specification sheet, we find the recommended
float charging voltage should be 13.3 volts, while the temperature
compensation voltage is -20mV/°C/cell. It means that for each degree Celsius
above 25°C, -20 millivolts should be added to the voltage of each cell, so:
45 - 25 = 20°C temperature difference.
20°C * -20 millivolts = -400 millivolt = -0.4 volts per battery cell.
Each battery cell equals 2 volts, so a 12-volt battery has 12 / 2 = 6 cells.
-0.4 volts * 6 cells = -2.4 volts should be added to the recommended charging
voltage;
13.3 volts + (-2.4) = 10.9 volts.
Therefore you need to program the controller to charge your battery with this
voltage in summer time. Similarly, in colder climates, the voltage should be
compensated. In fact, the voltage will be increased to improve the chemical
reactions of lead-acid batteries.
Important hint:
Do not confuse the battery’s temperature compensation voltage with the solar
panel’s Voc temperature coefficient. The temperature compensation voltage
consideration for lead-acid batteries is due to their chemical nature, making
them more active in hotter climates, while less active in colder weather
conditions, whereas the Voc temperature coefficient refers to the solar
panel’s Voc changes in different climatic circumstances.
3. Charging rate: We need to set the controller in order not to charge
our battery at a faster rate than it can handle. For instance, a 100-amp-hour
battery should not be charged faster than 100/2 = 50 amps, meaning that if
you use a controller bigger than 50 amp, you need to change the charging rate
Smaller controllers do not need to be programmed for charging rates. Each
individual battery has its specific charging voltages. For instance, the
following charging specification can be extracted from a 12 volt 100 Amp-
hour Battleborn battery.
Absorption Voltage: 14.2 V to 14.6 V
Float Voltage: 13.4 V to 13.8 V
Equalization Voltage: 14.4 V (if applicable)
Absorption Time: 30 minutes per 100Ah battery bank
Connect the Charge Controller
Once you have learned enough about the different features and functions of
solar controllers and selected the one that fits your solar setup, it is now time
to connect it.
Charge Controller Installation Tools:

Wire stripper
Wire crimping tool
Heat shrink gun
Appropriate screwdriver
 Impact driver
Ratchet
Ammeter
Wattmeter

First of all, connect the ground wire from your controller to the ground
terminal of your load center. Using a wire stripper and crimper, connect the
negative and then positive terminals to the corresponding terminals of the
battery.
Take safety measures, especially if you are working with a 48 Volt battery.
Do not forget that DC voltages of 40 or greater can cause death if they come
into contact with your body.
Turn off the DC disconnect switch before connecting the negative and then
positive terminals of the array to the controller. Use an ammeter and
wattmeter to check the current of the battery and the wattage of the array. If
they are within your nominal range, you can turn on the DC disconnect
switch. You are good to go now.
Chapter summary
The solar controller’s function is crucial to your battery health. If selected
and adjusted properly, they will secure a long battery lifespan, appropriate
battery charging and discharging as well as a smoothly running PV system.
In the next chapter, we will explain about the battery essentials. If you are
interested in knowing about the battery’s task in a PV system, keep reading.
 CHAPTER SEVEN: Solar Battery Bank
Off-grid solar power systems, also known as ‘stand-alone’ systems, are
designed to operate independently of the grid. Since your solar array does not
generate electricity during the night hours, for continuous power flow, the
system needs to store some extra energy in the batteries.
Solar batteries carry out their task in PV systems by storing the power
generated by the solar array. While there are some recent battery technologies
with built-in inverters offering integrated energy conversion, in the majority
of the existing systems, power is sent from batteries to inverter(s) to be
converted to AC power suitable for AC appliances.
In the daylight hours with high sun intensity (usually 10 AM to 2 PM), when
your array's energy output is exceeding your consumption needs, batteries
become helpful by storing the excess energy. The higher the battery capacity,
the more power can be stored.
What Is a Deep-Cycle Battery?
A deep-cycle battery, like all the solar options, is designed to provide steady
output for a significant period of time until discharging to its recommended
limit. This type of battery is different from car batteries, which should always
be ready to generate a burst of high-power output to start the car engine, for
instance. As this definition implies, off-grid and hybrid PV systems can just
utilize deep cycle ones. Different types of deep cycle battery technologies can
be paired with solar systems such as lead-acid, lithium-ion, nickel-based, and
flow batteries.
Types of Batteries
Lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries are the two most popular chemistries
available for off-grid systems. They are, indeed, not only different in
chemistry but also in many other aspects, such as the cost, lifespan, and
capacity.
Lithium-ion technology is newer and superior to lead-acid in almost all areas
apart from the price. While they offer higher efficiency, capacity, depth of
discharge, and lifespan, they do, unfortunately, cost a lot more than their old-
fashioned competitors.
Nickel Cadmium and flow batteries are other solar battery types. They’re
seldom used for residential or recreational purposes, and they won’t be
covered here.
Lead-Acid Deep-Cycle Batteries
This technology has been utilized for storing energy for more than a century.
Due to their reliability and low cost, these batteries are still extremely
suitable choices for small and medium-sized PV systems.
The main downside of these batteries is their maintenance, especially in
flooded types, which needs ventilation, as well as frequent refilling.
Ventilation considerations will lead to installation issues as well. Their
shorter lifespan (seven to ten years) and depth of discharge are other
disadvantages. These batteries should only be discharged up to 50 % of their
capacity to prevent from being permanently damaged. Deka or Crown
Battery may be among your best options to select as a lead-acid battery.
Mechanics of Lead-acid Batteries
A lead-acid battery consists of the following compartments:
1. Lead plates.
2. Diluted sulfuric acid solution, known as electrolyte
3. Negative electrode (anode).
4. Positive electrode (cathode).

The lead plates work as a separator blocking a direct link between two
opposite electrodes. During the period of charging, lead oxide is produced at
the cathode, while during discharging, sulfate ions leave the electrolyte, and
water is produced. If the battery is overcharged, the inflammable gas,
hydrogen, may be formed. This increases the risk of an explosion, hence the
importance of proper monitoring and ventilating the batteries.
 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
1. Flooded batteries are the traditional type used for starting engines in
motorcycles, golf carts, as well as deep cycle solar power systems. As the
battery dries up, the user can open the lid to add distilled water.
2. Sealed batteries utilize the very same mechanics as flooded ones.
However, a sufficient amount of liquid has been added before sealing the
battery. As the name implies, you cannot add distilled water to this type.
3. Valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries are sealed lead-acid batteries
equipped with a regulating mechanism to let oxygen and hydrogen gasses
escape safely from the battery.
4. Absorbed gel matt (AGM) is a variant of VRLA lead-acid batteries,
constructed with a more advanced technology for keeping electrolytes
suspended around active plates in order to provide a decent depth of charge
and discharge. Solar and storage purposes are among the uses of this type.
5. Gel lead-acid batteries utilize the same electrolyte suspension mechanism,
although due to the addition of silica to the ingredients, they are not
considered a wet cell. While they offer a slightly longer lifespans in hotter
weather conditions, there is more chance that they’ll have a shorter lifespan if
charged with the wrong voltage.
Lead-Acid Battery Features and Terminologies
To get our feet wet with the topic, let's dive into some terminologies first.
You may need to use some of them for proper use and maintenance of your
PV system battery bank.
Total Capacity is defined as battery’s maximum energy
storage and measured in Amp hours. A 100-amp hour battery
provides half the capacity of a 200-amp hour battery.
Specific Gravity is defined as the ratio of electrolyte density
compared to the density of pure water.
Internal resistance is known as the resistance caused
by the battery itself.
Cranking Amps (CA) is defined as the current
generated by the battery in 32°F for 30 seconds with
 the voltage being 7.2 volts.
Cold Cranking Amps (CCA) is defined as the current
generated by the battery in 0°F for 30 seconds while
voltage is 7.2 volts.
Reserve Capacity (RC) explains the amount of time in
minutes during which a battery can discharge 25 amps
at 80°F while still remaining above 10.5 volts.
Depth of Discharge is defined as the percentage of battery
storage being safely utilized before harming the battery.
Lead-acid batteries will get seriously damaged if drained
more than 50%; in fact, the ideal depth of discharge for lead-
acid batteries is around 40%. This will secure a long lifespan;
however, you will need larger battery storage to address the
total electricity needs of your appliances.
C rate (load factor) is defined as the rate at which the battery
discharges its total capacity at 25°C, during a certain period
of time (5, 10, or most often, 20 hours). A 100Amp-hour, 20
hour rated battery, for instance, will have a discharge current
as below:

Discharge current (amps) = 100 amp hour / 20 hour = 5 amps

Discharge current here (5 amps) indicates the current at which the battery
power is emptied in 20 hours. Now, if we divide the current of discharge by
the batteries total amp-hour, we will find the C rate:
C rate = 5 amp / 100 amp-hour = 0.05°C rate (load factor).
Nominal Voltage of the most popular batteries available on the
market is 12, 24 or 48. The voltage of a battery is related to the
voltage of other PV components and does not determine the
storage capacity of the system.
Lead-Acid Battery Sulfation
The most frequent cause of battery damage and short lifespan is sulfation, a
process in which crystals of sulfur are formed at the lead plates, preventing
the required chemical reaction from happening. This is most often due to a
low charge or electrolyte level of the battery. Therefore, you should always
keep your eye on these two important features.
Monitoring a flooded lead-acid battery
The two above-mentioned parameters should always be monitored, especially
in a flooded lead-acid battery. The following tools are required for
monitoring and refilling a flooded lead-acid battery:
1. Distilled water.
2. Voltmeter, to figure out the voltage of the battery.
3. Temperature compensating hydrometer to determine
the specific gravity of the battery.
4. Proper safety gloves and goggles.

Frequent maintenance and refilling are required to maintain the electrolyte

level and the charge level of the flooded lead-acid batteries. However, in
AGM lead-acid batteries, these two factors cannot be modified meaning that
this type is less prone to damage.
As mentioned above, two factors have a significant impact on a battery's
health: fluid level and state of charge.
Fluid level

By opening the flooded lead-acid battery lid, you can check the
mineralized (distilled) water level. While most batteries have a fill
level, you can make sure to have enough water if no metal lead surface
is visible. Make sure you never overfill the battery. The maximum
amount should usually be half an inch below the cap. Always consider
safety measures mentioned above.

State of charge and level of discharge

By checking the voltage and specific gravity, we can quite simply

figure out the depth of discharge and the state of charge of a lead-acid
battery.
The table below contains the figures for depth of discharge in relation to
voltage and specific gravity for a 12-volt battery. You can easily double the
figures and use them for a 24-volt battery, as well.
 State of Specific Voltage (12
Charge Gravity V)
100% 1.26 12.7
75% 1.22 12.4
50% 1.19 12.2
25% 1.15 12.0
0% 1.12 11.9

Charging Considerations
There are three main phases of charging which are important to know before
setting up your battery:
1. Float or trickle charging is meant to charge the battery
at the same rate as discharging it and will keep the battery fully
charged.
2. Bulk charging is needed when charging a fully
discharged battery. The voltage goes high to reach the maximum
recommended voltage.
3. Absorption phase, which follows the bulk phase where
voltage is kept at its maximum, while amperage is decreasing
until the battery is fully charged.

Best results are achieved with adjustable charge controllers programmed for
the mentioned phases and according to the battery’s manufacturer
recommendations. In small, off-grid systems, the charging period is
considerably short for bulk and absorption charging; therefore, you can easily
set the same voltage for both phases.
Temperature Effect on Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries provide their optimal performance if stored under optimal
temperature (25°C or 77°F). In general, lead-acid batteries get charged faster
and unfortunately discharge faster in higher temperatures, while in lower than
optimal temperatures, the battery has a decreased capacity, although an
increased lifespan. Generally speaking, an 8°C (15°F) rise in temperature will
lead to halving the lifespan of a lead-acid battery.
To charge a lead-acid battery in higher and lower temperatures than optimal,
special considerations must be taken into account, the most important of
which is the voltage adjustment. They need to be charged with a higher
voltage in colder weather, and a lower voltage in hotter climates.
Added to that, when lead-acid batteries get colder, their capacity decreases,
while load and charge rate are affected as well. These factors can seriously
affect your storage capacity. There would also be a risk of higher currents
and, consequently, a fire hazard in higher temperatures. Therefore, certain
consideration must be taken into account to size your battery bank and your
system as well.
Peukert’s law
In colder temperatures, the capacity of lead-acid batteries is reduced. This is
explained by Peukert’s law. Considering the battery’s internal resistance and
recovery rate, Peukert's law has formulated an exponent that indicates a
battery’s actual discharge time. The less the number is, the longer the actual
discharge time. Lead-acid batteries have a Peukert's number range between
1.3 and 1.5. Let’s see how it works:
A 100 amp-hour battery with a 20 amp discharging and a Peukert’s exponent
of 1.3 gets fully discharged in (100amp hour/20 amp=) 5 hours. However, to
know the actual discharge time, you need to divide it by Peukert’s exponent,
in this case 1.3, as well (5 / 1.3 = 3.8 hours, the actual discharge time).
Additionally, temperature can affect these figures. The picture below shows
how higher temperatures increase the capacity, as well as decrease the C rate
(discharge or load factor).
Temperature can be harmful to the battery and the batteries’ lifespan, as well
as posing a fire hazard. As the temperature goes high, lower voltage is
required for the given charge current. As voltage is reduced, the current goes
higher to compensate and to keep the equation constant:
V = I * R.
The increased current, together with the heat generated from the charging
process, may lead to a situation called run-away condition and can create
fires if not controlled.
Due to different manufacturing procedures, various lead-acid batteries seek
different modifications, especially in regard to charging voltage. You can
easily find the amount of temperature compensation voltage in the
specification sheet of lead-acid batteries. You need to program your charge
controller according to the temperature compensation voltage and the local
temperature where the battery is located. As explained in chapter Six, it is
expressed as millivolts per 0C per cell. Do not forget that every cell consists
of two volts, therefore a 12-volt battery is composed of (12volts/2volts=)
6cells.
Alternatively, if constant charging current is desired, a reduction by
approximately 3 millivolts per Celsius degree below 25°C is recommended.
Two common lead-acid battery types (VRLA and FLA) require different
charging and maintenance considerations. Below you can see the main
differences regarding the maintenance of these two battery types.
VRLA versus FLA Battery Charging and Maintenance
Flooded, unsealed lead-acid batteries need the most maintenance of all lead-
acid battery types. They need to be frequently filled. In regards to ventilation,
they need a properly ventilated space, and it’s a good idea to connect the
battery box to an outdoor space. In larger systems, ventilating fans are needed
to be installed. As explained before, this is due to the hydrogen-releasing
nature of these kinds of batteries, especially when overcharged.
VRLA batteries, however, can never be refilled because they are sealed by
the manufacturer. Since they only release gas if overcharged, ventilation
consideration is still needed, although not as strictly as for FLA batteries.
The level of discharge of the FLA batteries should be determined by
measuring their specific gravity via a hydrometer. However, in the VRLA
type (and AGM and GEL), this is impossible due to their sealed nature. FLA
batteries accept the widest range of voltage tolerance among lead-acid
batteries. An appropriate charge controller must be connected to them with a
proper charging program, accordingly.
VRLA batteries are much more voltage-sensitive compared to FLA. To have
a fairly long lifespan, they require proper charging. At higher voltages than
recommended, the battery heats up, and gas is released, which leads to
permanent harm to the battery. Hydrogen release in this situation poses a risk
of irreversible damage to the battery, while in FLA, it is much less risky.
Selecting a proper charge controller is the key to having a well-maintained
VRLA battery.
As their name implies, flooded (sealed and unsealed) lead-acid batteries
cannot be placed on their side due to the risk of leakage. VRLA batteries can
be oriented on their sides, thus providing more flexibility for battery
placement and installation.
Lithium-Ion Battery
With the growing popularity of electric vehicles, lithium-ion technology has
been found to be incredibly helpful and reliable in regards to storing electrical
energy. These batteries are also now being commonly used in almost any
cordless electrical device such as laptops, cell phones, etc.
Tesla Powerwall and LG Chem are the pioneers of the lithium-ion battery
technology m utilized in residential solar storage systems.
While lead-acid batteries are more suitable for small, infrequently-used, off-
grid systems, lithium-ion batteries best suit larger systems. Longer lifespan
and depth of discharge, higher efficiency, and capacity makes this newcomer
an ideal option for residential purposes.
Lithium-ion batteries are considerably more expensive than lead-acid. The
higher cost along with the heat-releasing chemistry of lithium-ions, are their
only downsides. The heat releasing feature of these batteries, called thermal
runaway, can highly increase the chance of a fire initiation, especially if
installed improperly.
Lithium-Ion Battery Mechanics
Any lithium-ion battery consists of the following components:
1. Cathode
2. Anode
3. Electrolyte
4. Separator
5. Two negative and positive current collectors

While lithium ions are stored in the anode and cathode, they are carried from
the anode to the cathode and vice versa via the electrolyte and through the
separator. This movement will result in releasing free electrons in the anode,
hence a charge at the positive current collector.
The electrical current will flow from the current collector through the
electrical device powered by the battery to the negative collector. The
separator’s task is to block the flow of electrons within the battery.
Comparing Lithium-Ion and Lead-Acid Battery
Cost: While you can purchase Lithium-ion 100-Amp-hour 12-Volt
battery for around one thousand US dollars, a same capacity
 VMAX lead-acid battery is worth around one-fourth of the
lithium-ion battery. Considering the 50% discharge limit of lead-
acid batteries compared to 100% in the lithium-ion type, you will
need two lead-acid batteries to store the same as one lithium-ion,
which would still cost you half the price of a Li-ion battery.
Efficiency: Lithium-ion batteries are proven to be more efficient
than lead-acid ones. While an overall 95% efficiency is considered
for lithium-ion batteries, the lead-acid type has a range of
efficiency between 80 to 85%. Higher efficiency means that a
greater amount of stored energy can be provided as usable.
Capacity and depth of discharge: Because of their modern
technology as well as their chemistry, lithium-ion batteries store
more energy than their older competitor with the same amount of
space. Overall, this means less space is needed. This will be a
decent feature, especially in larger off-grid systems where batteries
occupy a substantial amount of space.

As explained above, depth of discharge is defined as the percentage of

battery storage being safely utilized before harming the battery. While
lead-acid batteries can be seriously damaged if drained by more than
50% of their total capacity, lithium-ion batteries provide 85% and even
more of their capacity ready to be used. Effective Capacity is the term
used to describe the depth of discharge joined with the capacity of the
battery.
Life span: Lifespan of batteries is defined as the number of cycles
they can be charged and discharged before becoming seriously
damaged. Lithium-ion batteries last several times longer, leading
to a more effective lifespan than the lead-acid ones.

Deciding on Battery type

Bearing in mind all that’s been said, there is no doubt that lithium-ion
batteries are worth every cent because of all the features we’ve explained.
However, for small systems and for those beginners who just want to wet
their feet in the solar system, lead-acid batteries are the first choice. The
fairly low upfront cost makes lead-acid batteries the perfect choice for low-
budgeters.
Less frequently used RVs, boats, and cabins can also benefit from economic
lead-acid batteries. Residential battery-backed systems can benefit from all
the above-mentioned advantages of lithium-ion battery technology,
particularly if a more cost-effective and space-efficient PV system is
intended.
Chapter Summary
Batteries are increasingly becoming an inseparable part of solar power
systems. As introduction of new battery technologies has made them more
cost-effective than ever before, having the proper knowledge of different
battery types and functions will help you make the most out of your PV
system .
In the next chapter, we will discuss inverters and provide advice on how to
handle them.
 A SHORT MESSAGE FROM DIY SOURCE
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 CHAPTER EIGHT: Solar Inverters

A solar inverter is considered the brain of PV systems. As the generated

power by the PV module is in the form of DC, an inverter is an inevitable
part of any PV system. This chapter is dedicated to inverters to explain the
essential features of all types of inverters. If you want to learn more about a
PV system, keep reading.
Inverter’s Function
The main function of an inverter is to convert the DC load to AC load. There
are several different types of inverters available; a grid-tied inverter is
connected to the solar array and delivers AC load to the house, while a hybrid
inverter is connected to the battery on one side and the grid as well as the AC
appliances on the other side to deliver AC load to the house and the grid.
They may also provide DC power to the battery.
An inverter/charger can charge your battery using either grid or generator. It
can really be useful in off-grid systems where less peak sun hours are
available.
Inverter Technologies:
Modified Sine Wave (MSW)
Traditionally, the inverters created a modified sine wave, meaning that the
generated electricity had modified steps to mimic the sine wave. Total
harmonic distortion (THD) is the metric used to measure the smoothness of
the curve. This is measured by an oscilloscope. The lower the THD is, the
purer the wave will be.
MSW inverters are way less expensive, but can harm your appliances,
especially if you have inductive loads such as refrigerators and pumps. They
have a THD of around 30%.
Pure Sine Wave (PSW) Inverters
PSW inverters are more expensive and the most common ones used in most
solar power setups. They generate a THD value of less than 3%, which is
even smoother than the grid’s with a THD less than 5%.
Types of Inverters by Location
String/centralized inverter: This is the traditional, most reliable,
and cost-effective inverter, especially for simple roof types with
minimum shading. This centralized inverter works at the level of
the string(s); therefore, shading of even one panel in the string will
result in significant inefficiency in power production.
Power optimizers: Each panel is connected to a power optimizer
to regulate the DC power output on each PV module and then send
it to the central inverter to convert it to AC power. This addition
will slightly raise the costs. In fact, this is not a real inverter
because it does not convert the DC power to AC.
Micro-inverters: With each panel connected to one micro-
inverter, the power is converted to AC on the roof and at the panel
level. It ensures there is smooth operation even when there is
shading of panels. Although there is no need for a central inverter,
using micro-inverters will significantly raise the upfront costs.

Common Features of Inverters

DC and AC terminals

All inverters should have a DC terminal to connect to the battery, as well as

one or a few AC terminals to be connected to the loads.
As the DC terminals should be connected to a large size wire (due to the
battery’s high current), it is preferred to be made of a fairly high-quality
material. Loose connections can lead to significant issues. Copper wires and
wire logs are used to connect the battery to the DC terminal.
The AC terminals may be in the form of a regular receptacle, a GFCI
receptacle, or a terminal block in smaller inverters while it is only offered as
a terminal block in larger inverters. AC terminals in most inverters have an
overcurrent protection device to protect against high amps.
AC terminal blocks are useful for connecting panels and subpanels to the
inverter, while power outlets will let your appliances be directly plugged into
the inverter. Regardless of the inverter size, the power should not exceed
1500 watts per each power outlet.
High Voltage Disconnect Switch

Most inverters have a switch to protect against higher voltages than

recommended. A 24-volt inverter should only be connected to a 24-volt
battery bank; however, if the battery voltage goes high, for instance, 33 volts,
the switch will disconnect the inverter. Keep in mind that the switch does not
guard this inverter if it is connected inadvertently to a nominal 48-volt
battery.
Low voltage Disconnect Switch

This feature comes in handy, especially if a lead-acid battery is used. This

will protect the battery from over-discharging and consequently, irreversible
damage.
A programmable low voltage disconnect switch is another feature that only
some inverters offer. In the case of using a BMS and lithium-ion battery, this
feature allows you to turn on the inverter again once the battery voltage rises
to the preset voltage.
Voltage and Power Ratings (Wattage)
Inverters are rated according to their voltage. They can be connected to 12,
24, 36, or 48 volt systems. Inverters must match the nominal voltage of the
corresponding PV system; otherwise, they will get damaged in the long run.
Inverters are generally available in different power ratings. You may find
inverters as small as 50 watts and as big as 50,000 watts. However, most
residential inverters utilized in common PV systems are rated between 3000
and 12,000 watts.
Depending on the system’s battery size and amount of power generated,
inverters are selected to handle your specific power requirements. These
components are rated for two different power requirements:
1. Continuous (typical) power
Continuous power refers to the amount of electricity needed to keep all your
appliances working, such as the TV, laptop, fridge, etc.
In fact, continuous power is defined as the amount of power an inverter
constantly provides and is usually much lower than the peak power. This is
the amount of power, for instance, a microwave or refrigerator consumes
constantly after the motor has started up.
2. Peak (surge) power
Other than continuous rating, inverters are rated for a peak power. Peak
power is defined as the maximum power that should be supplied for only a
short period of time—a few seconds to minutes. Some appliances, especially
those with electrical motors, such as refrigerators, pumps, and compressors
need a large amount of power to start up. This amount of power is much
higher than what they consume continuously.
The rate of this surge power can range from 30% to 300% of the inverter’s
previously-mentioned continuous power. This rating and the time (in
seconds) available are mentioned in the inverter’s datasheet. Typically, 5 to
15 seconds of peak power rating suffices the power needed to start most
appliances. Many household appliances and water pumps might actually need
this surge for less than a second.
The example below explains the two different power ratings of an inverter:
If you are running two 100-amp hour, 12-volt batteries, you need an inverter
to handle 2400 watts:
2 * 12 volts * 100 amp = 2400 watts
So, a 3000 watt growatt inverter can handle your system. This inverter has
the ability to handle 3000 continuous watts as well as 9000 surge watts.
Purchasing a larger inverter size than your existing consumption is a good
idea. You may need to add more appliances to your house in the future.
Inverter’s cooling system
Inverters generate heat, so they need to be cooled. This is done by using fans
on one side and air intake on the opposite side.
A metal heat sink covers the body of the inverter to radiate the generated
heat. The radiating heat sink, the fans and air vents should never be covered.
Some inverters have recommendations that they can be placed horizontally;
however, vertical placement where a fan is located on top and cold air intake
down is preferred to ease the air circulation.
Inverter monitoring
Since inverters may be located far from your reach, a remote switch that can
be connected to the inverter is a useful feature. This will help you avoid
battery discharging and reduce the inverter’s idle power consumption when
all loads are switched off. You can, alternatively, use a more expensive
Victoran inverter, for instance, with very low standby power consumption
and leave it on for the whole day.
Idle or standby power consumption
This is referred to as the power used by inverters as a load. It may vary
between 10 to 60 watts depending on the quality of the inverters.
You can find the standby consumption of any inverter in its datasheet.
However, most inverters have a power savings mode which may switch to
when not a substantial load is connected to them, thus lowering the amount of
idle consumption significantly.
If you consume a great amount of power continuously all day, a more
expensive inverter with approximately 10 watts of idle consumption better
fits your system. Otherwise, less expensive ones with higher idle
consumption can be an appropriate choice. Do not forget to consider the
inverter’s idle consumption while calculating your daily electric needs and
consumption.
Inverter efficiency
The conversion efficiency is defined as the amount of AC power output
compared to the inverter's DC power input. Typically, modern inverters have
an efficiency rate of between 80 to 90 percent. A 90% inverter is considered a
premium option to get the most out of your solar array’s power generation.
Also, if your total load consumption is substantially high, it is a good idea to
invest on a high efficiency (93% and higher) inverter to save a considerable
amount of power.
Inverter/charger
Some inverters have the ability to function as a charger, as well. They can
charge batteries via grid or a generator. Some can even use generators to feed
your household appliances while a considerable amount of load is being used.
Types of Inverters
There are three main types of inverters available, according to the type of PV
system installed:
1. Off-grid inverters
2. Grid-tied inverters
3. Hybrid inverters

Let’s start with off-grid inverters:

Off-Grid Inverters
Off-grid inverters are available in 12, 24, 36, and 48 voltages and should
match your solar array and your battery. Although some inverters possess a
protection voltage system, there is no way to use a lower voltage inverter
with a higher voltage battery, if you want your inverter not to be permanently
damaged. Other than voltage, inverters are rated in watts. The bigger your
battery bank, the bigger the inverter needed.
Grid-Tied Inverters
Grid-tied PV systems need an inverter. The inverter is regarded as the brain
of the system by managing the flow of power. The main role of the inverter is
to convert the DC power generated by the solar panels into usable AC power
for AC appliances in your home.
As its name implies, DC power flows in one direction. AC power, however,
alternates due to changing the direction of the power. More efficient inverters
generate more AC power out of the PV system’s generated DC power.
In the United States, grid-tied inverters are required and mandated by the
National Electrical Code to be installed in grid-tied PV systems, as explained
in previous chapters. With net metering, the local utility company pays or
charges for the net electricity transferred into and from the grid by a grid-tied
inverter. This is recorded by the specific meter on the customer's premises.
For instance, if you consume five kilowatt-hours per month and your PV
system generates and transfers four kilowatt-hours to the grid per month, you
will be charged by your local utility company just for one kilowatt-hour
balance of the electricity transferred to and from the grid. In the US, net
metering policies may be different state by state.
The grid-tied inverter should be able to match the phase of the local grid and
keep its power output voltage higher than the grid's voltage. This higher
voltage would help to transfer the generated power to the grid.
Most modern grid-tied inverters provide a fixed unity power factor. This
means that the inverter’s output voltage and current’s sine waves are
perfectly in phase, and the phase angle may differ only one degree from the
grid’s AC power.
The most significant drawback of these inverters is that they are required by
the NEC to switch the whole AC and DC circuits off in the event of a power
outage. This is for the safety of electricians who are fixing an issue following
the blackout.
Hybrid Inverters
Hybrid inverters are considered the headquarters of battery-backed PV
systems. They are, in fact, a combination of a regular grid-tied solar inverter
and a battery inverter/charger in one unit. These inverters use meters to
measure electricity consumption and smart software that is programmed to
determine an efficient way of using and converting solar energy.
As the description above implies, hybrid inverters perform multiple
functions; therefore they have some limitations compared to the off-grid
inverters. The main limitations are as follows:
1. Limited peak (surge) power output when a blackout
happens. Therefore, appliances that need peak power to start are
not usually connected to them.
2. Most hybrid inverters have limited backup power.
Therefore, only small (essential) loads such as lighting or some
other low-consumption devices can be backed up when the grid is
down.

Unlike grid-tied inverters, hybrid ones let you still use the power for essential
appliances in the event of a blackout.
AC-Coupled and DC-Coupled Configurations
AC- and DC-coupled configurations are battery-related topics; however, the
inverter's integration in the two configurations is highly different, and you
need to understand the main differences to choose the proper one for your
house.
It is a specific feature of battery-backed systems, and you need to select the
suitable configuration and the corresponding inverter type accordingly.
As you know, solar array produces DC electricity, while most household
appliances utilize AC power. However, the battery bank stores the power in
DC form. The main difference between the two systems is the path that the
generated DC power should take to be stored in a battery, converted by an
inverter, consumed at home, and transferred to the grid. Let’s dive into more
details of each system.
AC-Coupled System
In this system, the solar array’s generated electricity flows to a regular solar
grid-tied inverter to be converted to AC electricity. Depending on the time of
the day and your energy consumption, the AC power can be used for your
home appliances, sent to the grid, or go to an inverter/charger to be converted
back to DC to charge the battery bank. The same inverter/charger should
convert the battery’s DC power to AC for use during night or blackouts.
In this type of configuration, the stored power in the battery should be
converted three separate times to be ready to use. This will eventually result
in lower efficiency rate compared to DC-coupled system.
As you can observe in the diagram above, no charge controller is installed,
while two inverters are needed in the AC-coupled configuration. The
inverters carry out the following tasks in this configuration:
1. The grid-tied inverter converts the DC power from PV
modules to AC power in order to be usable by the AC appliances
and the utility grid.

This inverter then decides to direct the power toward the grid, your
house, or the second inverter, based on your power consumption and
its preset program. Note that the grid-tied inverter cannot feed your
battery bank. When PV system’s generated power surpasses the daily
consumption, this inverter will redirect the electricity toward the
second inverter or the grid depending on how it has been programmed.
2. An inverter/charger: This smart device is
simultaneously connected to the grid-tied inverter, the grid, your
house, and the battery system. Once the batteries are fully
charged, this inverter sends a signal to the grid-tied inverter,
meaning that all the converted AC power can either go to the grid
or to the house, based on your consumption. This inverter can
even use the grid to charge the battery if your array’s generated
 power does not suffice your battery capacity.
3. This type of configuration is the most desired one for
those homeowners with an existing grid-tied PV system who
decide to add a backup to their system.

Pros of AC-Coupled System

1. Ease of installation, less labor and time, and a lower
upfront cost, especially for already existing grid-tied systems.
2. Batteries can be charged from both the solar array and
the grid, especially for resiliency or electricity rate arbitrage
benefits.

Drawback of AC-Coupled System

Stored solar electricity should be inverted three times before getting
ready to use, which will result in the reduction of the system’s
efficiency.
DC-Coupled System
In this type of configuration, the generated DC power flows to a charge
controller to charge the battery bank similar to a totally off-grid system.
Therefore, the power is not converted to AC and then back again to DC to be
stored in the batteries.
A hybrid inverter performs all the tasks that two inverters do in an AC-
coupled system. This inverter converts the battery’s DC power to usable AC
power for your home and the grid. It can also use the grid to charge your
battery bank.
There are two main paths that the array’s generated power will pass through;
and in both ways, the electricity will be converted only once from DC to AC.
These paths include:

1. The power flowing from the battery bank to your

home.
2. The power directed from the battery bank toward the
grid.
Historically, AC-coupled configurations were more common for residential
and commercial solar installations since most home owners started with a
conventional grid-tied system and then added a battery bank to it. However,
as more DC options are available now, DC-coupling is getting more and
more popular.
Advantage of DC-Coupling System
They are more efficient due to one-time power conversion.
Drawback of DC-Coupling System
They are more complicated to install, which can add to your upfront costs, as
well as installation time.
How to Size an Inverter
One of the most important steps to select the appropriate inverter for your PV
system is to figure out the correct inverter size needed. Since certain PV
systems and inverter types have specific sizing requirements, we will discuss
the sizing for each type of inverter separately.
Size an Off-Grid Inverter
As previously explained, an off-grid inverter is sized according to your daily
continuous and surge power consumption (wattage). Unlike sizing the battery
bank, where you need to figure out your total energy consumption (watt
hours), sizing an off-grid inverter is merely based on your consumed power
(wattage) per day. In other words, your off-grid inverter should be able to
provide power so that all your AC appliances can run smoothly regardless of
their duration of usage per day.
This example will help you learn how to size your own inverter. The chart
below represents a list of loads, including the continuous and surge power
consumption of several appliances used in an off-grid house. A simple
alternative way is using an online calculator.
AC Quantity AC continuous AC surge
appliance power power
(watts) (watts)
Light bulbs 10 100 0
Fridge 1 250 2200
Microwave 1 1000 0
Well pump 1 425 2350
LED TV 1 175 0
Coffee 1 950 0
maker
Total 2900 4550

As the table implies, we need an inverter that can handle at least 2900
continuous watts, as well as 4550 surge watts for some appliances to kick
start. Additionally, the voltage should match our nominal battery voltage.
Other than the maximum power, the inverter must match AC appliances’
voltage. Inverters are available in 12, 24, and 48 DC volts. The DC input
voltage of an off-grid inverter must comply with the battery’s nominal
voltage; otherwise, it may not work or may be damaged. The AC output of
inverters may be 120 or 240 volts, depending on the inverter type and the
output wiring.
Size a Grid-Tied Inverter
To size your required grid-tied inverter, you need to look for two important
features:
1. Power (wattage)
2. Array’s voltage

As we discussed before, a grid-tied inverter’s main function is to receive and

convert the generated DC power. The inverter must be big enough to handle
the maximum amount of power generated by your solar array.
Assuming you have installed two strings, each composed of four solar panels
rated at 175 watts, 12 volts, let’s figure out the required inverter’s maximum
power:
Maximum power = 2 (parallel strings) * 4 (panels in every string) * 175 =
1400 watts, total solar array’s generated power.
Therefore, a 2000-watt inverter can easily handle the generated power.
Since you may need to add more panels to cover a greater portion of your
electricity bill in the future, it is wise to oversize your inverter. It avoids re-
doing and the need to replace your inverter with a larger one in the future.
Chapter Summary
Inverters are regarded as the decision-making center for your PV system. By
selecting the correct inverter, you will secure efficient power production and
consumption, as well as storing and transferring the power to the grid.
The next chapter will focus on the wiring of PV systems. By the end of the
next two chapters you will be able to connect all the components properly
and get ready to turn on your PV setup.
 CHAPTER NINE: Conductors and Connectors
If you’re installing a PV system in your home, you need wires and cables to
connect PV modules to the rest of your PV system. A wire consists of a
single electrical conductor, while a cable consists of a group of wires. These
cables are used to carry the electrical current from one solar component to
another.
Choosing the right type of wires is critical to the proper functioning of your
photovoltaic system. Without proper wiring, power from panels may be
unnecessarily lost, hence less power to fully charge the battery bank. Since
most of the solar installations are located outdoor, the wiring has to meet
tough environmental requirements such as moisture, heat, and UV resistance.
Composition of Wires and Cables
Generally, wires are either single or stranded type. Wires with a single metal
wire core have a single-stranded conductor. Wires that have multiple wire
cores form a multi-stranded conductor.
Single or solid core wires
A solid wire has single-core wiring that can be insulated or buried. This type
of wire is used to connect two wiring centers or to connect a wiring center
and a conjunction box. Solid core wires have a compact diameter, making
them more cost-effective. Single metal conductor wires use protective sheath
insulation and are great for wiring indoor solar systems.
Stranded core wires
Stranded wires have several conductor wires twisted together to form a multi-
stranded wire. The wires are enclosed into a protective sheath or insulator.
Multi-stranded wires are available in large diameters and have the ability to
handle frequent movements.
Due to the high attenuation of these stranded cables, you can connect solar
components within short distances. If you live in areas that regularly
experience extremely high winds, you should go for multi-stranded
conductors because they are more flexible and durable. Multi-stranded
conductors perform better and are ideal for connection in cars, boats, and RV
vans.
Types of Solar Wires
Two of the most commonly-used wires for solar installation include:
USE-2 wires
A USE-2 wire is appropriate for connecting the array’s terminals in grounded
systems. The wires are rated to handle up to 900C of wet and dry weather
conditions. This type of wire is ideal in places with minimal movements of
the wire and can be made out of solid or stranded conductors.
PV wires
This type of wire interconnects PV modules and can work well in areas that
experience 900C heat and moisture. They can also handle dry conditions of
up to 1050C. This type of wire has thick insulation and is made of a single-
stranded wire core. The wire is less flexible and resilient.
The insulation jacket of PV wires offers superior sunlight resistance, a proven
level of flame resistance, and low-temperature resistance. PV wires are used
in ungrounded PV arrays.
Conductor’s Main Features
Before selecting the right wire size and type, you need to know the most
significant wire features.
Wire ratings
All wires are rated by amps (amperage). This is the maximum amount of
current that can travel through the wire. The higher the amps the system is
rated at, the thicker the wires needed. Solar cable manufacturers publish
rating charts that indicate the number of amps (current) a particular cable can
safely handle. Wires that have higher ratings can handle higher amps and
have a lower voltage drop. They also have less risk of overheating.
For example, if your system generates 10 amps of current, then you need at
least a 10-amp rated wire to handle the current. If you use a wire rated at a
lower amp than what the panels generate, it will result in voltage drop and the
wires are likely to heat up.
Wire material
Solar wires are also classified based on the construction material. The wires
are made of either copper material or aluminum. Those made of copper
material are more conductive and carry more amps than aluminum wires.
Though copper wires are expensive, they’re highly recommended because
they offer better flexibility and heat resistance. On the other hand, aluminum
wires are prone to be damaged in extreme temperatures and are more
vulnerable when bent.
Wire insulation
Different types of solar wires have different insulation material that protects
the wires from heat, moisture, water, UV light, and chemicals. The standard
insulation types include:
THHN: this protective sheath works well on
applications installed in dry areas or indoor conditions.
TW/THW/THWN: this is suitable for conduit wires
installed in wet areas and in both outdoor and indoor conditions.
UF & USE (underground service entrance): the wires
have insulation sheaths for protection on wet surfaces, and for
underground wiring.
THWN-2: this protective sheath is used for indoor
wire installation and is less expensive. Since the wire should run
through a conduit, the sheath is not UV resistant.
RHW-2: this type of insulation is mostly used on PV
wires and USE-2 wires. The insulator works well in moist areas
and is ideal for outdoor applications. The PV wire and USE-2
jackets can protect against extreme UV exposure and are moisture
resistant. PV wires have an extra layer of insulation as well.

Wire Color Codes and their Solar Application

Color-coded solar wires make it easy to map out the electrical wiring of your
solar system. These wires are color-coded to designate their function and
uses. Wire colors are essential for troubleshooting and repairing your solar
system.
Both AC and DC applications use different color codes. The color guide for a
simple AC and DC application includes:

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

Color Application Color Application
Red, black, Un-grounded Red Positive pole
or other hot applications
color
White Grounding White Grounding conductor or
conductors negative pole
Bare or Equipment Bare or Equipment grounding
Green grounding Green

You should always follow the recommended National Electrical Code (NEC)
guide when installing your solar system. If you don’t know the specific
conductor or insulation of a certain application, you can seek professional
assistance. Below you can see the major PV applications of these wires:
DC solar cables
DC solar cables are single core copper wires with sheath insulation to handle
high temperatures, high UV radiation, and they are weather-resistant. These
cables are prebuilt into the solar panels and they come with connectors.
PV output cable
The main DC cables connect the positive and negative terminals of panels
from a junction box to the load center of the PV system. They come in
different sizes of 2 mm, 4 mm, and 6 mm. Main DC cables can either be
single or two-core cables (negative and positive). The single-core wires have
double insulation, making them highly reliable.
AC connection cables
AC connection wires connect the solar inverter to the electrical grid or other
protective equipment. If you have a small solar system, you can use 5-core
AC cables to connect to the electrical grid. In this case, you should connect
three live wires to carry electricity, another wire for grounding, and a neutral
wire.
Sizing Solar Wires
When selecting the wires, you have to choose the correct gauge. The most
common wire scaling system is the AWG—American Wire Gauge. Wire
gauge determines the amount of current intensity that flows through the
circuit. Wires with lower gauge numbers have lower resistance, and, as a
result, a high amount of current will run safely through the wires.
When sizing your solar wires, you need to consider the following:
PV module and inverter spec sheet.
Array’s configuration (how many panels to configure
in series or parallel).
Whether you need a junction box or a combiner box.
Voltage of the circuit and Voltage drop index.

The table below indicates the capacity of various wire gauges and normal
residential usage designated by the American Wire Gauge. You can use the
table to determine the right size for your solar system.
Wire Gauge Amperage Application
(AWG)
3/0 gauge 200 Service entrance
amps
1/0 gauge 150 Service entrance and feeder wire
amps
3 gauge 100 Service entrance and feeder wire
amps
6 gauge 55 amps Feeder and large appliance wire
 8 gauge 40 amps Feeder and large appliance wire
10 gauge 30 amps Driers, appliances, and air conditioning
12 gauge 20 amps Appliance, laundry, and bathroom
circuits
14 gauge 15 amps General lighting and receptacle lighting

To be more precise, however, you need to comply with the National

Electrical Codes (NEC) when calculating the proper conductor size. The
NEC considers three main adjustments for wire sizing. Below you can read
the detailed wire sizing principles and procedures.
Basic Principles of Wire Sizing
When it comes to wiring and connecting the solar equipment, selecting the
right conductor size is of great significance. Under sizing the wires for your
system may lead to wires overheating and a fire hazard. There are four main
considerations to take into account while selecting the right wire size for your
grid-tied or off-grid PV system. The first three are mentioned in the National
Electrical Code; the last one is not. These considerations are as follows:
Conductor ampacity
Ambient temperature and rooftop temperature
adjustment
Number of conductors in a conduit or raceway
Voltage drop

The wires should be sized based on all or some of these principles for each
circuit of the PV system. We will discuss these principles in four steps first,
and then we will size the wires of a PV system using all or some of these
steps. Due to using various NEC tables, this topic may be confusing, so you
may need to reread it until you digest the concept. Let’s get started:
Step 1: Wires Ampacity (Amp capacity) in 30°C
First of all, we need to consider the conductor's ampacity. Ampacity is
defined as the maximum current that a conductor can pass continuously under
certain conditions of use while not to a degree that exceeds its temperature
rating. You should keep in mind that, wires are temperature-rated at 60°C,
75°C, and 90°C. The NEC table 310.15 (B) (16) has considered all the
requirements to determine the maximum current-carrying capacity (ampacity)
of the wire. In previous editions of the NEC, the table was numbered 310.16.
Below you can see a simplified version of the ampacity table:
American 75 ° C-Rated Conductor (Amps) 90 ° C-Rated Conductor (Amps)
Wire Gauge
(AWG) RHW, THHW, THW, THWN,XHHW, RHW-2, THHN, THHW,THW-
USE 2,THWN-2, USE-2, XHHW
16 18
14 20 25
12 25 30
10 35 40
8 50 55
6 65 75
4 85 95
2 115 115
2/0 175 195
4/0 230 260

The nominal ampacity of a conductor at 30°C depends on a number of factors

like:
1. Material, which can be either copper or aluminum. For PV
purposes, only pure copper wires are recommended.
2. Size.
3. Insulation type and material.
4. Application, which could be a direct burial, inside a conduit, or in
the air.

According to the NEC, while USE-2 and PV wires cannot be used in a

conduit, most of the other above-mentioned types should be. You will need to
refer to the NEC book, ampacity table to match the maximum current (Isc) of
each segment of your system’s wiring with the required wire gauge or simply
use the table above. For instance, you can see that a 75°C rated THHW, 10-
gauge wire can carry 35 amps in 30°C. If you do not know your wire’s type,
just follow your wire's temperature rate (60°C, 75°C, or 90°C) to find the
ampacity of your wire in 30°C.
To make the first step short; once you figure out your system's maximum
current generated, you can find the smallest wire gauge that can carry the
current at 30°C according to the NEC book, table 310.15(B) (16).
Step 2: Ambient Temperature Correction and Rooftop Temperature
Adjustment
Ambient temperature can affect the conductor’s maximum current
carrying capacity (ampacity), meaning that the nominal ampacity
of each wire gauge will be reduced in temperatures higher than the
standard 30°C, and increased when used in colder weather
conditions.

According to NEC table 310.15(B)(2)(a), the temperature correction

factor for the temperature range of 26°C–30°C is one, for temperature
ranges below 30°C is bigger than one, while for temperatures above
30°C is less than one. You need to find the correction factor for your
local hottest ambient temperature in this table. Once you pick the
nominal ampacity found on the ampacity table 310.15(B) (16), you
need to multiply it by the correction factor to calculate the temperature-
adjusted ampacity.
If you are wiring in outdoor conditions where the hot summer days
reach 40°C for instance, you need to multiply the ampacity from the
ampacity table by the temperature correction factor from table
310.15(B)(2)(a), resulting in lower amount of current compared to that
of 30°C.
Ambient temperature-adjusted ampacity = ampacity in 30°C *
correction factor of the ambient temperature.
Ambient 75 ° C 90 ° C
Temperature Rated rated
(Celsius) conductor conductor
21-25 1.05 1.04
26-30 1.00 1.00
31-35 0.94 0.96
36-40 0.88 0.91
 41-45 0.82 0.87
46-50 0.75 0.82
51-55 0.67 0.76
56-60 0.58 0.71
61-65 0.47 0.65
66-70 0.34 0.58
71-75 0.50
76-80 0.41

For instance, if a 14-gauge wire can carry 20 amps in 30°C, you need to
multiply the current by its corresponding correction factor in 40°C (in this
case, 0.88) to calculate the actual ampacity of your wire in 40°C( 20 amps *
0.88 = 17.6 amps):
Ambient 75 ° C 90 ° C
Temperature Rated rated
(Celsius) conductor conductor
21-25 1.05 1.04
26-30 1.00 1.00
31-35 0.94 0.96
36-40 0.88 0.91
41-45 0.82 0.87
46-50 0.75 0.82
51-55 0.67 0.76
56-60 0.58 0.71
61-65 0.47 0.65
66-70 0.34 0.58
71-75 - 0.50
76-80 - 0.41

As you can see, the ambient temperature has a significant impact on the
wire’s ampacity.
There is another temperature consideration, and that is the height
of the conduit on the roof. According to the NEC table 310.15 (B)
(3) (C) illustrated below, the closer the conduit or raceway to the
roof, the hotter it gets. This table mandates you to adjust your wire
size according to its height on the roof:
Distance between the Degree Celsius Degree Fahrenheit
raceway and the roof( inch)
On the roof 33 60
 More than ½ inch above the roof 22 40
3 - 12 inch above the roof 17 30
12-36 inch above the roof 14 26

For instance, if you run the wires right on the roof, you will need to add 33°C
to your ambient temperature, while only 14°C needs to be added to ambient
temperature if wires are running 12 inches or more above the rooftop.
Subsequently, you need to check the table 310.15(B) (2) (a), again to figure
out the temperature correction factor. This temperature adjustment only
applies to the wires exposed to sunlight and in a conduit. Indoor wires or free
wires do not require this adjustment.
Step 3: Adjusting Ampacity for Multiple Conductors in a Conduit
PV systems are usually composed of several strings, which consist of a
number of individual panels. The total output is called the PV source circuit,
which will run into the combiner box located on the rooftop. The PV source
conductor(s) should not run in any conduit or raceway.
Wires exiting the combiner box, however, need to run in an encircled conduit
or raceway. In any condition that more than three conductors run in a single
conduit or a raceway for a distance more than 24 inches, the table 310.15 (B)
(3)(a) indicates that the conductor's ampacity should be corrected by a certain
percentage as follows:
Number of Conductors Adjustment Factor
in a conduit (%)
4-6 80
7-9 70
10-20 50

The reason for this adjustment lies in the fact that when more wires are
packed in an encircled space, their heat-dissipating ability decreases
significantly, leading to hotter wires. Therefore, a larger diameter of wire is
needed to compensate for the added heat. So once the conductor ampacity
calculated from table 310.15(B)(16), it should be then corrected by ambient
temperature according to table 310.15(B)(2)(a), and it should finally be
multiplied by the additional conductor correction factor according to NEC
table 310.15(B)(3)(a).
In this table, you can find the corresponding additional ampacity correction
factor according to the number of conductors that carry a current. It is 80%
for 4–6 wires and 70% for 7–9 wires running in a single conduit. For
instance, if a 14-gauge conductor with ampacity of 20 amp in 30°C is to be
used for two PV output circuits (past the combiner box) in a conduit
(including two positive and two negative conductors), we would need to
adjust the temperature rating for four current-carrying conductors. The
correction factor from the NEC table 310.15(B) (3) (a) for four wires is 80%.
In other words, the above-mentioned wire can only handle 80% of its
ampacity when running with multiple wires in a conduit:
20 amps * 80% = 16 amps
When sizing a 3-phase AC system, the neutral conductor is not counted as
current-carrying.
Step 4: Voltage Drop
As the distance between the combiner box on the roof and the DC load center
may be considerably long, there is a chance of voltage drop. This drop in
voltage can result in an increase in the current. We should check if it is
significant enough to alter the wire gauge needed. Generally, no extra
consideration is needed if the drop is calculated less or equal to 2%.
Using an online calculator, you can calculate your voltage drop. You need to
enter the following figures to see if your voltage drop is less than 2%:
1. The wire gauge.
2. Vmp (maximum power voltage) of the array.
3. Imp (maximum power Amperage) of the array.
4. The length of the wire.
If the voltage drop is more than that, you need to adjust your wire gauge. An
alternative to the online calculator is using the above voltage drop table to
adjust the wire length in order to remain within the 2%-voltage drop limit: In
the example below, we will use the voltage drop table to see if we need a
wire gauge adjustment or not.
If you have a 450-watt, 12 V solar system and a Vmp of 18 V, the Imp
(maximum power current) flowing through the panels will be 450 W / 18 V =
25 amps.
Based on the above wire ampacity table, the smallest wire gauge you can use
is 10 AWG, and it is rated at 30 amps, which is more than the 25 amps
required. From the array amps column, the 25 amp row and 10 AWG wire
support a wire length of 4.5 feet with a voltage drop of 2%.
Sizing Conductors for PV Circuits
In this part of the chapter, we will use the above-mentioned NEC
considerations, as well as the voltage drop calculator to size the wire needed
for different circuits of a PV system. These circuits, as you can observe in the
wiring diagram below, include:

PV source circuit.
PV output circuit.
 Battery output circuit.
Inverter output circuit.

Assume that we want to connect eight 100-watt, 12 volt panels with Isc of 8.5
amps in two parallel strings. We are located in an area where on the hottest
summer days, the ambient temperature reaches 41 C. Let’s now find the
smallest conductor gauge needed for each circuit of the system:
PV Source Wire
The PV source, also known as the extension cable, carries the power directly
from the panels to the combiner box on the roof. The combiner box contains
circuit breakers and fuses if necessary.
Step 1: Size the Ampacity
To size the correct wire gauge for the PV source, we need to consider the
highest amount of current, which is the short circuit current (Isc) generated
by the panels. According to the NEC book, table 690.8(B), all the conductors
between the solar array and the inverter must be able to handle up to 156% of
the short circuit current (Isc) of the solar panel or the whole array. Why?
This is because of multiplying the Isc of panels by 125% twice. The first
125% is considered a safety factor due to more than three hours of continuous
use. As solar panels receive sunlight and generate power all day long, we
need to consider this safety factor.
The other 125% is a safety factor that accounts for the added current of the
array due to over irradiance (more than 1000 W/m2) in sunny days. The
equation below better formulates what has been explained above:
Ampacity = Isc of each string * 1.25 (over irradiance) * 1.25 (3 hour
continuous use).
Assuming that the Isc of each panel is 8.5 amps, so:
Ampacity = 8.5 amps * 1.25 * 1.25 = 13.26 amps.
This is the maximum amperage that the wire should handle while the ambient
temperature is 30°C.
American Wire Gauge 75 ° C rated Conductor (Amps) 90 ° C rated Conductor (Amps)
16 18
14 20 25
12 25 30
10 35 40
8 50 55
6 65 75
4 85 95
2 115 115
2/0 175 195
4/0 230 260

By referring to the NEC book, table 310.15(B)(16), we can find the minimum
wire gauge (14) that can handle 13.26 amps at 30°C.
As previously explained, this wire will be connected to the wire included in
the panels via a connector (MC4, for instance) and will run into the combiner
box, with no conduit used.
Two of the most common and permitted options are:
1. USE-2 for grounded systems.
2. PV wires for ungrounded systems.
We will use a USE-2 for this case, which is a less expensive option.
This wire, also called extension cable, will go inside the combiner box to be
connected to a circuit breaker, so the temperature rating of the circuit breaker
must be taken into account.
For instance, if your wire is rated at 90°C, but the circuit breaker is at 75°C,
you need to check the wire gauge for 75°C in the NEC tables, not 75°C.
Additionally, the connector must match the type of the connector you have
used to series-connect the panels. Just check the manual of the extension
cable to match it with the proper connector (usually MC4).
If panels are supposed to be connected in series only, the watertight junction
box and wire included with the panels usually suffices your wiring needs.
However, if strings of panels are to be connected in parallel, which is usually
the case, an extension cable with male and female connectors is needed to
carry the current from the panels to the combiner box on the roof.
The smallest wire gauge that can handle this much current is a 75°C rated,
14-gauge USE-2 wire that can handle up to 20 amps, which is more than
13.26.
Do not forget that this is the smallest diameter. You can use a 12- or 10-
gauge wire if a 14-gauge extension cable is not available on the market.
If in the hottest days where you live the ambient temperature would be as
high as 30°C, you are good to go. However, if your wires experience higher
temperatures, you need to follow the remaining steps.
Step 2: Ambient Temperature Correction and the Rooftop Temperature
Adjustment
According to table 310.15(B)(2)(A), in the highest ambient temperature range
of 41–45°C, we need to consider a correction factor of 0.82 for a 75°C rated
wire. In other words, we should multiply the ampacity by a correction factor
of 0.82 to correct it.
Ambient 75 ° C 90 ° C
Temperature Rated rated
(Celsius) conductor conductor
21-25 1.05 1.04
26-30 1.00 1.00
31-35 0.94 0.96
 36-40 0.88 0.91
41-45 0.82 0.87
46-50 0.75 0.82
51-55 0.67 0.76
56-60 0.58 0.71
61-65 0.47 0.65
66-70 0.34 0.58
71-75 0.50
76-80 0.41

As the PV source (extension cable) runs freely in the air, there is no need to
worry about the roof temperature adjustment. Therefore,
20 Amps * 0.82 = 16.4 amps in an ambient temperature range of 41–45°C.
As you can observe, the ambient temperature can significantly decrease the
wire’s ampacity. However, in this case, a 14-gauge wire can still handle up to
16.4 amps at 41–45°C which is bigger than our systems maximum generated
current (13.26 amps) according to the NEC book, table 310.15(B) (16). So
there is no need to go for larger diameters.
Step 3: Number of the Conductors in a Conduit
As the PV source (extension cable) runs freely in the air, there is no need to
worry about this step.
So we can apply the previously-calculated figure in steps one and two as the
maximum amount of current generated as well as the highest amount of the
current that the selected conductors can pass through.
Step 4: Voltage Drop
As the distance between the solar panels and the combiner box on the roof is
fairly short, the voltage drop check is not needed here. This voltage drop may
happen in the longer PV output conductors, and we will check it there.
PV Output Wires
This wire carries the current out from the combiner box and is usually placed
inside a conduit. The same steps for the PV source wire must be taken here.
Additionally, as we have two parallel strings which are combined past the
combiner box, we need to multiply the ampacity by the number of parallel
strings.
Step 1: Size the Ampacity
Ampacity = Isc of the string * number of parallel strings * 1.56 (over
irradiance, continuous use)
So in our case, ampacity = 8.5 amps * 2 * 1.56 = 26.52 amps. As this
conductor must run in a conduit, a 75°C-rated, 10-gauge THHN-2 conductor
that can carry up to 35 amps at 30°C is the smallest suitable gauge according
to table 310.15(B)(16) so far:
AWG 75 ° C-Rated Conductor 90 ° C-Rated Conductor (Amps)
(Amps)
16 18
14 20 25
12 25 30
10 35 40
8 50 55
6 65 75
4 85 95
2 115 115
2/0 175 195
4/0 230 260

However, we need to check the rest of the steps.

Step 2: Ambient Temperature Correction and Rooftop Temperature
Adjustment
For roof temperature adjustment, we need to check table 310.15 (B) (3)(C).
If we run the conduit at the level of shingles, we will be required to add 33°C
to our ambient temperature. This is due to poor air ventilation around the
conduit. However, if we level it ½ inch higher, only 22°C is needed to be
added to the ambient temperature. So, now, we can add 22°C to our highest
ambient temperature (41°C).
Distance between the Degree Celsius Degree Fahrenheit
raceway and the roof( inch)
On the roof 33 60
More than ½ inch above the roof 22 40
3 - 12 inch above the roof 17 30
 12-36 inch above the roof 14 26

41°C + 22°C = 63°C adjusted ambient temperature.

Ambient Temperature (Celsius) 75 ° C-Rated 90 ° C -Rated conductor
conductor
21-25 1.05 1.04
26-30 1.00 1.00
31-35 0.94 0.96
36-40 0.88 0.91
41-45 0.82 0.87
46-50 0.75 0.82
51-55 0.67 0.76
56-60 0.58 0.71
61-65 0.47 0.65
66-70 0.34 0.58
71-75 0.50
76-80 0.41

Going back to NEC table 310.15(B)(2)(A), for ambient temperature

correction, we will see that for a 75°C rated wire, we will need a correction of
0.47 at 63°C, meaning that the ampacity of the selected 10-gauge wire should
be multiplied by 0.47 (35 * 0.47 = 16.45 amps). This figure is less than our
maximum generated current passing through the PV output wires (26.52).
As observed above, the location of the conduit on the roof has a significant
impact on the ampacity, and therefore, the wire gauge required. Therefore,
we will need a 6-gaug wire which can handle (65 amps * 0.47=) 30.59 amps
to be bigger than 26.52amps.
AWG 75 ° C-Rated Conductor 90 ° C-Rated Conductor (Amps)
(Amps)
16 18
14 20 25
12 25 30
10 35 40
8 50 55
6 65 75
4 85 95
2 115 115
2/0 175 195
4/0 230 260
Step 3: Number of wires in a conduit
Since we only have one negative and one positive, and a ground wire, there is
no need to worry about table 310.15 (B) (3) (a). If more than three current-
carrying wires pass through a single conduit, you will need to check that
table. So far, we need to use a THWN-2, 6-gauge wire in conduit located 1/2
inch higher than the roof to the DC load center. It is not finished, though. We
need to check the last consideration.
Step 4: Voltage Drop
As the length of the circuit between solar equipment may be long, there is a
chance of voltage drop. Generally, if the calculated drop is equal to or less
than 2%, there is no need for further wire gauge adjustments. When using an
online calculator, we need to enter:
1. The selected wire gauge.
2. Solar panel’s Vimp (maximum power Voltage).
3. Solar panel’s Imp (maximum power Amperage).
4. The length of the wire between the combiner box and DC load center.
This tool will determine whether the voltage drop is less than 2%.
Fortunately, in this example, we are within the 2% voltage drop limit.
If the voltage drop is more than that, we need to adjust the wire gauge or
length whichever possible.
Battery to the Inverter Wires
Have the previous wire sizing steps made you feel dizzy?
No worries! This one is much easier.
Step 1: Size the ampacity
To find out how much current a cable should be able to carry from the battery
to the inverter, we need to know two parameters:
1. The inverter’s maximum power (wattage).
2. The lowest battery voltage at which the inverter turns off in
order not to drain the battery inadvertently.
As Watt’s law implies: I = P / V. So, from the inverter’s manual or datasheet,
you can figure out its continuous power (wattage) and the lowest battery
voltage.
Maximum amperage = inverter’s continuous power / lowest battery voltage.
Assuming that we are using a 2000 watt continuous power inverter with the
lowest battery voltage of 20 volts;
Highest amperage = 2000 / 20 = 100 amps.
AWG 75 ° C-Rated Conductor 90 ° C-Rated Conductor (Amps)
(Amps)
16 18
14 20 25
12 25 30
10 35 40
8 50 55
6 65 75
4 85 95
2 115 115
2/0 175 195
4/0 230 260

So far, a 2-gauge wire is the minimum wire size suitable for this situation.
Step 2: Ambient temperature correction and rooftop temperature
adjustment
From table 310.15(B) (16), in the 75°C column, the room temperature of 21–
25 helps to reduce the wire size. The correction temperature factor for this
temperature range is 1.05, so:
Ambient Temperature (Celsius) 75 ° C-Rated conductor 90 ° C -Rated conductor
21-25 1.05 1.04
26-30 1.00 1.00
31-35 0.94 0.96
36-40 0.88 0.91
41-45 0.82 0.87
46-50 0.75 0.82
51-55 0.67 0.76
56-60 0.58 0.71
61-65 0.47 0.65
66-70 0.34 0.58
71-75 0.50
 76-80 0.41

115 *1.05 =120.75amps. As you can see, the room temperature increases our
selected 2-gauge wire. We can now check if a 4-gauge wire (85 ampacity)
can handle 100 amps at room temperature:
85 amps * 1.05=89.25amps.
Unfortunately, we need to stick to the previously-selected 2-gauge wire.
Since the wires are located freely at room temperature, there is no need to
worry about the consideration regarding height of conduit on the roof.
Step 3: Number of Wires in a Conduit
Since we have only two wires in a conduit, in a dry and cool condition, there
is no need to worry about this step. If four or more wires are being used, then
we have to check the NEC table 310.15 (B) (3) (a), and we can use the less
expensive THW wires.
Conclusively, a 2-gauge, THW wire is required. Therefore, the calculated
wire gauge in step 2 is the smallest appropriate wire for the battery output.
Inverter Output Cable
The only remaining wires to size are the AC wires coming out of the
inverter.
Let’s go through the steps:
Step 1: Ampacity
To figure out the current coming out of the inverter, we need to know two
parameters.
1. The inverter’s wattage.
2. The AC voltage of the grid or the appliances used in the
house.

So, the maximum current (amps) = inverter’s continuous power/AC voltage.

In this case, the grid’s electricity voltage is assumed 120 volts.
Maximum current generated by the inverter = 2000 watt / 120Volt = 16.66
amps.
As you can guess now, a 14-gauge wire is the smallest wire that can handle
up to 20amps.
Step 2: Ambient temperature adjustment
As we run these wires at room temperature, we will multiply it by 1.05 as
previously extracted from table 310.15(B) (16) for 21-25°C temperature
range:
20 * 1.05 = 21 amps
A 14-gauge wire is the smallest wire size that can handle 21 amps at room
temperature, which is bigger than 16.66 amps; however, if the inverter’s
datasheet recommends a larger gauge like 10 or 12, you should comply with
that.
Step 3: Number of Wires in Conduit
Since only three wires, hot, neutral, and ground, are running through the
conduit in the room temperature, no consideration is needed regarding the
number of wires and the temperature adjustments. If four or more wires are
used, you need to follow the NEC table 310.15 (B) (3) (a) to adjust the
amperage and the wire gauge accordingly.
PV Module Connectors
When handling a large solar system, you need connectors to link an array of
PV modules. They connect a string of panels either in series or in parallel.
The connectors consist of male and female parts. Different types of PV
connectors are available on the market.
The most common types of connectors include MC3, MC4, PV, and Tyco
Solarlock. These connectors are available in t-joint, u-joint, x-joint, and y-
joint shapes.
Wiring Solar Panels (stringing)
Wiring/stringing of solar panels is a fundamental subject for every solar
installer. You have to understand how different wiring configurations affect
the voltage, current, and power generated by the PV array. The panels are
then connected to a load center to transfer the electricity to an inverter in a
grid-tied system or charge controller in battery-backed systems. Stringing can
either be in series or parallel.
Series Connection
In a series connection, each PV module is connected to the next in a line. The
positive terminal of one PV module is connected to the negative terminal of
another PV module, and so on.
Each additional module adds up to the total voltage of the PV string while the
current remains the same throughout the circuit. If you have four 12-volt
modules rated at 8 amps, the total voltage in your PV string will be 48 volts
while the current remains unchanged. The power output would equal current
multiplied by voltage. The only drawback of using a series configuration is
that a shaded module significantly reduces the power output of the PV array.
Parallel Connection
In a parallel connection, the positive terminal of one module connects to the
positive terminal of another module, while the negative terminals connect to
each other. In this configuration, each additional module increases the current
of the string; however, the voltage remains the same. And, as a result,
shading in one module doesn’t affect the power output of the entire PV
string.
So, having multiple modules in parallel will help generate power without
exceeding the operating voltage of the inverter.
Positive and negative wires enter the combiner box on the rooftop in roof-
mount systems. This box may function as a junction box or pass-through box
depending on the PV module configuration. The picture below shows a
ground mount PV array; therefore the combiner box is located under the
panels near the ground.

Multiple PV modules connected in parallel join in the combiner box and then
form a PV output circuit. The PV output then enters the load center located
near other solar components like the battery and charge controller.
What to know before stringing the panels
Your decision on whether to string the modules in parallel or series depends
on your inverter, battery, and charge controller’s specifications. You have to
check the inverter and charge controller’s specification information found on
the manufacturer datasheet to exactly match each other as well as your
specific energy requirements. This information includes:

The inverter’s maximum input current.

The inverter’s maximum input voltage (Vinput, max)
which is in fact, the highest DC voltage the inverter receives.
The inverter’s minimum voltage (Vinput, min) which
is defined as the minimum required voltage for the inverter to
operate.
Charge controller’s maximum current and voltage.
Battery’s voltage.

PV module specification
In addition to the solar equipment information, you need to check this
information about the selected PV modules:

Open circuit voltage (Voc); this is the maximum

amount of voltage the panels generate under no-load conditions.
Short circuit current (Isc); this is the current that runs
through PV cells when voltage is zero.
If you follow the exact steps regarding sizing your solar array, battery
bank, charge controller and inverter you need to use all the above
information to set up your System. The way how to string your solar
panels very much depends on your selected DC voltage (12, 24, 36 or
48) and the maximum amount of current that you want your wires to
carry. For instance, if your system consists of eight 100-watt, 12-volt
panels with Isc of 8.5 amps, there are a few ways to string them
depending on your desired battery, controller and inverter’s nominal
voltage. The following diagrams show 12-, 24- and 48-volt
 configurations for this PV system:

The diagram above is more suitable for extensive PV systems with higher
power output requirements. As you can obviously see, this type of wiring
provides a fairly low output current, and consequently smaller conductor
diameters and lower expenses.
If you are looking for a medium-sized PV system, a 24-volt configuration is
considered an appropriate option. However more parallel connections will
lead to a higher amount of current generated by the PV modules compared to
the previous 48-volt configuration:
And finally, if you need a smaller PV system, the parallel configuration
below can keep the voltage at 12; however, you may need to use fewer panels
if you want to reduce the high amount of current output:
Chapter Summary
Choosing an appropriate wire size is essential for effective performance of
your system. Sizing solar wires helps prevent overheating of the wires and
reduces energy losses.
Avoid using wires that are not compliant with the recommended National
Electrical Code. Otherwise, your building inspector will not approve your
installation.
Generally, the size of the solar wires depends on the amount of current
generated by the panels and the length of the wire from the source to the
electrical units. You can size your wires using the American Wire Gauge
chart. Match your wire amp ratings with the wire length to avoid voltage drop
or power loss.
In the next chapter, you will see how protective devices will be added to your
PV system to make it ready to start generating power.
So keep reading. You are almost there!
 CHAPTER TEN: Connecting Overcurrent
Protection Devices, Wrapping It Up, and
Troubleshooting
Overcurrent protection (OCP) devices are crucial if you want to be prepared
for unexpected events in any electrical system. They make the system run
smoothly and safely by enabling the system to automatically turn off when an
issue occurs. When it comes to connecting the PV system, the only accepted
way to protect the wires and devices is to install OCP devices, which includes
fuses and circuit breakers.
The OCP devices are required for each segment or circuit of the system to
protect the wires. OCP devices protect the conductors from getting too hot
and consequently, catching fire. The same applies to the electrical devices
connected to the system; the OCP shuts off the power when a short circuit
happens, thus keeping all the electrical devices safe.
Circuit breakers and fuses consist of an element that melts down and turns off
the circuit when more than a certain amount of current (amps) passes through
them. They should be sized smaller (in amps) than the wire they protect in
order to block the current before the wires heat up.
As mentioned, there are two major OCP devices frequently used for electrical
wiring: circuit breakers and fuses. Circuit breakers have the following
advantages over fuses:
1. Function as a disconnect switch, providing access for
system repair.
2. Can be replaced or removed under electrical load.
3. Can be reset after the issue has been resolved.
4. Can be installed without a holder.
Circuit breakers work slower than fuses, so they would let the spikes happen.
As spikes may harm the electrical devices in a mobile PV system like a van,
fuses are preferred to breakers in small-scale, off-grid PV systems.
Fuses are one-time-use devices, meaning that they must be replaced once an
overcurrent event happens. However, they do function faster than a circuit
breaker. They also need a fuse holder to be installed. Fuses have their own
advantages:
1. Less expensive.
2. Available in higher voltages, more common in grid-tied systems.
DC and AC Load Centers
The load center is a place where the majority of the system’s breakers and
fuses are connected. Designating two separate DC and AC load centers
provides numerous benefits. The main advantage is the ability to use the grid
and the battery when the solar array should be switched off for any reason.
The DC load center is located in the same place where other solar
components such as the battery, controller, and inverter are installed. It
contains circuit breakers for the following circuits:
1. Between the PV output and the charge controller.
2. Between the controller and the battery.
3. Between the battery and the inverter.
Basic Rules for OCP Device Sizing
Fuses and breakers must be connected as close to the battery (or “hot” end) as
possible, so that there will be less length of wire that can still carry power in
case the fuse switches off. Additionally, breaker should always be sized
smaller than the wire. Only in this way can they melt down and shut the
power off before the wires heat up. For instance, for a 30-amp charge
controller wired to a battery via a 40-amp rated wire, a 30-amp fuse is
recommended.
Despite the above-mentioned differences, sizing circuit breakers and fuses
follow the same rules. They are sized according to two electrical features:
1. Current in amps.
2. Voltage (DC and AC) in volts.
Maximum current:
According to the NEC, we need to oversize the Isc of each segment of the
DC circuit by 25% due to more than three hours of continuous use, exactly as
what you were required to do while sizing your system’s wires.
Only up to the charge controller, we need to add another 25% due to over
irradiance as well. This additional current may be generated when the
irradiance may go higher than the Standard Test Condition (STC) in sunny
days. Past charge controller, over irradiance correction is not needed.
Voltage:
You need to match the voltage of your system (battery, inverter, and the
array) with the breaker or fuse. OCP devices are also rated for DC and AC.
Do not forget to install the DC and AC breakers for the corresponding
segments of the system.
Four locations where installing an OCP device is almost always
recommended are as follows:
1. The combiner box.
2. Between the solar array and the charge controller.
3. Between the charge controller and the battery.
4. Between the battery and the inverter.
Three of these OCP devices will be connected in the load center, while the
other one is located in the combiner box on the roof. Let’s size the proper
circuit breaker size for each of the PV system’s circuits:
Combiner Box
For each string of panels, one breaker should be installed in the combiner box
on the roof. Therefore, the breaker should be able to handle the maximum
current of each string of panels.so the correct size is calculated as follows:
Isc of the string * 125% (3 hour use) * 125% (over irradiance)
For example, if we have eight 115-Watt, 12-Volt panels connected in two
parallel strings, with 4.8 amps Isc, the output of each string would be 48 volts
and still 4.8 amps Isc because all the panels in a string are connected in series
and this means that the current remains constant.
Therefore, the maximum current = 4.8 * 156% = 7.48.
A 10-amp fuse or breaker can handle this amount of current. However, an
important point to remember is that the OCP size should always be smaller
than the wires they need to protect. So in this case, the wire must be capable
of handling at least 15 amps.
Between the Solar Array and Charge Controller
The size of the OCP between the solar array and charge controller depends on
the current generated by your solar array. As we have covered the details
about the maximum current (Isc) in previous chapters, you can easily
calculate your array’s short circuit current (Isc) no matter how you have
connected your solar panels; series, parallel, or both.
Since you have four 115-Watt, 12-Volt panels with 4.8 amps Isc connected in
series in each string, , the output of each string would be 48 volts and still 4.8
amps because in series connection, the current remains constant. Since this
breaker should protect a wire that carries the current of parallel strings, you
should consider the number of strings as well.
As previously explained, two different safety factors must be considered for
the PV arrays’ generated current: Add 25% for over irradiance (extreme
summer noon sunlight) and another 25 % for more than three hours
continuous use.
To calculate the right wire size, we need to multiply Isc of each string by the
number of strings as well as by 1.56.
Maximum current = Isc * number of parallel strings * 1.25 * 1.25
Max current = 4.8 * 2 * 1.56 = 14.96 Amps.
In this case, a 15-amp fuse or breaker is the appropriate size to protect a wire
with at least 20 amps of current-carrying capacity.
Between the Charge Controller and Battery
The OCP size needed between the charge controller and battery bank
considers the maximum amperage rating of the charge controller. The breaker
selected must be equal to or greater than the controller's amp rating, as well
as smaller than the wire used. In other words, breaker should always be sized
smaller than the wire.
The alternative way to size this circuit breaker is to multiply the Isc of the
string by the number of string by 1.25 (safety factor):
Max current (amps) = Isc (amps) * number of parallel strings * 1.25 (safety
factor).
Between the Battery and the Inverter
The fourth OCP device recommended is supposed to protect the inverter’s
wire located between the battery bank and the inverter.
Most inverter manufacturers recommend the fuse size or equip it with a built-
in breaker or fuse inside the inverter. Otherwise, you should divide the
maximum continuous power of the inverter by the nominal battery voltage
and add a 25% to it for the safety factor to calculate the maximum current
possible. For instance, for a 5000-Watt, 48-Volt inverter connected to a 48-
volt battery, we will have the equation below:
I = P/V
I (amps) = 5000 W / 48 V * 1.25 = 130 amps
So a 150-amp fuse or breaker is recommended.
How to Crimp
To join electrical circuits, electrical connectors are used, and this is done by
crimping and attaching the connector to the wire. Although this often may be
neglected, the quality of the connection depends on the quality of crimping of
the wire attached to the connector. You can learn how to crimp step-by-step
below:
Step 1: Select your crimping tool
A ratchet crimper is more expensive as well as more durable and requires less
effort. The crimping die on the crimper must match the wire gauge used. So
what is a crimping die? It is the piece at the top of the crimper that actually
crimps. All crimpers have one.
Step 2: Stripping
Place a quarter inch of the wire into the die. Locate the hole associated with
the wire's gauge in the crimping die. If crimping a 14-gauge wire is intended,
for instance, the hole designed for a range covering this gauge should be
selected. Crimping dies usually have color-coded holes designated for certain
wires.
Apply pressure to the tool’s handles, pull it away from the wire and remove
the plastic insulation. Now you should have a quarter-inch of the wire
stripped.
Step 3: Applying force
A manual crimper needs the jaws of the crimper to be held perpendicular to
the wire. This process takes some practice to do perfectly. By twisting the
exposed wire, make it more firm and compact. This will result in a more
condensed wire and consequently, a stronger connection to the connector.
Insert the wire into the connector (wire lug) so that the insulation touches the
barrel. The wire should not pass the barrel more than a quarter of an inch.
Now you should place the connector’s barrel into the designated crimping
slot. Placing the wire horizontally with the barrel facing upward is preferred.
Some tools have colored markings for AC wires; so by matching the
insulation color with the associated color, you can select the right size.
Otherwise, or if you are crimping DC wires, just match it with the gauge
markings on the side of the tool.
Now you should hold the tool steady and vertically compared to the floor and
squeeze its handle over the wire lug’s barrel with force. When using manual
crimpers, squeeze the crimper’s handles with a considerable amount of force
to secure a durable, high-quality connection. Since most of the wires being
crimped for solar purposes are thick enough, there is not high chance of over-
crimping. Therefore, apply as much pressure as you can, especially when
using a manual crimping tool.
Ratchet crimpers, however, will be aligned over the lug’s barrel automatically
by its crimping slot. Less effort is needed when using a ratchet crimper. You
can now tug them apart and see how strong the connection is. It should not
tear apart even when applying considerable force.
Sometimes, the connection is still loose because of improper wire or wire lug
size. Soldering the joint between the lug and wire is an option. However, it is
not recommended due to the fact that the solder alloy is different from pure
copper and this will result in future issues. Redoing the crimp is the most
reliable option.
Step 4: heat shrinking
The last step is to seal the crimped wire and wire lug with a heat shrink.
Always seal the terminal when your connection is going to be exposed to
heat, snow, wind, or rain.
Final Checklist and Troubleshooting
Home PV systems are unique and have become an outstanding investment for
individuals looking for a clean source of energy. Solar power installation
provides a number of benefits, not only in residential homes, but also for
commercial properties.
Generally, solar power systems require low maintenance and have a payback
period of between 5–7 years. However, there are some problems associated
with solar systems, and, if appropriate actions are not taken early, the
problems will worsen. Therefore, it is necessary to recognize the major
issues you may experience so that you can take appropriate action if needed.
Issues to Look Out For
Sometimes identifying issues with your PV system might seem challenging.
For example, you may notice the system is not producing as much power as
before, and you don’t know why. Changes in solar system performance are
often a result of one or more of the following reasons:
1. Loose wiring and connections
The PV system includes a wiring network that links various PV modules
together and connects them to the solar inverter and the battery. If the wires
connecting to the solar components become loose (almost always due to poor
crimping of the connectors), it will affect the overall performance of your
solar system.
You can use ammeter and voltmeter to identify wiring faults. Once you
identify where the fault is, you can take action to avoid further damage to
your system. You can also talk to an expert to help you solve the problem. If
you have already installed a monitoring system that allows you to monitor the
performance of the panels via your smartphone, it makes your
troubleshooting work much easier.
2. Overheating of the system
If your array experiences extreme temperatures, it may affect the
performance of the panels. Although this is not an indication that the panels
are faulty, you may notice less power production during hot days.
Sometimes, high temperatures can affect some sections of your solar panels,
and this makes them wear down much faster. If you live in areas that
experience high temperatures, you had better purchase solar panels that
perform better under high heat areas. For example, Panasonic HIT panels
have thin layers that protect the monocrystalline layer, making the panels
more efficient in high-temperature areas.
3. Solar system not performing as expected
Sometimes solar panels don’t work as expected due to a number of factors. If
you continue to receive low current and low voltage, it may be from one of
several possible issues. So, you have to perform the right diagnostic steps to
correct the issue. Always record information about the error messages, when
you first noticed the problem and the number of times it occurs after you
noticed the problem. With this information, you can easily troubleshoot your
panels or hire an expert to help you fix the issue.
4. Your system is dirty
Dust, debris, and dirt can affect the efficiency of the panels. Though these
environmental issues may appear minor, they can reduce the amount of
power generated by the panels. To avoid this, you need to regularly clean or
remove all the dirt from the panels to avoid shading.
Common Mistakes Solar Installers Make
The switch to a solar power system is gaining popularity in many US homes.
If you’re considering switching to solar energy, there are a number of
mistakes you need to avoid if you want to obtain the best out of your
investment. Some of these common mistakes include:
1. Not taking into account the structure of your home roof
Before mounting solar panels on your roof, you have to consider if the roof is
in good condition to withstand the weight of the panels. Therefore, you have
to make sure that the structure of your roof can support the weight from the
panels.
Does your roof have chimneys, swamp coolers, or air vents? This makes it
difficult to install the panels near the main unit. That is why it is worth
considering your roof type before installing the panels. For example, if your
rooftop is made of fine cement that makes the roof brittle, then you should
reconsider your racking system.
2. Improper sizing of the solar panel system
When sizing your solar system, most of the time you focus on calculating the
total power load and installing panels that help meet your energy demands.
You forget to consider other factors such as voltage setting of the inverter,
panel orientation, shading, climate, and efficiency drop that affect the amount
of solar power generated by the panels.
So unless you account for this, you will not be able to choose a properly-
sized array. If your solar array and the battery bank don’t have the same
voltage, it will affect your entire system’s performance.
3. Buying the cheapest solar panels
Most of the time, you switch to solar power to reduce utility bills. For this
reason, you may go for the cheapest solar panels, particularly if you’re on a
budget. Though buying the panels at a lower cost may seem ideal for now, it
may end up being expensive in the long run. Sometimes you might end up
replacing your entire PV system after a while because it is faulty. For this
reason, you shouldn’t purchase panels because they’re cheap. You should
evaluate the designs and prices of different types before choosing the best
solar panels for your home.
4. Mismatching battery sizing
Matching your battery bank with the right charge controller and the
appropriate wire size is particularly important for the proper functioning of
your charging source. When sizing an off-grid system, your solar array must
generate enough power to keep the battery fully charged and at the same time
not overcharge the batteries. Overcharging and over discharging can
significantly affect the battery life.
5. Not planning ahead
When planning to go solar, people often tend to only consider their present
energy needs. Not everyone expects their energy needs will change in the
future. When designing your PV system, it’s wise to think about possible
future changes in your energy demands. For example, if you’re planning to
buy an electric vehicle, ask yourself whether your solar system is
expandable? And how many panels can fit on your rooftop? Since most solar
panels can last up to 25 years, you can plan ahead in case you want to expand
your system and don’t have enough space to install the panels on the rooftop.
If you add more panels to the system, you should also size the solar inverter,
controller and battery bank to match your expanded array. As Inverters have
their own power limitation, they may not support a larger PV system. So
expanding your system is not considered just adding panels to the existing
ones. All other components are better to be oversized in advance if you
anticipate higher energy consumption in future.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, you learned where to connect overcurrent protection devices
within your PV wiring network. You also know how to size OCP devices.
Additionally, you’ve seen some of the problems you may experience with
your solar system installation, how to troubleshoot them, and how to avoid
the common mistakes other solar installers often make.
If you are confident enough to switch to solar, now it’s time to start action. If
not, you may need to review some more extensive procedures, such as PV
module sizing and wire sizing. Alternatively, you may need to consult a solar
specialist.
 Final Words

Solar energy is among the most easily accessible forms of renewable energy.
And as a result, more people are welcoming solar power as their alternative
source of energy. The main focus of this book is to help you learn how to
harness solar power in your homes in a DIY manner. However, before you
can start installing a solar system, you must have a fundamental
understanding of how electricity works.
This will help you appreciate how the system's components interact and work
together and give you invaluable data for troubleshooting your system. This
final section is meant to offer you an overall review on electricity and
photovoltaic systems.
Electrical voltage, measured in volts (V), represents the electromotive force
(E). This force is often referred to as potential difference because there
should be a difference between the power source voltage and the load voltage
in order to create a current.
Electrical current can be defined as the rate of charge flow. There are two
types of current that flow through a circuit: direct and alternating current.
Direct current (DC) is a constant current that flows in one direction, moving
from a high voltage point (positive) to a low voltage point (negative).
The main disadvantage of using DC electricity is that it limits the distance in
which current is transmitted. This makes DC transmission for shorter
distances greater than transmitting for longer distances.
Alternating current (AC) describes the flow of electrical charge in different
directions. That is, the change in voltage and current level. As the current
keeps on switching direction, it creates a frequency, which is measured in
Hertz (Hz). The faster the switching, the higher the frequency.
In an electrical circuit, resistance affects the flow of current. If there is high
resistance in the material, there will be little or no current flowing through it.
These materials are referred to as insulators. Conductors have low resistance
and allow electrons to flow freely. The conductor acts as a highway and the
electrons represent the cars. The more lanes the highway has, the more cars
can travel and vice-versa.
Therefore, it is important to determine circuit resistance when installing your
system. The simplest way is to use Ohm's law to determine the circuit's
resistance by calculating the total voltage drop across the circuit.
Once you know the basic electrical components, you will need to know the
different tools and solar installation components required to set up your PV
system. To start with, you have to consider safety precautions and protective
gear for installing the panels. Other items range from power tools for solar
system installations, mounting tools, wiring tools, and battery installation
tools.
Solar systems are designed in three ways; grid-tied systems, hybrid systems,
and off-grid systems. Grid-tied systems are connected to an electrical grid to
draw power during low peak sun hours. During peak hours, you can send the
excess power to the utility company. Electricity on the grid is transmitted as
AC, and most devices are calibrated to use AC power.
If you want to access power during a power outage in the electrical grid, you
can add a battery to your system. This hybrid system allows you to store
excess power in the battery for use on those days where no power is
generated. This also makes you less reliant on grid power.
Lastly, you can decide to go off-grid by designing an on-site solar power
system. An off-grid solar system allows you to be energy independent by
designing solar systems based on your energy needs.
When designing your solar system, you should consider factors such as
shading, efficiency drop, panel orientation, and climate. All these things can
affect the output of the system.
The efficiency of the solar system drops each year, and it is important to
account for that when sizing your solar panels. In addition, you have to look
at the panel’s Voc temperature coefficient and their impact on the
performance of the panels.
Solar panels are usually tested under ideal conditions, but in the real world,
your panels are exposed to extreme weather conditions. For example, high
temperatures reduce the efficiency of the panels, as well as the amount of
energy generated.
Your location also dictates the peak sun hours your panels are exposed to
each day. During peak hours, your panels generate more power. Most areas
experience 3–6 peak sun hours.
Further, your system needs to be designed based on the voltage of the solar
components. If you don’t select the right voltage for your panels or the
battery bank, it will affect the overall performance of the system. Seasonal
temperature changes are also another factor that affects the voltage of your
setup.
Depending on your energy needs, you can size your solar panels and come up
with the correct number of panels you need to meet your energy demands for
your home. When sizing the panels and battery, you have to consider your
daily consumption rate, days of autonomy, and any other factor that might
affect the actual performance of your PV system.
After sizing your PV system, you can go ahead and size your solar controller,
inverter, and battery bank. If you’re installing an off-grid PV system, you
need to calculate your daily power consumption to help estimate the number
of solar panels you need to meet your energy needs.
You have to size your roof to know whether the number of panels you need
can fit your rooftop space. Come up with the design layout of your roof and
go ahead installing the panels. If you don’t have enough rooftop space, you
can decide to use a ground mount solar panel installation or purchase more
efficient PV modules and PV components.
When mounting panels on a sloped rooftop, you can secure them either
through a rail system, rail-less system, or shared-rail system. Otherwise, you
can use a flat roof mounting system if you have a flat rooftop.
Follow the panel installation process steps explained earlier to install your
solar panels on your rooftop or ground mounts. Once you install the panels,
go ahead and install a solar controller, which acts as a regulator to control the
amount of power going into the battery bank from the PV array. The charge
controller charges your batteries based on the set level so as to maintain the
battery life.
The charge controller uses two technologies: Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) and Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) and automatically
turns off the running load when the battery is low and turns it on after the
battery is charged. The size of your charge controller depends on the current
generated by your PV array and your system voltage.
When selecting the battery bank for your system, you have to consider
battery lifespan, power capacity, and depth of discharge, cycle life, and
battery voltage. All these factors will help you choose the best battery bank
that meets your power needs for a number of days. And, depending on the
type of PV system you want to install into your home, you can size your solar
battery to meet your energy demands.
Lastly, you have to choose the right type of wires, connectors, and protective
devices to maximize your power output and prevent fire hazards that could
result from faulty wiring. Always ensure you have the right wire gauge that
can handle the amount of current generated by the panels. You also have to
ensure the wires are rated at the correct ampacity and take into account the
wire length.
There are different types of PV module connectors that allow you to wire the
panels either in series, parallel or both. Once you connect all the solar
components, you can go ahead and test if your system is functioning
properly. If you experience some challenges, you can troubleshoot your solar
system and correct any mistake you have made in the installation process.
Continuously monitor the system to ensure all the components are working
correctly.
DIY SOURCE publishing created this book to provide a practical, step-by-
step manual to ease the complicated process of designing and installing a PV
system for those who want to go solar. Since all the aspects of the powering
procedure is covered in detail, some parts of the book such as panel sizing
and wire sizing may seem overwhelming; However, this book has clarified
all of the topics in a stepwise manner. Therefore you may need to review
some chapters a second time before starting your solar design and
installation. We wish you best of luck for your solar project!
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