TELANGANA STATE BOARD OF

INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION

ZOOLOGY
FIRST YEAR
(English Medium)

BASIC LEARNING MATERIAL

ACADEMIC YEAR
2021-2022
 Coordinating Committee

Sri Syed Omer Jaleel, IAS

Commissioner, Intermediate Education &
Secretary, Telangana State Board of Intermediate Education
Hyderabad

Dr. Md. Abdul Khaliq

Controller of Examinations
Telangana State Board of Intermediate Education

Educational Research and Training Wing

Ramana Rao Vudithyala
Reader

Mahendar Kumar Taduri

Assistant Professor

Vasundhara Devi Kanjarla

Assistant Professor

Learning Material Contributors

Dr. Ch. Prabhakar Reddy
Principal
GJC, Alair
S. Padmavathi
JL in Zoology
GJC, Maheshwaram
K. Subhash
JL in Zoology
GJC, Chevella
B. Prameela Rani
JL in Zoology
GJC, Chegunta
 PREFACE

The ongoing Global Pandemic Covid-19 that has engulfed the entire world has changed every
sphere of our life. Education, of course is not an exception. In the absence of Physical Classroom
Teaching, Department of Intermediate Education Telangana has successfully engaged the students and
imparted education through TV lessons. In the back drop of the unprecedented situation due to the
pandemic TSBIE has reduced the burden of curriculum load by considering only 70% syllabus for class
room instruction as well as for the forthcoming Intermediate Examinations. It has also increased the
choice of questions in the examination pattern for the convenience of the students.

To cope up with exam fear and stress and to prepare the students for annual exams in such a
short span of time , TSBIE has prepared “Basic Learning Material” that serves as a primer for the
students to face the examinations confidently. It must be noted here that, the Learning Material is not
comprehensive and can never substitute the Textbook. At most it gives guidance as to how the students
should include the essential steps in their answers and build upon them. I wish you to utilize the Basic
Learning Material after you have thoroughly gone through the Text Book so that it may enable you to
reinforce the concepts that you have learnt from the Textbook and Teachers. I appreciate ERTW
Team, Subject Experts, who have involved day in and out to come out with the, Basic Learning Material
in such a short span of time.

I would appreciate the feedback from all the stake holders for enriching the learning material
and making it cent percent error free in all aspects.

The material can also be accessed through our websitewww.tsbie.cgg.gov.in.

Commissioner & Secretary

Intermediate Education, Telangana.
 CONTENTS

UNIT - I Diversity of Living World 1

UNIT - II Structural Orgaisation in Animals 5

UNIT - III Animal Diverstity - I 14

UNIT - IV Animal Diverstity - II 20

UNIT - V -- --

UNIT - VI Biology in Human Welfare 25

UNIT - VII -- --

UNIT - VIII Ecology & Environment 38

Zoology - I 1

Unit 1
Diversity of Living World

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is biogenesis?
Ans: If the Life comes only from life is called biogenesis.
2. Distinguish between embryology and ethology.
Ans: Embryology: The branch of biology dealing with the formation and development of
embroys.
Ethology: The study of the animal behaviour.
3. What is trinominal nomenclature? Give an example?
Ans: The naming of an animal with a three worded name is called trinominal nomenclature.
The first word refers to genus, second word refers to species and third word refers to
subspecies eg: Corvus splendenss plendens.
4. What is meant by tautonymy?Give two examples?
Ans: The practice of naming the animals, in which the generic name and species name are the
same,is called tautonymy. Eg: Axis axis, (spotted deer) Naja naja (the indian cobra).
5. Differentiate between Protostomia and Deuterostomia?
Ans: The eumetazoans in which mouth develops from blastopore are called as protostomians.
The Eumetazoans in which anus develops from or near blastopore are called as
Deuterostomians.
6. What does ICZN stands for?
Ans: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
7. Give the names of any four protostomian phyla.
Ans: Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda and Mollusca.
8. Define species richness.
Ans: It is the number of species per unit area. The more the number of species in an area the
more is the species richness.
9. Mention any two products of medicinal importance obtained from nature?
Ans: Anti cancer drug—Vinblastin
To treat certain cardiac problems—-Digitalin
2 Basic Learning Material

10. Invasion of an alien species leads to extinction of native species. Justiy this with two
examples?
Ans: 1. Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria, in east Africa led to the extinction of 200
species of cichlid fish in the lake.
2. Illegal introduction of exotic African catfish Clariasgariepinus, for aquaculture
purposes is posing a threat in the indigenous cat fishes.
11. List out any four sacred grooves in India?
Ans: Khasi and Jainta Hills—Meghalaya
Aravalli Hills—Rajasthan and Gujarat
Western Ghat region— Karnataka and Maharashtra
Sarguja, Bastar——Chhattisgarh
Chanda——Madhya Pradesh
12. Write the full form of IUCN. In which book threatened species are enlisted?
Ans: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
In Red Data Books threatened species are enlisted.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Definespecies. Explain the various aspects of species?
Ans: Species is a group of similar organisms sharing a common gene pool and interbreeding
freely, producing fertile offspring.
John ray in his book Historia Generalis Plantarum used the term species.
Linnaeus considered species, in his bookSystema Naturae as the basic unit of classification.
Buffon,in his book Natural History proposed the idea of evolution of species, which is
the foundation for the biological concept of evolution, which became more popular with
the publication of the book The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin.
Species is considered a group of individuals which are:
1. Reproductively isolated from the individuals of other species—a breeding unit.
2. Sharing the same ecological niche—an ecological unit.
3. Showing similarity in the karyotype – a genetic unit.
4. Having similar structure and functional characteristics—an evolutionary unit.
2. What are the reasons for greater biodiversity in the tropics?
Ans: There are three reasons for greater biodiversity in the tropics.
1) Tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus
had a long evolutionary time. As long duration was available in this region for
speciation, it led to the species diversification.
2) Tropical climates are relatively more constant and predictable than that of the temperate
regions. Constant environment promotes niche specialization, and this leads to greater
species diversity.
Zoology - I 3

3) Solar energy, resources like water etc, are available in abundance in this region. This
contributed to higher productivity in terms of food production, leading to greater
diversity.
3. What is the evil quarlet?
Ans: The four major causes for accelerated rates of species extinction in the world are called
evil quarlet.
1) Habitat loss and Fragmentation: i) Deforestation leads to species extinction in forests
ii)Conversion of forest land to agricultural landeg Amazon rain forest, iii)pollution enhances
degradation of habitats iv)fragmentation of habitat leads to population decline eg mammals
and birds.
2) Over-Exploitation:When need turns to greed it leads to over exploitation. E.g. Stellers
sea cow, passenger pigeon.
3) Invasion of Alien Species: When alien species are introduced into a habitat they turn
invasive and establish themselves at the cost of the indigenous species. Eg. Nile perch
introduction into lake victoria,led to extinction of 200 species of cichlid fish.
4) Co-Extinctions:In an obligate association between a plant and an animal, if a plant becomes
extinct, the animal also becomes extinct as seen in a parasite and host association.
4. Explain in brief biodiversity hotspots?
Ans: The concept of biodiversity hot spot was proposed by Norman Myers, there are about 34
biodiversity hot spots in the world. As these regions are threatened by destruction, habitat
loss is accelerated e.g: 1)Westernghats and Srilanka 2)Indo Burma 3)Himalayas in india.
Ecologically unique and biodiversity rich regions are legally protected as in 1)Biosphere
Reserves 2)National parks 3)Sanctuaries.
Biosphere Reserves: An area which is set aside, minimally disturbed for the conservation
of the resources of the biosphere is Biosphere Reserve.Eg:Seshachalam hills.
National Parks: A national park is a natural habitat strictly reserved for protection of
natural life. Eg:Jim Corbett national park,MahavirHarinavanasthali national park etc
Sanctuaries: Specific endangered faunal species are well protected in wildlife sanctuaries
which permits eco-tourism. Eg:Koringa sanctuary, Eturnagaram sanctuary.
5. Explain Rivet popper hypothesis?
Ans: Paul Ehrlich’s experiments ‘the RIVET POPPER hypothesis, taking an aero plane as an
ecosystem, explains how removal of one by one ‘rivets’ (species of an ecosystem) of various
parts can slowly damage the plane(ecosystem)-shows how important a ‘species’ is in the
overall functioning of an ecosystem. Removing a rivet from a seat or some other relatively
minor important parts may not damage the plane, but removal of a rivet from a part
supporting the wing can result in a crash. Likewise, removal of a ‘critical species’ may
affect the entire community and thus the entire ecosystem.
4 Basic Learning Material

6. Write short notes on in-situ conservation?

Ans: In-situ conservation (On-site conservation)
In-situ conservation is the process of protecting an animal species in its natural habitat.
The benefit is that it maintains recovering populations in the surrounding where they have
developed their distinctive properties. Conservationists identified certain regions by name
‘Biodiversity hot spots’ for maximum protection as they are characterized by very high
levels of species richness and high degree of endemism.
Methods of In-situ conservation are:
1)Biosphere Reserves 2)National parks 3)Sanctuaries 4)sacred groves
Biosphere Reserves: An area which is set aside, minimally disturbed for the conservation
of the resources of the biosphere is Biosphere Reserve.Eg:Seshachalam hills.
National Parks: A national park is a natural habitat strictly reserved for protection of
natural life. Eg:Jim Corbett national park,MahavirHarinavanasthali national park etc
Sanctuaries: Specific endangered faunal species are well protected in wildlife sanctuaries
which permits eco-tourism. Eg:Koringa sanctuary, Eturnagaram sanctuary.
Sacred Groves: i) A small group of trees than a forest is called grove.
ii) A groove of trees of special religious importance to a particular culture is called sacred
grove.
iii) In these regions all the trees of wild life are respected and given total protection.
Zoology - I 5

Unit 2
Structural Orgaisation in Animals

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is Cephalization? How is it useful to its possessors?
Ans: Cephalization: Concentration of nerve (Brain) and sensory cells at the anterior end of the
body is called as Cephalization. • Uses - searching of food, locating mates and in escaping
from predators.
2. Mention the animals that exhibited a ‘tube-within-a-tube’ organization for the first
time? Name their body cavity?
Ans: Phylum Nematoda
• Body cavity is pseudocoelom..
3. What are retroperitoneal organs?
Ans. The organs which are lined by peritoneom only on their ventral side are called retroperitoneal
organs.
Ex: Kidney
4. What is enterocoelom? Name the enterocoelomate phyla in the animal kingdom?
Ans: Animals in which the body cavity is formed from the mesodermal pouches of archenteron
are called ‘enterocoelomates’. Echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates are the
enterocoelomates.
5. Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands with examples.
Ans: Exocrine glands are provided with ducts.
Ex: mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk,
Endocrine glands are ductless glands and their products are called hormones.
Ex: Pituitary Gland
6. Distinguish between holocrine and apocrine glands?
Ans: Apocrine glands: Apical part of the gland cell is pinched off along with the secretory
product. Ex: mammary glands.
6 Basic Learning Material

• Holocrine glands, The entire cell disintegrates to discharge the contents.

Ex: Sebaceous glands
7. Mention any two substances secreted by mast cells and their functions?
Ans: Heparin——Anticoagulant,Histamine,Bradykinin——Vasodilators
Serotonin—Vasoconstrictor.
8. Distinguish between a tendon and a ligament?
Ans: Tendons attach the skeletal muscle to bone.
Ligaments attach bones to other bones.
9. Distinguish between brown fat and white fat?
Ans: White Fat: Adipocyte is Monolocular, Metabolically less active
Brown Fat: Adipocyte is Multilocular, Metabolically more active.
10. What is the strongest cartilage? In which regions of the human body, do you find it?
Ans: The fibrous cartilage is the strongest of all types of cartilages.
• It occurs in the intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis of the pelvis.
11. Distinguish between Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts?
Ans: Osteoblasts are immature bone cells and secrete the organic components of matrix of
bone.
• Osteoclasts are phagocytic cells involved in resorption of bone.
12. Define Osteon?
Ans: In compact bone structure a haversian canal and the surrounding lamellae and lacunae are
collectively called a Haversian system or Osteon.
13. What are Volkmann’s canals ?What is their role?
Ans: Transverse or Oblique canals of HaversionSystem,for communication between Haversion
canals.
14. What is a Sesamoid Bone? Give an example.
Ans: Sesamoid bones are formed by ossification in tendons.
• Ex: Patella (Knee cap) of a mammal.
15. What is Lymph?How does it differ from plasma?
Ans: It is a colourless interstitial fluid,
Absence of RBC,Platelets and Large Plasma Proteins.
16. What is the haematocrit value?
Ans: The percentage of total volume occupied by RBCs in blood is called haematocrit value.
17. What are intercalated discs? What is their significance?
Ans: The dark lines across cardiac muscle are called intercalated discs (IDS).
• These are communication junctions.
• They are useful for conduction of action potentials among cardiac muscles.
18. Cardiac muscle is highly resistant to fatigue. Justify?
Zoology - I 7

Ans: Cardiac muscle has numerous sarcosomes, many molecules of myoglobin (oxygen storing
pigment) and rich supply of blood which facilitate continuous aerobic respiration.
• Thus cardiac muscle is highly resistant to fatigue.
19. Name the glial cells that form myelin sheath around the axons of central nervous
system and peripheral nervous system respectively ?
Ans: Central Nervous System—Oligodendrocytes
PheripheralNervous System —Schwann cells.
20. What are microglia and what is their origin and add a note on their function?
Ans: Microglial cells are the Neuroglia (supporting cells) cells of CNS.
They are phagocytic cells and mesodermal origin..
21. What are pseudo unipolar neurons? Where do you find them?
Ans: Pseudounipolar neurons are sensory neurons having a single process arising from the cell
body.
• It divides into two branches, one of which acts as a dendrite and other as an axon.
They are present in dorsal root ganglion of spinal nerve.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (4 MARKS )
1. Describe the formation of Schizocoelom and enterocoelom?
Ans: Schizocoelom:The 4d blastomere or mesentoblast cell of the early embryo divides to form
mesodermal blocks between the ectoderm and the endoderm and replaces the blastocoel..
The split that appears in mesodermal block leads to the formation of schizocoelom. Eg:
Annelids, Arthropods and Molluscs.
Enterocoelom: Mesodermal pouches that evaginate from the wall of the archenteron into
the blastocoel are fused with one another to form the enterocoelom. Ex: Echinodermata
chordata.

2. Describe briefly about the three types of intercellular junctions of epithelial tissues?
Ans: Tight junctions: The plasma membranes of adjacent cells are tightly pressed against each
other and are bound together by specific proteins.
Eg: Prevent leakage of water into the surrounding cells in our sweat glands.
8 Basic Learning Material

Desmosomes: Which act as rivets binding the cells together into strong sheets. Intermediate
filaments made of the protein keratin anchor the desmosomes in the cytoplasm.
Eg: Epithelial and muscle cells.
Gap junctions: They provide continuous cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells.
Eg; cardiac muscle.

3. Give an account of glandular epithelium?

Ans: Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells that get specialized for the production of certain
secretions, form glandular epithelium.
Unicellular glands: Isolated glandular cells such as goblet cells of gut.
Multicellular glands: Clusters of cells such as salivary glands.
On the basis of mode of pouring of secretions
Exocrine: sent their secretions through duct to the target organs.
Endocrine: sent their secretions through blood to the target organs.
4. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle?
Ans: Skeletal (Striped and Voluntary) Muscle:
• Skeletal muscle is usually attached to skeletal structures by ‘tendons’.
A skeletal muscle fiber is a long, cylindrical and unbranched
cell.It is a multinucleate cell with many oval nuclei
Muscle fibre is surrounded by sarcolemma.
Its cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm.
Sarcoplasm has many myofibrils whichshow alternate dark and
light bands.
So it is called striped or striated muscle.
It is a voluntary muscle. It contracts quickly and undergoes fatigue
quickly.
Zoology - I 9

5. Describe the structure of a cardiac muscle?

Ans: Cardiac muscle is also called as striated and involuntary muscle.
Cardiac muscles are found in the‘myocardium’ of the heart of vertebrates.
The cardiac muscle cells are short, cylindrical, mononucleate or binucleate cells.
Whose ends are branch and form junctioinns with other cardiac muscle cells.
Each cell is joined to adjacent cell by electrical synapses or gap junctions,which permit
electrical impulses to be conducted along the long axis of the cardiac muscle fibre. The
dark lines across cardiac muscle are called intercalated discs(communication junctions).
The intercalated discs contain three different types of cell junctions and the gap junctions
which are responsible for rapid conductioin of action potentials.

6. Describe the structure of a multipolar neuron?

Ans: Neurons are the functional units of nervous
tissue. A neuron usually consists of a cell
body with one to many dendrites and a
single axon.
Cell body: It is also called perikaryon,cyton
or soma. It contains abundant granular
cytoplasm and a large spherical nucleus. The
cytoplasm has nisslbodies,neurofibrils and
lipofuscin granules.
Dendrites: Several short branched
processes which arise from the cyton are
called dendrites. They also contain nissl
bodies and nerve fibrils. They conduct nerve
impulses towards the cell body.
Axon: An axo is a single,long ,cylindrical
process that originates from a region of the
cyton called axon hillock. Plasmalemma of
10 Basic Learning Material

an axon is called axolemma, and the cytoplasm is called axoplasm. Which contains
neurofibrils, Nissl bodies are absent. An axon may give rise to collateral branches. Distally
it branches into many fine filaments called telodendria, which end in bulb like structures
called synaptic knobs or terminal boutons. Synaptic knobs possess synaptic vesicles
containing chemicals called neurotransmitters.
7. Write short notes on lymph.
Ans: 1. Lymph is a colourless extracellular tissue fluid which lacks RBC, platelets and large
plasma proteins, but contains more number of leucocytes.
2. It is mainly composed of plasma and lymphocytes.
3. When blood passes through the blood capillaries, some portion of blood including
water, solutes and proteins of low molecular weight passes through the walls of
capillaries, into the interstitial space. This fluid forms the interstitial fluid.
4. Due to osmotic pressure at the venular ends, most of the interstitial fluid directly
returns to the capillaries, while small amount of this fluid passes through a system of
lymphatic capillaries, vessels, lymph ducts and finally reach the blod through the
subclavian veins.
5. The extracellular tissue fluid after passing into the lymph capillaries and lymph vessels
termed as lymph.

LONGANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (8 MARKS )

1. What is symmetry? Describe the different types of symmetry in the animal kingdom
with suitable examples.
Ans: 1. The regular arrangement of body parts in a geometrical design relative to the axis of
the body is termed as symmetry.
2. The animals, which can be cut into two equal halves or antimeres in one or more
planes passing through the 'principal axis' of the body are known as symmetrical
animals.
3. Symmetrical animals have paired body pairs, that are arranged on either side of the
plane passing through the main axis, such that they remain in equal distance from the
plane. The unpaired body parts are found mostly on the plane, passing through the
main axis. The symmetry in animals is of two types - (a) Radial symmetry, (b) Bilateral
symmetry.
(a) Radial Symmetry
(i) When any plane passing through the principal axis of the body, divides an organism
into two equal parts, it is known as radial symmetry.
Zoology - I 11

(ii) The animals which shows radial symmetry are generally sessile or slow moving forms.
(iii) It is that principal symmetry in the diploblastic animals.
(iv) Animals with radial symmetry live in water and they can respond equally to stimuli
that reach from all directions.
(v) Triploblastic animals like echinoderms are secondarily radially symmetrical and are
also called pentamerous radially symmetrical animals.
(b) Bilateral symmetry
(i) When only one plane passing through the central axis divides an organism into two
identical parts, it is termed as bilateral symmetry.
(ii) It is the principal type of symmetry found in the triploblastic symmetry.
(iii) Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit cephalization.
(iv) They can also sense the new environment into which they enter and respond faster
more efficiently.
2. What is a skeletal tissue ? Describe the various types of skeletal tissue.
Ans: The type of connective tissue which forms the endoskeleton of the vertebrates is known as
skeletal tissue. It supports the body, protects different organs, provides surface for the
attachment of muscles and helps in movement of the body.
Two types of skeletal tissues can be found.
(a) Cartilage and (b) Bone
(a) Cartilage:
Cartilage is a solid, but semi – rigid (flexible) connective tissue. Types of cartilage
(i) Hyaline Cartilage:
It is bluish – white, translucent cartilage.
Matrix is homogeneous and shows delicate collagen fibres.
It is the weakest and the most common type of all the cartilages.
It forms the embryonic endoskeleton of bony vertebrates, endoskeleton of cyclostomes.
It forms the nasal septal cartilage, Cartilaginous rings of trachea, bronchi and cartilages of
larynx.
12 Basic Learning Material

(ii) Elastic Cartilage:

It is yellowish due to elastic fibres.
Matrix has abundance of yellow elastic fibres in addition to collagen fibres.
It provides strength and elasticity. Perichondrium is present.
It is found in the pinnae of the external ears, Eustachian tubes and epiglottis.

(b) Elastic Cartilage:

(iii) Fibrous Cartilage:
Matrix has bundles of collagen fibres. Perichondrium is absent.
It is the strongest of all types of cartilages.
It occurs in the intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis of the Pelvis.

(b) Bone Tissue

It is solid, hard, rigid and highly calcified connective tissue. It forms the major component
of the endoskeleton of most adult vertebrates, providing structural framework to the body.
It supports the soft tissues and protects the delicate organs of the body. The outer fibrous
connective tissue sheath of bone is called periosteum, the inner connective tissue sheath is
endosteaum. he cells of the bone including osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts.
Zoology - I 13

Types of bones :
(a) Spongy bone: It is also known as cancellous bone.
(b) Compact bone
Haversian system
The compact bone consists of several
structural units called Osteons or
Haversian systems arranged between
the outer and inner circumferential
lamellae.
A haversian canal and the surrounding
lamellae and lacunae are collectively
called a haversian system or osteon.
The spaces between the haversian
systems are filled with interstitial
lamellae.
Haversian system consists of a Haversian canal that runs parallel to the marrow
cavity,anartery,a vein and a lymphatic vessel.
Haversian canal is surrounded by concentric lamellae, small fluid filled spaces called lacunae
provided with minute canaliculi lie in between the lamellae.
Canaliculi connect the lacunae with one another and with haversian canal.
Each lacunae encloses one osteocyte, the cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes extend through
canaliculi and get inter connected into a network of cells.
Haversian canals communicate with one another, with the periosteum and also with the
marrow cavity by transverse or oblique canals called volkmaknns canals.
Nutrients and gases diffuse from the vascular supply of haversian canals.
14 Basic Learning Material

Unit 3
ANIMAL DIVERSITY - I

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What are the functions of canal system of sponges?
Ans: Transport of water, gathering food (filter feeders), exchange of gases and removal of wastes.
2. What are the two chief morphological ‘body forms’ of cnidarians? What are their
chief functions?
Ans: i) The body forms of Cnidarians are polyp and medusa.
ii) Polyp produces medusa by asexual reproduction. Polyp for nutrition.
iii) Medusae produces polyp by sexual reproduction. Medusae for reproduction.
3. What is Metagenesis? Animals belonging to which phylum exhibit Metagenesis?
Ans: Exhibit of alternation of generations by organisms is called metagenesis. Cnidarian phylum.
4. What are the excretory cells of flatworms called? What is the other importantfunction
of these specialized cells?
Ans: The excretory cells of flatworms are flame cells. Other important function of these cells is
osmoregulation.
5. Distinguish between Amphids and Phasmids?
Ans: Amphids and phasmids are present in nematodes as sense organs.
Amphids: Cuticular depressions around oral region, chemoreceptor in fuction.
Phasmids: Posterior glandulo-sensory structures.
6. what is the essential difference between a flatworm and a round worm with reference
to the perivisceral areas of their bodies?
Ans: Flatworms—Acoelomate animals
Roundworms—Pseudocoelomate animals.
7. What do you call the locomotor structures of Nereis? Why Nereis is called a
polychaete?
Ans: Locomotor structures of Nereis are parapodia. The parapodia bear many setae help in
locomotion hence the name polychaete
8. What is botryoidal tissue?
Ans: Coelom of leeches is filed with a characteristic tissue called botryoidal tissue, it is resembling
Zoology - I 15

a bunch of grapes.They range from excretion to storage of iron, calcium, revascularization

in area of injury
9. What do you call the first and second pairs of cephalic appendages of a scorpion?
Ans: First pair - Chelicerae and second pair -Pedipalpi
10. What is the uniqueness about the first two pairs of cephalic appendages of a crustacean
compared to those of the other extant arthropods?
Ans: The presence of two pairs of antennae (antennules and antennae) is the unique feature of
crustacean.
11. What are the respiratory structures of Limulus and Palamnaeus respectively?
Ans: The respiratory structures Limulus - book gills,Palamnaeus - book lungs
12. What are antennae? What is the arthropod group without antennae?
Ans: It is an cephalic appendage,which are sensory in function, they are absent in chelicerata
sub-phylum.
13. Which arthropod, you have studied, is called a living fossil? Name its
respiratoryorgans?
Ans: i) Limulus(king crab) is considered as a living fossil among arthropods.
ii) Respiratory organs are book – gills belong to mesosoma of the body.
14. What is the function of radula? Give the name of the group of molluscs which do not
possess a radula?
Ans: The buccal cavity contains a file – like rasping organ called radula for feeding in molluscans,
except in bivalves or lamellibranchiates or pelecypodans.
15. What is the other name for the gill of a mollusc? What is the function of Osphradium?
Ans: The other name for the gill of a mollusc is Ctenidia.
The main function of Osphradium is to test the purity of water.
16. What is Aristotle’s lantern? Give one example of an animal possessing it?
Ans: In the mouth of sea Urchin a complex five jawed masticatory apparatus called Aristotle’s
lantern.
Ex: Echinus
17. What is the essential difference between the juveniles and adults of echinoderms,
symmetry wise?
Ans: The adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical (pentamerous radial symmetry).
But juveniles (Larvae) are bilaterally symmetrical.
18. What are blood glands in Pheretima?
Ans: Blood glands are present in 4th, 5th and 6th segments in Pheretima.
Blood glands produce blood cells and haemoglobin which is dissolved in plasma.
19. What are spermathecae on the body of Pheretima?
Ans: Four pairs of spermathecae are present in the 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th segments in Pheretima.
Spermathecae receive and store spermatozoa in the form of bundles known spermatophores
during copulation.
16 Basic Learning Material

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

1. Write short notes on the salient features of the anthozoans?
Ans: 1) Anthozoans are commonly referred to as sea anemones
2) Anthozoa includes sea anemones, corals, sea pens
3) All are marine forms. These are solitary or colonial
4) They are sedentary and only polyploidy inform
5) Coelenteron is divided into several compartments by vertical septa called mesenteries
6) Mesoglea contains connective tissue
7) Cnidocytes occur both in the ectoderm and endoderm and is cellular as contains
amoebocytes
8) Germ cells are derived from endoderm
Ex: Adamsia (sea anemone), Gorgonia (sea fan), Pennatula (sea pen)
2. What are the salient features exhibited by Polychaetes?
Ans: 1) These are commonly known as bristle worms ,includes marine annelids.
2) Some are free movingand others burrowing or tubicolous
3) Head is distinct with sensory structures like eyes,tentacles and palps.
4) Clitellum is absent
5) Parapodia bear many setae which help in locomotion and respiration.
6) Unisexual,Gonoducts are absent
7) Gametes are shed into coelom and passed out through the nephridiopores.
8) Fertilization is external
9) Development includes a trochophore larva.
Ex: Nereis
3. What are the chief characters of the crustaceans?
Ans: 1. These are aquatic organisms.
2. Head and thorax fuse forming the cephalothorax.
3. Exoskeleton is hardened by calcium carbonate.
4. Cephalic region bears two pairs of antennae,one pair of mandibles and two pairs of
maxillae.
5. Thoracic and abdominal appendages are biramous.
6. Respiratory organs are gills,exceretory organs are green glands or antennary glands
7. Sense organs includeantennae,compoundeyes,statocysts ,etc
8. Development is indirect, includes different larval forms.
Ex: Palaemon (prawn), Cancer (crab)
4. Mention the general characters of Arachnida?
Ans: 1. These are terrestrial organisms.
2. Body is divided into prosoma and opisthosoma( mesosoma and metasoma )
3. Prosoma bears a pair of chelicerae, apair of pedipalpi and four pairs of walking legs.
Zoology - I 17

4. Mesosomal appendages are modified into book-lungs.

5. Four pairs of posterior abdominal appendages are modified into spinnerets in spiders.
6. Respiratory organs are book-lungs, tracheae or both.
7. Respiratory pigment is ‘copper’ containing haemocyanin.
8. Excretory organs are Malpighian tubules and coxal glands.
9. Development is direct.
10. Scorpions are viviparous
5. Compare briefly a centipede and a millipede?
Ans: Centipedes
1. Centipedes are commonly called hundred-leggers.
2. They are terrestrial, air-breathing,carnivorous animals.
3. Body consists of head and trunk.
4. Each segment of the trunk bears a pair of clawed appendages.
5. First pair of trunk appendages bears poison claws.
6. Respiratory structures are tracheae,excretory organs are Malpighiantubules.Ex:
Scolopendra
Millipede
1. Millipede are commonly called thousand-leggers.
2. They are terrestrial, air-breathing,feedig on decaying plant material.
3. Body consists of head and trunk.
4. Head bears paired antennae,mandibles and maxillae.
5. Each trunk segment bears two pairs of legs.
6. Respiratory organs are tracheae, excretory organs are Malpighiantubules.Ex:
Spirostreptus
6. What are the salient features of the echinoids?
Ans: 1) It includes sea urchins, heart urchins, sand dollars, etc. The body is ovoid or discoidal
and covered by movable spines .
2) Arms are absent,tube feet bear suckers .
3) Calcareousossicles of the body unite to form a rigid test or corona or case
4) Pedicellariaeare “three jawed”
5) Anus and madreporite are aboral in position
6) Ambulacral grooves are closed
7) A complex five jawed masticatory apparatus called Aristotle’s lantern is present (abset
in the heart urchins).
8) development includes echinnopluteus larva.
Eg: echinus (sea urchin), echiocardium(heart urchin)
18 Basic Learning Material

7. Mention the salient features of Holothuroidea?

Ans: Holothuroidea:
1. This class includes sea cucumbers.
2. Body elongated in the oral – aboral axis.
3. Skin is soft and leathery (Coriaceous).
4. Dermis contains loose spicules
5. Arms, spines and pedicellariae are absent.
6. Mouth is surrounded by retractile tentacles, ( modified tube feet useful for feeding).
7. Ambulacral grooves are closed, tub feet bear suckers.
8. Madreporite is internal.
9. Respiratory organs are a pair of cloacal respiratory trees.
10. Development indirect and includesauricularia larvae.
Ex: Holothuria,synapta,
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS ( 8 MARKS )
1. Describe the digestive system and process of digestion in Pheretima.
• Earthworm is a terrestrial invertebrate.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The alimentary canal is a straight tube and runs from the first to the last segment of the
body.
Alimentary canal consists of the following parts
Mouth – 1st segment
Buccal cavity – 2 to 3rd segment
Pharynx – 4th segment
Esophagus – 5 to 7 segments
Gizzard – 8th segment
Stomach – 9 to 14th segments
Intestine – 15th to last segment
Rectum – last 23 to 28 segments
Anus – last segment
The alimentary canal is a straight tube and runs from the first to the last segment of the
body. The mouth opens into the buccal cavity (1-3) which leads into the muscular
pharynx(4th segment).A small narrow tube oesophagus(5-7 segments),continues into a
muscular gizzard(8th segment). It helps in grinding the small particles of food the decaying
leaves (grinding mill).
Zoology - I 19

The stomach extends from the

segments 9 to 14. The food of
earthworm decaying leaves and
other organic matter mixed with
the soil. Calciferous glands
present in the stomach neutralize
the humic acid present in the
humus of the soil.
The intestine starts from the 15th
segment and continues till the last
segment, a pair of short and
conical intestinal caecae project
from the intestine in the 26 th
segment. An internal median fold
of the dorsal wall of the intestine
called typhlosole, helping in
increasing the area of absorption,
is poorly developed in pheretima(
between 26th and the rectum).The
alimentary canal opens to the
exterior by a small rounded
aperture called anus.
Process of digestion
The ingested soil rich in organic
matter passes through the digestive tract where digestive enzymes breakdown complex
food into smaller absorbable units. These simpler molecules are absorbed through intestinal
membranes and are utilized for various metabolic activities.
20 Basic Learning Material

Unit 4
ANIMAL DIVERSITY - II

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. How do you justify the statement- “heart in fishes is a branchial heart”.
Ans: 1. Heart in fishes is two chambered
2. It pumps blood directly to gills so it is called branchial heart.
2. Describe a cat and a lizard on the basis of their chief nitrogenous wastes excreted.
Ans: Cat Lizard
1. Cat is a mammal. 1. Lizard is a reptile.
2. Nitrogenous waste excreted by cat 2. Nitrogenous waste excreted by lizard is
is urea. Hence described as ureotelic. uric. Hence described as uricotelic.
3. Name the three meninges in which group of animals do you find all of them.
Ans: 1. The three meninges of central nervous system (CNS) are duramater, arachnoid and
piamater.
2. All three meninges are present in membranes only.
4. Name the vertibrate groups in which 'renal portal system' is absent.
Ans: Renal portal system is absent in subphylam vertebrate of class cyclostomata and mammalia.
5. Distinguish between altricial and precocial hatchlings.
Ans: altricial hatchlings precocial hatchlings
1. Carinate birds 1. Ratitae birds
2. They cannot move on their own 2. They can move on their own instantly after
instantly after hatchling. hatchling.
Ex: Flying brids Ex: Non flying birds
Zoology - I 21

6. How does the heart of an amphibian differ from that of a reptile?

Ans: 1. In amphibians, heart has three chambers(two auricles and one ventricle) with sinus
venosus and conus arteriosus.
2. In reptiles, heart has four incomplete chambers (2 auricles and partly divided ventricles)
with sinus venosus and without conus arteriosus.
3. But in crocodiles, heart is completely divided into four chambers,
7. How do you distinguish in a male frog from a female frog?
Ans: Male frogs have secondary sexual characters. They are absent in female frog
1. Male frogs have Vocal sacs in the angles of lower jaw to amplify sound.
2. Male frogs have Copulatory pad on the first digit of each fore limb.
8. Distinguish between milt and spawn.
Ans: 1. Spawn is mass of eggs released by female frog (lower aquatic vertebrates).
2. Milt is mass of sperms released by male frog (lower aquatic vertebrates).
9. Name two poisonous and non poisonous snakes found in South India.
Ans: 1. Poisonous snakes: Naja naja (cobra), Viper russelli (chain viper)
2. Non-poisonous snakes: Ptyas (rat snake), Tropidonotus (pond snake)
10. Name the four extra embryonic membranes.
Ans: The four extra embryonic membranes are (a) Amnion (b) Allantois (c) Chorion (d) Yolk
sac
11. What are Jacobson’s organs? What is their function?
Ans: 1. Jacobson’s organs are highly specialised olfactory structures in snakes and some lizards.
2. They help in smelling. The animals may have bifid tongue to collect scent particles.
12. What are pneumatic bones? How do they help birds?
Ans: 1. Pneumatic bones are bones with air cavities.
2. They reduce the weight of the bird (flight adaptation) and helps in easy flight of the
bird.
13. What is wish bone? What are the skeletal components that form it?
Ans: 1. In birds, wish bone is V shaped bone. It is also called furcula (or) merry thought bone.
2. It is formed by the fusion of 2 clavicles and inter clavicle.
3. It acts as a spring and keeps the wings apart during flight.
14. How does a mature RBC of a mammal differ from that of other vertebrates?
Ans: 1. The mature RBC of a mammal are circular, biconcave and enucleate discs.
2. The RBC of other vertebrates are oval, biconvex and nucleated.
22 Basic Learning Material

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Name the four ‘hallmarks’ of chordates and explain the principal function of each of
them.
A. ‘Hallmark’ characters of chordates:
1. Notochord: It is present in all chordates at some stage of life. It is rod like structure
located above the alimentary canal and below the nerve cord. It is supportive in function.
It is mesodermal in origin.
2. Nerve cord: There is a dorsal tubular fluid, filled nerve cord present above the notochord.
In vertebrates the anterior end becomes the brain and the rest of the cord becomes spinal
chord. It coordinates various functions of the body. It is ectodermal in origin.
3. Pharyngeal gill slits: The pharynx is perforated on either side which become gill slits.
They are well developed in aquatic lower vertebrates and lower chordates. They are reduced
and non functional in higher vertebrates. They help in exchange of gases (respiration).
They are ecto-endodermal in origin.
4. Postanal tail: Part of the body that projects beyond the anus is tail. Generally it has vertebral
colum, blood vessel and muscles. It helps in locomotion, balancing, prehensile (5th leg)
and defence organ.
2. Compare and contrast cartilaginous and bony fishes.
A: Comparison between cartilaginous and bony fishes:
Cartilaginous fishes Bony fishes
1. Cartilaginous fishes are mostly 1. Bony fishes are found in all aqautic habitats.
marine.
2. Mouth is ventral. 2. Mouth is terminal,
3. Scales are placoid 3. Scales are cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid or
cosmoid.
4. Air bladder is absent 4. Air bladder is present.
5. Excretion is ureotelic. 5. Excretion is ammonotelic.
6. Caudal fin is heterocercal. 6. Caudal fin is homocercal or diphycercal.
7. Mostly Viviparous. 7. Mostly Oviparous
8. Claspers are present in males. 8. Claspers are absent in males
9. Ex: Scolidon(dog fish), Torpedo 9. Ex: Exocoetus (flying fish), Catla
3. Describe the structure of the heart of frog.
A. The heart is a muscular organ situated in the upper part of the body cavity. It has two
separate atria and a single undivided ventricle. It is covered by a double layered membrane
called pericardium. A triangular chamber called sinus venosus joins the right atrium on the
dorsal side. It receives blood through three vena cavae (caval veins). The ventricle opens
into the conus arteriosus on the ventral side. The conus arteriosus bifurcates into two
branches and each of it divides into three aortic arches namely carotid, systemic and
pulmocutaneous. Blood from the heart is distributed to all parts of the body by the branches
Zoology - I 23

of aortic arches. Three major veins collect blood from the different parts of the body and
carry it to the sinus venosus.

4. Write 8 salient features of the class amphibian

A. 1) Body is divided into distinct ‘head’ and ‘trunk’. Tail may or may not be present.
2) Skin is soft, scale-less (except the members of Apoda), moist and glandular.
3) The body bears two pairs of equal or unequal pentadactyle limbs (caecilians are limbless).
4) Skull is dicondylic as in mammals. Vertebrae are mostly procoelous (centrum is concave
at its anterior face only) in the anurans, amphicoelous in the caecilians and usually
opisthocoelous (centrum is concave at its posterior face) in the urodeles. Sternum appeared
for the first time in the amphibians.
5) Mouth is large; teeth are acrodont, homodont and polyphyodont.
6) Respiratory gaseous exchange is mostly cutaneous; pulmonary and bucco.
7) Kidneys are mesonephric: urotelic.
8) Meninges are the inner piamater and outer duramater: cranial nerves are 10 pairs.
5. Describe the male reproductive system of frog with the help of a labeled diagram.
A. Male reproductive system
The male reproductive system consists of a pair of yellowish
and ovoid testes, which are attached to the kidneys and dorsal
body wall by a double fold of peritoneum called mesorchium.
Each testis is composed of innumerable seminiferous tubules
which are connected to form 10 to 12 narrow tubules, the vasa
efferentia. They enter the kidneys and open into the Bidder’s
canal which is connected to the ureter through transverse canals
of the kidney. The urino-genital ducts of both the sides open
into the cloaca.
24 Basic Learning Material

6. What are the modifications that are observed in birds that help them in flight?
A. Birds are masters of air. Almost every part of their body is suited for flight.
Flight adaptations of Birds:
1. Body of birds is boat shaped with reduced tail.
2. Exoskeleton consists of epidermal feathers,
3. Feathers are light in weight and provide support in air.
4. Eyes are large with sclerotic plates and comb like pecten.
5. Skin is dry without glands, except preen gland in the tail.
6. Forelimbs are modified into wings.
7. Bones are pneumatic (weight reduction) with extensions of air sacs.
8. All modem flying birds are provided with powerful breast muscles.
7. What are the features peculiar to ratite birds? Give two examples of ratite birds.
A. Fightless birds (Ratite)
1) They are modern flightless running binds
2) They are characterized by the presence of reduced wings raft like sternum without keel
3) Feathers are without interlocking mechanism
4) Preen gland is absent
5) Clavicles are absent
6) Pygostyle is rudimentary or absent
7) Males with penis
8) Young ones are precocial
Ex: Rhea (American ostrich), Kiwi in New Zealand.
Zoology - I 25

Unit 6
Biology in Human Welfare

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between vector and a reservoir host?
Ans: Vector Reservoir host
1. An organism that transfers the 1. The host that lodges the infective stages
infective stages of a parasite from one of a parasite in its body when the
main host to another is called vector human host is not available.
2. In the vector the parasite either 2. In the reservoir host, the parasite neither
undergoes part of the development umdergoes development nor causes
before it gets transferred or maynot any disease.
undergo any development.
Eg: Female Anopheles in the case of Eg: Monkey for Plasmodium African
Plasmodium antelope for Trypanosoma gambience

2. What is a hyper-parasite? Mention the name of one hyper-parasite.

Ans: 1. A parasite which lives on the body of the another parasite is called hyper-parasite
2. Ex: Nosema notabilis is parasite on sphaerospora polymorpha which is a parasite in
the urinary bladder of toad fish.
3. What do you mean by parasitic castration? Give one example.
Ans: 1. Degeneration of gonads (testis) of the host due to presence of a parasite is called
parasitic castration.
2. Ex: Sacculina (a crustacean parasite) causes degeneration of ovaries in the crabs.
4. Define neoplasia. Give one example.
Ans: 1. Abnormal increase in size of the cell of the host due to presence of parasite is called
neoplasia Some times it leads to cancer.
2. Ex:Carcinoma caused by virus.
26 Basic Learning Material

5. What are the Schuffner's dots? What is their significance?

Ans: Small red coloured dots occured in the cytoplasm of the RBC called as 'Schuffner's dots'.
These dots form the plasmodium parasites, as these are believed to be the antigens of
malaria.
6. What are the haemozain granules? What is their significance?
Ans: The globin part of the ingested haemoglobin is digested by malarial parasite and gets
converted into an insoluble crystalline form which is a soluble.
7. A person is suffering from bowel irregularity, abdominal pain, blood and mucus in
stool, etc., Based on these symptoms, name the disease and its causative organism.
Ans: 1. The disease showing the given symptoms is amoebic dysentery.
2. The causative organism is Entamoeba histolytica
8. Define prepatent period. What is its duration in the life cycle of plasmodium vivax?
Ans: 1. Prepatent period: The duration between first entry of sporozoites into blood and second
entry in the form of cryptozoites is called prepatent period.
2. The duration of life cycle of plasmodium vivax is nearly 8 days.
9. Define incubation period. What is its duration in the life cycle of plasmodium vivax?
Ans: 1. Incubation period: The period between the entry of sporozoites into blood of a man
and appearance of clinical symptoms of malaria is called incubation period.
2. Its duration is about 10-14 days.
10. What is exflagellation and what are the resultant products called?
Ans: 1. Exflagellation: The process of liberation of male gametes from the cytoplasm of
microgametocyte by exhibitting lashing movements like flagella is called
exflagellation.
2. The resultant products are called male gametes
11. Why is the syngamy found in Plasmodium called anisogamy?
Ans: 1. In plasmodium, the male and female gametes are dissimilar in size.
2. Hence, the process of fusion is called Anisogamy
12. Describe the methods of biological control of mosquitoes.
Ans: Biological control of mosquitoes is done by introducing larvivorous fishes like gambusia
in insectivorous plants like utricularia into the places where mosquitoes breed.
13. The eggs of Ascaris are called ‘mammillated eggs’. Justify,
Ans: The eggs of Ascaris have a protein outer coat which has papillae hence looks rippled. So it
is called mamillated egg.
14. What is meant by nocturnal periodicity with reference to the life history of a nematode
parasite you have studied?
Ans: Migration of sheathed microfilaria larva from deeper vessels to peripheral blood vessels
during night sleeping time between 10.00 PM and 4 AM is referred to as nocturnal periodicity
Zoology - I 27

15. Distinguish between lymphadenitis and lymphangitis?

Ans: 1. Inflammation of lymph vessels is known as Lymphangitis.
2. Inflammation of lymph glands is Lymphadenitis.
16. 'Elephantiasis is the terminal condition of filariasis'. Justify.
Ans: In most of the filariasis cases, the affected part of the skin which consists of sweat glands
becomes rough and disintegrates.
17. In which way does tobacco effect the respiration? Name the alkaloid found in tobacco.
Ans: Carbon monoxide levels are increased by smoking. The CO levels decrease the oxygen
levels in the blood effecting respiration.
The alkaloid found in tobacco is nicotine.
18. Define drug abuse.
Ans: 1. Drug abuse is taking of a drug in excess for a purpose other than its medicinal use.
2. It leads to physical, psychological disturbances. Sometimes irrepairable damage to
the body.
19. From which substances ‘Smack’ and ‘Coke’ are obtained?
Ans: 1. Smack (Heroin) is obtained by the acetylation of morphine.
2. Coke (Crack) is obtained from Cocaine.
20. Why are cannabinoids and anabolic steroids banned in sports and games.
Ans: Cannabinoids and anabolic steroids are banned in sports and games because this drugs and
hands the performance is sports person than their originality.
21. Mention the names of any four drugs which are used asMention the names of any
four drugs which are used as medicines to treat patients with mental illness like
depression Insomnia etc. That are often abused.
Ans: Barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodia zepines, lysergic acid diethyl amines.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is the need for parasites to develop special adaptations Mention some special
adaptations developed by the parasites.
Ans: Parasites have evolved special adaptations to meet the requirements and lead successful
life in the hosts.
1. In order to live in the host, some parasites have developed structures like hooks, suckers,
rostellum, etc., for anchoring. e.g. Taenia solium.
2. Some intestinal parasites have developed protective cuticle to withstand the action of the
digestive enzymes of the host. e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides.
3. Some intestinal parasites produce anti enzymes to neutralize the effect of host’s digestive
enzymes. e.g. Taenia solium.
4. Some parasites live as obligatory anaerobes as the availability of oxygen is very rare for
them. e.g. Entamoeba histolytica, Taenia solium, etc.
28 Basic Learning Material

5. Some intestinal parasites live as facultative anaerobes i.e., if oxygen is not available, they
live anaerobically and if oxygen is available, they respire aerobically. e.g. Ascaris
lumbricoides.
6. The morphological and anatomical features are greatly simplified while emphasizing their
reproductive potential. For example, an Ascaris lays nearly two lakh eggs per day. In Taenia
solium the body is divided into 700 to 900 proglottids of which each proglottid acts as a
unit of reproductive system and releases approximately 35,000 eggs.
7. The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex because of their extreme specialization.
For example, life cycle of certain parasites like Fasciola hepatica (sheep liver fluke) is
very complex involving many developmental stages and two intermediate hosts to increase
the chances of reaching a new definitive host.
8. Certain parasites like Entamoeba develop cysts to tide over the unfavourable conditions
like desiccation while reaching the new host.
9. Some parasites elude production of vaccines against them (smart parasites!) as they keep
changing their surface antigens form time to time. e.g. Plasmodium, HIV, etc.
2. Explain the pathogenicity of Wuchereria bancrofti in man.
Ans: Pathogenicity of Wuchereria bancrofti in man:
Light infection causes filarial fever which is characterised by headache, mental depression
and increase in the body temperature. In general, the infection of filarial worm causes
inflammatory effect in lymph vessels and lymph glands. Inflammation in the lymph vessels
is called lymphangitis and that of lymph glands is called lymphadenitis.
In the case of heavy infection, the accumulation of dead worms blocks the lymph vessels
and lymph glands resulting in immense swelling. This condition is called lymphoedema
which is noticed in the extremities of limbs, scrotum of males and mammary glands in
females. Fibroblasts accumulate in these tissues and form the fibrous tissue. In severe
cases, the sweat glands of the skin in the affected regions disintegrate and the skin becomes
rough. This terminal condition is referred to as elephantiasis.
3. What are the adverse effects of tobacco?
Ans: Adverse effects of Tobacco:
Tobacco has been used by human beings for more than 400 years. It contains a large number
of chemical substances including nicotine, an alkaloid. While buying cigarettes one cannot
miss the statutory warning present on the packet Smoking is injurious to health.
Mode of abuse: It is smoked or chewed as gutkha or used in the form of snuff.
Effect: Smoking increases the carbon monixide (CO) level and reduces the oxygen level
in the blood. Nicotine stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline
into blood: These hormones raise the blood pressure and increase the heart rate, Smoking
is associated with bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer and increases
the incidence of cancers of throat, lungs, urinary bladder etcy Smoking also paves the way
Zoology - I 29

to hard drugs. Yet, smoking is very prevalent in society, both among young and old. Tobacco
chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
4. Write short notes on opioids.
Ans: Opioids: These are the drugs obtained from opium poppy plant Papaver somniferum
(vernacular name: Nallamandu mokka). They bind to specific opioid receptors present in
our central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. Some of them are morphine, heroin,
etc.
i) Morphine: It is extracted from the dried latex of the unripe seed capsule (pod) of poppy
plant. It occurs as colourless crystals or a white crystalline powder.
Mode of abuse: Generally it is taken orally or by injection.
Effect: It is a very effective sedative and painkiller.It is very useful in patients who have
undergone surgery.
ii) Heroin: It is a white, bitter, odourless and crystalline compound, obtained by the acetylation
of morphine. Chemically it is diacetylmorphine. It is commonly called ‘smack’.
Mode of abuse: Generally it is taken by snorting and injection.
Effect: Heroin is a depressant and slows down the body functions.
5. Write short notes on Cannabinoids.
Ans: Cannabinoids: These are a group of chemicals obtained from Indian hemp plant Cannabis
sativa (Ganjai mokka). They interact with cannabinoid receptors present in the brain. The
flower tops, leaves and the resin of this plant are used in various combinations to produce
marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja These days, cannabinoids are being abused by even
some sports-persons (doping).
Mode of abuse: These are generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
Effect: Show their effects on cardiovascular system of the body.
6. Write short notes on Cocaine.
Ans: Coca alkaloid or Cocaine: It is a white, crystalline alkaloid that is obtained from the
leaves of Coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South America. It is commonly called
coke or crack.
Mode of abuse: It is usually snorted.
Effect: It has a potent stimulating action on the central nervous system as it interferes with
the transport of the neuro transmitter dopamine. Hence it produces a sense of euphoria and
increased energy. Its excessive dosage causes hallucinations. Other well-known plants
with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladonna and Datura. Certain drugs like
‘Barbiturates (sleeping pills), Amphetamines (cause sleeplessness), Benzodiazepines
(tranquilizers), Lysergic acid diethyl amides (LSD) and other similar drugs, normally used
as medicines to treat patients with mental illnesses like depression, insomnia, etc.,’ are
often abused.
30 Basic Learning Material

8. Why in adolescence is considered vulnerable phase ?

Ans: Adolescence: It is the time period between the beginning of puberty and the beginning of
adulthood. In other words, it is the bridge linking childhood and adulthood. The age between
12-18 years is considered adolescence period. It is both ‘a period and a process’ during
which a child becomes mature. It is accompanied by several biological and behavioural
changes. Thus, adolescence is a very vulnerable phase of mental and psychological
development of an individual.
9. Prevention is better than cure’. Justify with regard to TDA abuse.
Ans: TDA for Tobacco, Drugs, Alcohol. It stands for Teen Drug Abuse. The proverb, Prevention
is better than cure’ holds true in case of TDA abuse.
Measures useful for prevention:
1. Avoid undue parental pressure: All children have their own choices, capacities and
personalities. The parents should not force their children to perform beyond their capacity.
They should not compare them with others in studies, games etc.
2. Responsibility of parents and teachers:They have to advise, counsel and help the children
who are likely to get into the trap of TDA.
3. Seeking help from peers: If classmates find some one getting into trap of TDA, it should
be brought to the notice of their parents or teachers.
4. Education and counselling: There must be a continuous process of educating the children
regarding TDA, at every level in the form of lessons.
Seeking professional and medical help: A lot of help is available in the form of highly
qualified psychologists, psychiatrists and de-addiction and rehabilitation programmers.
LONG ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the structure and life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica with the help of neat
labelled
Ans: Entamoeba histolytica: It is a monogenetic histozoic
parasite. It inhabits in the large intestine of man. It
causes amoebic dysentery
A) Structure of E. histolytica:
1. Trophozoite stage:
1. In this stage, it lives in mucous and submucous
layers of large intestine of man.
2. Its body is surrounded by plasmalemma.
3. Its Cytoplasm is differentiated into an outer
clear viscous, non-granular ectoplasm and the inner fluid with granular endoplasm.
4. Endoplasm contains ribosomes, food vacuoles with RBC, a cart wheel shaped
nucleus.
5. It respires anaerobically.
Zoology - I 31

6. It has holozoic nutrition.

7. It produces the proteolytic enzyme called histolysin(tissue digesting enzyme).
8. This is the most active, motile, feeding and pathogenic stage. .
2. Precystic stage:
1. It founds in the lumen of large intestine. It
becomes small and oval at this stage.
2. Its cytoplasm consists of glycogen granules and
chromatoid bars. They act as reserve food.
3. It is the non-feeding, non-motile and non-
pathogenic stage.
3. Cystic stage:
1. It is round in shape
2. It founds in the lumen of large intestine.
3. A thin, delicate highly resistant cyst wall is formed
around the parasite. This process is encystation.
4. The nucleus undergoes two mitotic divisions and
four nuclei are formed. Hence it is called tetra
nucleate cyst. This is the infective stage to man.
5. These cysts pass through the facces and wait until
they reach a healthy person.
B) Life Cycle of E histolytica:
1. E. histolitica in trophozoite stage undergo binary fission and produce a number of
daughter entamoeba.
2. They feed upon the bacteria and host’s tissues. They grow in size and multiply by
binary fissions.
3. Some of these, enter the lumen of the large intestine and transform into ‘precystic
stage.
4. Here, the precystic stage transforms into ‘cystic stage.
5. There they inturn develop into tetranucleate cysts. This entire process is completed in
a few hours.
6. These tetranucleate cysts come out along with the faccal matter. They can remain
alive for about 10 days.
7. These cysts then reach new host through contaminated food and water.
8. The cyst wall gets ruptured by enzyme trypsin in the small intestine of a new human
host.
9. There it releases the tetranucleate amoebae. These are called metacysts.
10. Here, four nuclei of the metacysts undergo mitotic divisions and produce eight daughter
nuclei. Each nucleus gets a bit of cytoplasm and thus eight daughter entamoebac are
produced.
32 Basic Learning Material

11. They reach the wall of large intestine and become mature trophozoites’ causing amoebic
dysentry or intestinal amoebiasis.
Carriers: Some people who donot exhibit any symptoms are called carriers.
Extra intestinal amoebiasis: Some times, the trophozoites reach the liver and cause
‘abscesses (secondary amoebiasis). From there they may go to lungs, heart, brain and
kidneys. There they cause abscesses in those parts leading to severe pathological conditions.

2. Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in man.

Ans: ‘Plasmodium vivax’ is the malarial parasite of man. It is digenetic intra cellular parasite
that lives in the liver cells and RBC of man.
Life cycle of Plasmodium in man (Human phase): In man, plasmodium reproduces by
asexual reproduction called schizogony. It is of two types: (a) Hepatic schizogony (occurs
in liver cells), (b) Erythrocytic schizogony (occurs in RBC)
(a) Hepatic Schizogony:
It was discovered by Shortt and Garnham. When an infected mosquito bites a healthy
person, the sporozoites enter the blood of man. With in half an hour they reach liver cells.
In liver cells, the parasites increase their number in two cycles. They are Pre-erythrocytic
and Exo-erythrocytic cycles.
Zoology - I 33

Pre-erythrocytic cycle:
1. The sporozoites enter liver cells and transform into trophozoites.
2. They become round and grow in size and are called schizonts.
3. The nucleus divides several times. It is followed by the cytoplasm divisions, producing
12.000 cryptozoites (or first generation merozoites).
4. They enter the sinusoids of the liver by rupturing the cell membrane of the schizont
and the liver cells.
5. The duration of pre-erythrocytic cycle is 8 days.
6. The cryptozoites may enter into either fresh liver cells to continue exo-erythrocytic
cycle or they can enter into RBC to continue erythrocytic cycle.
ii) Exo-erythrocytic cycle:
1. The cryptozoites that enter liver cells undergo schizogony and produce two types of
metacryptozoites within two days.
2. Some are small called micro meta cryptozoites.
3. Others are large and called macro meta cryptozoites.The macro meta cryptozoites
continue hepatic schizogony.
iii) Prepatent period: The eight days interval between the first entry of plasmodium
(sporozoites) into blood and the second entry of plasmodium (cryptozoite) is called prepatent
period. During this period, the host does not show any clinical symptoms of the disease.
(b) Erythrocytic schizogony:
(i) Golgi cycle:
1. It was described by Golgi.
2. The cryptozoites or micro meta cryptozoites enter into the fresh RBC. They transform
into trophozoites.
3. A small vacuole appears in trophozoite.
4. It enlarges by pushing the cytoplasm and nucleus to one side.
5. The parasite looks like a ring and hence it is called signet ring stage. Here, the vacuole
disappears, Pseudopodia develop and the parasite changes to amochoid stage.
6. At this stage parasite exhibits hypertrophy condition (RBC grows almost double the
size).
7. It feeds on globin part of haemoglobin and grows in size. It converts the soluble haem
into insoluble haemozoin called malaria pigment.
8. Small red colour dots appear in the cytoplasm of RBC called Schuffner’s dots.
9. They are beleived to be the antigens produced by the parasite.
10. It becomes a round schizont. It undergoes schizogony and produces 12 to 24
erythrocytic merozoites. Finally the erythrocyte bursts and releases merozoites and
haemozoin into the blood.
11. The release of haemozoin causes chill, fever.
34 Basic Learning Material

12. They attack RBC and continue the erythrocytic cycle. The duration of erythrocytic
cycle is 48 hours.
(ii) Incubation period: The period between the entry of plasmodium (sporozoite) and the
first appearance of symptoms of Malaria is called incubation period. Its duration is 10 to
14 days.
(iii) Formation of Gametocytes:
1. After several erythrocytic schigonies, some merozoites enter the RBC and transform
into gametocytes instead of continuing the erythrocytic cycle.
2. There are two types of gametocytes. (i) Macrogametocyte or female gametocyte (ii)
Micro gametocyte or male gametocyte.
3. The gametocytes do not develop further in man. They have to reach female Anopheles.
4. They die if they do not reach the mosquito within a week.

3. Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in mosquito.

Ans: Life cycle of Plasmodium in Mosquito(Mosquito Phase)- Ross Cycle:
Gametocytes of Plasmodium are formed in man and their further development takes place
in female Anopheles mosquito. When a female Anopheles mosquito bites and sucks the
blood of a malaria patient, the gametocytes along with the other stages of the erythrocytic
cycle reach the crop of mosquito. Here all the stages are digested except the gametocytes.
Further part of the life cycle consists of four phases.
1. Gametogony
2. Fertilization
3. Formation of Ookinete & Oocysts
4. Sporogony
1. Gametogony : The formation of male and female gametes from the gametocytes is called
gametogony. It occurs in the lumen of the crop of mosquito.
Zoology - I 35

Formation of male gametes:

During this process, the nucleus of microgametocyte divides into eight daughter nuclei.
The eight daughter nuclei pass into eight flagella like structures and form male gametes.
Then the flagella like structures begin lashing movements and get separated from the
flagellated body. This process is called exflagellation.
Formation of female gamete:
The female gametocyte undergoes a few changes and transforms into a female gamete.
This process is called maturation.
The nucleus moves towards the periphery, and the cytoplasm forms a projection fertilization
cone.
2. Fertilization:
The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.
One of the active male gamete comes in contact with the ‘fertilization cone of the female
gamete and enters into it.
The pronuclei and cytoplasm of these two gametes fuse with each other. As a result the
zygote is formed.
These gametes are dissimilar in size and hence the process is called anisogamy.
3. Formation of Ookinete & Oocysts:
The zygote elongates and becomes motile and is called ookinete within 18 to 24 hours. It
pierces the wall of the crop and settles beneath the basement membrane.
It becomes round and secretes a cyst around its body. This encysted ookinete is now called
oocyst

Sporogony:
The oocyst enlarges in size and begins sporogony.
According to Bano, the nucleus of the oocyst first undergoes reduction division. Then the
nucleus divides repeatedly by mitosis and produces a number of nuclei.
36 Basic Learning Material

Each bit of nucleus is surrounded by a little bit of the cytoplasm and it transforms into a
sickle shaped sporozoite. Oocyst with such sporozoites (about 10,000) is called sporocyst.
Sporocysts are formed into spindle shaped sporozites. From there, they travel into the
salivary glands become ready for infection of a healthy person. The life cycle of plasmodium
in mosquito is completed in about 10 to 24 days.
4. Describe the structure and life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides with the help of a neat
labelled diagram.
Ans: Ascaris lumbricoides:
1. Ascaris lumbricoides is commonly called the ‘common round
worm’.
2. It reaches the intestine of children through contaminated water,
food and causes Ascariosis.
3. It is dimorphic, monogenetic pseudocoelomate, enterozoic
parasite.
A. Structure of Ascaris lumbricoides:
Sexes are separate and the sexual dimorphism is distinct.
1. In both males and females, the body is elongated and cylindrical.
2. In both forms mouth is at the anterior end surrounded by
Chitinous lips
3. Excretory pore is present ventrally close to the mouth.
Male: It is short with posterior curved end. There is cloaca in the curved end bearing equal
sized a pair of copulatory spicules or pineal spicules.
Female: The body is long with a straight posterior end. Anus is subterminal. Female genital
pore is at about one third the length from anterior end.
Life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides:
1. After copulation in the small intestine the female releases about two lakh eggs daily.
2. Each egg is surrounded by a rippled protein coat and hence it is called ‘mammillated
egg.
3. These eggs are passed out along with faecal matter.
4. In the moist soil, development takes place inside the eggs and first stage rhabditiform
larva’ is produced
5. It undergoes first moulting and second stage rhabditiform larva’ is formed. This second
stage larva is the infective stage to man.
6. These eggs reach a new host through contaminated food and water.
7. In the small intestine, the shell gets dissolved and larva is released. Here larva
undertakes extra intestinal migration .
8. It reaches the liver through hepatic portal vein.
9. Then it goes to heart through post caval vein.
Zoology - I 37

10. It reaches lungs through pulmonary arteries.

11. The second moulting take place in alveoli of lungs and third stage larvae’ are formed.
12. The third moulting take place in alveoli of lungs and ‘fourth stage larvae’ are formed.
13. It reaches the small intestine through bronchi, trachea, larynx, glottis, pharynx,
oesophagus and stomach.
14. Fourth moulting (final moulting) takes place in small intestine and then becomes
young round worm.
15. It attains sexual maturity in 8 to 10 weeks.
Pathogenicity:
Ascaris causes ascariasis. When the infection is heavy it can cause Nutritional deficiency,
severe abdominal pain and stunted growth in children.
38 Basic Learning Material

Unit 8
Ecology & Environment

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What is an ecological population?
A: Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a specific area at a specific
time.
2. Define a community.
A: Community is an association of the interacting members of population of different
autotrophic and heterotrophic species in a particular area.
3. What is an eco-system?
A: An ecosystem is a functional unit of the bio sphere in which members of the community
interact among themselves and with the surrounding environment.
4. What is meant by ecosphere?
A: Ecosphere is a physiological atmosphere and it also called as Biosphere. It includes all the
habitable zones on the earth that supports life. It extends several kilometres above the
earth surface into atmosphere and several kilometers below the oceans surface.
5. How does your body solve the problem of altitude sickness, when you ascend tall
mountains?
A: The body increases the production of red blood cells to compensate the low oxygen
availability and thus increases the rate of breathing.
6. Explain the difference between the ‘niche’ of an organism and its ‘habitat’.
A: Habitat Niche
1. It is the place in which an 1. Functional role of an organism in an
organism lives ecosystem.
2. It is comparable to the address 2. It is comparable to the profession of a
of the person. person.
7. What is the effect of light on body pigmentation?
A:- Light influences the colour of the skin. The animals which live in the regions of low
intensity light have less pigmentation than that of the animals exposed to light.
Zoology - I 39

8. Distinguish the terms phototaxis and photokinesis.

A: Phototaxis is oriented locomotion of an organism towards or away from the direction of
light. Ex:- Euglena
Photokinesis is the influence of light on non-directional movement of organisms.
Ex: Mussel crab.
9. What are circadian rhythms?
A: Biological rhythms that occurs in a time period of 24 hours are called circadian rhythms.
10. What is photoperiodism?
A: The response of organisms for the photoperiod is called photoperiodism.
Ex: Reproduction of flowers, migration of birds.
11. Mention the advantages of some UV. rays to us.
A: 1) UV radiation kills the microorganisms present on the body surface of animals.
2) UV radiation helps in the conversion of sterols present in the skin into vitamin D in
mammals.
12. What is cyclomorphosis? Explain its importance in Daphnia.
A: The cyclic seasonal morphological variations among certain organisms is called
“Cyclomorphosis”. In the case of Daphnia it is an adaptation to “stabilize the movement”
in water and can “resist the water currents better” to stay in the water rich in food materials.
13. What are ‘regulators’?
A: Organims these are able to maintain homeostasis by physiological means which ensure
constant body temperature, constant osmotic concentration are called, “regulators”. Ex:
Mammals.
14. What are conformers?
A: Living organisms which cannot maintain a constant internal environment are described as
conformers”. Ex: Aquatic animals.
15. Define commensalism. Give one example.
A: This is the interaction in which one species benefits and other is neither harmed nor benefited.
Ex: Barnacles growing on the back of a whale benefit while the whale derives no noticeable
benefit.
16. Define mutualism. Give one example.
A: This is the interaction that benefits both the interacting species. Ex: Lichens represent an
intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus and photosynthesising algae.
17. Define amensalism. Give one example.
A: Amensalism is an interaction in which one species is harmed whereas the other one is
unaffected.
18. What is camouflage? Give its significance.
A: Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically coloured to avoid being detected easily
by the predator. This phenomenon is called “Camouflage”.
19. What is Gause’s principle? When does it applicable?
A: When the resources are limited, the competitively superior species will eventually eliminate
the other species. It is relatively easy to demonstrate in laboratory experiments.
40 Basic Learning Material

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What is summer stratification? Explain.
A: During summer in temperate lake, the density
of the surface water decreases because of
increase in its temperature (21-250C). This
‘upper most warm layer’ of a lake is called
epilimnion. Below the epilimnion there is a zone
in which the temperature decreases at the rate of
1 0C per meter in depth, and it is called
metalimnion. The bottom layer is the hypolimnion, where water is relatively cool, stagnant
and with low oxygen content.
During autumn, The epilimnion cools down, and the surface water becomes heavy when
the temperature is 40C and sinks to the bottom of the lake overturns bring about ‘uniform
temperature’ in lakes during that period. This circulation during the autumn is known as
the autumn overturn. The upper oxygen rich water reaches the hypoliminion and the
nutrient rich bottom water comes to the surface. Thus there is uniform distribution of
nutrients and oxygen in the lake.
2. Explain Vant’ Hoff rule.
A: Van’t Hoff, a Noble Laureate in thermo chemistry proposed that, with the increase of every
100C, the rate of metabolic activities double. This rule is reffered to as the Van’t Hoff’s
rule. Van’t Hoff’s rule can also be stated in reverse saying that the reaction rate is halved
with the decrease of every 100C. The effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction is
expressed in terms of temperature coefficient or Q10 value. Q10 values are estimated taking
the ratio between the rate of a reaction at X0C and rate of reaction at (X - 100C). In the
living systems the Q10 value is about 2.0. If the Q10 value is 2.0, it means, for every 100C
increase, the rate of metabolism doubles.
3. How do marine animals adapt to hypertonic sea water?
A: To overcome the problem of water loss, marine fishes have aglomerular kidneys with less
number of nephrons. Such kidneys minimize the loss of water through urine. To compensate
water loss the marine fish drink more water and along with this water, salts are added to
the body fluids and disturb the internal equilibrium. To maintain salt balance in the body
they have salt secreting chloride cells in their gills. Marine birds like sea gulls and penguins
eliminate salts in the form of salty fluid that drips through their nostrils. In turtles the
ducts of chloride secreting glands open near the eyes. Some cartilaginous fishes retain
urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMO) in their blood to keep the body fluids isotonic to the
sea water and avoid dehydration of the body due to exosmosis.
Zoology - I 41

4. Discuss the various type of adaptations in fresh water animals.

A: Animals living in fresh waters have to tackle the problem of endosmosis. The osmotic
pressure of freshwater is very low and that of the body fluids of freshwater organisms is
much higher. So water tends to enter into bodies by endosmosis. To maintain the balance
of water in the bodies, the freshwater organisms acquired several adaptations such as
contractile vacuoles in the freshwater protozoans, large glomerular kidneys in fishes etc.,
They send out large quantities of urine along which some salts are also lost. To compensate
the ‘salt loss’ through urine freshwater fishes have ‘ salt absorbing chloride cells’ in their
gills. The major problem in freshwater ponds is - in summer most of the ponds dry up. To
overcome this problem most of the freshwater protists undergo encystment. The freshwater
sponges produce asexual reproductive bodies, called gemmules, to tide over the
unfavourable conditions of the summer. The African lungfish Protopterus, burrows into
the mud and forms a gelatinous cocoon around it, to survive, in summer.
5. Explain brood parasitism with a suitable example.
A: Certain birds are fascinating examples of a special type of parasitism, in which the parasitic
birds lays its eggs in the next of its host and lets / allows the host incubates them. during
the course of evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s
egg in size and colour to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the foreign eggs and
ejecting them from the nest.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Write an essay on temperature as an ecological factor.
A: Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat. The temperature on land or in water is
not uniform. On land the temperature variations are more pronounced, when compared to
the aquatic medium, because land absorbs or loses heat much quicker than water. The
temperature on land depends on seasons and the geographical area on this planet.
Temperature decreases progressively when we move form the equator to the poles. Altitude
also causes variations in temperature. For instance, the temperature decreases gradually
as we move to the top of the mountains.
Biological effects of Temperature:
Temperature Tolerance: A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of
temperatures they are called eurythermal, but, a vast majority of organisms are restricted
to a narrow range of temperatures such organisms are called stenothermal.
Temperature and Metabolism: Temperature affects the working of enzymes and through
it, the basal metabolism, and other physiological functions of organism. The temperature
at which the metabolic activities occur at the climax level is called the optimum temperature.
The lower temperature at which on organism can live indefinitely is called minimum
effective temperature. It an animal or plant is subjected to a temperature below the minimum
42 Basic Learning Material

effective limit, enters into a condition if inactiveness called chill coma. The metabolic rate
increases with the rise of temperature from the minimum effective temperature to optimum
temperature.
Van’t Hoff’s rule: Van’t Hoff, a Nobel Laureate the thermochemistry proposed that, with
the increase of every 100C, the rate of metabolic activities doubles. This rule is referred to
as the Van’t Hoff’s rule. Van’t Hoff’s rule can also be stated in reverse saying that the
reaction rate is halved with the decrease of every 100C. The effect of temperature on the
rate of a reaction is expressed in terms of temperature coefficient or Q10 value. Q10 values
are estimated taking the ratio between the rate of a reaction at X0C and rate of reaction at
(X-100C). In the ‘living systems’ the Q10 value is about 2.0 If the Q10 value is about 20, it
means, for every 100C increase, the rate of metabolism doubles.
Cyclomorphosis: The cyclic seasonal morphological variations among certain organisms
is called cyclomorphosis. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in the Cladoceran
Daphnia (water flea). in the winter season the head of Daphnia is ‘round’ in shape (typical
or non helmet morph). With the on set of the spring season, a small ‘helmet’/’hood’ starts
developing on it. The helmet attains the maximum size in summer. In ‘autumn’ the helmet
starts receding. By the winter season, the head becomes round. Some scientists are of the
opinion that Cyclomorphosis is a seasonal adaptation to changing densities of the water in
lakes. In summer as the water is less dense Daphnia requires a large body surface to keep
floating easily. During winter the water is more dense, and so it does not require a larger
surface area of the body to keep floating.
Temperature adaptations: Temperature adaptations in animals can be dealt under three
heads: a) Behavioural adaptations, b) Morphological and Anatomical adaptations and c)
Physiological adaptations.
a) Behavioural adaptations: Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope
with variations in their environment. Desert lizards manage to keep their body
temperature fairly constant by behavioural means. They bask in the sun and absorb
heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort zone, but move into
shade when the temperature starts increasing. Some species are capable of burrowing
into the soil to escape from the excessive heat above the ground level.
b) Morphological and anatomical adaptations: In the polar seas, aquatic mammals
such as the seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) that acts as an insulator and
reduces the loss of body heat, underneath their skin. The animals which inhabit the
colder regions have larger body size with greater mass. The body mass is useful to
generate more heat. As per Bergmann’s rule mammals and other warm blooded
living in colder regions have less surface area to body volume ratio. Than their
counterparts living in the tropical regions. The small surface area helps to conserve
heat. For instance, the body size of American moose/Eurasian elk, increases with
Zoology - I 43

the latitudes in which they live. Moose of northern part of Sweden shows 15-20%
more body moss than the same species living in the southern Sweden.
Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter earlobes and limbs
(extremities of the body) to minimise heat loss. Large earlobes and long limbs increase
the surface area without changing the body volume. This is known as Allen’s rule.
For instance, the polar fox, Vulpes lagopus has short extremities to minimize the
heat loss from the body. In contrast, the desert fox, short extremities to minimise the
heat loss from the body. In contrast, the desert fox, Vulpes zerda, has large ear lobes
and limbs to facilitate better heat loss from the body.
c) Physiological adaptations: In most animals, all the physiological functions
proceed ‘optimally’ in a narrow temperature range (in humans. It is 370C). But there
are microbes (archaebacteria) that flourish in hot springs and in some parts of deep
seas, where temperatures far exceed 1000C. Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters
where the temperature is always below zero. So the organism should try to maintain
the constancy of its internal environment (homeostasis) despite varying external
environmental conditions that tend to upset its homeostasis.
Thermal migrate: The organism can move away temporarily from the stressful habitat to
a more hospitable (comfortable) area and return when the stressful period is over. In human
analogy comparison, this strategy is comparable a person moving from Delhi to Shimla
for the duration of summer. Many animals, particularly birds, during winter undertake
long distance migrations to more hospitable areas. Every winter, many places in India.
Diapause: Certain organisms show delay in development, during periods of unfavourable
environmental conditions and spend period in a state of inactiveness called diapause. This
dormant period in animals is a mechanism to survive extremes of temperature drought,
etc. It is seen mostly in insects and embryos of some fish. Under unfavourable conditions
many zooplankton species in Lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause.
2. Write an essay on water as an ecological factor.
A: Water is another important factor influencing the life of organisms. Life is unsustainable
without water. Its availability is so limited in deserts that only certain special adaptations
make it possible for them to live there. For aquatic organisms the quality of water becomes
important. The salt concentration is less than 5 percent in inland waters, and 30-35 percent
in the seawater. Some organisms are tolerant to a wide range of salinities (euryhaline) but
other are restricted to a narrow range (stenohaline) Many fresh water animals cannot live
for long in sea water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems, they would face.
Adaptations in fresh water habitat: Animals living in fresh water have to tackle the
problem of endosmosis. The osmotic pressue of freshwater is very low and that of the
body fluids of freshwater organisms in much higher. So water tends to enter into bodies by
44 Basic Learning Material

endosmosis. To maintain the balance of water in the bodies, the freshwater organisms
acquired several adaptations such as, contractile vacuoles in the freshwater protozoans,
large glomerular kidneys in fishes, etc., They send out large quantities of urine freshwater
fishes have salt absorbing ‘chloride cells’ in their gills. The major problem in freshwater
ponds in - in summer most of the ponds dry up. To overcome this problem, most of the
freshwater protists undergo encystment. The freshwater sponges produce asexual
reproductive bodies, called gemmules to tide over the unfavourable conditions of the
summer. The African lungfish, Protopterus burrows into the mud and forms a gelatinous
cocoon around it, to survive, in summer.
Adaptations in marine habitat: Seawater is high in salt content compared to that of the
body fluids. So, the marine animals continuously tend to lose water from their bodies by
exosmosis and face the problem of dehydration. To overcome the problem of water loss
marine fishes have aglomerular kidneys with less number of nephrons. Such Kidneys
minimize the loss of water through urine. To compensate water loss the marine fish drink
more water and along with this water, salts are added to the body fluids and disturb the
internal equilibrium.
To maintain salt balance (salt homeostasis) in the body they have salt secreting chloride
cells in their gills. Marine birds like sea gulls and penguins eliminate salts in the form of
salty fluid that drips through their nostrils. In turtles the ducts of chloride secreting glands
open near the eyes. Some cartilaginous fishes retain urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMO)
in their blood to keep the body fluid isotonic to the sea water and avoid dehydration of the
body due to exosmosis.
Water related adaptations in brackish water animals: The animals of brackish water
are adapted to withstand wide fluctuations in salinity. Such organisms are called euryhaline
animals and those that can’t with stand are known as stenohaline. The migratory fishes
such as salmon and Hilsa are anadromous fishes i.e. they ‘migrate from the sea to freshwater,
for breeding; Anguilla bengalensis is a catadromours fish i.e. it migrates from the river to
sea, for breeding. In these fishes their glomerular kidneys are adjusted to changing salinities.
The chloride cells are adapted to excrete or absorb salts depending on the situation. On
entering the river they drink more freshwater to maintain the concentration of body fluids
equal to that of the surround water.
Water related adaptations for terrestrial life: In the absence of an external source of
water, the Kangaroo rat of the North American deserts is capable of meeting all its water
requirements through oxidation of its internal fat. It also has the ability to concentrate its
urine, so that minimal volume of water is lost in the process of removal of their excretory
products.
3. Describe different types of food chain that exist in an ecosystem.
A: The food energy passes from one trophic level to another trophic level mostly from the
lower to higher trophic levels. When the path of food energy is ‘linear’ the components
 Zoology - I 45

resemble the ‘links’ of a chain and it is called ‘food chain’. Generally a food chain ends
with decomposers. The three major types of food chains in an ecosystem are Grazing
Food Chain, Parasitic Food Chain and Detritus Food Chain.
i) Grazing food chain: It is also known as predatory
food chain, it begins with the green plants and the
second third and fourth trophic levels are occupied
by the herbivores, primary carnivores and
secondary carnivores respectively. In some food
chains there is yet another trophic level - the
climax carnivores. The number of trophic levels
in food chains varies form 3 to 5 generally. Some
examples from grazing food chain are given below.
I trophic II trophic III trophic IV trophic V trophic
level level level level level
Rosebush  Aphids  Spiders  Small birds  Hawk
Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk
Plants  Caterpillar  Lizard  Snake
Phytoplankton  Zooplankton  Fish  Bird
Grass  Goat  Man
ii) Parasitic Food chain: Some authors included the Parasitic Food Chains as a part of the
GFC. As in the case of GFCs, it also begins with the producers, the plants. However, the
food energy passes from large organisms to small organisms in the parasitic chains. For
instance, a tree which occupies the 1st trophic level provides shelter and food for many
birds. These birds host many ectoparasites and endo parasites. Thus, unlike in the predator
food chain, the path of the flow of energy includes fewer, large sized organisms in the
lower trophic levels and numerous, small sized organisms in the successive higher trophic
levels.
iii) Detritus Food Chain: The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter
(such as leaf litter, bodies of dead organisms). It is made up of decomposers which are
heterotrophic organisms, mainly the ‘fungi’ and ‘bacteria’. They meet their energy and
nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known
as saprotrophs.
Decomposers: Secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into
simple absorbable substances. Some examples of detritus food chains are:
1. Detritus (formed from leaf litter) - Earthworms - Frogs - Snakes.
2. Dead animals - Flies and maggots - Frogs - Snakes.