BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

CARTOGRAPHY AND MAP READING (GeES 2022)

LECTURE NOTE PART ONE

COMPILED BY
AYALNEH YEDEM (MSC)

March 2022
Bahir Dar

1|Page
 Unit 1: Introduction
1.1. Definition and concepts of Cartography
In order to understand what cartography is, let us first define map making and cartography. Map making
or mapping refers to the production of a tangible map and it is defined as the aggregate of those individual
and largely technical processes of data collection, cartographic design and construction (drafting,
scribing, and display), reproduction, etc., normally associated with the actual production of maps. Map
making or mapping is, then, the process of designing, compiling, and producing maps. The mapmaker
may also be called a cartographer.

Cartography, as a discipline, has matured and become broader in scope through time. As a result, many
professional cartographers have come to make distinction between mapmaking and cartography. In
general, cartography is viewed broader than mapmaking. Cartography requires the study of the
philosophical and theoretical bases of the rules of mapmaking, including the study of map
communication. It is often thought to be the study of the artistic and scientific foundations of mapmaking.
Cartography is defined as the art, science, and technology of making maps, together with their study as
scientific documents and works of art. According to this definition, all types of maps, plans, charts, and
sections, three-dimensional model and globes representing the earth or any celestial body at any scale are
the products of cartography.

Even though, cartography is not separable, it can be as having two branches. They are theoretical
cartography and applied cartography. Theoretical cartography deals with the theoretical and conceptual
aspects of cartography. It tries to devise and design maps that satisfy the requirements of the users. On the
other hand, applied cartography is involved in the laying out and final drawing of maps. It is concerned
with the development of improved methods of drawing and reproduction of maps.

Geographic cartography is a part of cartography. However, Geographic cartography is also distinct from
other branches of cartography. It is a tool and product of the geographer. The geographic cartographer
understands the spatial perspective of the physical environment and has the skills to abstract and
symbolize the environment. Geographic cartography involves intimacy with the abstraction of
geographical reality and its symbolization on the map. The geographic cartographer is capable of revising
the processes since he has the skill of map reading. For the most part, geographic cartographers are
involved in producing thematic maps, whether quantitative or qualitative.

Geographic cartographers have the ability in reading of photomaps and other remotely sensed images.
They use these products in the preparation of their special purpose (including atlas) maps. Geographic
cartography has acquired new strength as computer visualization has been adopted by professionals.
Some geographers see the future strength of thematic mapping or of Geography in Geographic
Information system (GIS). Is the relationship clear between cartography and GIS? The display
components of GIS do not assume knowledge of cartographic methods or fundamental ideas about good
design principles. Those people from non-cartographic backgrounds consider cartography to focus on
map compilation, design, and production, whereas GIS focuses on spatial analysis. From this perspective
cartography and GIS have a technical similarity, but a difference in objectives. The traditional concept of
cartography, as primarily concerned with map design, production, separates GIS from cartography. In this
case, cartography is a small part of GIS.

Hard copy maps have long been used to study spatial patterns. The rise of computer technology has
enabled cartographers to visualize data more efficiently. The analysis of spatial data is the primary focus

2|Page
of GIS. Similarly, Cartographic data analysis is part of the cartographic process. For this reason, many
cartographers consider GIS a part of cartography.

1.2. History of Cartography

The development of cartography from early period to modern digital period can be seen as follows:

1. Early Period: Greeks & Romans (pre 500 AD)

The ancient world cartography was associated to religious aspect and phenomenon. It was started by
Babylonian, Egyptian and Greek philosophers. The earliest known map is a clay tablet from Babylon,
which is 5000 years old and shows landowners property. The first contributions to the science of
cartography were the Ancient Greeks, who used logic and trigonometry to solve many early questions,
such as the shape of the earth, early (azimuthal) projections, and latitude/longitude.

 Anaximander – the first person who drown the known world, and he believed that the Earth has
cylindrical shape and suspended in space.
 Eratosthenes- Calculated the circumference of the earth, who measured the difference in angle
between the solstice sun being vertical at Syene, and 7.2 degrees off vertical at Alexandria (or
1/50 of 360). This distance of approx. 500 miles was extrapolated to create 50 x 500 miles, which
is very close to the actual figure. The difference was only 15%.
 Ptolemy- -revolutionized on perspective projection. The first detailed map of the earth was by
Ptolemy, 1st century AD, in Alexandria. He brought together all known locations of earth,
estimated latitudes and longitudes from travelers; thought to have produced larger scale maps of
detailed areas.

3|Page
2. Medieval Ages (500-1450)

The Dark Ages in Europe followed the collapse of the Roman Empire and the 'decline of western
civilization', the rise of Christianity but more directly the decline of the sciences: "The lamp of scientific
knowledge was obscured by the light of religious ecstasy". Knowledge and maps, resided in the hands of
religious scribes, who tended to support references in the bible rather than depicting geographic facts, and
supporting the idea of a 'flat' earth. The earth was drawn as a circle with EAST (Orient) to the top and
Jerusalem in the center.

The known world was bordered by Cold (N), Heat(S), Ocean (W), Paradise (E); maps of this time are
known as "T-in-O" maps. Letter O for the circle of the earth, T formed by Mediterranean (vertical) and
Don and Nile (horizontal), separating Asia, Europe and Africa (and each one attributed to Noah's 3
sons). Modern scientific cartography and higher civilization was maintained in the Arabic (and Chinese)
world and through navigators.

 Islamic cartography – in 1150 AL-Idrisi developed sexigesimal system (360dgreee).

 South Asian mapping- The development of cosmographical mapping (topographic mapping,
route maps and architectural plans).
 Chinese map making- in 1137 developed their own oldest map before the influence of Europe.

3. Renaissance (1450-1700)

The Dark Ages of Cartography (in the west) came to an end, with three concurrent events:

a. Voyages of discovery

 Marco Polo's travels to the east

 Cape of Good Hope founded 1488 - opened the Indian Ocean
 Magellan circumnavigated the world in 1540.
 Mercator's projection in 1569, became the "Navigator's Friend" as all lines of constant compass
bearings ('Rhumb Lines') were maintained as straight lines.

b. Rediscovery of Ptolemy's knowledge

c. Development of the first printing press

In 1450, this development had huge consequences on map making, enabling a wider distribution of maps,
not just in the hands of the elite (although it was developed in China centuries earlier in 1041, by Bi
Shen). The development of the printing press has generally been acknowledged as the most significant
event of the second millennium.

4. 'Modern' (1700-1950)

This period saw the diversification of maps, based on the collection of accurate data:

 Topographic mapping -Based on first surveys, triangulation; the first national topographic systems:
France 1740, England 1791.
 Thematic mapping -Based on census data collection and the concept of collecting non-topographic
data.

Mapping became more of a 'science' again:

 There were new projection groups: conic and conventional.

4|Page
  The Chronometer, by Harrison 1759, finally enabled the accurate determination of longitude that
had plagued navigators for many centuries. In 1884, Sir Sandford Fleming designed
the International Time zones
 Lithography, was invented by Alois Senefelder around 1800. This third (planar) form of printing
initially used a limestone block, (Lithos - stone) and was based on the incompatibility of grease
and water
 Earth oblateness was measured and Clarke's ellipsoid (1866) later became the standard for the
North American Datum 1927 (NAD27).
 National Atlases: The first edition of the Atlas of Canada was in 1906, the world's second
national atlas
 The development of aerial photography enabled much faster topographic surveying, although it
became established in most countries only after 1945.

5. Postwar Map Design (1950-1980)

In addition to increased topographic map production, due to aerial photography, this period experienced a
general expansion of mapping types and series for the reasons below:

 Diversification of sciences after the war and more varied products: soils, land capability, etc.
 Greater leisure time generated recreational and road maps.
 More widespread map use --> more visual techniques, e.g. cartograms, hill-shading.
 Period of map design research ('cartographic communication')
 New media: e.g. magazine maps, tactile maps for blind.

6. 20th Century pre-digital Map Printing

With the advent of photo-lithography (~1875), greatly improved (and full colour) map prints became
available.

 Thin copper plates are produced from photo negatives.

 Plates wrap around drums, therefore printing was continuous.
 An intermediate drum was added to create 'offset printing' (1903) to avoid a wrong reading plate.
 Tonal gradations of photograph background or hill shading were feasible
 Perfect 'registration' of different colors/layers

7. Digital era (1980 - present)

Digital methods have made easier printing of individual map sheets and small runs, (as in parallel fields
such as newsletters and music CDs). Reproduction technology has changed significantly with computers.
Design has not changed in principle, but the ease of map production has enabled non-specialists to create
and distribute map products. The earliest maps were made by manually and mechanically. 1960s becomes
the turning point and great change due to magnetic devices and computer system advanatages.

 Cheaper to produce
 Easier to store
 Easy to revise the map
 High accuracy and authomacy.

5|Page
1.3. Scope of Cartography

In the past the term cartography referred only to the making of maps. It seems that it only refers to the
mechanical aspects of drawing maps. Actually drawing is only a portion of the total scientific, technical,
and artistic efforts that are needed to bring out a map. The term cartography was quite inclusive, often
encompassing the survey operations involved in acquiring the data to be presented as well as the
techniques of actually preparing the map. The process of designing a map and manipulating its various
elements to suit the heterogeneous needs of the users demand cartographic skills. Of no less significance
are the skills related to cartographic planning involving the coordination of the entire map making
process.

Apparently a good map can be produced only by a judicious blending and proper coordination of the
scientific and artistic skills that go into its production. In the present context of map production process,
the supremacy of the scientific skill is unquestionable. The scientific skills refer to application of the
principles and steps of making maps. On the other hand the artistic skills involve the application of
aesthetic value to the map.

Since the mid –twentieth century, the scope of the field has been greatly enlarged to include the study of
maps as documents. The following definition of cartography testifies how the scope of cartography has
expanded. International Cartographic Association (1973 cited in Robinson, 1995) defines cartography as:

The art, science and technology of making maps, together with their study as scientific documents and
works of art. In this context maps may be regarded as including all type of maps, plans, charts, and
sections, three dimensional models and globes representing the Earth or any celestial body at any scale.

This concept of the field encompasses several elements that logically follow from cartography being a
subdivision of the communication skill, Graphicacy. Graphicacy is the skill of communicating through
graphic devices. It consists of a variety of techniques ranging from photographs to drawn pictures, graphs,
and diagrams.

In the broader sense cartography now includes any activity in which the preparation and use of maps is a
matter of basic interest. This includes teaching the skills of map use, studying the history of cartography,
maintaining map collections and the associated cataloguing and bibliographic activities, and designing
and constructing maps, charts, plans and atlases. Although each area involves highly specialized activities
and often requires particular training, they all deal with maps, and it is the special character of the map as
the central unique intellectual object that unites those who work with them. All maps are reduced (scale)
representation of the earth or another celestial body, prepared according to a geometric plan, with
generalized symbolic representations of reality. Although two maps may be very different, they will have
more in common with each other than with any other form of non-graphic communication

1.4. Cartographic Communication System and Process

Effective use of maps requires understanding of the nature of map and mapping process. One of the most
useful approaches to the study of cartography is to view maps as a form of visual communication--a
special-purpose language for describing spatial relationships. Although it is perhaps unwise to draw a
direct analogy between cartography and language, concepts such as "grammar" and "syntax" help to
explain, at least metaphorically, the sorts of decisions cartographers make as they compose maps.
Cartographers seek to make use of visual resources such as color, shape and pattern to communicate
information about spatial relationships. The analogy with language also helps explain why training in
principles of effective cartography is so important--it allows us to communicate more effectively. Without

6|Page
knowledge of some of these basic principles, the beginning cartographer is likely to be misunderstood or
cause confusion.

Cartography is closely related to graphical communication- Cartography is related to, but different
from other forms of visual communication. Cartographers must pay special attention to coordinate
systems, map projections, and issues of scale and direction that are in most cases of relatively little
concern to other graphic designers or artists.

Maps are symbolic abstractions--"generalizations" or "representations"--of reality- By stressing

cartography as a form of communication; it is easier to make the point that maps are really symbolic
abstractions--or representations--of real world phenomena. In most cases, this means that the world
represented on a map has been greatly simplified, or generalized, with symbols being used like words to
stand for real things.

Cartographic Communication is different from verbal communication-how?

 Verbal communication is sequential. In Cartographic communication, the information is

presented in holistic manner. We receive information once, not sequential. The communication is
beyond the control of cartographers.
 In cartographic communication there is distortion that makes communication barriers. The
distortion may be due to cartographers’ poor conception of the subject matter, poor designer
choice, printing problem and by problems of map users.

7|Page
 Unit 2: Coordinate system of the Earth
Introduction
In this unit, the shape, size, and coordinate system of the earth are described. First, the various concepts
and ideas related to the shape and size of the earth are dealt with. This is followed by the steps and
procedures involved in the determination of great and small circles. This unit will help to make use of
geographical and national coordinate systems. You are expected to develop your skills in the
determination of positions of places on the map in relation to both the geographical and national
coordinate systems. Revision of your geometry lessons mathematical instruments, globes and maps
enhance your understanding of this unit.

Objectives:

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 determine the shape of the earth

 calculate the size of the earth
 distinguish great circle from small circle
 differentiate geographical coordinate system from national coordinate system
 locate positions of places on maps based on the coordinate system

2.1 Shape of the Earth

What is Geodesy?

An entire branch of science, called geodesy, is dedicated to the study of the shape and size of the Earth.
Geodesy is the study of:

 The science of measuring the shape of the Earth

 The size and shape of the earth
 The gravity field of the earth
 Point positioning: The measurement of the position and motion of points on the earth’s surface;
and
 The configuration and area of large portions of the earth’s surface.

One of the uses of maps is to determine the geographical locations of places and features on the earth.
Geographical coordinate and national coordinate systems are used to specify geographical locations. To
learn about these coordinate systems, you must first learn about the shape and size of the earth. What is
the shape of the earth? There were different answers at different times for this question. Some people
have maintained that the earth is flat or even disc-shaped which was advocated by Homer. However, other
people perceived the earth as being round or spherical. It is not exactly known when it was first thought to
be round or spherical in form. Pythagoras (sixth century B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C) are known to
have decided that the earth was round or spherical. Aristotle based his conclusions on the following
arguments. They are:

 A round object has attraction towards its center

 The earth has circular shadow during eclipses on the moon.
 The constellations you observe at the northern and southern hemisphere are different.
 Sailing ships always disappear from view hull first and mast last.

8|Page
Thus, the idea of a spherical shape soon became adopted by most philosophers and mathematicians in
ancient Greeks and later civilizations.

Until the late 1600s, the earth was thought to be perfectly spherical shape. By that time, accurate
measurement of gravitational pull was possible. Most notably, Newton in England and Huygens in
Holland put forward a theory. The theory says that the earth was flattened at the poles and extended
(bulged) at the equator. This idea was later tested by field observation in Peru and Lapland by French
Academy of Sciences. The earth was indeed flattened at the poles. It is interesting to note that the first
indication of this flattening came from seamen who noticed that their clock were not keeping consistent
time as they sailed great latitudinal distances. The unequal pull of gravity, caused by the imperfectly
shaped earth, created different gravitational effects on the pendulums of their clocks.

Moreover, around 1670, Isaac Newton proposed that there would be a slight bulging of the earth at the
equator due to the greater centrifugal force generated by the earth’s rotation. It is the force of gravity
which is largely responsible for the present shape of the earth. The force of gravity is directed towards the
center of the earth. But the centrifugal force pushes outward from the axis of the rotation of the earth. As
this force increases with distance from the axis of rotation, it is more effective at and near the equator.

The sphere bulges at the equator and would produce a slight flattening at the poles. Newton predicted the
polar flattening to be about 1/300th of the equatorial radius. According to Newton, all the radii of the earth
from its center to all points on its outer surface are not equal. This is because any rotating body has a
tendency to bulge around its equator and flatten at the polar ends of its rotational axis/.

The amount of polar flattening (oblate ness) is given by the ratio f = (a-b)/a, Where a is the equatorial
radius, b is the polar radius.

For example: What is the polar flattening, if a = 6378.5km and b = 6357 km?

6378.5km  6357km 21.5km 1

f= = =
6378.5km 6378.5km 296.7

9|Page
The shape of the earth with slight bulge at the equator and flattening at the poles is referred to as oblate
spheroid or oblate Ellipsoid. The shape of the earth has obvious deviations from true perfect sphere due to
the above reasons but also due to topographic inequalities on its surface. The surface of the earth varies in
elevation from the highest mountain peak, Mount Everest at 8848 meters above mean sea level to the
deepest ocean trench, the Mariana Trench of the Pacific Ocean at 11,035 meters below sea level. This
makes a total difference of nearly 20 kilometers elevation.

Can you still suggest another reason why the shape of the earth further deviates from perfect sphere?
Findings of recent studies from orbiting satellites have shown that the earth has some distortions in the
form of shallow depressions in wide areas in certain latitudes with proportional bulges in the same
latitudes of the opposite hemisphere. All these distortions and irregularities on the earth’s surface make its
shape very unique. That is, the shape of the earth is so unique that it can be only defined as being geoid.
Geoid means earth like.

Geoid is the three-dimensional shape that would be approximated by mean sea level in the oceans and the
surface of a series of hypothetical sea level canals crisscrossing the continents. In other words it is a
surface on which gravity is everywhere equal to its strength at mean sea level. The geoid deviates so
slightly from the ellipsoid in an irregular manner. If the earth were of uniform geological composition and
devoid of mountain ranges, ocean basins and other vertical irregularities, the geoid surface would equal
the ellipsoid exactly. However, due primarily to variations in rock density and topographic relief, the
geoid surface deviates from the ellipsoid by up to 100 meters in certain locations.

The minute undulations on the geoid can be seen on a contour map of variations between its surface and
that of the WGS 84 ellipsoid. The lines of equal deviation (in meters) were modeled from millions of
gravity observations taken throughout the world.

Which shape of the earth can one use for mapping? Cartographers use these three approximations to the
earth’s true shape in different ways. The spherical model is the reference surface for small-scale maps of
countries, continents, and larger areas. This is because the difference between sphere and ellipsoid is
negligible when mapping large areas in a general manner on page-size maps. In addition, the spherical
and ellipsoid mathematical equations for a particular map projection give essentially the same results for
small-scale maps. For instance, the surface of the earth appears rugged to us. But the highest peaks and
deepest ocean trenches are barely noticeable irregularities as compared to the immense size of the earth
when represented on a small-scale map. Imagine the earth is reduced 25.4cms diameter ball. On such a

10 | P a g e
reduced scale representation of the earth, Mount Everest would be nearly a 0.20mm pump and the
Mariana Trench a 0.22 mm scratch on the ball. Since the earth’s average land’s elevation and ocean’s
depth is much less than these extremes, we are safe in saying that if the earth were the size of a bowling
ball, it would be smoother than any bowling ball yet made! As a result, since the irregularities of the
shape of the earth are insignificant on small scale, it makes sense to use sphere for small-scale maps.

With large-scale maps, one cannot ignore the irregularities of the earth’s surface. With detailed, large-
scale maps of small areas, such as topographic maps and nautical charts, the differences between distance
between two points on the spherical and ellipsoidal models of the earth can be significant. We need to
consider the earth’s oblateness. The measurements of distances, directions and areas would be incorrect
on the large-scale detailed map if the spherical shape of the earth were our reference. Therefore,
cartographers use the ellipsoid as the reference surface for these large-scale maps. Using the ellipsoid also
ties in well with modern data collection methods for large-scale mapping. For example, global positioning
system (GPS) receivers compute latitude, longitude, and elevation using the WGS 84 ellipsoid as the
reference surface. The Ethiopian Mapping Authority uses Clarke 80 ellipsoid as reference for the large-
scale topographical maps of Ethiopia.

The geoid is the reference surface for ground surveyed horizontal and vertical positions. Horizontal
positions are adjusted to the ellipsoid surface since the irregularities on the geoid would make map
projection and other mathematical computations extremely complex. On the other hand, elevations are
determined relative to the mean sea level geoid.

2.2 The Size of the Earth

Greek scholars tried to measure the size of the earth in ancient times. In fact, the earth’s size was
measured by a Greek scholar living in Alexandria. Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.) calculated the equatorial
circumference to be 46,250, remarkably close to today’s measurement of 40,072 km. Another Greek
mathematician, Poseidonius (130-51 B.C.) measured the earth’s equatorial circumference to be 38,622
km.

How did Eratosthenes calculate the circumference of the earth, which is closer to present
calculations? Eratosthenes ingenious method of measuring the earth employed simple geometrical
calculations. In fact the method is still used today. Eratosthenes noticed on the day of the summer solstice
that the noon sun shone directly down a well at Syene near the present day Aswan in Southern Egypt.
However, the sun was not directly overhead at Alexandria but rather cast a shadow that was 7 0 121 of the
vertical. Applying geometrical principles, he knew that the deviations of the sun’s rays from the vertical
would subtend an angle of 70 121 at the center of the earth. This angle is 1/50 the whole circumference of
the earth (3600). The only remaining measurement needed to complete the calculations was the distance
between Alexandria and Syene. This was estimated to be 925 km. He multiplied this figure by 50. He got
a total circumference of 46,250 km. This is only about 15% too large from today measurement (40,072
km). His method was sound, but his measurements and assumptions were somewhat in error.

It is important to understand that for the purpose of geodesy, the science of measurement of the earth, a
regular geometric model of the earth is required. This is to say that precise measurements on earth could
be made by using an ellipsoid model. Ellipsoidal model is a geometric figure which is assumed to be
produced by rotating an ellipse around its minor (polar) axis and choosing the lengths of the major
(equatorial) and minor axes that best fit those of the real earth. In recent years, these dimensions of the
ellipsoid have been calculated with great precision. However, there are over a dozen principal ellipsoids,
which are used by one or more countries throughout the world for their official mapping programs. Such

11 | P a g e
decisions on the choice of the specific ellipsoids are based on the local precision of the adopted models in
describing their parts of the earth.

Clarke’s 80 models are suitable for the whole of Africa. It is also in use in Ethiopia to measure distances
on topographical maps. The International Union of Geodesy and Geology has accepted the polar,
equatorial, and mean radii to be 6356 km, 6378.5 km and 6371 km respectively. The radius of the earth is
measured from its center to any point on its curved surface. Since the earth is slightly elliptical, the
distance from its center to any point on its surface slightly varies. That is why the polar radius is 22.5km
shorter than the equatorial radius.

Taking 6371 km as the mean radius of the earth, can you calculate the area of the earth? Of course, for
such mathematical calculations you should have to take the sphere as a reference. You learned in high
school that you employ the formula 4∏r2 to calculate the surface area of a sphere. Substituting the mean
radius of the earth for r, the total area of the earth would be:

A = 4x3.14 x 6371 km x 6371km = 509 805 891km2

Thus, one can say the total surface area of the earth is about 510 million square kilometers. In the same
way, using the radius of the equator, we can calculate the circumference of the earth round the equator.
This is done by using the following formula.

Equatorial circumference = 2 ∏ r = 2x3.14 x 6 378.5= 40 056.98 km

 What is the polar circumference of the Earth?

Polar circumference = 2∏ r= 2 x 3.14 x 6 357 km= 39 921.96 km

 What are the equatorial and polar diameters?

 Equatorial diameter = 2r= 2x 6 378.5km= 12 757 km
 Polar diameter = 2r=2 x 6 357 km= 12 714 km

2.2. Geoid, Datum, and Ellipsoid

 used to describe heights or it’s a reference surface for height

 the starting point for measuring these heights is mean sea level points established at coastal
places.
 Equipotential surface at mean sea level and is determined by averaging the registration of the
ocean’s water level at coastal places.

There are several realizations of local mean sea levels (also called local vertical datum) in the world. They
are parallel to the geoid but offset by up to a couple of meters to allow for local phenomena (ocean
currents, tides, costal winds, water temperature and salinity at the location of tide gauge (zero height))
Estimates the earth’s surface using the mean sea level of the ocean with all continents is removed.

 Due to variations in the earth’s mass distribution (oceans and land), the Geoid has an irregular
shape that may be best described as ‘undulating’.
 Because the potential gravity is the same at every point on its surface, the geoid is known as an
equipotential surface.

It is an equipotential surface of the gravity field, indicating that the gravity potential is constant and the
direction of gravity is perpendicular at every point on this surface. The geoid is the best global
12 | P a g e
approximation of the mean sea level (MSL) which is used as a reference in calculating elevations of
features. Starting from Mean Sea Level (MSL) points, the orthometric heights (H) of points on the Earth
can be measured using a technique known as geodetic leveling.

Note that the words spheroid and ellipsoid are often used interchangeably In order to calculate precise
measurements over long distances e.g. across continents or oceans, the earth is represented as an ellipsoid.

 The ellipsoid is an oval that revolves about its shortest dimension.

 It is a mathematical approximation of the geoid.
 A reference surface for the description of the horizontal coordinates of points of interest
 The reference surface for horizontal coordinates requires a mathematical definition and
description
 It is used to measure locations, the latitude and longitude, of points of interest.

13 | P a g e
The ellipsoid can be further simplified into a sphere. To define a sphere, only the radius is required. The
radius often used when modeling the earth as a sphere is 6378137.00 metres

 The ellipsoid is a mathematical model that describes the shape of the Earth.
 An ellipsoid gives the base elevation for mapping, called a datum.
 Tells us which shape of the earth to use.
 Tells us where to center the reference earth relative to the real one.
 Tells how much flatter the poles should be relative to the equator.
 Provides a frame of reference for measuring locations on the surface of the Earth
 Defines the position of the
 It defines the

A datum in general is

 A reference point, surface, or baseline from which measurements are made. Naturally, there
needs to exist consistent and standard regional or global reference frames for locating features on
earth.
 Set of parameters defining a coordinate system, and a set of control points whose geometric
relationships are known, either through measurement or calculation: origin, direction of axis,
reference point for elevations.

14 | P a g e
Different models of the Earth produce different data, and therefore affect the value of a location's
elevation and position (coordinates). Datum can be categorized as local or global (geocentric) depending
on the type of ellipsoid they are based on as well as the value of their other constants.

 A local datum aligns its spheroid to closely fit the earth's surface in a particular area.
 The coordinate system origin of a local datum is not at the center of the earth. The center of the
spheroid of a local datum is offset from the earth's center.
 A point on the surface of the spheroid is matched to a particular position on the surface of the
earth. This point is known as the origin point of the datum. The coordinates of the origin point are
fixed, and all other points are calculated from it.
 A local datum is more suited for a specific region or a country; it's not suitable for use outside
the area for which it was designed. .
 An example of such datum is the
 North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27): designed to fit North America reasonably.
 European Datum of 1950 (ED 1950): created for use in Europe
 Adindan: used for Eastern Africa like Ethiopia, Eretria, Djibouti

With the advances of satellite positioning, more and more countries are adopting geocentric (global)
datum's. The default datum for Global Positioning System (GPS) is Word Geodetic System 1984
(WGS84) which is based on the WGS84 ellipsoid. Hundreds of datum's customized for different parts of
the world. The most recently developed and widely used datum is World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984. It
serves as the framework for location measurement worldwide. The WGS system was designed to provide
a good model for the entire Earth and simplify navigation and targeting at strategic levels. Global datum's
can be better fits to the gravity surface for the entire earth but can be less accurate in specific areas. A
global datum has its origin placed at the Earth’s currently known center of mass and is more accurate
overall.

2.3. Grid, Graticule and Grid Reference

 Latitude

Latitude is an angle subtended at the center of the earth between a radius to any point on the earth’s
surface, and the equatorial plane. The latitude system for locating our north-south position depends on
the regular curvature of the earth’s surface. The equator, the line on the earth formed by points
halfway between the two poles, is the starting place for latitude. It ranges from 00 (equator) to 900 N
or S. Latitude measures the position of a given point in terms of its angular distance from the equator.
That is, latitude is an indicator of how far north or south of the equator a given point is situated. All
points north of the equator are designated as north latitude (northern hemisphere), all points south of
the equator are designated as south latitude (southern hemisphere).

 Longitude
Longitude measures the position of a given point in terms of it's angular distance East and West. The
prime meridian (Greenwich, England) is the starting point or zero point for angular measurements.
Longitude is then measured east 180 degrees of the prime meridian, until it reaches the International

15 | P a g e
 Date Line (Greenwich). Likewise it can be measured west of the prime meridian up to 180 degrees,
again until it reaches the International Date Line.
 Graticule and Grid
A line joining equal angles of latitude is parallel. Similarly, a line joining the same angle of longitude is
meridian. The network of parallels and meridians on the earth is called graticule. The graticule has
certain geometric properties, some of which cartographers may try to preserve when making a map
projection for part or all of the earth. These properties deal with distance, direction, and area. While the
network of eastings and northings in plane surface is called grid

2.4. Coordinate System

 is represented in the form of .
 A set of numbers that designate location in a given reference system, such as
or .
 Coordinate pairs represent a location on the earth's surface relative to other locations.
 also known as map projections, are
.

16 | P a g e
  Is a reference system
(features represented by X, Y coordinate.

There are two basic types of

 It is also called
 Plane polar coordinate system
 Earth coordinate system
 Global or spherical coordinate system
 It measures location from only two values: Latitude and Longitude
 Is expressed in Latitudes (parallels) and Longitudes (meridians).
 Latitude >>> parallels >>> North – South
 Longitude >>> meridians >>> East -West
 Location measured from curved surface of the earth (Globe, on earth, 3- dimension)
 Used for small scale map (scale < 1:1,000,000)
 Measurement units of latitude and longitude
 Degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS)
 Decimal degrees (DD)
 Most of GIS software use decimal degrees (DD) to state geographical coordinates.
 Most of paper maps represent geographical coordinates by Degrees, Minutes and Seconds
(DMS).
 It is easy to make the transformation between the two systems. Just remember that 60
seconds is one minute and 60 minutes, one degree.

 When arcs of latitude and longitude are measured other than in full degree increments, minutes and
seconds can be used.
 A minute is 1 / 60 of a degree, and a second is 1 / 60 of a minute or 1 / 3600 of a degree.
 To transfer geographic coordinates into decimal degrees you can use the Following calculation:
 Decimal degrees = Degrees + (Minutes/60) + (Seconds/3600)
o
Example 1- 30 degrees 15 minutes 22 seconds (30 15'22" = 30 + 15/60 + 22/3600 = 30.2561 DD.
o
Examples 2 Convert 66 53' 43.2" north latitude to decimal degrees.
 53/60 = 0.8833
 43.2/3600 = 0.0120
o
 66 + 0.8833 + 0.0120 = 66.8953 DD
 Converting of Decimal degrees (DD) to DMS. Example 30.2561 degrees to DMS
 1st 30.2561 degrees = 30 degree
 2nd 0.2561*60 = 15.366 minutes
 3rd .366 minutes = 22 seconds, so the final result is 30 degrees 15 minutes 22 seconds.

17 | P a g e
It is also called;

 Plane rectangular coordinate system

 Cartesian coordinate system

It is the systematic transformation of locations on the earth (latitude/longitude) to planar coordinates A

projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface. Unlike a geographic coordinate
system, a projected coordinate system has constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions.

 Locations are identified by x,y coordinates on a grid or easting and northing, with the origin at
the center of the grid. and
 Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS)used for large scale map (scale > 1:10,000)
 Location measured from flat surface
 Units can be in kilometers, meters, feet, inches
 Distortions will occur, except for very fine scale maps

Plane Coordinate System

 The rectangular (plane) coordinate system. Such systems were used in Chinese cartography in the
3rd century A. D. In modern form, the plane coordinate system evolved from the Cartesian
coordinate system.
 For limited areas on maps with the property of conformality, variation between planar and
spherical calculations is not significant. Depending on the level of accuracy you want, you should
select the type of the coordinate system. It is therefore important to know the accuracy of each
coordinate system and the distortions resulting from the map projection used.
 There is a good reason why the plane rectangular coordinate system came to appear on maps.
With the increasing range of artillery in World War I, it became more and more difficult for an
army to arrive at accurate azimuth (bearing or direction) and distance calculations to a target.
Until World War I, battles were hand-to-hand, or enemies were within sight of one another. The
increased range of munitions meant that visual sighting of targets was no longer necessary, but
the curved path of an object fired had to be calculated in real time in the field. Thus, as the range
of munitions increased armies had to calculate where to shoot without being able to see the target.
Calculations involving latitude and longitude (Geographical coordinates) were too involved for
quick field calculation. To overcome this problem, the French were the first to construct a series
of local plane rectangular coordinate grids on their maps. This proved so useful that other nations
quickly followed it. Today the use of rectangular grid system is almost universal.

The procedures to establish a plane rectangular coordinate system are:

 A map is made by transforming the spherical surface to a plane. In the topographical map of
Ethiopia with a scale of 1:50 000, the transverse Mercator projection is used for this purpose.
 A rectangular plane coordinate grid is placed over the map. The origin of the coordinate system is
usually located in the south-western most corner of the country. For Ethiopia, 00 latitude and 340
30' E crossing-points is the grid origin.

18 | P a g e
 Origin of the Ethiopia’s Coordinate System (Source: Roselius, 1980)

Each country has its own grid origin. That is why it is called national coordinate system. Sometimes, the
grid coordinate system of a country could be a part of a regional coordinate system. The grid origin used
on Ethiopian topographical maps is located outside Ethiopia. It is part of the regional coordinate system.
When we place the origin at the south-west of a country, only the upper right-hand quadrant of a plan
coordinate system is employed. This helps to make the values positive.

Distance is measured in kilometers starting from the grid origin (in this case, from 00 latitude and 340 30'
E longitude origins) in kilometers. The distance between two vertical lines of this coordinate system could
be 100km, 10km or 1km. This depends on the scale of the map. On the topographical map Ethiopia with
the scale of 1:50 000, the distance between the vertical lines is 1km. These lines running from north to
south to measure distance east of the grid origin are called Eastings. On the other hands, horizontal lines
running from west to east to measure distance in km from the grid origin are referred as Northings. Can
you now give the four and six-digit reference location of B in Figure below?

Procedures for Reading Easting’s and Northings.

Letter Eastings Northings

Designation (Vertical) (Horizontal)
1 First read the big letters AU
2 Write the large number of the Easting value to the left of B 84
3 Measure the tenths of the side of the square from the 5
Easting line to point
4 Write the large number of the Northing value below the 24
point
5 Measure the tenths from Northing line to point B 5
Six-digits reference location of point B AU 845 245
When using grid reference, you always read the big letters of the easting value and then the northing
value on the topographic map as indicated in Table 2.3. Nevertheless, sometimes the digits may not be
written in large and small numbers. A grid reference is given as an even set of numbers run together. It
could be four digits, six-digits or eight digits. This depends on the scale of the map. Plane (rectangular)
coordinate system is used only on large-scale maps.

19 | P a g e
 UTM SYSTEM
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is oblique case Mercator projection. That means the cylindrical
paper touches the globe along the great circle formed by two selected opposite meridians. This projection
is commonly used in computer software. Thus, it is worthwhile to give detailed explanation for this
projection. The UTM grid system has been widely adopted for topographic maps, satellite imagery,
natural resources data bases, and other applications that require precise positioning. It is a metric system
(meter is the basic unit of measurement).

Universal Transversal Mercator (Source: Retrieved on 7 Sept. 2006 from Website

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/gif/utmzones.gif)

The UTM has the following properties. They are

 The most western edge of UTM is zone 1 and the most eastern edge is zone 60. Each zone has 6 0
longitudinal extent. That means zone 1 extends from 1800 W to 1740 W. Ethiopia is largely in Zone
37 (Figure 2.11).

20 | P a g e
  The latitudinal interval is 80 latitude. The latitudinal extent is from 840 N to 800 S.
 The rows of quadrilaterals are assigned letters C to X consecutively (With I and 0 omitted)
beginning at 800 S latitude. Row X which extends from 720 N to 840 N to cover all land areas in the
northern hemisphere is having a latitudinal extent of 120.
 Each zone has a central meridian. Eastings are measured from the central meridian. The central
meridian is assigned a value of 500 km (500 000 meters). This is to avoid negative values. The
central meridian is the false easting.
 For the southern hemisphere, the equator is assigned the value of 10,000 km. Equator is false
northing for the southern hemisphere.
 For the northern hemisphere, equator is assigned the value of 0.
 Each quadrilateral (60 x 80) is assigned a number and a letter combination. For example, Ethiopia is
largely in 37 N and 37P.
 The scale Factor (SF) is constant along each north-south coordinate grid line, but it varies in the
east-west direction. Mercator projection is constructed for each zone to minimize variations in the
SF over the entire projection. Thus, along the center grid line of each UTM grid zone, the SF is
0.99960. At the widest part (along the equator), about 363 kilometers from the center grid line, the
SF is 1.00158. This positioning of the coordinate grid relative to the map results in an overall
accuracy for the UTM system of one part in 2,500. Therefore, you can calculate distances and
directions between two points in a UTM zone to accuracy of one meter in 2,500 meters.

UTM zones and their extents

Activity

 What are the properties of UTM system?

 Which letters of the English alphabet are not used in the UTM designation?
 What is false northing for the southern hemisphere?

21 | P a g e
2.5 Distance Calculation Using Spherical & Plane Coordinates
2.5.1 Distance on the Sphere and Great Circles

The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. On the curving three-dimensional surface of
the spherical earth, however, it is obviously impossible to follow such a straight line. The shortest
distance over the surface between any two points on a sphere is the arc on the surface directly above the
true straight line. This arc is formed by the intersection of the spherical surface with the plane passing
through the two points and the center of the earth.

The circle established by the intersection of such a plane with the spherical surface divides the earth into
hemisphere and is called a great circle. The equator is the only complete great circle in the graticule. All
parallels other than the equator are small circles. A small circle is a circle on the spherical surface whose
plane does not bisect the earth into two halves. A meridian is half of a great circle. A pair of two opposing
meridians makes one great circle. For example, 00 and 1800 longitudes make one great circle. The size of
these small circles is not equal in length as their names imply. Let us calculate their lengths using the
formula C = 2∏ r cos ө.

Where ө is the parallels’ geographic latitude, r is the mean radius of the earth (6371 km).

 What is the circumference (length) of the parallel of 300 N latitude?

C = 2∏ r cos 300= 2 x 3.14 x 6371 km × cos 300 = 34809.5956 km

 What is the circumference of the parallel of 900N latitude?

C = 2∏ r cos ө= 2 × 3.14 x 6371 km × cos 900= 3 × 3.14 x 6371 km ×0 = 0km


What is the length of a meridian? As it is describe above, a meridian is half of a great circle.
Then, one can calculate its length using:

Length of a meridian = 2∏ r cos ө ×1/2= ∏ r cos ө= 3.14 x 6371km cos 00 = 20004.94km.

What is the distance between two consecutive meridians (e.g. 00 longitude and 10E longitude)? This
distance varies considerably, but predictably. At the equator, it is about the same as that of one degree of
latitude. However, as distance increases pole word, the distance between two consecutive meridians
decreases. It diminishes to zero at the poles where the meridians completely converge. On an ellipsoid
surface, the distance between two consecutive meridians equals the distance between two consecutive
meridians at the equator multiplied by the cosine of the parallel’s longitude in question.

Symbolically: L = E cos ٨ Where, L is the distance (length) between two consecutive meridians; E is
the distance (length) between two consecutive meridians at equator; ٨ is the angle of longitude of the
place in question

 What is the distance (length) between two consecutive meridians at 600N latitude?

L = E cos ٨= 111.20km cos 600= 111.20km x 0.5= 55.6 km

 What is the great circle distance between Bahir Dar (11038’N, 37010’E) and Addis Ababa (9002’N,
38043’E)? The great circle arc distance on the sphere between the two can be calculated using the
standard formula in spherical trigonometry.

The formula is: - Cos D = sin a sin b + cos a cos b cos /δ ٨// Where,

22 | P a g e
  D is the distance on the great circle
 a is the geographic latitude of Bahir Dar (11038’N, 37010’E)
 b is the geographic latitude of Addis Ababa (9002’N, 38043’E )
 /δ ٨// is the absolute value of the difference in longitude between Bahir Dar and

Addis Ababa

Cos D = sin 11.63 sin 9.03 + cos 11.63 cos 9.03× cos (│37.0-38.72│)
= 0.2016×0.157+0.97795×.9876×0.9996= 0.0317+0.967=0.9987
D= cos-1 (0.9987) D= 2.920 Din km=2.920 ×111k Din km= 324.12km
Hence, the great circle distance between Bahir Dar and Addis Abab is 324.12km
2.5.2 Distance Measurements on Plane Coordinate System (Map)

Before starting any measurements on maps, it is advisable to consider the following three points.

 If distance between two places is asked, it is always the real distance on the surface of the earth. It is
not the distance between two places on a map. Thus, we should change the distance between the two
places on the map into distance between two places on the ground with the help of the scale of a
map.
 Distance on a map is measured in mm or cm whereas distance on the ground is measured in meters
or km.
 All distances measured through measurement on the map and the uses of scale are only map
distances. Map distance doesn’t consider the ups and downs of the surface of the earth which
constitute the actual filed distance as shown in Figure.

The Relationship between Field Distance and Map Distance

There are three different types s distance. They are distance along straight line, distance along a curved
line, and field distance. Let us see each of them in detail

A) Distance along straight line is the map distance between two places. You can get this by using your
ruler and the scale of the map. For example, what is the distance between A and B in Figure 2.19? First,
you measure the distance between A and B with the help of a ruler. It is 8.6cm

Second, convert the graphic scale into statement scale. It is 1cm to 0.5km. Map distance= 8.6
cm  0.5km
1cm = 4.3km

23 | P a g e
 Straight Line Distance on a Map from A to B

B) Distance along curved line is the distance along bending line like roads or rivers. For example, what
is the distance along the road from A to B in Figure? How can we measure the curved line with the
straight edge of a ruler? You can use one of the following methods.

Curved Line Distance from A to B and Straight Edge of Paper

 Divide the curved line into small straight lines as indicated in Figure above.
 After that, you can use one of the following two ways to know the distance on the map:
 Carefully measure each of these sections with dividers and read the distance in cm using a ruler.
 You can transfer each of the small straight lines on straight edge of a piece of paper.
 Finally, using the scale of the map calculate the ground distance as shown below.

Distance between A and B on the map= 9.2cm, Scale = 1:50 000 or 1cm to 0.5km Map Distance =
9.2cm  0.5km
= 4.6km
1cm
C) Field distance takes the ups and downs of the surface of the earth into account. The field distance
between two points cannot be obtained through simple measurement alone but through a combination of
measurement and some calculations.

What is the field distance between A and B in Figure 2.23? The distance between A and B on the map is
6.5cm. The scale of the map is 1: 500000 or 1cm to 0.5km.
6.5cm  0.5km
 Map distance between A and B= = 3.25km
1cm
 The altitude difference between A and B= 2900m-2500m =400m= 0.4km
 As indicated in Figure, FD2= MD2 + AD2 = 3.252 + 0.42 = 10.56+ 0.16 = 10.72
Then, FD= 3.27km.
24 | P a g e
 Unit 3: Map Projection

Introduction

In this unit, the concepts, types and deformations of map projection are dealt with. You will get
convincing reasons why cartographers have spent considerable time in transforming meridians and
parallels from the globe onto the flat paper. Adequate explanations are also given about the types of map
projection. Finally, the unit winds up by providing several factors that enhance the choice of a map
projection from the list of several types.

Objectives - at the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 define map projection

 distinguish the similarities and differences between globes and flat maps
 identify the different types of map projections
 recognize the major distortions of map projections
 list the factor that help to choose suitable map projections

3.1. Map Projection: Concept and Definition

A map projection (projection) is a mathematical or Geometrical means of transferring information

from three-dimensional curved surface to a two dimensional paper or a computer screen. Mathematically
speaking, map projections are transformations of
 Geographic coordinates --- into the Cartesian coordinate Latitude and longitude --- into x, y
coordinates
 Latitude and longitude --- into easting, northing
 Parallels and meridians --- into flat surface
 Three dimensional surface--- two dimensional surface
 Graticule --- into Grid
 Features on a curved surface --- into features on a plane

One simple way of mapping the earth without distortion is to map it on a globe or on a spherical segment
of a globe (if a much larger-scale is desired). When we do so, all what we change is the scale or the size.
Relative distances, angles, areas, azimuths, rhumbs, and great circles are all retained without any

25 | P a g e
additional distortion. A globe is, therefore, an accurate model of the earth. The globe has the following
properties as indicated below.

 It represents the earth and its other features in their true shapes. It has the property of conformality
(orthomorphism). Conformality implies that the shape of the map surface at any given spot is
identical to the shape of the corresponding spot on the earth.
 All features represented on the globe maintain their proportional sizes on the ground. It, therefore,
has the property of equivalence or equal area.
 Distances between any two points are correctly maintained.
 Directions of points on the globe from a given point are the same as the directions on the surface
of the earth. In short, directions on the globe are truly represented as they are on the ground.
 The longitudes and latitudes are so arranged that it is convenient to locate any point with ease and
precision.

In addition, the meridians and parallels on the globe have the following characteristics. They include:

 The equator divides the globe into two haves-the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere.
 The equatorial plane is perpendicular to the polar axis.
 All the parallels are parallel to the equator.
 The spacing between any two parallels is almost the same along all meridians
 The equator is the only great circle of the parallels of latitude
 Each meridian is half of a great circle in length.
 All the meridians converge at the north and south polar points.
 The spacing between meridians is equal along a given parallel, but different along other parallels.
The spacing decreases pole wards.
 The parallels and meridians intersect at right angles.
 All areas are in correct scale ratio to earth measurements.

On the other hand, the globe has many practical disadvantages.

 It is a three-dimensional round model with only less than half of its surface absorbed at a time.
 It is cumbersome to handle
 It is difficult to store
 It is expensive to make and reproduce
 It is also difficult to draw and measure on it. One often needs to know distances between places,
areas of districts, zones, and regions, and direction of electronic signals, winds, and readings for
navigation.

Is it a globe or a flat map, which is desirable for practicable purposes?

For most practical purposes, the globe is less desirable. All the drawbacks are eliminated when a map is
prepared on a flat surface. Nevertheless, construction of a map on a flat surface requires an important
operation in addition to altering scale. The spherical surface must be transformed to a flat (plane) surface.
This combination of scale alteration and a system of transformation of the curved surface to flat surface
results in what is called map projection. Thus, map projection is simply the method by which the
spherical shape of a part or the entire surface of the earth is transformed onto a flat surface. The
transforming of the spherical surface to a plane surface involves a basic assumption – the map viewer has
an orthogonal (looking straight down) relationship with all parts of the earth’s surface and to the map
portraying it. It has been the endeavor of cartographers since early times to develop a method of preparing
26 | P a g e
a map on a flat surface having the same properties the globe has. In other words, an ideal projection is
one, which represents the meridians and parallels in the same way as they appear on a globe.

Is there a projection that satisfies all the ten global characteristics?

It has not been possible to develop a projection, which satisfies all the ten global characteristics of the
graticules and all the five properties of the globe. That is, it is not possible to represent the globe on a flat
surface without losing one or more of these characteristics. All the methods of projections so far
developed proved that any large part of the spherical earth could not be represented on a plane surface
without distortion through shrinking, breaking, or stretching it somewhere. It is, therefore, impossible to
lay out a flat unbroken network of lines that would conform to the network of the globe. It is, however,
possible to develop projections, which have one, or more properties of the globe retained, though not all
of them.

The best way to understand how a map projection is created is to see it as a two-stage process. First,
assume that the earth has been mapped on a globe reduced to the scale chosen for the flat map. We call
such a hypothetical globe reference or generating globe. Second, assume that the globe surface is
transformed by an appropriate method onto a flat surface. This means that the three dimensional
information on the globe’s surface is displayed on a two-dimensional, flat surface. The reference globe
will have a given scale called the principal scale. On the reference globe, the actual scale anywhere will
be the same as the principal scale. The scale factor (SF) will be 1.00 everywhere on the globe. Scale
factor is the ratio between actual scale and principal scale.

Actual Scale
Symbolically: S =
Pr incipal Scale

When all or part of this globe is transformed to a flat map, however, the actual scale at various places on
the flat map will be larger or smaller than the principal scale. All or part of the globe is not transformed to
a flat map without stretching, shrinking, or tearing. Consequently, the SF will always vary from place to
place on a flat map. To understand what happens, imagine the pattern of equally distant points on the
reference globe when they are transferred onto a flat surface. The mathematical scheme used to specify
positions of the points on the flat map defines the methods of transformation. Since the two surfaces are
not applicable, distance relationships among the points on the flat map must be modified. Consequently, it
is impossible to devise a transformation from the reference globe surface to a plane so that any figure
drawn on one will appear the same on the other. Nevertheless, by suitably varying the SF, one can (1)
retain same angular relationships, or (2) retain relative sizes of figures or (3) other attributes such as
directions, distances, etc.

How do you represent certain geometrical attributes of the earth without distortion? The science of
map projection tries to give solutions to such problems by using specific types of projections, which may
allow you to correctly represent the attribute you have in mind. At this point, it is important to know that
there is no one map projection that is better than the other. What you do is to choose a projection type,
which is useful in retaining the attribute (s) which you want to accurately transform to a flat map. The
choice of the projection type depends on the objective to be attained.

 For instance, if your objective is to retain area, the map projection type that you must use is
equal-area, or equivalent projection.
 When the interest is to accurately retain shape, a conformal or orthomorphic map projection is
used. A conformal map is one on which any small area has the same shape as on the globe and

27 | P a g e
 one spot is in true direction from any other as long as the points are close together. In his case, at
any point the scale is the same in every direction although it may change from point to point.
Moreover, the parallels are at right angles to the meridians.

An important point, which you have to clearly understand here, is that distortion is also dependent on the
area to be projected. As far as the area to be projected is small, the problem is not great. The distortion
that may be introduced is greater when you consider small-scale maps.

3.2. Properties of Map Projection

the ability of map projections to show the entire earth.

 No type of map projection is free of distortion. Distortions are inherent when features on the
earth surface are shown on a flat map sheet.
 There is no way to preserve accuracy for different parameters.
 There is no projection type that provides an absolutely perfect representation of the earth on a flat
surface.
 The task of map projection is a complicated process.
 Distortions or deformations in one or more of the following properties always occur.
* Area

 Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing
errors in others. The larger the area being mapped, the greater the problem of distortion becomes,
and the greater care is required in choosing a suitable map projection.

28 | P a g e
3.3. Classes of Map Projection

There are many number of map projections. In order to ease their understanding and save time, we should
have to classify them. However, there is no consensus on their consideration of the criteria they are
classified. Some of the broad criteria used in the classification of map projection are the methods of
drawing, the criteria they satisfy, and developable surface.

Based on Developable Surface

A developable surface is one which can be flattened and which can receive lines projected or drawn
directly from an assumed globe. There are three types of projection based on developable surface. The
projections that are not based on developable surface are classified as the fourth type. Let us see four of
them in detail.

3.3.1. Cylindrical Projection

Cylindrical projections are transferring of meridians, parallels and other points by wrapping a flat plane
(sheet) into a cylinder and making it tangent along a line or lines on the globe (sphere). Lines and points
on the spherical grid can be transferred to this cylinder, which is then unrolled into a flat map. The normal
aspect for these projections is the equatorial aspect, with the equator as the standard line.

In other words, the axis of the cylinder is coincident with the axis of the generating globe. The cylinder
may then be regarded as either touching the globe along the equator, or intersecting the globe along two
symmetrically placed parallels of latitude. In the transverse position the cylinder may be regarded as
touching the globe along the great circle formed by two selected opposite meridians. Other common
features of these projections are treated in the next sub-section.

Mercator projection, transverse Mercator projection and Lambert’s cylindrical equal area projection are
examples of cylindrical projection. Most of the common ones used to day are pseudocylindrical versions.
The popular ones include the Eckert Family, Mollweide, Boggs Eumorphic, and Goode’s interrupted
homolosine. Two recent developments are the Robinson and Tobler pseudo-cylindricals. Cylindrical or
rectangular projections are common forms frequently seen in atlases and other maps, showing the world
distribution of a variety of geographical phenomena. Distortions may appear in area, angle, distance or
direction.

Properties of cylindrical projection

 Are rectangular or oval shaped – but this projection technique is very variable in its shape
 Have lines of longitude and latitude at right angles to each other
 Have distortions increasing away from the central circular line (the ‘touch point of the paper’)
 Have very small distortions along the central circular line (the ‘touch point of the paper’)
 Show shapes correctly, but size is distorted.

29 | P a g e
 3.3.2. Conical Map Projection
Conic projection is transferring of parallels, meridians and points from the generating globe grid to a cone
enveloped around the globe. This cone is unrolled into a flat plane. In the normal aspect, the axis of the
cone coincides with the axis of the sphere. This aspect yields either straight or curved meridians that
converge on the near pole and parallels are arcs of circles (`Figure 3.13). In the simple conic projection
(normal aspect), the cone is tangent along a chosen parallel, along which there is no distortion. In the
secant case, the cone intersects the sphere along two parallels. This reduces distortion.

The perspective conical projection, the simple conic projection, the one-standard equal area conic
projection, the two standard conic projections, polyconic projection, and Bonne’s projection are examples
of conic projection. Conic projections, simple or secant, are best for mapping earth areas having great
east-west extent than north south like the United States.

Properties of conical projection

 Parallels are arcs of circles which are concentric in most of the conical projections.
 The central meridian is a straight line.
 Other meridians are either straight line or curves.
 Have very small distortions along the central circular line (the ’touch point of the paper‘)
 Shapes are shown correctly, but size is distorted
 They can represent only one hemisphere, at a time, northern or southern.
 Have distortions increasing away from the central circular line (the ’touch point of the
paper‘)
 Distortion generally increases north or south of it, so poles are often not included

3.3.3 Azimuthal (Zenithal) Projections

Azimuthal projection is transferring of parallels, meridians, and points from the generating globe to a
plane sheet of paper enveloped around the globe. The plane sheet of paper can be tangential to the sphere
at a point or pass through the sphere, making it tangent along a small circle (secant form). There are

30 | P a g e
numerous versions of this group, distinguished from one another by the location of the assumed light
source for the projection. When the light is emanating from the center of the globe, it is azimuthal
gnomonic projection. When the light source is at the point opposite the point of tangency, the projection
is stereographic. When it is at infinity (outside the generating globe), an orthographic projection results.

The plane sheet of paper may be tangent at any point on the spherical grid, depending on the projection
aspect. Tangency at the poles is a polar aspect. At middle latitude, it is oblique aspect. At the equator, it is
an equatorial aspect. The normal aspect is the position that produces the simplest graticule. Normal aspect
for this family is the polar position when the plane is tangent at one of the poles. In this case, the
meridians are straight lines converging at the pole. Parallels are concentric circles having the pole as their
centers. Directions to any point from the point of tangency (pole) are held true. All lines drawn to the
center are great circles, as is also the case for equatorial and oblique aspects.

Normally, only one hemisphere is shown on these projections. Pattern of distortion is closely associated
with the manner in which each was developed. As is the case for all projections, distortions increase with
distance from either the standard point or the standard line.

Based on drawing techniques, the projections are grouped in to 3

 Also called natural projection

 Are drawn with the help of the shadows cast from an illuminated globe on to a developable
surface.
 Which are drawn by projecting the network of meridians and parallels on a developable
surface at the of
the globe?

 Also called conventional projection

 Are drawn conventionally without the help of the shadows from an illuminated globe
 In these projections, the parallels and meridians cannot be transferred with the help of a
source of light.

 Are drawn by mathematical computation and formula.

Projections based on changing the
position of the light source are grouped in to three
 Place the light source at the centre of the globe.
31 | P a g e
  - Place the light source at the antipode of the point of tangency. The
source of light is placed at the periphery of the globe.
 - Place the light source an infinite distance from the point of
tangency, resulting in parallel light rays.

3.3.4. Conventional Projection

Conventional or mathematical projection are mathematically derived projections from the above three
types. Sinusoidal, Mollweide, and Van der Grinten are examples of Conventional or Methematical
projections.

Activity

 Among the three types (cylindrical, conic and azimuthal), which one is suitable to portray the
whole globe?
 Give two examples for each of cylindrical, conic and azimuthal projections.

3.4. Suitability of Map Projection

In order to choose appropriate map projection, cartographers need to be thoroughly familiar with map
projections. They must understand the effects different transformations on the representation of angles,
areas, distances, and directions. Only then can they make proper allowance when making measurements
or analyses on maps. For example, one should not measure areas on Mercator’s projection.

Cartographers frequently transfer data from one projection to another. Knowing the distortion
characteristics of each is necessary to maintain accuracy during the transfer. Computer software is of
great aid in this data transfer process. Cartographers are now relieved from the tedious work of
calculating and drawing map projections. Computers and plotters help the cartographer to complete this
work within short time, and little energy. The ease with which such operations can be performed enhances
the cartographer’s primary task, which is selecting the proper projection.

Many diverse factors may influence the choice of map projection. Geographers, historians, and ecologists
are likely to be concerned with relative sizes of regions. Navigators, meteorologists, astronauts, and
engineers are generally concerned with angles and distances. For example, for navigation, ocean currents,
and winds, Mercator is to be recommended. For most distribution maps, equal-area projections are
desired. A sinusoidal or equatorial case of the zenithal equidistant would be probably chosen for a map
showing the Cape to Cairo rail route, and a conic with two standard parallel or Bonne’s to show the
Trans-Siberian rail way. The atlas map maker often wants a compromise.

32 | P a g e
The choice of a projection also depends broadly upon the position and the extent of the area to be
mapped, and particularly upon the purpose and scale of the map. Consider the drawing of atlas maps first.
Regions in tropical, temperate, and polar latitudes would in general be mapped upon projections taken
respectively from normal cases in the cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal groups. The whole world on one
sheet could be mapped on various cylindrical, Sinusoidal, Mollweide, or Gall’s stereographic. For the
world in hemispheres choice would most likely lie between Mollweide, the stereographic or an equatorial
zenithal. The choice of a projection for a continent would depend largely upon whether it lay in both
hemispheres, as do Africa and South America, or whether it was largely in the intermediate latitudes like
the remaining continents. There is little visible difference in the shape of maps of small countries,
whatever projection is used.

When choosing a projection for a map the following points should be taken into consideration:




 Navigation:- Planar or cylindrical projection

 World distribution:- Cylindrical projection
 Specific Location:- Planar projection

 Low latitude- Cylindrical projection

 Mid Latitude- Conical projection
 Polar Latitude- Planar projection

 E-W extent- conic or cylindrical projection

 triangular area – Conical projection
 Rectangular area- cylindrical projection
 N-S Extent- Cylindrical
 Square or circular – planar or azimuthal or Zenithal projection

 Small area has little distortion choose any projection

 Topographic and cadastral

 Navigation
 Civil engineering
 Weather

 Population density
 Land use
 Quantitative attributes

 no map preserves true distance for all measurements

 Airline distances
 Distance from epicenter of an earthquake
 Cost calculations

33 | P a g e
Unit 4: Cartographic data representation and Generalization
Introduction-Dear learner, you are already aware that cartography is a process of abstraction in which
features of the real world are generalized or simplified to meet the demands of the theme and users. Thus,
after the acquisition of data, as indicated in the previous unit, cartographers decide which of the data to
include on the map to be compiled and what symbols are used to depict the data. Thus, this unit is
devoted to dealing with the concepts of cartographic generalization and symbolization.

Objectives-after going through this unit, you are expected to:

 Understand the concept of generalization

 Identify the elements of generalization
 identify the different the different criteria of classification of cartographic symbols
 Describe the different classes of symbols used for depicting data on maps

4.1. Cartographic Generalization

Cartographic generalization is a set of techniques concerned with increasing the efficiency with which the
map is interpreted – thus the techniques aim to resolve ambiguity, and to retain those qualities of a
representation that best fit with the user’s expectations. Well generalized maps are those that emphasize
the most important map elements while still representing the real world in the most faithful and
recognizable way. The level of detail and importance in what is remaining on the map must outweigh the
insignificance of items that were generalized, as to preserve the distinguishing characteristics of what
makes the map useful and important. When we come to apply these techniques (often in combination),
they must be applied such that irrespective of the scale of portrayal, the essential qualities of the feature
are still conveyed (that rivers retain their sinuous and connected form, and buildings retain their
anthropogenic qualities (such as their angular form). To retain the clarity and to represent the information
effectively a range of techniques are applied such as selection, symbolization, smoothing, simplification,
grouping, enhancement, displacement, and text placement.

4.1.1. Elements and Controls of Generalization: It must be clear at this stage that it is impossible to set
forth a consistent set of rules that will prescribe what should be done at each case of generalization and
thus cartographic generalization will remain an essentially a creative process that cannot be fully
standardized. However, we can talk about the basic elements and controls of generalization. Map
generalization is designed to reduce the complexities of the real world by strategically reducing ancillary
and unnecessary details.

1. Elements of Generalization

 Selection: One way that geospatial data can be reduced is through the selection process. Before the
cartographer begins generalization, a selection of available information is made that is consistent with
the purpose of the map. Selection, which is the intellectual process of deciding which classes of
features will be necessary to serve the map's purpose, can be considered as the prerequisite to
generalization. No modification is required in selection; the choice is either to portray the feature or
not. The cartographer can select and retain certain elements that he/she deems the most necessary or
appropriate. In this method, the most important elements stand out while lesser elements are left out
entirely. For example, a directional map between two points may have lesser and un-traveled
roadways omitted as not to confuse the map-reader. The selection of the most direct and
uncomplicated route between the two points is the most important data, and the cartographer may
choose to emphasize this.

34 | P a g e
 Simplification: refers to the determination of the important characteristics of the data to be depicted
on the map, the retention and possible exaggeration of these important characteristics and the
elimination of unwanted details. Since symbols take up room on a map, it's clear that as map scales
get smaller, fewer features can be represented. Part of the solution is to select only necessary features
to be portrayed. But that is usually not enough. In most cases, information to be mapped must also be
simplified. They can simplify information by eliminating some of it and by smoothing (reducing the
details of) the remaining features.
 Generalization is not a process that only removes and selects data, but also a process that simplifies
it as well. Simplification is a technique where shapes of retained features are altered to enhance
visibility and reduce complexity. Smaller scale maps have more simplified features than larger scale
maps because they simply exhibit more area. An example of simplification is to scale and remove
points along an area. Doing this to a mountain, for example, would reduce the detail in and around the
mountain but would ideally not detract from the map reader interpreting the feature such as a
mountain. Nevertheless, too much simplification makes representation of a known shape appear
ridiculous.
 Combination: Simplification also takes on other roles when considering the role of combination.
Overall data reduction techniques can also mean that in addition to generalizing elements of particular
features, features can also be combined when their separation is irrelevant to the map focus. A
mountain chain may be isolated into several smaller ridges and peaks with intermittent forest in the
natural environment, but shown as a contiguous chain on the map, as determined by scale. The map
reader has to, again remember, that because of scale limitations combined elements are not concise
depictions of natural or manmade features.
 Smoothing: is a process that the map maker can employ to reduce the angularity of line work.
Smoothing is yet another way of simplifying the map features, but involves several other
characteristics of generalization that lead into feature displacement and location shifting. The purpose
of smoothing is to exhibit line work in a much less complicated and a less visually jarring way. An
example of smoothing would be for a jagged roadway, cut through a mountain, to be smoothed out so
that the angular turns and transitions appear much more fluid and natural.
 Enhancement: As many of the aforementioned generalizing methods focus on the reduction and
omission of detail, the enhancement method concentrates on the addition of detail. Enhancement can
be used to show the true character of the feature being represented and is often used by the
cartographer to highlight specific details about his or her specific knowledge, that would otherwise be
left out. An example includes enhancing the detail about specific river rapids so that the map reader
may know the facets of traversing the most difficult sections beforehand. Enhancement can be a
valuable tool in aiding the map reader to elements that carry significant weight to the map’s intent.
 Enlargement: When cartographers use exaggeration, they enhance or emphasize important
characteristics of the attributes. Only very large scales (such as 1:2,500) can show such features as
roads, buildings and small streams without greatly enlarging them. When they use exaggeration, they
deliberately enlarge or alter a feature in order to capture its real-world essence.

2. Controls of Generalization

 Objective/ Purpose of the Map: A map prepared for, say, to be screened on a lecture and that for
engineering or military purposes require different levels of generalization. The kind of audience/user
to which the map is aimed at will also affect the degree of generalization to be conducted.

35 | P a g e
 Scale of the Map: Small scale maps need more generalization than large scale maps. At large scales
such as a plans and topographic maps, most of the generalization concerns classification and
symbolization, since scale is not a constraint.
 Graphic Limits: refers to the capacity of the systems employ for the communication and the
perceptual capabilities of the readers of the communication. Based on the availability of different
equipment, materials and skill to the map maker (physical limitations) and the map users’ abilities to
interpret the modulations of the visual variables (psychological limitation) we use different degrees of
generalization. Obviously, the better the conditions, the lesser the generalizations.
 Quality of Data: refers to the reliability and precision of the various kinds of data being mapped. The
more reliable and precise the data to be mapped are, the more detail is potentially available for
presentation. For instance, we can make less generalized map using census data compared to sample
based data because of the latter’s less accuracy.

In addition to these, good generalization requires many qualities on the part of the cartographer, chief
among which are a thorough knowledge of the cartographer of his subject matter, clear understanding of
the purpose of the map, and essential intellectual honesty.

4.2. Map Symbolization

Because it is a coded representation of the actual and imaginary phenomena on the Earth’s surface, the
entire map is a symbol and it is not quite correct to designate only certain components as a symbol.
Maps, as graphic systems of communication, therefore, use a variety of symbols to represent this data.
Hence, symbols are the language of maps.

Symbolization is the process of devising a set of marks of appropriate size, color, shape, and pattern, and
assigning them to map features to convey their characteristics at a given map scale. In other words,
symbols are the graphic language of maps that have evolved through generations of cartographers.

Early cartographers recognized that common usages and conventions would minimize confusion and to
some extent simplify compilation. Efforts in this direction were made over the years, but cartographers,
being artists of a sort, preferred to vary their styles, and effective standardization was not achieved until
comparatively recent times.

One of the major duties of the cartographer is to understand the relations among symbols, their
effectiveness and their relative suitability for the purpose for which the map is being constructed.

 Visual Variables: In cartography there are seven different graphic elements perceivable to our eyes.
These primary building stones to graphically present information are known as visual variables.
Distinction between symbols is made by variation in the application of the visual variables.

36 | P a g e
These visual variables which enable you to distinguish one map symbol from another are:

 Position: It refers simply to the x, y dimension of the information, which determines its place on the
map. No symbol can be located on the map without using this visual variable. That is why position
distinction is said to be the primary purpose of a map.
 Shape: Symbols may designate features that purely differ in form or shape. For example a rectangle
may be used to represent a building, while a triangle may represent a mine. Hence, shape is the
graphic characteristic provided by the distinctive appearance of a regular form such as a triangle, the
outline of an irregular area such as a state, or contour of a line feature such as a river or a coastline.
Shape differences are easy to draw and the variations are almost unlimited. Moreover, we can make
distinction according to the form of individual elements with which the symbol is constructed, besides
its overall shape of a line or an area.
 Size: refers to the dimension of the symbols or in the case of area symbols, to the dimension of the
individual elements with which the symbol is built-up, i.e.; diameter, area, width, height, etc. It is
most commonly used to indicate the degree of importance of a feature. For example, a large circle
may represent a city and a small circle may represent a town.
 Pattern: refers to any graphically regular /or distinctive arrangement of marks. This use of pattern as
a kind of mark, however, should not be confused with geographical arrangements such as patterns of
climate or occupancy.
 Orientation/Direction: refers to the direction in which symbols are placed with respect to some
frame of reference such as the map frame, graticules, or circular subdivisions.
 Color: is perhaps the most powerful and most frequently used visual variable in symbol design. It
can be described according to its characteristics of hue, value and saturation. The common use of the
term color in distinguishing blue, green, red, etc, refers to hue. Thus, hue represents the wavelength of
particular color or in some daily terminology, name of the colors. By varying hue the cartographer
can have different symbols. For example, red may represent urban land, green non-urban land and
blue water features.

What are the basic colors of a map, and what does each color represent?

 Black - Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed spot
elevations, and all labels.
 Red-Brown - The colors red and brown are combined to identify cultural features, all relief
features, non-surveyed spot elevations, and elevation, such as contour lines on red-light readable
maps.
 Blue - Identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and drainage.
 Green - Identifies vegetation with military significance, such as woods, orchards, and vineyards.
 Brown - Identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on older edition maps, and
cultivated land on red-light readable maps.
 Red - Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries, on older
maps.
 Other - Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information. These are indicated in
the marginal information as a rule.
 Value: refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a mark, whether or not hue is involved. Thus, it
is related to the value on gray scale ranging from white to black value which is measured in terms of
its ability to reflect light. For instance, black paper does not reflect light and is said to have a value of
0 %, while at the other extreme of the scale, white reflects all light and has a value of 100 %. In the

37 | P a g e
 same manner several distinctions could be made, for example, in the use of black and white colors
alone.

4.3 Commonly Used Cartographic Symbols

1. Based on dimension

Point symbols: These are also called 0-dimensional symbols. Like the other two, point symbols can
convey categorical or numerical information. Point Symbols are used to represent geographic features or
data at specific locations. Dots, circles, squares and crosses are examples of point dots. On town maps,
features like traffic lights and telephone boxes are represented by line symbols. On topographic maps
mountains peaks, buildings, and mines are represented by point symbols, while on thematic maps a wide
range of both quantitative and qualitative data is depicted by point symbols. For example, a variety of
shapes may be used to represent minerals, or different size circles may depict different sizes of
settlements on population maps.

There is rarely a relationship between the size of dot on the map and the size of the feature on the ground.
The exception to this rule is the size of towns on atlases, which are usually shown with dot of different
sizes to indicate the size of their population. This can be also achieved by changing the shape and color of
the symbol. In such cases, point symbols can be abstract as for example, a circle or square might represent
a city; or they can mimic some aspect of the feature – an airport represented by an airplane or a hospital
by a red cross. Point symbols need to stand out from a background of line and area symbols.

Consider the following example to understand how point symbols are used to represent different features
on maps.

Capital Schools Hospital mountains/hills

Line Symbols: Lines are used to show linear features such as roads, rivers, railways, boundaries and
other features which have continuity. Line symbols can have many forms; they may vary in thickness, be
constructed of a series of dots or dashes, or be a combination of lines and shapes.

In cases where line features cross one another, it is common for one of the line symbols to be broken, for
clarity. A river, for example, may be broken where a road crosses it. There may be a relationship between
the size of this type of symbol on a map and the size of the feature on the ground. For example wider
roads being more important than minor roads, may be shown in a thicker line, but this will seldom be a
direct relationship (twice as thick on the map does not mean twice as wide on the ground). Size on a map
may indicate the importance of a feature rather than its size.

Rivers/ Highways Interstate International Railroad

Shorelines Border Border

38 | P a g e
Area Symbols: When something on a map is not a specific point, but rather a whole area, a cartographer
uses an area symbol. Area symbols are, thus, used to represent features that cover too much of the map to
be symbolized by a point symbol. The boundaries of area features may or may not be depicted by line
features. Nevertheless the enclosed areas are usually in filled with distinctive patterns of colors to separate
the different areas mapped.

Oceans/ Lakes Forests Wetlands/marshes or swamps

2. Based on Shape:
 Pictorial (Descriptive) Symbols: represent what they stand for in a realistic or a simplified or a
stylized way. Some of the symbols are very close to reality while the others undertake extreme
simplification. They are all self e4xplanatory, i.e., very easy to understand and thereby need no
legend. However, they usually occupy large space in the map and, thus, may cover other important
details. In addition, by their irregular shape, they have a rather inaccurate precision.
 Geometrical Symbols: are symbols with a regular shape, such as circle, square, triangle, hexagon, etc.
No specific and unique meaning can be connected to them because of the absence of resemblance
between the symbols and the features represented. Consequently, these symbols will have to be
explained in the legend of the map. Nevertheless, they are relatively easy to draw, relatively accurate
in their positions and do not occupy large area in the map.
 Letter and Number Symbols: are very often abbreviations of and are used to give the identity of
specific features. For example, sch stands for school po for post office, etc. Such letter symbols are
widely applied in most maps, geographical names of cities, villages, mountains, rivers, etc. Their
advantage is that they are easy to understand and to produce, but their readability may be strongly
affected by other texts on the map. Moreover, their location property is not good; as in sch covering a
wide area compared to a point which is the exact position of the school.

4.4. Mapping Qualitative and Quantitative Data

4.4.1 Mapping qualitative data and symbolization

In general, there are three classes of qualitative data. They are those which can be represented by point
symbols, line symbols and area symbols. It should, however, be borne in mind that symbols used for
various data will vary with variations in the scale of the map. The data which can be shown by area
symbols on large scale map may have to be represented by point symbols on a small scale map.

 Qualitative Point Symbolization: When data are available at a nominal (qualitative) scale of
measurement, we can symbolize them with differentiating visual variables. Here the visual variables
of shape are used to form pictorial symbols. If the map were printed in color, the visual variable of
hue would also be a good choice for symbol differentiation.
 Qualitative area symbolization: Considering only nominally scaled attribute values, one can create
effective area symbols using the visual variable of shape which creates a pattern when repeated in the
area. Some mimetic area patterns are so standard that they must be used only that features. Likewise
we are all familiar with standardized swamp, desert and forest symbols.
 Qualitative line symbolization: The primary visual variables of color and shape can be used to
symbolize nominally scaled attributes of line symbols. Shape of line symbols is defined as follows.

39 | P a g e
 Problems of representation qualitative data

Symbols for qualitative data are not always drawn to scale. When we put a small dot to show the location
of a town, the size of the dot does not have exact qualitative relation to the size of the town.
Consequently, all towns, big or small, are represented by the same symbol. Similarly a symbol showing
the location of mines has no relation to the size of the different mines.

Line symbols used for qualitative data have similar characteristics. The width of streams, roads, rail ways
or boundaries are not drawn to scale and their thickness is not necessarily based on their importance
measured in quantitative terms. A river drawn on a map may have a width of 1/15th of an inch. The same
river drawn on another map of the same scale may appear only 1/20th of an inch wide. Although political
boundaries may be shown with lines having varying widths to distinguish than as international, national
state and local boundaries, their widths will not be in proportion (quantitative) to their importance.
Boundaries can also be shown by different lines having the same width.

Area symbols showing qualitative values have the same characteristics. A forest area may be shown any
symbol (may be tree symbol) but this representation does not necessarily show the real areal extent, nor
does it show the density of the trees.

In general, we often read in some of the text books that the population density of a certain area is thin or
thick. The characteristics of density are also shown on maps. But such maps give only a qualitative value
which always remains a matter of dispute. Terms like much, less, high, low, good, bad, hot, cold, rainy,
dry etc. give only qualitative values. Unless these terms are backed by quantitative measurements, they do
not mean the same to everyone.

Qualitative Maps

There are three types of qualitative maps (Misra and Ramesh, 1989)

1. General Reference Maps: most of the atlas maps that we see fall in this Category. These maps
specialize in giving locations of various places, political boundaries, and transport networks and
prominent physical features. Such maps are often called multiple – use maps because they give a variety
of information. The purpose of these maps is to give as much information as possible without reducing
the legibility of the map. Too much of cluttering reduces legibility. In such maps no single item of
information is more important than the other. The general reference maps are of two types: Atlas maps
and wall maps. Atlas maps give more information than wall maps. Wall maps are made to be seen from a
distance, whereas the atlas maps are to be read like a book. Because of this differences wall maps give
less of details but whatever is given very prominently.

2. Thematic Maps – In this category are included most of the historical, political and cultural maps.
Some of the maps portraying socio-economic data are also qualitative in nature. Maps showing the
networks of transportation lines and irrigation canals can be regarded as examples of this type. At times
book illustrations show the crops or minerals produced in different area by symbols. These maps are not
based on any quantitative value of area or production; they are designed to give only locational
information.

3. Pictorial Maps: They are meant to show the distribution of various phenomena in popular way.

4.4.2 Mapping quantitative data

40 | P a g e
This group of statistical maps includes those methods of statistical representation which, because they
stress the idea of location or spatial distribution, make use of a map as the basis of their construction. By
their nature they are essentially statistical maps, but they may be used in conjunction with other methods
of representation. In this section we are going to deal with the methods of representing the quantitative
data on maps.

For decades, cartographers have been using uniform point symbols as well as proportional or graduated
point symbols to portray data on maps. In the case of uniform point symbol, each point is assigned a
constant value and the same point is repeatedly plotted to represent the whole data referenced to a given
area. In proportional or graduated point symbols, the size of the point is varied to show different values.

In general, there are four ways of representing statistical data on the map. They are dot maps, Isolines,
shading (choropleth) maps and flow maps.

1. Dot Maps: One of the simplest and most widely used types of distribution maps are the dot maps. Its
simplicity is attributable to the fact that basically it is a combination of two straight and forward ideas.
That is, the repeated symbol, in this case a dot of uniform size and dispersion map on which dots are
placed locationally.
 Distribution- a distribution map is essentially the representation of absolute or actual quantities on a
map; the dots used on the dot map are quantitative symbols each having a specific and fixed value.
Thus, it is possible to count the number of dots on this type of map and then, multiplying by the dot
value.
 A density map on the other hand is concerned with averages percentages or ratios. For example,
number of people or number of sheep or yield or rice per hectare. In other words a relationship
between quantity and area, pre – supposing a uniform density throughout a given area.

How can one construct a dot map? They are the numerical value of the dot, size of the dot, location of the
dot and problem of drawing of dots on uniform size.
 Dot value: The first question that has to be answered is what one dot stands for. For example, how
many people? How many tones? What value?
 Dot size: The size of the dot to be drawn (i.e., its diameter) must also be considered, but clearly, this
cannot be decided in isolation- dot value and dot location must also be taken into account together.

Advantages of Dot Methods: Many of the advantages of the dot maps have already been mentioned

41 | P a g e
  Its versatility and ability to illustrate spatial density.
 To show distribution and comparative densities
 Its ease of comprehension and its effectiveness in showing variations in distribution of a wide
variety of commodities especially in those areas where the distribution itself is uneven
 Its locational value depends on to a larger extent on the accuracy with which dots are placed and on
the density of the dots.
 It has a wide use and More than one data set may be illustrated on the same map.

Possible Disadvantages of Dot Mapping

 Dot maps on the other hand, suffer from several disadvantages a part from the deficiently experienced
in drawing the dots and the fact that they are not easily copied
 Locating the dots will reflect some biases such as subjective decision. Thus, rarely will two dot maps
using the same statistics be identical.
 Problems such as placing of one dot in a widely scattered area
 The fact that the area covered by the dot may not coincide with the actual area of production or
population
 The overcrowding of dots in high value areas
 The incorrect impression that may be given by unwise choice of dot value or dot size.

2. Isolines Maps

One of the most widely used of statistical representation is isoline. Other terms used for this method are
isopleths, isarithm and isometric lines, but as there is no general agreement, the word isoline is used in
this discussion because it is the simplest and easiest to understand. For specialized purposes special
isoline terms are used such as isotherms (lines connecting places of equal temperature), isobars (lines
connecting places of equal pressure), isohyets (lines connecting places of rainfall), isoneph (lines
connecting places of cloudiness), and isobaths (lines connecting places of ocean depths), etc. Contour
lines are likewise lines connecting places of equal elevation.

Construction of Isoline Maps: How can one construct isoline maps? To construct an isoline map the
following should be fulfilled.
 A base map having some stations of known values has to be available.
 The second- step should be identifying the critical values. The extent and range of the values to be
represented have to be given more emphasis in the drawing of isoline maps.
 The 3rd step should be determining the value of intervals. For example, 20, 40, 60, 80…. or on a
geometrical progression often used for population maps such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32…. or on natural
breaks or gaps in a frequency distribution could be used to determine the intervals.

 In the fourth step smooth flowing lines are drawn in accordance with the intervals chosen, joining
all points of equal value.

After we complete drawing isoline maps, we have to take care of the following information.
 Coloring or shading between isolines assists in interpretation of the map and serves to draw
attention to the spaces or areas between the lines rather than to the lines themselves.
 Isolines should be numbered if coloring or shading is not employed (in which case a key is
necessary). values can be written either

42 | P a g e
  In addition to the uses indicated above, isolines are also used to represent averages, percentiles or
ratios. For example, an average density figure, which has been calculated for a particular area or
region may, because it is a representative of the whole be regarded as the center of that area, the
figure can then be plotted in a central position with in the area in the same way as individual
values were plotted above. As with dot maps it is possible to make use of local knowledge in the
placing of average figures.

Advantages and disadvantages of isoline maps

In the representation of quantities and their spatial distribution, few other methods are capable of a wider
range of use than isolines. Where ever, it is necessary to indicate places or points of equal value, whether
in absolute terms or as percentages, averages or ratios provided the statistical information is sufficiently
comprehensive; it is almost always possible to represent them by an isoline map. It is especially useful in
mapping climatic data, but its use is by no means confined to this.

The fact that isoline maps can be superimposed on other types of maps without obscuring too much
detail. Thus distribution of population could be super imposed on relief, yield /ha of crops on soils and so
on. But an isoline maps are liable to give the incorrect impression that increase or decrease between one
isoline and the next is at uniform rate. This can be evidenced by an examination of a small scale isoline
map such as world population.

3. Choropleth (Shading) Maps

It should be noted that shading can be employed in a wide range of maps, to which the general name of
choropleth maps is often given. The term is derived from Greek words- choros area or space and plethos:
multitude or number – as a reminded that such maps are quantitative areal maps, the basis of which is a
relationship between quantities and area. Although the commonest form of choropleth map is one

43 | P a g e
showing density (of population), it can also be used for other aspects of ratios, for averages and
percentages. The term density has to be interpreted as those maps which depict average numerical values
in relation to units of area.

What are the methods of construction choropleth maps? Necessary conditions to the construction
choropleth maps include;

 Calculate the average densities for each statistical unit as required.

 Choose and draw the grades or scales of densities to be used For example, 200-249, 250-299,300-
349--------
 Indicate lightly in pencil on the map the grade of shading or coloring to be used for each statistical
unit
 Shade or color the map, erasing figures etc., but leaving boundary lines. Conditions that have to be
considered in drawing choropleth maps.
 Shading should show a progressive increase in density.
 Two different systems of shading can be distinguished quantitative and non – quantitative.
The later as its name indicates do not take into account variations in density but represents
different categories by different methods of shading, coloring or indicative symbols. Thus,
non – quantitative shading is not included here.
 The range of values may be divided into groups by various methods such as
 Simple arithmetic progression may be used as 1-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, etc.
 A geometrical progression may be used such as 1-20, 21-40, 41-80, 81-160 etc.
 Scale values often used in density of population maps are 0-64, 64-128, 128-256, etc.
 It is also possible to choose irregular intervals but this should only be used if the intention is to draw
attention to significant irregularities in distribution; a dispersion graph is useful to analyze such
groupings.
 Variations in density can also be shown by proportional shading, that is, by drawing
horizontal lines closer together to represent increase in density or by retaining the same
number of lines of a uniform distance a part but increasing the width of the line
 Do not attempt to show variations in density merely by drawing lines at different angles.
For example, horizontal, diagonal or vertical. But differences in density must be
represented by differences of shading also.
 Coloring can be used instead of shading. In such cases, shades of the same color are
preferably and care must be taken to avoid jumping from one color to the next. A gradual
transition from grade to grade must aim at.
 Use of the key can be made easier if boxes are drawn individually.
 The key should be completed, that is, all grades of shading should be included in the key,
even though it may not be necessary to make use of all grades on a particular map.
 Chorpleth maps may also be used to show increase or decrease in, for example,
population densities average yields/ ha over a period of time, ratio of cultivated to
uncultivated land, or any other statistical information in the form of averages or
percentages. Using the same shading scheme as before for both increases and decreases a
distinction between the two can be made by shading, for instance, increase in red, decrease
in blue.

In general, besides most of the advantages indicated above choropleth maps have also some
disadvantages such as
44 | P a g e
  i Boundaries of statistical units may assume under prominence and significance suggesting
that population densities, for example, change abruptly at the boundary.
 Despite its appearance, it must not be assumed that densities are uniform throughout any
statistical unit.

Generally speaking, the smaller the statistical unit the more accurate will be the map.

4 Flow maps

So far we discussed about statistical maps concerning quantity and time with a fixed location we now turn
into a form of statistical represent at that is primarily concerned with changes in location, that is, the flow
maps. The purpose of the flow map is to represent movement from one place to another. For instance it
may show the movement of good from area of production to market or point of export by rail, air, road or
water. The direction of flow is indicated by a line the amount by width of the line and the character
usually by coloring or shading of various types.

It is important to remember that this is not an aerial representation. In this case the width of a line is an
important factor because the length of the flow line shows the direction of movement and the distance
involved but has no significance as far as quantities are concerned.

How can one construct a flow map? Important considerations in the construction of flow maps

1. The width of the flow line must be proportional the quantity or value of the commodity to be
represented. In this case, extremes of width, that is, too great or too small must be avoided.

45 | P a g e
 2. The flow line can be drawn by solid line of varying width with the help of a scale or it can be shown
by a line chosen from a series of graduated band- widths, each band with representing a range of
values with in the total range, or it can also be drawn as a series of parallel lines of uniform width,
each line representing a fixed quantity.

3. In drawing the flow line on the base map, it is not necessary to follow all the twisting and bending,
of a road or a rail way. The line superimposed on the route, sharp angles and bends being rounded of
to give a generalized impression of the route followed.

4. The meeting place of various flow lines (for example, market, town, bus station, parts of import and
export and so on) can be shown by various methods. The easiest method is to bring all liens to meet.
This will result in an irregular shaped nucleus but as we are concerned with the movement of
commodities and not representing the meeting place, this is acceptable. The meeting place of flow
line can be represented by any convenient size of circles.

5. Color can be used to great advantage to represent different categories of commodities to distinguish
imports and exports.

6. Factual information may also be written on the flow line or alongside it.

Advantages and disadvantages of flow line

This method of representing flow or movement has a wide variety of uses of practical value. It is, indeed
the only method of representing movement in common use and is capable of many refinements and
modifications.

Its disadvantages lies in its lack of immediate or exact interpretation, although it gives a visual impression
which is realistic and effective, while statistical information may be added on the map.

46 | P a g e