English for

2012 edition
Academic Study

Extended Writing & Research Skills

Course Book Joan McCormack and John Slaght

English for Academic Study 2012 edition

Extended Writing
& Research Skills
Course Book

Joan McCormack and John Slaght

 Credits
­­Published by The author and publisher wish to acknowledge the use
Garnet Publishing Ltd of material from the following sources:
8 Southern Court ‘Banking system developments in the four Asian tigers’
South Street by Chan Huh, reprinted from the Federal Reserve Bank
Reading RG1 4QS, UK of San Francisco Economic Letter, 97–122. The opinions
Copyright © 2012 International Study and Language expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the
Institute, The University of Reading, and the authors. views of the management of the Federal Reserve Bank
of San Francisco, or of the Board of Governors of the
The right of Joan McCormack and John Slaght to be Federal Reserve System.
identified as the authors of this work has been asserted
by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Barnett, A. (2001). Safety in numbers may not be
Patents Act 1988. enough. New Scientist, 169, 38–41.
University of Reading and the University shield are trade Day, J. W., Hall, C. A., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., Pimentel,
marks of The University of Reading and are not to be D., Ibáñez Martí, C., & Mitsch, W. J. (2009). Ecology
reproduced without authorization. in Times of Scarcity. BioScience, 59(4), 321–331.
© BioScience.
All rights reserved.
Fusco Girard, L. (2006). Innovative Strategies for Urban
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored Heritage Conservation, Sustainable Development, and
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by Renewable Energy. Global Urban Development, 2(1),
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, 1–9. © Global Urban Development.
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Publisher. Any person who does any unauthorized Konijnendijk, C.C., Sadio, S., Randrup, T.B., &
act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal Schipperijn, J. (2003, September 21–28). Urban and
prosecution and civil claims for damages. peri-urban forestry for sustainable urban development.
Paper presented at 12th World Forestry Congress,
This edition first published 2012. Québec City, Canada. Retrieved May 10, 2011 from
Reprinted 2013, 2014, 2015. www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0976-B5.HTM
ISBN: 978 1 90861 430 8 Martens, P. (2006). Sustainability: science or fiction?
Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 2(1), 36–41.
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2 English for Academic Study

c Contents
i Introduction 7

1 Introduction to extended writing and research 9

2 Using evidence to support your ideas 20

3 Sourcing information for your project 35

4 Developing your project 53

5 Developing a focus 67

6 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 74

7 Incorporating data and illustrations 93

8 Preparing for conference presentations 103

g Glossary 117

a Appendices:
Appendix 1: Sample project 120
Appendix 2: Self-evaluation checklist 127
Appendix 3: Taking notes 129
Appendix 4: Source texts 131
Appendix 5: Symbols and abbreviations 149
Appendix 6: Compiling a bibliography 151

Extended Writing & Research Skills 3

 Book map
Topic Tasks

1 Introduction to extended ■■ Critical thinking

writing and research ■■ Thinking about what students in higher
education write
■■ Types of writing
■■ Extended writing
■■ Writing a project
■■ Analyzing the task
■■ Starting a project
■■ Unit summary

2 Using evidence to support ■■ Selective reading for source material

your ideas ■■ Incorporating evidence into academic work
■■ Referencing
■■ Purposeful reading
■■ Reading and note-making
■■ Stages of writing a summary or paraphrase
■■ Practice summary 1
■■ Practice summary 2
■■ Practice summary 3
■■ Unit summary

3 Sourcing information for ■■ Structuring projects

your project ■■ Identifying evaluative writing
■■ Developing a stance: Writing a thesis statement
■■ Descriptive and evaluative writing
■■ Reading for a purpose
■■ Reading and thinking critically
■■ Choosing sources
■■ Finding information
■■ Analyzing websites
■■ Acknowledging your sources
■■ Following academic conventions in referencing
■■ Deciding when to avoid using online sources
■■ Writing a bibliography
■■ Unit summary

4 Developing your ■■ Preparing for tutorials

project ■■ Quotations, paraphrases and plagiarism
■■ Avoiding plagiarism
■■ Working with abstracts
■■ Unit summary

4 English for Academic Study

5 Developing a focus ■■ Choosing a topic for your extended essay
■■ Developing a topic
■■ Establishing a focus
■■ Establishing a working title
■■ Planning Project 2
■■ Unit summary

6 Introductions, conclusions ■■ Features of introductions

and definitions ■■ Analyzing your introduction
■■ The language of introductions
■■ Identifying the thesis statement
■■ Features of conclusions
■■ Analyzing your conclusion
■■ The language of conclusions
■■ Features of definitions
■■ Unit summary

7 Incorporating data and ■■ The purpose of data

illustrations ■■ The language for incorporating data
■■ Assessing and interpreting data
■■ Working with data
■■ Incorporating references in a text
■■ Unit summary

8 Preparing for conference ■■ Identifying the features of abstracts

presentations ■■ Conference abstracts
■■ Preparing an oral presentation
■■ Editing your presentation slides
■■ Preparing a poster presentation
■■ Editing your written work
■■ Unit summary

Extended Writing & Research Skills 5

 Acknowledgements
The creation of these materials stemmed from the need to help international students develop
the study skills necessary to function effectively on academic courses in a university context. The
rationale behind the material is that students need to develop the confidence and competence to
become autonomous learners in order to successfully carry out research and complete assignments,
such as extended pieces of written work or oral presentations.
The development of these materials has been a collaborative effort which goes far beyond the
collaboration between the authors. The material has evolved over several years of pre-sessional
teaching at the International Study and Language Centre at the University of Reading. There have
been significant additions from a number of teachers, who have either contributed ideas or given
extensive feedback on the materials. The number of teachers involved is too large for us to mention
each one individually, but they are all fully appreciated.
In something like their present form, the materials have been trialled on successive pre-sessional
courses at the University of Reading since 2001. This trialling has involved thousands of students,
and they too have provided feedback in terms of course evaluation, as well as with their responses
to the tasks in the programme. We very much appreciate the contribution of students whose work
has been adapted and incorporated into the materials.
Particular mention should also be made of our colleague Sarah Brewer, for her ideas selflessly
shared, her knowledge of referencing and academic conventions and her patient and meticulous
editing – not to mention the decade she has spent teaching and commenting upon the contents of
this book.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the contribution of Mansoor Alhagbani, who gave us
permission to publish his extended essay, To what extent should insider dealing be regulated, and
how can this be done effectively?, on pages 120–126.
Joan McCormack and John Slaght, April 2012

Referencing
The system of referencing in the book is that of the APA (American Psychological Association). See
a brief summary in Appendix 5.
A number of the sources included have used different systems; these have been reproduced in
the original form. However, individual institutions or groups may well have their own system. It
is important to be systematic and meticulous in the choice and use of the system decided on.
Obviously it is not acceptable to alternate between different systems in the same piece of work.

6 English for Academic Study

i Introduction
Aims of the course

The purposes of this book are to support you in developing your extended writing and research
skills and to encourage the development of an independent approach to extended writing and
research. It is assumed that you will be working on the development and consolidation of core
academic written-language skills on other parts of your course, and part of the aim of these
materials is to put such skills into practice.

Structure of the course

■■ Unit structure: There are eight units in the book. Each unit explores and/or recycles certain key
aspects of academic writing, such as analyzing the task, selective reading of source material,
organizing and supporting your ideas, avoiding plagiarism and developing a stance.
■■ Input panels: These provide key information of particular relevance to you when researching
and writing your extended projects. You will be able easily to refer to them for guidance and
support when writing your projects.
■■ Study tips: These are included for ease of reference when you are revising what you have
studied. They either summarize the outcome of a series of activities or are a summary of other
information contained in the unit.
■■ Unit summaries: Each unit is followed by a unit summary, giving you the opportunity to reflect
on what you have learnt.

Additional materials
■■ Glossary: Words or phrases in bold (or bold and underlined in the task instructions) in the text
are explained in the glossary on pages 117–119.
■■ Sample project: A sample project written by a pre-sessional student illustrates the main
elements of academic texts.
■■ Source material: These authentic texts are referred to throughout the course to provide you
with material similar to academic texts you will use in your faculty study.

Working with the course

The book is designed around a ten-week course, during which you are expected to write two
projects: a guided project in the first four weeks, and a project in your own academic subject over
the remaining six weeks. You will be working on the projects at the same time as you carry out the
tasks in each unit of this book.
There is a suggested route through the materials for a shorter course of, for example, six weeks.
In this case, you are encouraged to study the materials that are not covered on your course,
independently.
■■ Project work: The course is designed so that for Project 1, the whole group will be working on
the same essay title, which is provided in the book along with appropriate source material. Your
teacher will support you in planning and writing this project, which will enable you to develop
the skills you need for extended academic writing. Alternatively, especially on a short course,
your teacher might choose to go straight to Project 2 (see page 8).

Extended Writing & Research Skills 7

 In academic life at university, students are expected to work independently, and in Project 2 this
aspect is emphasized. With the second project, you have to choose your own title and decide on
the focus of the project. Although you will need to find your own resources, you will, of course, be
supported in class and in tutorials during this period. For example, you will be able to ‘negotiate’
a title in collaboration with your tutor and make changes to your project after discussing your work
with him/her at various stages of the project.

The differences between Project 1 and Project 2

Project 1 Project 2
Title Title Your choice of topic in your
Specified in textbook
subject area
Length About 1,200 words Length 2,000–3,000 words
Resources Mostly provided in the book Resources You need to find your own
Support A lot of support provided in Support Working more independently,
the book and by your teacher with tutorials

This course will help you to develop a number of skills while writing your projects. These include the
following:
■■ brainstorming, planning and organizing your work
■■ establishing a specific focus and developing your ideas
■■ finding sources of information from books, journals and the Internet
■■ selecting information appropriate to your needs
■■ incorporating ideas and information into your text through paraphrasing/summarizing and
synthesizing, while avoiding plagiarism
■■ evaluating your sources and selecting the most relevant and appropriate
■■ developing your critical thinking skills
■■ learning about UK academic conventions for referencing and compiling a bibliography
■■ discussing your work with your tutor and your peers
■■ giving a presentation about your work

8 English for Academic Study

 Introduction to extended
1 writing and research
In this unit you will:
• become more aware of what extended writing involves
• find out about a writing project

Introduction

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES ON THE TYPICAL UNIVERSITY CAMPUS

There are a number of schools (or faculties) on university campuses, and within these, there are
departments and units. This page from the University of Coventry’s website gives an example
INPUT

of how universities are usually structured.

Source: Coventry University. 2009. Faculties and schools. Retrieved June 6, 2011, from www.coventry.ac.uk/University/
Pages/Facultiesandschools.aspx

Students usually have to produce a specific type of written assignment, on which they
are assessed, and this normally differs according to the requirements of their academic
department. The type of writing that students have to produce also depends on the level of
study: undergraduate, postgraduate or doctoral (PhD).

Extended Writing & Research Skills 9

 EXTENDED WRITING AT UNIVERSITY:
WHY DO STUDENTS WRITE?
The reasons why students carry out extended academic writing activities may include the
INPUT
following:
• to develop and express their ideas
• to provide evidence to support their ideas
• to show they can dispute or support existing theories (this involves demonstrating their
critical thinking ability)
• to demonstrate knowledge, based on their extensive reading, lectures and seminars
The type of writing required is determined by the purpose of the writing.

Task 1 Critical thinking

This is an important feature of academic study. Imagine, for example, that you have borrowed a
book from a university library that has to be returned the following day, but the book contains
important information you need for an essay. You will have to think ‘critically’ about what
information in the book would be useful, so you can quickly take appropriate notes or photocopies,
i.e., use your critical thinking skills. Understanding what is relevant is one example of the ability
to think critically. Another example is recognizing the writer’s purpose, or reason, for writing a text,
e.g., whether it is to inform, persuade, refute or support a viewpoint.

1.1 List at least three examples of issues you might need to think about critically
when you are studying.

1. recognizing relevant information

2. identifying the writer’s purpose

3. justifying ideas, comments used by writter

4. detecting bias
5. evaluating and comparing issues

Task 2 Thinking about what students in higher education write

2.1 Work with a partner. Brainstorm the kinds of writing students have to do in
higher education.
Brainstorming involves writing down as many ideas as you can about the topic. You are
going to do this very quickly, within a time limit, so don’t be concerned about how you
write, the accuracy of your grammar or spelling, or the order of ideas. One idea has been
provided for you as an example.

■■ extended essays or projects

■■

10 English for Academic Study

 Introduction to extended writing and research 1

■■

■■

■■

■■

■■

■■

■■

2.2 Now read the explanations of the types of writing expected of students in higher
education. Compare them with your own ideas.

Undergraduate students as well as postgraduate students are frequently required to

write extended essays. A typical length for an extended essay is 2,500–3,000 words.
We sometimes refer to these extended essays as projects.
Towards the end of their period of study, most students will be expected to write either
a thesis or a dissertation. Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary
defines a dissertation as ‘a long piece of writing based on the writer’s own ideas and
research as part of a university degree, especially a higher degree such as a PhD’1. In the
United Kingdom and Ireland, a dissertation is often written for a master’s-level degree.
According to the University College London website, a thesis is:
the acquisition and dissemination of new knowledge. In order to demonstrate
this, the author must demonstrate an understanding of what the relevant state
of the art is and what are the strengths and weaknesses of this situation. For
someone’s work to be knowledge, there must be a demonstration that suitable
and systematic methods were used to evaluate the chosen hypothesis.2
Not all students are required to write traditional-style essays. For example, in the
engineering department of a university, students will often be expected to write
reports on projects they have been working on during their course.
In certain academic disciplines, such as applied linguistics, education or sociology,
students may be required to write a case study. A good example of a case study
might be the ‘study of speech, writing, or language use of one person, either
at one point in time or over a period of time, e.g., a child over a period of one
year’ (Richards, Platt & Weber, 1985, p. 36) 3. A student in an applied linguistics
department would probably write a case study like this.
Students also have to write notes from written sources, or when attending a
lecture, seminar or tutorial. Some students annotate lecture handouts, either by
highlighting key points or by writing notes/comments in the margins of the text,
which may be useful later.
1
COBUILD Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary. (2006). Glasgow: Harper Collins.
2
 lack, C. (Ed.) (1997). PhD Thesis Structure and Content. Retrieved June 13, 2011, from http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/
C
staff/c.clack/phd.html
3
Richards, J., Platt, J., & Weber, H. (1985). Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (p. 36). Harlow, Essex, England:
Longman.

2.3 Discuss with another student what types of writing you expect to do on your
university course in the future.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 11

 Task 3 Types of writing

3.1 Complete the table below to clarify your understanding of different types
of writing.

Type of writing Level of student Explanation

(undergraduate/
postgraduate/doctoral)

essay for undergraduate/ traditional 600—1,000-word text

examination postgraduate written during an exam
lab report

undergraduate/
field study report
postgraduate/doctoral
PowerPoint slide

a wiki is a collaborative website

wiki which can be directly edited by
anyone with access to it
blog

written work submitted as part

extended essay/ of the course requirement during
project term time – typically a piece of
work 600–6,000 words long
thesis

dissertation

report

case study

notes

annotations

Writing as a standard process

Study tip
Whatever form of extended writing students are
expected to do, the process will usually involve the You should take responsibility for
following steps: your research and writing. Once
■■ gathering information from various sources you accept this requirement, you
will develop the necessary skills
■■ organizing this information so that it fully addresses
with surprising speed.
the requirements of the writing task
■■ planning the text
■■ drafting and redrafting the text until it communicates the information and ideas fully
and clearly

12 English for Academic Study

 Introduction to extended writing and research 1

When carrying out research, you need to learn to work independently. This includes:
■■ finding information for yourself
■■ editing and redrafting your work
■■ ensuring you can explain your ideas to others

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
The writing of reports, case studies,
dissertations and theses forms part of
INPUT

the assessment process in most academic

disciplines in universities. Another means
of assessment is oral presentations.
Presentations are normally given in a
seminar as part of a study project. For
example, a student writing a report might
give a presentation in order to ‘present’
his/her report in a clear and concise way.
Oral presentations can be given by an
individual student, or they can be done as
group presentations.

Another form of presentation is the poster

presentation. In this case, the student
prepares a visual display outlining the
work or project he/she has been involved
in. A poster presentation will normally be
given during a conference. Students display
their work, and participants and visitors
are invited to look at the display and ask
questions about the process or information
they can see. At the same time, other
students will be giving oral presentations
at the conference. You will do further work
on presentations later in this book (see
Unit 8).

Apart from the methods of written and

oral assessment mentioned above, students
will probably have to take exams at the end
of term and/or the end of the year, as well
as at the end of their university studies,
when they take their final examinations.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 13

 Task 4 Extended writing

This course is designed to help you apply the skills and strategies you have already studied and
developed in more general writing and reading classes, i.e., skills such as skimming and scanning,
structuring an essay and writing a conclusion.
You will do most of the extended writing for this course independently – outside of the classroom –
as a project. Any writing that occurs in the classroom will normally be for editing purposes, when you
have an opportunity to consult your tutor and redraft your work accordingly. You will be expected
to follow a process writing approach. This approach includes editing your work, submitting your first
draft and redrafting the extended writing project after your tutor has given you feedback.
Many students have the opportunity to take part in one-to-one tutorials to discuss the first and
subsequent drafts of any extended writing they are working on.

4.1 Discuss with another student what you understand by the process writing
approach.

4.2 Write three aspects of your project you could

discuss with your tutor.

1. how to write an appropriate introduction

and conclusion
2. appropriate use of sources
3.

4.

You will be expected to go on redrafting and revising the text of your writing project in
order to improve it, as long as you are able to submit your final draft before the submission
deadline. The process you go through while writing the project is just as important as the
final product and the final grade.
Writing your project gives you the opportunity to practise the academic skills and
academic conventions you have been learning and developing within all the areas of
your pre-sessional course.

PROJECTS 1 AND 2
This course is based initially around a guided project (Project 1) on the topic of sustainable
development. Project 2 is an independent academic project in your own subject area. For Project
INPUT

1, you will be given certain ‘core’ texts to consult. However, you will also have the opportunity
to carry out some independent research by making your own selection of two additional texts
from books, journals or online sources. You will need to provide hard copies of all sources for
your tutor – and all source material must be written in English.
One of the main purposes of this course is to improve your level of general and academic
English. To be effective, it is essential that you have maximum exposure to the language.
This does not happen if you read texts in your own language, so you should not be tempted
to access them in translations; even though these are readily available in the digital age, they
are often poorly expressed and do not convey the appropriate meaning. Reading translations
will not help you become used to applying the reading strategies you need when dealing with
extensive texts on your academic course. There is also strong evidence to support the view

14 English for Academic Study

 Introduction to extended writing and research 1

that reading in the target language significantly helps the development of writing, listening
and speaking skills. Good readers make good language learners!
The aim of the guided project (Project 1) is to help you develop the skills you need to produce
an extended piece of academic writing. An important aspect of extended writing is carrying out
the necessary research, both to inform your writing and support your ideas. Although a range
of texts is available, you will need to read selectively to find information that is relevant to the
task title. You will need to take notes, or highlight key points from those sources, and use them
as the basis for summarizing and including these ideas in your project.
The guided project should be considered practice for a second project related to your own
subject area (Project 2). For this project, you should make most of the decisions about the
topic and title, and you will carry out the research independently (including the search for
appropriate sources).
Note: Your teacher might decide not to do Project 1 and simply make use of the practice
activities to develop the necessary skills for completing Project 2 on a topic related to your
own field of study.

Task 5 Writing a project

There are three stages in producing an extended essay or project: planning, researching and writing
up. In each of these stages, there are a number of smaller steps.

5.1 Read steps 1–16 below. Then write them under the appropriate stage headings
on page 16, Planning, Researching or Writing up, in the appropriate order.
Write the steps in full, not just the letters.
1. Read the first draft.
2. Edit the draft – decide objectively whether your ideas have been expressed clearly.
3. Think of a working title for the project. ✔
4. Search for relevant journals/books/information in the library and on the Internet.
5. Write down the details of your sources.
6. Decide if you need to do more reading.
7. Write the contents page, bibliography, title page and abstract.
8. Arrange a tutorial with your tutor.
9. Do some reading. ✔
10. Decide on a topic.
11. Write the first complete draft. ✔
12. Highlight/take notes of the relevant information.
13. Plan the content in detail.
14. Work on establishing a clear focus.
15. Make a rough outline plan of your ideas.
16. Check that sources are available/accessible.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 15

 Planning 3,10,13,14,15,16
1.

2.

3. Think of a working title for the project.

4. Decide on a topic
5. Plan the content in detail
6. Make a rough outline plan of your ideas

Researching 4,5,6,9,12
1. Read the first draft.
2. Search for relevant journals/books/information in the library and on the Internet.
3. Do some reading.

4. Work on establishing a clear focus

5. Check that sources are available/accessible.
Write down the details of your sources.

Writing up 1,2,7,8,11
1. Write the first complete draft.

2. Arrange a tutorial with your tutor.

3. Write the contents page, bibliography, title page and abstract.
4.

5. Edit the draft – decide objectively whether your ideas have been expressed
clearly.

5.2 Now discuss your answers with another student. There is more than one
possible order.

Task 6 Analyzing the task

Before you begin any task, it is important to analyze carefully what it requires you to do. You will
then have a very clear idea of your purpose for writing. Consider the following project title:

The needs of future generations are being met by current policies of sustainable development.
To what extent do you agree with this statement?

16 English for Academic Study

 Introduction to extended writing and research 1

6.1 Analyze the project title and highlight the key words and phrases. Then discuss
the following with a partner.
1. How is the title framed, e.g., statement/question/heading?
2. What does the title ask you to do?

Task 7 Starting a project

One of the key aspects of writing an effective project is careful Study tip
planning. This can take a long time and the plan should be
written in considerable detail – not simply a few words noted Remember, a good plan is
down quickly. one that can be changed
if necessary. You may find
You need to develop the ability to think through your ideas yourself modifying or adding to
carefully: amending them, looking at the resources available, then your plan. This is quite normal.
producing a comprehensive plan.

Deconstructing the project question

In order to complete the assignment successfully, it is important to answer as effectively and fully as
possible. A good starting point is to deconstruct the question.
In Task 6, you analyzed the title of the project:

The needs of future generations are being met by current policies of sustainable development.
To what extent do you agree with this statement?

You are now going to work on planning this project by asking yourself a number of questions,
using various Wh~ question forms, as well as direct Yes/No question forms (e.g., Are current
policies effective?)

7.1 List some more questions that you might ask in order to plan this project title.

1. What are the current policies?

2. Which is the most serious problem?

3. Is energy the most important priority for the future?

4.

5.

6.

7. What are some of the social factors involved?

8. How important 

7.2 Brainstorm some ideas to answer the questions above in groups.

a. Use your ideas to start a plan for your project.
b. Write your ideas in the appropriate boxes on page 18.
c. You need to write in note form.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 17

 Note: Thinking of possible answers is only for the purpose of prediction. At the next stage,
you will read to find out whether your predictions are appropriate. You will also read to
research other ideas on the topic. This reading stage is one of the most important parts of
your work because you will look for evidence to support your ideas and to find other ideas
about the topic.

Introduction

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Main body

1. Food (need) - food security (policy)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Conclusion

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

18 English for Academic Study

 Introduction to extended writing and research 1

Unit summary

In this unit you have been introduced to the basic concept of extended writing and the types of
extended writing you may be required to produce. You have discovered what a project involves and
looked at the various stages of good project writing.
Using the verbs in the box, complete these possible reasons for writing an
1 extended project.

 dispute develop display provide 

a. to show you can express and develop ideas

b. to show you can provide evidence to support ideas site sources
c. to show you can dispute or support existing theories (this demonstrates
critical thinking ability)
d. to display knowledge

Look at the following examples of critical thinking. Mark each with either G,
2 for this is something I am quite good at, or NG, for this is something I am not so
good at and need to practise.
a. recognizing what is relevant and what is not relevant
b. identifying the writer’s purpose
c. assessing the writer’s argument
d. evaluating the credibility of the writer’s sources
Tick (✔) the types of extended writing that you need to practise and improve to
3 be successful on your course.
a. examination essay d. thesis
b. non-examination essay e. report
c. dissertation f. case study

Look at the three stages involved in producing a piece of extended writing.

4 For each stage, write two of the steps you would need to carry out.

a. planning b. researching c. writing up

Think about the topic of the project that you started to discuss in this unit, and
5 answer the following questions.
a. What have you found interesting about this topic?
b. What aspects of the topic have you found quite easy to understand?
c. What aspects of the topic have you found more difficult to understand?

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide you with information on different types of academic writing and
writing projects.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 19

 Using evidence to support
2 your ideas
In this unit you will:
• discuss the importance of providing evidence in academic writing
• learn different methods of incorporating sources
• practise summarizing information

Introduction

WHY PROVIDE EVIDENCE FOR SUPPORTING YOUR IDEAS?

It is part of Western academic convention that any claim made in writing, e.g., an opinion or
generalization, is supported by evidence. This gives your work more academic weight.
INPUT

Using the ideas of other people in your text, and acknowledging them, is another essential
aspect of academic writing. This involves referring to them twice, first within the text itself
and then in a bibliography at the end.
In the early stages of academic writing, students are not usually expected to write their own
original ideas. In fact, the reason university departments require students to produce written
work is principally to demonstrate that:
• they have read, understood and evaluated some of the literature in their field
• they can select appropriate academic sources to support their point of view or perspective
• they can make use of ideas from more than one source
The first of these points involves critical thinking, mentioned in Unit 1. This comes up at
various stages of the course, as the idea is fundamental to academic study.

Reading list
To carry out your first project successfully, you should make use of the following reading list. The
printed sources are available in Appendix 4 on page 131.

Bibliography
• Day, J. W., Hall, C. A., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., Pimentel, D.,
Ibáñez Martí, C., & Mitsch, W. J. (2009). Ecology in Times
of Scarcity. BioScience, 59(4), 321–331.
• Martens, P. (2006). Sustainability: science or fiction?
Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 2(1), 36–41.
• Fusco Girard, L. (2006). Innovative Strategies for Urban
Heritage Conservation, Sustainable Development, and
Renewable Energy. Global Urban Development, 2(1), 1–9.

20 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

Task 1 Selective reading for source material

In Unit 1, you analyzed and deconstructed the title of your project. The next stage is to look at
sources which are relevant to your title.

1.1 Discuss the following questions with a partner.

1. Why are you going to read the sources on the reading list; what is your purpose for
reading them?
2. How are you going to read them? What reading strategies might you use?
3. What are you going to do as you read?
These questions help you to think critically as you approach your reading, i.e., you should
not be passively accepting any texts that you are presented with, but asking yourself
questions as you read.

1.2 Complete the table showing reasons why you might want to read a text.
Indicate how important you think each reason is by numbering each statement 1–5:
1= not at all important; 5= very important.

Reasons for reading a text Importance

(1–5)

1. on the reading list supplied by my teacher

2. to compare with other texts

3. advice from tutor/lecturer/teacher

4. relevant to my purpose

5. respected author

6. to make notes

7. to develop a line of enquiry

8. to refute or support an argument

9. to copy the main points and examples

10. written by an expert in the field

11. very recently published text

12. cited in other sources

13. to expand knowledge

14. to confirm understanding

15. intellectual curiosity

Extended Writing & Research Skills 21

 SUPPORTING YOUR OPINION
One of the most important aspects of writing an academic assignment is that you are
expected to organize and express your ideas ‘in your own terms’. This is true whether you are
INPUT
writing a long dissertation or a simple summary for an oral presentation. To frame something
in your own terms means that your reader expects to read about your point of view, or
stance. However, you must support your point of view with evidence from the literature (in
this case, the sources you have read from the reading list on page 20), or from fieldwork, e.g.,
collecting data, or from experiments.
By supporting your opinion with ideas and information from the literature, you are
strengthening your viewpoint and therefore providing a more compelling argument. Such
evidence is expected in academic writing.
Your purpose for reading the sources listed in the bibliography on page 20 is to find
information (evidence) that is relevant to your idea or thesis about the topic. It is important
to remember that not all of the information in the sources you have will be relevant. You will
therefore have to read selectively in order to identify the relevant information.
Reading selectively is essential because of the heavy reading load that you will have during
your academic course.

1.3 Rate the different ways you might want to read

Study tip
a text in the table below.
Indicate the importance you place on the 12 reading It is essential to develop the skill
techniques below by numbering each statement 1–5: of selective reading, because
1 = not at all important; 5 = very important. during your academic course
you will be expected to read
hundreds of pages per week.

How to approach a text Importance

(1–5)

1. reading carefully in order to understand everything

2. looking up the meaning of all unfamiliar words

3. checking the contents page of books or journals before reading

4. summarizing every chapter or section

5. reading only sections relevant to needs

6. noting references and bibliographical details while reading

7. skimming the whole text, noting most relevant sections,

re-reading those sections more carefully

8. reading the introduction and conclusion first

9. surveying the text randomly for information

10. reading as quickly as possible

11. only reading topic sentences or paragraph leaders*

12. annotating and making notes in the margin

*A paragraph leader is the first sentence in a paragraph. It ‘directs’ the organization and content of the remaining
sentences in that paragraph and may be linked to the previous or next paragraph in some way.

22 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

Before you look at the texts in the reading list, you will look at some examples of how
evidence is incorporated into academic writing and carry out some practice tasks.

Task 2 Incorporating evidence into academic work

2.1 Look at examples 1 and 2 below. Which statement would you take more
seriously? Why?
1. The number of tourists has increased considerably in the last year.
2. The number of tourists has increased by 10% since last year, according to the most
recent government report on the economy (UK Government Statistics, 2007).

2.2 Study the following examples of how evidence is used to support a point.
Underline the point being supported and note the evidence given.
1. Any discussion of financial markets must include a definition of what they are:
‘A financial market is the place or mechanism whereby financial assets are exchanged
and prices of these assets are set’ (Campbell, 2003, p. 47).
2. According to Wang (2001), education is the key aspect underlying the successful
economic development in a society.
3. Djabri states that operations research is the application of the methods of science to
complex problems (Djabri, 2009).
4. As Sloman (2009) has demonstrated, there are two main methods of measuring
unemployment.
5. This antibiotic has an immediate effect on the illness (Braine, 2007).

INCORPORATING EVIDENCE
You can incorporate evidence into academic writing in three ways.
• Summarizing the content of a text: this involves condensing someone’s ideas into a
INPUT

shorter form without giving all the details or explanations. When summarizing, you
must acknowledge the writer and should not include any ideas that are not expressed
in the original (see examples 2, 3, 4 and 5 in Ex 2.2). Note that you can summarize all
of the text, a global summary, or you may decide to summarize only part of a text,
a selective summary.
• Paraphrasing the writer’s ideas: this involves restating someone’s ideas using different
words and phrases and usually relates to a specific point that the writer has made.
When paraphrasing, you should use your own words as much as possible. In academic
writing, a paraphrase is not always shorter than the original; in fact, it may be very
difficult to make it shorter without losing the original meaning. Again, it is important
to acknowledge the writer and not to include any information or interpretation that is
different from the original.
• Using direct quotations: this involves using the exact words of the writer in italics or
within inverted commas. You must acknowledge the writer (see example 1 in Ex 2.2).
Quotations are mostly used in essays and journal articles. However, an essay full of
direct quotations may detract from your viewpoint and make it difficult for the reader to
follow what you want to say. Direct quotations are used less frequently in books, because
the authors often want to express their own viewpoint rather than reiterate the ideas or
opinions of others.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 23

 In most academic writing, the incorporation of evidence is done by using a mixture of
the above, but with limited and carefully selected use of direct quotations. Summaries,
paraphrases and direct quotations are used by writers in academic essays as evidence of
detailed knowledge. You should also attempt to use them to demonstrate your understanding
of some of the most important features of academic writing.
You might summarize ideas generally, while acknowledging the sources, and occasionally use a
direct quotation if this seems to encapsulate the point you wish to make. You might choose to
refer directly to your source (see examples 2, 3 and 4 in Ex 2.2), where the authors are named
within the sentence, using appropriate language. Alternatively, you might simply refer indirectly
to the source by adding the name and date after your statement (see example 5 in Ex 2.2).

Task 3 Referencing
In this task, you are going to practise identifying different ways of referencing. This will raise your
awareness of how to reference in your own writing.

3.1 Study the following extract from the text Environmental problems and
management by Andrew Jordan and Tim O’Riordan (1999), and highlight
the references.
Note: You should ignore the underlined sections until Ex 6.1.

Environmental problems
and management
The origins of environmental policy
Recognition of the need to both transform and adjust
to nature is a fundamental aspect of the human
condition. While we may think of ‘the environment’ as
a modern political issue that gained popular appeal in
the 1960s, the roots of environmentalist thinking
stretch back far into the past (O’Riordan, 1976). The
natural environment provides humanity with the
material resources for economic growth and consumer
satisfaction. But throughout history there have always been social critics and philosophers
who have felt that humans also need nature for spiritual nourishment and aesthetic
satisfaction. John Muir, the redoubtable founder of the Sierra Club in the USA, felt that
without wild places to go to humanity was lost:
Thousands of tired, nerve-shaken over-civilized people are beginning to find out that
going to the mountains is going home; that wilderness is a necessity and that mountain
parks and reservations are fountains not only of timber and irrigating rivers, but as
fountains of life. Awakening from the stupefying effects of over-industry and the deadly
apathy of luxury, they are trying as best they can to mix their own little ongoings with
those of Nature, and to get rid of rust and disease . . . some are washing off sins and
cobwebs of the devil’s spinning in all-day storms on mountains (quoted in Pepper,
1984, p. 33).

24 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

Environmental protection is justified in remarkably similar terms today. What is dramatically

different is the extent of popular concern. The critical question which needs to be asked is
why did modern environmentalism blossom as a broad social movement spanning different
continents in the late 1960s and not before? There is strong evidence that environmental
problems like acidification and pesticide pollution materially worsened and became more
widespread in the public mind in the 1960s and 1970s. The American sociologist Ronald
Inglehart (1977), however, believes that we also have to look to society for an explanation. On
the basis of careful and intensive public opinion analysis, he argues that modern
environmentalism is the visible expression of a set of ‘new political’ values held by a generation
of ‘post-materialists’ raised in the wealthy welfare states of the West. This liberated class no
longer had to toil to supply their material needs and set out to satisfy what the psychologist
Maslow (1970) terms its ‘higher order’ requirements like peace, tranquillity, intellectual and
aesthetic satisfaction. This was surely a ‘post-materialist’ sensibility, but at first it was
confined to a vociferous minority that tried to push their values onto the majority who
steadfastly regarded themselves more as consumers than as citizens.
Other commentators, however, highlight the tendency for environmental concern to exhibit a
cyclical pattern over time, with particularly pronounced peaks in the late 1960s and late
1980s. Closer scrutiny reveals that these short-term ‘pulses’ coincided with periods of
economic growth and social instability, which at first blush seems consistent with Inglehart’s
thesis. Other sociologists have also observed that materially richer and better educated
sections of society tend to give much higher priority to environmental protection than poorer
ones, with the highest rates among those working in the ‘non-productive’ sectors of the
economy, such as education, health and social care (Cotgrove & Duff, 1980). Conversely,
concern tends to tail off during periods of economic recession (Downs, 1972), and is not
normally as pronounced in poorer sections of Western society or in developing countries. The
birth of the modern environmental movement in the late 1960s certainly coincided with a
period of economic prosperity and societal introspection. Whether this led to or was caused
by the accumulating evidence of environmental decay is open to interpretation.
Source: Jordan, A., & O’Riordan, T. (1999). Environmental problems and management. In P. Cloke, P. Crang &
M. Goodwin (Eds.), Introducing human geographies (pp. 133–140). London: Arnold. Reproduced by kind permission
of Hodder Education.

3.2 Decide if the references in the text are paraphrases/summaries or direct quotations
and complete columns 1 and 2 in the table below.
Pay attention to the kind of language used.

Name and date Direct/indirect Idea

reference expressed

O’Riordan, 1976 indirect 5

Extended Writing & Research Skills 25

 3.3 Match the list of ideas from the text with their appropriate references in the
table in Ex 3.2. Complete column 3 of the table.

Ideas expressed by environmentalists

1. Once people have fulfilled their basic human needs, they want to achieve a better
quality of life.
2. Interest in the environment tends to relate to the condition of the economic climate.
3. Environmentalism is a way of demonstrating political values.
4. It is essential for the environment to be preserved, for the sake of our future.
5. The awareness of environmental issues is not necessarily a modern concept.
6. Only certain privileged sections of society have environmental concerns.

Task 4 Purposeful reading

Any reading you do should have a clear purpose. In this case, it should help you find information
relevant to the project title, which is:

The needs of future generations are being met by current policies of sustainable development.
To what extent do you agree with this statement?

As discussed in Unit 1 (pages 16–17), it is essential to identify the

key terms in an essay title or question. In this case, the key terms Study tip
you need to look at are sustainable development, current policies • Identify your reason for reading
and future generations. and always keep that reading
purpose in mind.
You are now going to find out information about these terms,
which you will later incorporate into your project. Thus, your • Look for information relevant
purpose for reading in this case is to find information relevant to: to your needs and search for
■■ sustainable development
key terms.
■■ current policies on sustainable development
■■ how these policies consider future generations

4.1 Look at the sources in Appendix 4 on pages 131–148.

Identify the text relevant to the terms above.
a. Either underline the information, using a highlighter pen, or annotate the text by
writing a note in the margin.
b. Make a careful note of the source of the information, i.e., title and writer, and also the
page number.

Task 5 Reading and note-making

5.1 Write notes on what you think makes a good summary. Then discuss with
another student.
a. Compare and discuss the items on your lists.
b. Exchange views on any difficulties you currently have making summaries.

26 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

SUMMARIZING INFORMATION
One of the key skills involved in using or referring to sources is summarizing; this means
being able to state clearly and succinctly the key ideas of an argument. The summary should
INPUT
be in your own words, with an acknowledgement of the source. If you summarize ideas in
the exact words of the original, without acknowledging the writer, this is considered to be
plagiarism – a form of cheating.
If you change some of the words of the original, or put it in your own words and do not
acknowledge the source, this is also considered plagiarism. Universities have strong views on
plagiarism, which is discussed further in Unit 4 on pages 56–57.
The following five stages are a useful way of developing summarizing skills.
1. Decide why
First decide why you are summarizing.
• Are you going to use this information in an essay?
• Do you need only the main ideas or are the details also important?
Be selective.
2. Understand the material
Before you write, you have to understand the material you plan to summarize; if the ideas are
not clear to you, they will not be clear to the reader when you express them in writing.
3. Making notes
Making notes is essential for two reasons: first, to clearly identify the main points of the
text; second, so you can use your notes as the basis for writing. In this case, the purpose is to
write a summary, but in your project or essay you will often use your notes as the basis for
expressing a writer’s ideas in your own words (with appropriate referencing, of course).
4. Put the original away
Write your summary using your own notes as a stimulus, without looking at the original text
again. This will make it easier to summarize in your own words.
5. Check against the original text
When you have finished your summary, you may want to read the original text again to
ensure you have all the information you need.

5.2 Study the possible features of a good summary below. Which ones do you think
are features of a good summary?
Make sure you can justify your choice in a class discussion.

1. using the same order of facts and ideas as the original

2. using all the information from the original
3. using none of the same vocabulary as the original
4. using different grammatical structures from the original
5. emphasizing the points you feel are important in the original
6. giving your opinion about or commenting on the original text

Source: Trzeciak, J., & Mackay, S. E. (1994). Study skills for academic writing. Trowbridge: Prentice Hall.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 27

 Task 6 Stages of writing a summary or paraphrase

When developing your ability in summarizing, it is advisable to practise using one particular
approach. The N O W approach is one way of doing this.

There are three stages to the N O W approach:

N OTE: making notes on the main points

O RGANIZE: organizing these notes

W RITE: writing up the notes in an appropriate format

1. Making notes N
■■ Identify your note-making purpose, e.g., to summarize the whole text (a ‘global’ summary),
or specific parts of the text that are relevant to a particular purpose (a ‘selective’ summary).
■■ Find the relevant main ideas and underline them.
■■ Write out the underlined section in note form, using your own words where possible.
■■ Check the original text to make sure that you have not missed out any important information
relevant to your purpose.

2. Organizing the notes O

■■ Study the notes and decide in which order you wish to put the information when you write the
summary. This will depend on why you are making the notes; for example, whether you want to
produce a global or selective summary of the original text.
■■ Decide how you want to prioritize the information. You may want to reorganize the ideas and
information, or decide that some of it is not relevant.
■■ Organize the notes according to your purpose; you may wish to rewrite them or put them in the
form of a mind-map.

3. Writing up the notes W

■■ Write up the notes to produce your summary text. Remember that you are transforming the
notes from note form into fully connected sentences.
■■ Edit your first draft; make sure you have included all the relevant information and checked the
accuracy of your grammar, vocabulary and spelling.
■■ Write out a second draft, if necessary.

6.1 Imagine you have been asked to summarize the extract from Environmental
problems and management (pages 24–25) and answer the question:
To what extent is society’s attitude to the environment a recent phenomenon? To what
extent has it changed in recent decades?
Follow the steps of the N O W approach to complete the summary.
Step 1: Making notes
You have your purpose (see above) and have underlined the relevant parts of the text.
From these underlined parts, you have written the following notes:
Note: When taking notes from a lecture or from a written source, it is a common practice
to use note-taking symbols. This is a form of shorthand and makes it more possible to
take notes under pressure of time, or to make notes when you are planning an essay or
brainstorming ideas. It is important, however, that at a later stage you or others are able
to understand your notes. Please refer to Appendix 5 for a set of symbols that you can use
and which will help you to understand notes prepared by someone else.

28 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

env has always been an important issue provides essential resources &
place of natural beauty

concern for env grew in 60s and 70s

some say env concern because society more aware of the damage to
env, e.g., acid rain, others say linked with eco. growth/how developed a
country is

reasons for env concern still debated

Check the text to make sure you have not missed anything.
Step 2: Organize the notes
You think the organization of your notes is already appropriate for answering the question.
How would you justify that view to another student?
Step 3: Writing up the notes
Complete the summary below. Then compare your summary with the sample supplied by
your teacher.

The natural environment has always been an important issue for

reasons. It provides essential
required for economic growth and is also a place of beauty where people
find “spiritual nourishment”. During the , concern for
the environment grew. Some feel this was a result of society becoming
increasingly aware of the being done and the need to
and preserve it for future .
However, others argue that support for issues has been
linked to times of growth predominantly within
developed countries and among the and more highly
educated in those societies. Debate continues as to whether it is
economic prosperity or “social introspection” which affects society’s
to the environment.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 29

 Task 7 Practice summary 1

7.1 One section of your project should analyze why the concept of sustainable
development has evolved. Read the following section from Source 1, page 133.
… A time span of two million years is enough time for species evolution to occur, and
indeed it did. Our distant ancestors went through a series of species before evolving
into modern Homo sapiens. And as our species evolved, so did the human lifestyle.
Language began about 50,000 years ago (2,500 generations), agriculture about
10,000 years ago (500 generations), and civilizations first appeared about 5,000 years
(250 generations) ago. Most initial civilizations began in resource-rich coastal zones
and lower river valleys after the sea level stabilized, partially as a result of the subsidy
of abundant resources and energy in these areas (Day et al., 2007). The Industrial
Revolution and intensive fossil-fuel use began about 200 years (ten generations) and
a century (five generations) ago, respectively. Intensive fossil-fuel use represents only
0.1% of the age of our species, and about 0.01% of the time over which the human
lifestyle evolved. The ‘information age’ has existed for only about two generations.
But ‘information age’ is a misnomer, as we live in a petroleum age, in which intensive
energy use supported the development of most technologies, including information
technology. Survival values that developed over human evolution (i.e., two million
years) had time to make it into our DNA. But the current reigning intellectual and social
world views, which are only a century or two old, mostly ignore these older values. Our
main point is that these views that currently dominate human thinking about growth,
our place in the world, and the future are extremely recent and run mostly counter to
long-term sustainability. A very important societal role of ecology and ecologists in the
21st century will be to help define the environmental and ecological realities and values
that foster sustainability …
Source: Adapted from Day, J. W., Hall, C. A., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., Pimentel, D., Ibáñez Martí, C., & Mitsch, W. J.
(2009). Ecology in Times of Scarcity. BioScience, 59(4), 321–331.

7.2 Re-read the section and highlight or underline the key points or phrases that
relate to why sustainable development has become necessary.
Three phrases have been highlighted for you as an example.

7.3 Complete the mind map below with your ideas. The phrases you underlined
should help you.

Modern
Homo sapiens
evolved

Early civilization
Why SD
in resource-rich
became an
areas
issue

30 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

7.4 Now look at the notes below and compare the information contained in them
with the information in your mind map.

Why the concept of sustainable development has evolved

Modern Homo sapiens evolution agriculture civilization –
… use of resource-rich areas – coastal zones/river valleys
19C Industrial Revolution – intensive fossil-fuel use
Petroleum Age Inf. Age
Intensive energy use supports most technologies
Survival values replaced by intellectual and social view of world
Ignoring survival values Counter long-term sustainability
Ecologists in 21C will set ecological realities + values for sustainability

7.5 Below is a possible summary based on the information contained in the text.
Complete the summary by inserting appropriate words from the box in the gaps.
Note: You will not use all of the words.

carefully replaced declining dramatically increased

accurately need demand intensive

Summary
The evolution of modern man (Homo sapiens) meant use
of natural resources. However, the use of such resources
started when the Industrial Revolution began, and this has been
increasing during the Information Age, more
referred to as the Petroleum Age. Meanwhile, many of the traditional survival
values have been by intellectual and social world values which run
contrary to the needs of sustainable development.

Task 8 Practice summary 2

Imagine you are writing the following assignment:

Discuss the causes of the decline of animal species.

8.1 What information could you extract from the text on page 32 to help with your
assignment?

Extended Writing & Research Skills 31

 Safety in numbers may not be enough
In the early 18th century, flocks of migrating passenger pigeons had darkened the skies
over eastern North America, taking three days to pass by. Hunters simply pointed a gun
upwards, fired, and then got out of the way as the pigeons tumbled to earth. When the
birds stopped to roost, trees broke under their combined weight. With an estimated
population of somewhere between 3 and 5 billion, the passenger pigeon was the most
abundant bird that ever lived. Yet, by the late 1890s, the species was almost extinct. A few
birds found their way to zoos, but they languished in captivity and refused to breed.
It was a result that perplexed the eminent conservationist Wallace Craig and his
contemporaries, and today’s conservationists often face a similar problem. It isn’t
that living in a zoo can ruin an animal’s sex drive. When wild species experience a
population crash they can go into freefall, even though you would think that by removing
the pressure of overcrowding the survivors would flourish. Now conservationists are
beginning to realize that undercrowding itself can help drive species to extinction. It’s a
counter-intuitive idea, but it’s not a new one: the consequences of low population density
were first studied more than half a century ago by American biologist Warder Allee.
For decades his ideas were largely forgotten, but now an awareness of these ‘Allee effects’
looks set to transform conservation practices. ‘They alter our perception about the risks
facing populations that have declined markedly, even if they are not numerically tiny,’ says
Georgina Mace from the Institute of Zoology in London.

Source: Barnett, A. (2001). Safety in numbers may not be enough. New Scientist, 169, 38–41.

8.2 Follow the N O W approach to write your summary in no more than four
sentences.
Note: The N O W approach to summarizing can be supported by using the Cornell
system which is explained below.

THE CORNELL NOTE-TAKING SYSTEM

The Cornell Note-Taking System was developed by Walter Pauk, Emeritus Professor of
Education at Cornell University in the United States. It is the page layout of Cornell notes
INPUT

that makes this system different from other ways of note-taking. A single sheet of paper is
divided into a left- and a right-hand column and a row at the top and a row at the bottom.
The four resulting sections each have a specific purpose.
The row at the top should include all the bibliographical details, including the name(s) of
the author(s), the title of the original article, the source, the date of publication, the volume
number if the text comes from a journal, and the page numbers. A book should also have the
name of the publisher and the place (city or town) of publication.
The space in the right-hand column is the note-taking area. Here there is sufficient room
to write down ideas, impressions and notes that are made from a text or during a lecture. It is
usually when these notes have been completed that the left-hand column and bottom area are
used, although some annotating may go on during the note-taking stage.
The left-hand column is then used to annotate the notes with comments, questions,
references, reminders, extra ideas or interpretations. This annotation process is a crucial
element in note-taking. It provides the opportunity to consider the notes, digest and fully
understand them. It may lead the note-taker to add ideas or expand the information.
The bottom area leaves space for the main notes on each page to be summarized. The
summary provides a concise review of the key facts that have been identified and can be used
for reference later.

32 English for Academic Study

 Using evidence to support your ideas 2

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS

Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., et al.
(2010). Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people, Science, 327(5967), 812–818.
doi: 10.1126/science. 1185383

ANNOTATIONS NOTES (from ‘Closing the yield gap’ P2 and P3)

Challenges:

definition ‘yield gap’ useful Level of food production varies greatly depending on
(see first para.) region, e.g., Africa had far lower production increases
comp. China/Latin America – need to close yield gap

Example needed? Low yields due to technical constraints + econ. reasons

driven by market forces

Does this include all forms Lack of tech. knowledge & skills
of food production? Limited finances
Lack of storage space
Fear of initial heavy financial commitment involved in increasing
productivity

Solutions Balance needed between investing in overall growth and

focusing on agricultural growth

Focusing on overall growth leading to buying from more

developed system may be best choice

Need to have developed infrastructure before yield gap

can be addressed

More problems Factors such as poor transport system and means, limited
market infrastructure = higher prices of inputs

Summary

Task 9 Practice summary 3

9.1 Choose two sections from the sources you are using to write your project. These
should be relevant to your project. Write a summary, using the methods you have
been practising in this unit.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 33

 Unit summary

In this unit you have learnt about the importance of providing evidence in academic writing
and discovered different methods of incorporating sources. You have also practised
summarizing information.
Another student has asked you for advice about selecting texts to read. Write
1 three good reasons for choosing one text rather than another.

a.

b.

c.
The same student has asked you for advice about how to read a text. Write the
2 three most useful pieces of advice that you would give.

a.

b.

c.
With some of the words from the box, complete this summary about
3 incorporating evidence into academic work.

 summarize express evidence acknowledge 
 quotations weight paraphrase proof 

It is important that any claim, opinion or generalization made in an essay is supported by

evidence . You need to show proof that what you are saying is correct.
To incorporate evidence into your writing, you canparaphase a specific idea from
the writer in your own words or you can summarize the content of a text (write a
shorter version that concentrates on the main information). Occasionally, you might want
to use direct quotations (the writer’s exact words). When you use other people’s
ideas, you must acknowledgesthem. This means referring to them both within the text
and in a bibliography at the end of the text.
Complete each of these statements about writing summaries with your own ideas.
4
a. Two things I should do when I write summaries are
and .

b. One thing I must not do when I write summaries is

.

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide you with a step-by-step guide to academic writing, as well as
detailed information about referencing conventions.

34 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for
3 your project
In this unit you will:
• look at how a project is structured
• learn to identify evaluative or critical writing
• practise academic referencing
• practise selecting information from websites

Introduction

You are going to look at a sample project completed by a

pre-sessional student. It is an example of a project that has
been written to a reasonable standard (see Appendix 1,
page 120). The project is entitled:
To what extent should insider dealing be regulated, and
how can this be done effectively?
First, you are going to look at various sections of the project
so that you can learn some of the vocabulary related to writing.

Task 1 Structuring projects

1.1 Study the parts of an academic text listed. Which of these do you already
know about?
Discuss them with another student and think about where they might appear in the text.
1. the conclusion 8. the first-name initials of an author/researcher
2. a quotation 9. the family name of an author/researcher
3. a reference in the text 10. the main title page
4. a subtitle/subheading 11. a figure or table
5. the introduction 12. the abstract
6. thesis statement 13. table of contents
7. the bibliography

1.2 Look at the project in Appendix 1. Which features from Ex 1.1 can you find there?
Note that not all projects will contain each of the elements listed in Ex 1.1. For example,
some projects may not have tables or figures, if this is not appropriate.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 35

 Task 2 Identifying evaluative writing

Students often receive feedback that indicates their work is too descriptive and needs to be more
evaluative*. However, before you can take this feedback into account, you need to be able to
distinguish first between the features of descriptive writing and evaluative writing, and then
make your own writing more evaluative or analytical.
This task looks at the features that distinguish each kind of writing. Below the table is a list of features
for both descriptive and evaluative writing; you need to put each one in the appropriate category.
*evaluative writing is sometimes called analytical writing

2.1 Complete the table below by selecting examples of descriptive and evaluative
writing from the list 1–12 below. Some examples have been done for you.

Descriptive writing Evaluative writing

indicates what happened indicates the significance of ideas or facts

outlines what something is like is based on reasoned judgements

provides information about a topic draws relevant conclusions

1. lists ideas, information or facts

2. explains the reasoning/rationale behind a theory
3. identifies different factors involved
4. shows why something is relevant or suitable
5. evaluates links between different information
6. places ideas or concepts in their order of importance
7. explains the significance of information or ideas
8. compares the importance of different factors
9. outlines what has been observed
10. discusses the strengths and weaknesses of ideas or concepts
11. shows the order in which things happen
12. describes a process or a situation
Based on ideas from Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

36 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

Task 3 Developing a stance: Writing a thesis statement

3.1 Look at the project title and thesis statement below. Think about how one leads
to the other.
Project title
What can we learn from the restructuring of South Korea’s banking industry?
Thesis statement
The restructuring of the South Korean banking system should serve as a model for all
banking systems throughout south-eastern Asia.

3.2 Read the explanation below to find out how the thesis statement influences
the project content.
When a project title is written in the form of a question, the answer to this question
should form the writer’s thesis. There is a range of possible answers to the question:
What can we learn from the restructuring of South Korea’s banking industry?
For example, we might learn: a great deal; quite a lot; very little; nothing at all. However,
based on an analysis of the sources that the student has read, he/she might decide on
the thesis:
The restructuring of the South Korean banking system should serve as a model for all
banking systems throughout south-eastern Asia.
As the student states that the South Korean banking system should serve as a ‘model’,
this thesis clearly suggests that ‘a great deal’ can be learnt from the South Korean
restructuring exercise.
The thesis raises the question: Why does the restructuring
of South Korea’s banking system serve as a ‘model’?
The answer to this question should make the project
more discursive and analytical. In other words,
it will no longer be enough for the writer to
describe the South Korean banking system,
because this will not answer the question
Why? What is required is an explanation
of the reasons. This may involve a
comparison with other banking
systems; it will at least entail an
explanation of the features of the
South Korean banking system that
are particularly effective.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 37

 3.3 Look at the flow chart below and answer these questions.
1. Which parts of the flow chart refer to the actual written content?
2. Why does critical reading occur at each stage?
3. Does the planned introduction suggest a description or an analysis of the banking system.

3.4 Study the flow chart and think about why a description of the South Korean
banking system will only form part of the project. Then discuss with a partner.

Topic:
The restructuring of t he South Korean banking system
Reading: Critical reading occurs at every stage of the writing process, so that the writer can add to the content.


Title:
What can we learn from t he restructuring of South Korea’s
banking industry?


Thesis:
The restructuring of the South Korean banking system should serve
as a model for all banking systems throughout south-eastern Asia.


Introduction:
Possibly a general summary of all the features of the South Korean
Text

banking system or a chronological summary of the system’s
development
history. The thesis statement usually forms part of the introduction.
There may also be an outline of the structure of the project.


Main body, first section:
Possibly some background information about the South Korean Text


banking system that is relevant to the restructuring, e.g., stages development

at which the restructuring occurred and why it was necessary.


Main body, subsequent sections:
An explanation of why each feature of the South Korean Text


banking system makes it a ‘model’, i.e., an analysis of the model. development

The writer’s stance is supported by relevant source references.


Conclusion:
Refers back to the thesis statement and draws upon the comments
made about all the features described to provide a summative Text


evaluation comment. Possible reference to further analysis that development

might be carried out on the topic, or a theory about the future of the
South Korean system or banking in south-eastern Asia in general.

38 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

Task 4 Descriptive and evaluative writing

In this task, you will look at four paragraphs related to South Korean banking from the Federal
Reserve Bank of San Francisco website. These paragraphs only form part of the full document,
which may be viewed at the website address given at the end of the text (on page 40).

4.1 Read the following extract from Banking system developments in the four Asian
tigers. Identify the paragraphs that are mainly descriptive and write D in the box
provided next to the relevant paragraphs.
Over the past 30 years, Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan have had
remarkably rapid and sustained economic growth, earning them the nickname
‘the four tigers’. Because of the new investment opportunities they provide and
because their experiences may offer lessons for less developed economies, they have
attracted considerable attention from the financial and policy communities, as well
as from economists who have renewed interest in research in theories of economic
growth. Despite their physical proximity and shared economic vigour, there are some
noticeable differences among the tigers. For instance, Hong Kong and Singapore are
cities with limited resources, whereas Taiwan and South Korea are economies with
relatively large populations and more diverse industrial structures.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 39

 All four economies started out poor in all areas except potential labor supply before
they began to grow in the 1960s … Exports from the four economies together
made up over 10% of the world’s total exports, only slightly less than the US in
1994, compared to only 2.5% in 1971 (Glick and Moreno, 1997). The relative
shares of imports were about the same. These numbers make it clear that external
trade has been an important element in the development of these economies. The
external sector (imports + exports), measured relative to total GDP, represented
52% in South Korea, 73% in Taiwan, 240% in Hong Kong, and 280% in Singapore
in 1994 (for the US, by comparison, it was 17%) …
Commercial banks also played a critical role, because they were the major
source of private savings. In South Korea and Taiwan, the governments required
commercial banks to extend credit towards industries targeted in the governments’
development plans. Furthermore, due to regulated loan rates, which were below
market-determined interest rates, and the lack of loanable funds, these loans were
offered at very favorable lending rates …
In 1994, the manufacturing sector accounted for about 31% and 27% of GDP
in Taiwan and South Korea, respectively, whereas banking and financial services
accounted for 18% and 17%. In contrast, the relative shares of the manufacturing
and financial sectors were 28% and 27% for Singapore and 9% and 27% for
Hong Kong. The figures seem to reflect the emphases of the past development
policies. ‘The financial system was rather the accommodator of this real economic
performance than its instigator,’ wrote one economist after examining the role
of the financial sector in economic development experiences of these economies
(Patrick, 1994). Recent banking sector developments in South Korea and, to a lesser
extent, Taiwan, point to the negative side-effects that government direction of
credit to preferred industries can have in the long run. Singapore’s experience seems
to suggest that a government could implement industrial development policies
without directing the credit decisions of the commercial banking sector. Finally,
Hong Kong’s case seems to illustrate that an active industrial policy may not be
essential for rapid economic development.
Source (text and image): Adapted from Huh, C. (1997). Banking system developments in the four Asian tigers. Federal Reserve
Bank of San Francisco Economic Letter, 97–22. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from www.frbsf.org/econrsrch/wklyltr/el97-22.html

4.2 Re-read the text and identify paragraphs that show examples of evaluative
writing. Write E in the box provided next to the relevant paragraphs.

4.3 Underline examples of evaluative comments.

Task 5 Reading for a purpose

On academic courses, students are required to read extensively, as mentioned in Unit 2. It is

therefore essential to develop your selective reading skills. The most effective way to do this is to
think about your purpose for reading at every stage of your research. For example, if you are looking
for a definition to use in the introduction to your project, you should identify the parts of the text
that contain this specific information and disregard the rest of the text at this point. This involves
reading critically, i.e., thinking about what you read and questioning aspects such as: whether you
agree with the ideas; whether your other reading supports what you are reading or questions it.

5.1 Before reading the text on critical thinking, consider the following question.
What impact has the Internet had on the way people think?
Write down one or two ideas and then discuss your ideas with other students.

40 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

5.2 Read the following discussion about reading in the digital age. How do the ideas
expressed match your own?

With the onset of the digital age, the need to read and think critically has never
been more important. The amount of information available through electronic
sources is huge and there is a need to filter this stream of information in order to
separate the valid from the invalid, the relevant from the irrelevant, or, in simple
terms, the ‘good’ from the ‘bad’. The more information that can be accessed, the
greater the need to evaluate information, beliefs, claims and opinions ‘critically’.
Therefore, as you are reading and beginning to understand the text, you have to
decide whether it is useful. Secondly, you should decide whether you agree with
what is said in the text. A third important critical reading and thinking skill is to
relate information in the text to what you already know; for example, are there any
other texts you have read with similar information that supports or undermines the
ideas you are reading?
This critical approach to reading is an active skill and helps you interact with the
text. This in turn helps you to understand it more fully. In addition, it helps you to
make important decisions about the text you are reading; for example, whether to
skip certain sections of the text, or whether to read a particular section very carefully
– you may even decide to make no further use of the text. Interacting with the text
and making decisions as you read can save you a great deal of time in the long run.
As you read more about your topic and take relevant notes, you will be able to
make connections between ideas that will help you plan and structure your writing.
The more you think about what you are reading, the better you will be able to
write an evaluative report.
Research has shown that there is a positive relationship between good critical
reading and thinking skills, and proficiency in extended writing (Stapleton, 2001);
(Condon & Kelly-Riley, 2004). It is also reasonable to believe that readers who can
think critically are better readers.

Source: John Slaght, ISLC, University of Reading, based primarily on Condon, W., & Kelly-Riley, D. (2004). Assessing and
teaching what we value: The relationship between college-level writing and critical thinking abilities. Assessing Writing, 9(1),
56–75.

Task 6 Reading and thinking critically

Kurland (2000) claims there is a difference between reading critically and thinking critically. He
claims that critical reading is a technique for discovering information and ideas within a text, but
that critical thinking involves deciding whether to agree with this information or not.
Critical reading therefore means reading ‘carefully, actively and analytically’, but critical thinking
means the reader uses previous knowledge and understanding to decide on the validity or value of
what they have read. Following these definitions, critical reading comes before critical thinking. It is
only after the reader has fully understood the text that they can ‘think’ about it critically.

6.1 Look at this sentence from a student essay. First read it critically, then think about
its meaning critically.

Parents are buying expensive cars for their children to destroy them.

Note: As you ‘read’ this sentence critically, you should be thinking about what the ‘words’
actually mean; in this case, particularly the word them. Does it refer to the parents, the cars
or the children. Then you should think about the ‘ideas’ expressed in the sentence – this is
where you are ‘thinking’ critically.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 41

 Task 7 Choosing sources
You are now going to look at why the texts in Appendix 4 were chosen as sources for Project 1.
This is a useful task to help develop your critical thinking skills, even if you are not planning on
writing Project 1.

7.1 Look at the following example notes, analyzing the text Ecology in Times of
Scarcity, giving five reasons why it was chosen as a source text for Project 1.
Check the five reasons using the text reference and the text itself. Evaluate each reason
and discuss with a partner.
Note: You are already familiar with the article Ecology in Times of Scarcity, part of which
you read in Unit 2. A more complete version of the text is in Appendix 4 (page 131).

Text
Day, J. W., Hall, C., A., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., Pimentel, D., Ibáñez Martí, C., & Mitsch,
W. J. (2009). Ecology in Times of Scarcity. BioScience, 59(4), 321–331.
Why it was chosen
• recent publication (2009)
• published in a scientific journal of some importance
• multiple authors, from a range of reputable universities and other institutions in the
USA and elsewhere
• clear overview of how policies of sustainable development are changing or evolving
• abstract suggests a strong position on a topic of current relevance
• it is related to the topic I am writing about

7.2 Make similar notes of your own on the other two texts from Appendix 4.
Be prepared to compare and discuss your notes.

Text 1 Text 2

Why it was chosen Why it was chosen

42 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

Task 8 Finding information

Many students experience difficulties in choosing the most appropriate texts to read when
beginning their academic studies. They look at long lists of journal articles, websites and books,
and do not know where to start – there seems to be so much information to search through
before they find what they are looking for. Time becomes a real matter of concern as deadlines for
completing assignments draw closer.
You are more likely to find what you want if you have a clear idea of your purpose. If you have a
clear focus, you can then look for the specific type of information you need.

8.1 Tick (✔) the things you do when researching a topic. Compare and discuss your
answers with another student.
■■ Write down the topic and think about what you already know.
■■ Make a list of what you do not know and need to find out.
■■ Use specific strategies, such as creating a mind map.

You should follow a procedure to determine the usefulness of each source and save
research time. This is the first stage in reading and thinking critically.

8.2 Read the following procedure for choosing appropriate reading material.
You will put the procedure into practice in Ex 8.3.

Procedure for choosing appropriate reading material for

books and journal articles
Check each of the following.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 43

 8.3 Go to the library and find two books in your subject area. Follow the procedure
described in Ex 8.2 for the books you have chosen. Then complete the tables with
details about the books.
Note: The library may have a database which allows you to search for books online.
Book 1

Subject area

Title

Author

Date of publication

Intended reader

Why I would/would not

recommend this publication

Book 2

Subject area

Title

Author

Date of publication

Intended reader

Why I would/would not

recommend this publication

8.4 Based on the information you find, be prepared to report briefly on what you
have learnt about one of the books to your classmates. For example:
■■ what it is about
■■ who it might be useful for
■■ why you would, or would not, recommend this book to other students in your
subject area

FINDING INFORMATION
Information from journals
Journals are a further source of information, and if you can identify the most appropriate articles,
INPUT

they may provide information about much of the work in the field or subject area(s). Most
journal articles are introduced by an abstract, which is a brief outline of the article.

44 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

The Internet as a source of information

The Internet is probably the most common starting point for most research nowadays, with
an increasing number of academic journals now available online. The best way to access these
is through your library website. However, you need to be careful about how to narrow your
search, as you may find you have far too much information to look through. Many libraries have
suggested guidelines to help you search. One example is the University of Reading library guide
at http://www.reading.ac.uk/library/lib-home.aspx; the University of Reading’s Unicorn system
allows you to search for materials in the library; it also helps you search for journals online.
As there is a greater volume of information available than ever before, it is essential to be
systematic and critical when choosing your sources. It can be difficult to decide if websites
are reliable; however, certain websites may be considered well researched. Examples of reliable
websites are those constructed by educational or government institutions. You can recognize
these websites by the use of the following in their web address:
.ac and .edu refer to academic websites. These are always linked to academic institutions.
An example is http://www.reading.ac.uk
.gov refers to government websites. These are linked to official government organizations,
e.g., http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/
Other websites may have a commercial interest and can be recognized as follows: .com and .co.
Websites containing .org, on the other hand, are usually non-profit and non-commercial.
A website that contains the ~ symbol (tilde) refers to a personal website. You need to be cautious
when using such websites, unless you have a good knowledge of the author.

8.5 Study the information in the following table and discuss it with another student.
The explanations in the table should help you to critically analyze the websites you
encounter. If you cannot find answers to the key questions in the column on the left, then
you should not rely on the source, i.e., you may not be able to use it in your work.

Title: The title will often suggest whether the contents

are very specific, or if the text gives an overview
What is the name of the text?
(you should think carefully about your particular
purpose).
Authority: Is it a reliable organization, e.g., UNESCO or
a well-known university? If you cannot find
Who (or what organization) is
the author or organization responsible for the
responsible for the website?
website, it really should not be used, as you have
no way of checking its reliability.
Date/currency: In some cases, you will need up-to-date
information, so the website needs to be seen to
When was the most recent update?
be regularly updated.
Content: When looking at content, you will realize the
importance of having a clear focus.
What is the text about?
Make sure the content is relevant to your
How useful is it for your purpose?
understanding of the topic.
Your evaluation of the content will depend on
your reading purpose.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 45

 Accuracy/reliability: You may be able to check the accuracy of
the information from another source.
Does the information appear to be
accurate, to the best of your knowledge? It is expected that ideas will be supported by
other sources, which can be a way to check
Are there references to other sources?
the reliability of the website.
Are there links to other websites?
Audience: Who is the article aimed at? Information will
be presented very differently according to
Who is the intended reader?
the background knowledge of the intended
audience.
Who is sponsoring the site?

Task 9 Analyzing websites

9.1 Use an appropriate search engine to find two websites: one for a definition of
sustainable development and one about sustainable development and future
generations.
The UNESCO website below is one example of what a search could yield. If you wish, you
can use this as one of your website searches.

Sustainable Development
Education for sustainable development (ESD)
Sustainable development is seeking to meet the needs of the
present without compromising those of future generations. We
have to learn our way out of current social and environmental
problems and learn to live sustainably.
Sustainable development is a vision of development that
encompasses populations, animal and plant species, ecosystems,
natural resources and that integrates concerns such as the fight
against poverty, gender equality, human rights, education for all,
health, human security, intercultural dialogue, etc.

‘We hold the future in our hands, together, we must ensure that
our grandchildren will not have to ask why we failed to do the right
thing, and let them suffer the consequences.’
UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, 2007

In order to understand Education for Sustainable Development

(ESD), one needs to understand sustainable development. After
all, the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
is about engaging the world’s educational systems to work for a
more sustainable future. However, we need to envision a more
sustainable world before we work towards creating it.

Source: UNESCO. (2011). Education for sustainable development (ESD). Retrieved May 10, 2011, from www.unesco.org/new/
en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development/three-terms-one-goal/ and
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development/

46 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

9.2 Critically analyze websites for a project entitled: The needs of future generations
are being met by current policies of sustainable development. To what extent do
you agree with this statement?
When you find what look like useful websites, complete the tables.

Title

URL

Authority

Date

Content

Accuracy/reliability

Audience

Further comments/
notes

Title

URL

Authority

Date

Content

Accuracy/reliability

Audience

Further comments/
notes

Extended Writing & Research Skills 47

 Task 10 Acknowledging your sources

10.1 Why do you think it is important to reference the sources you use when writing a
project? Add your ideas to the list below.

Reasons for referencing sources:

To show where your ideas originated - acknowledging the source.

10.2 Compare your ideas from Ex 10.1 with the reasons given below.
Reasons for referencing a source
There are a number of reasons for referencing sources. For example, you should
acknowledge the source to show where your idea originated. Another reason for
referencing is to give your writing academic weight, i.e., to show that you have carried out
research and found evidence for your viewpoint. You also need to show that you are aware
of the opinions or views expressed by other writers in the field. Finally, it is important to
allow the reader to find the original source if necessary.
Omitting to reference your sources, thus failing to acknowledge other people’s ideas, is
considered to be plagiarism. This is not accepted in an academic piece of work. You will
learn more about this in Unit 4.
Note: Whenever you use information from other sources, there are certain conventions
you need to follow. There are two different aspects to acknowledging a source.
■■ In-text references: within your essay, refer to the author by surname and the date of
publication.
■■ Bibliography or list of references: list your references at the end of your essay, giving
detailed information for each source.

Ways of referring to a source

■■ Paraphrasing: Retelling what the writer said, in your own words.
■■ Summarizing: Identifying the point you want to make from your source and
writing it in your own words. Whereas a paraphrase will include all the detail, a
summary will be shorter and will include only the key information.
■■ Quotation: Citing the exact words of the author.

Writers normally use a mixture of summarizing and paraphrasing, and only use quotations
occasionally. Generally, quotations should only be used:
… when you feel that the author expresses an idea or an opinion in such a way
that it is impossible to improve upon it or when you feel that it captures an idea in
a particularly succinct and interesting way (Trzeciak & Mackay, 1994, p. 59).

48 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

Task 11 Following academic conventions in referencing

There are a variety of conventions for presenting direct quotations. For example, if 40 words or
more are used, you should indent the quotation. You do not need to use quotation marks.

11.1 Study the examples of referencing direct quotations. Discuss with a partner any
differences you notice.

Direct quotations

A quotation of fewer than 40 words

There are a number of views about what constitutes successful verbal communication.
One area to consider is the people involved in a conversation, but there are cultural
restrictions on coming to a conclusion about this: “A good conversation partner tends
to empathize with others, being sufficiently aware to jointly create a conversation”
(Lo Castro, 1987, p. 105).
First of all, we need to consider what is meant by ‘to empathize with others’ in Lo
Castro’s context.

A quotation of 40 words or more

Various measures are already taken to reduce city-centre congestion, but these alone
may have little noticeable impact:
Sophisticated traffic management systems can increase efficiency in the use of
road spaces and the number of vehicles using road systems without congestion.
But, increasingly, even if the incorporation of these advances was accelerated, it is
seen as insufficient as the sheer volume of cars, trucks and other motorized vehicles
overwhelms cities. (Newman, 1999)
Alternative approaches include initiatives aimed at reducing dependence on vehicle
transport.

A direct quotation within a direct quotation

As stated by Adams (1999), “internationally, the dominant definition of sustainable
development has undoubtedly been that of the Brundtland Report: ‘development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland, 1987, p. 45).”

Paraphrasing or summarizing
Various ways of referencing within a paraphrase or summary are given below and on
page 50.
■■ Summarize or paraphrase the writer’s ideas and put the author’s surname and date of
publication in brackets at the end of the sentence.

Since the cultural values of any society have an effect on how the people of that
culture interact, sociocultural norms determine linguistic production, as well as limit
how it is produced (Gumperz, 1989).

Extended Writing & Research Skills 49

 ■■ Refer directly to the author in the text and put the publication date in brackets.

According to Gumperz (1989), since the cultural values of any society have an effect
on how the people of that culture interact, sociocultural norms determine linguistic
production, as well as limit how it is produced.

Cottrell (2008) states that …

■■ Refer to the author directly and put his/her surname and the publication date in
brackets at the end of the sentence.

According to Cottrell, there are seven approaches to learning which can make it more
productive (Cottrell, 2008).

Internet sources
As with printed sources, when referencing an Internet source within a text, you need
the author’s surname and date. In this case, the date used refers to when the website
was most recently updated. In some cases, the information may have been put up by an
organization, with no single author’s name. If this is the case, you should include the name
of the organization within your written text, i.e., organization and date. You should not
include the website address in your main text; this goes in the bibliography.

The UK Government view on the use of natural resources is that it is possible to

continue using them, but at the same time the development of alternative sources
such as renewable energy should be considered (UK Government, 2003).

Task 12 Deciding when to avoid using online sources

12.1 Discuss the following statement with a partner. Think of reasons why this is good
advice and list them below.

If you cannot find either an author or source on the website, you should not use it in
your work. You should also check when the source was most recently updated.

50 English for Academic Study

 Sourcing information for your project 3

Task 13 Writing a bibliography

13.1 Look at the bibliographical entry in the box below. Match the labels 1–10 with
the elements of the bibliographical entry a–j.

1. title of article d 6. editor’s surname e

2. name of publisher j 7. place of publication i
3. date of publication c 8. author’s initials b
4. author’s surname a 9. other editors f
5. title of book h 10. shows book is a collection of articles g

a b c d e f g

Adams, W. M. (1999). Sustainability. In P. Cloke, P. Crang & M. Goodwin (Eds.),

Introducing human geographies (pp. 125–129). London: Arnold.

h i j

13.2 Study the rest of the bibliography and check that it has been set out
appropriately.
Note: See Appendix 6, Compiling a bibliography, for a brief summary of the APA
(American Psychological Association) system of referencing.

Anderson, J. A. (2002, February 5). Going where the big guys don’t. BusinessWeek.
Retrieved from www.businessweek.com.
Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Leki, I., & Carson, J. (1997). Completely different worlds: EAP and the writing
experiences of ESL students in university courses. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 39–69.

13.3 There are some problems with the bibliography below. Identify the problems
with each entry.
Use the sample bibliography from Ex 13.1 to help you. Check your answers in small groups.

Alan Bilham-Boult et al. 1999. People, Places and Themes. Heinemann, pp. 17–22
‘Africa Recovery’ E. Harch (2003). [online]. Available from: www.africarecovery.org
Accessed 18 May 2004
P. Newman, Transport: reducing automobile dependence. In D. Satterwaite (ed.)
The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities. Earthscan Publications pp 67–92 (1999)

Extended Writing & Research Skills 51

 Unit summary

In this unit you have seen how projects are structured and learnt to identify evaluative writing. You
have looked at academic referencing and practised selecting information from books and websites.

Mark each of these parts of an academic text with U, for I understand exactly what
1 this is and can recognize it, or D, for I don’t really understand what this means.
a. introduction e. contents page h. figure / table
b. reference f. main title page i. conclusion
c. quotation g. subtitle j. abstract
d. bibliography

Tick (✔) the statement that is true for you in each pair.
2 a. 1 I know how a project should be structured.
2 I don’t really understand why a project should be structured in a particular way.
b. 1 I can quickly see what is description and what is evaluation when I read a project.
2 I find it difficult to distinguish between description and evaluation when I read
a project.
c. 1 I understand why it is important to write evaluatively when I write a project.
2 I don’t really understand why I should write evaluatively when I write a project.
d. 1 I find it fairly easy to identify the writer’s thesis when I read a project.
2 I don’t really understand what a thesis is.
e. 1 I understand why it is essential to have a thesis when writing evaluatively.
2 I don’t see why it is necessary to start an evaluative project with a thesis
statement.
f. 1 I know exactly what the purpose of the conclusion to a project is.
2 I don’t really know why it is necessary to write a conclusion to a project.
In each statement below, highlight the option that applies to you when you read.
3
a. I find it easy / quite easy / quite difficult / very difficult to read selectively.
b. I find it easy / quite easy / quite difficult / very difficult to keep my purpose in mind.
c. I find it easy / quite easy / quite difficult / very difficult to read critically.
Complete each of these statements so that they are true for you.
4 a. The most important thing I have learnt about finding information in books is

b. The most important thing I have learnt about finding information from websites is

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide guidance on referring to primary and secondary sources in your
writing, as well as help with finding information online.

52 English for Academic Study

4 Developing your project
In this unit you will:
• find out how to make the best use of the tutorial system
• learn about plagiarism and how to avoid it
• learn about the features of abstracts and their purpose

Introduction

THE TUTORIAL SYSTEM

A tutorial is usually a private meeting between
your teacher – who may be called your
INPUT

personal tutor – and you, the tutee.

MAKING THE BEST USE OF

TUTORIAL TIME
Tutorials may last anything from a few minutes
to over half an hour; usually, you will have a
specific time allocated, e.g., 20 minutes. As it is
your responsibility to get the most you can from the tutorial in the short time that you have,
it is important to come well prepared. You should therefore think about things you wish to
talk about before you attend a tutorial, e.g., aspects of your project you need to discuss, or
questions about your feedback or class work that need clarification.

Task 1 Preparing for tutorials

Imagine that you have just received the following feedback sheet from your project teacher after
completing the first draft of a project.

1.1 Study the feedback sheet. Then prepare a set of questions you would like
information about or advice on during a 20-minute tutorial.

Essay Feedback Sheet

Essay title: T
 o what extent can the problems of urban development be met by a
policy of sustainable development?

Content You have lots of information here, but your essay is

still very descriptive. Think about what you have been
reading – what is your opinion about it?

Organization Try to link the introduction and conclusion to the

main body of the text. At the moment they seem like
separate paragraphs. For example, in the conclusion you
could refer to what you have covered in the main body.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 53

 Language Check the grammatical use of ‘according to’.
Check how to use the present perfect tense – you still
confuse this with the past simple.

Presentation Make sure you have used the correct font size for
of work headings. You have not used the appropriate style in the
main body of your text.

Use of sources You use sources on the first page – but then you don’t
use any more. Any idea that comes from a source you
have used must be referenced. What happened to your
list of references at the end?

AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
You are now familiar with referencing and why it is important in academic writing (Unit 2,
Task 3; Unit 3, Task 10). However, once your source has been acknowledged, you still have to
INPUT

summarize or paraphrase the ideas from the source/text in a way that is not too similar to the
original. You therefore need to use your own words as far as possible.
Although there will often be specialist words or phrases in the original text that you need to use
to explain certain concepts or ideas, it is important to avoid writing something that is too close
to the original. You should use your own wording, even if you think the writer can express the
ideas better than you can.
Writing from your notes rather than a text will ensure you do not copy the wording of the source
text too closely. Try following these steps:
• Take notes of the information you would like to use.
• Organize your own ideas from the notes and explain them to someone else if possible; if you
cannot clearly explain your version of the text, you may not have fully understood it.
• Write up the information you need for your project, based on your notes.
Remember the N O W approach from Unit 2 and the Cornell note-taking system (pages 32–33).

WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
Plagiarism is a form of academic theft; in fact, the word plagiarism comes from the Latin
word for thief. In its most extreme form, it involves word-for-word copying of large sections of
INPUT

another writer’s material and claiming it as your own work. In a less extreme form, it involves
reproducing shorter lines or phrases linked together, perhaps with minor modifications, without
crediting the author. Both of these examples are considered as plagiarism because it appears that
you are claiming someone else’s ideas as your own.
It is therefore essential to express your ideas appropriately and acknowledge your sources; if not,
it is tantamount to stealing ideas. Look at the policy from the University of Manchester on this
subject on the next page. The complete information is available on the university website. There
is also guidance on how you can avoid plagiarism.

54 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project 4

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting the ideas, work or words of other people without proper, clear and
unambiguous acknowledgement. It also includes ‘self plagiarism’ (which occurs where, for
example, you submit work that you have presented for assessment on a previous occasion), and
the submission of material from ‘essay banks’ (even if the authors of such material appear to be
giving you permission to use it in this way). Obviously, the most blatant example of plagiarism
would be to copy another student’s work. Hence it is essential to make clear in your assignments
the distinction between:
• the ideas and work of other people that you may have quite legitimately exploited and
developed, and
• the ideas or material that you have personally contributed.
Source: The University of Manchester, Student Support and Services Office. (2011). Retrieved November 29, 2011, from
http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/display.aspx?DocID=2870

WHY YOU MUST AVOID PLAGIARISM

The consequences of plagiarism could be very serious and could damage your academic career;
indeed they could jeopardize your chances of getting a job. You have to understand that even if
INPUT

you plagiarize by accident, this is not accepted as an excuse.

You should particularly bear in mind that translating from another language without
acknowledging the source is also plagiarism. To avoid this issue, you should try to do all
your research using English sources while working with this course; this will have the added
advantage of helping you develop your language skills.
The following tasks are designed to help you recognize plagiarism. Remember that the key factor
is acknowledging the sources you use.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 55

 Task 2 Quotations, paraphrases and plagiarism

Imagine a student has highlighted the following extract in an environmental science textbook.

The difference between green buildings and intelligent buildings

at times causes confusion. In fact, they are considered by many
to be the same. However, the fundamental difference is that
green buildings are built in an environmentally friendly way,
i.e., without damaging the environment and, as far as possible,
only using sustainable resources. Intelligent buildings, on the
other hand, are buildings which are in certain ways sensitive to
their environment and can adjust automatically; for example, in
accordance with the temperature or the presence or absence of
people (McCormack & Slaght, 2011).

The student has decided to incorporate ideas from this extract in an essay. In the following exercise,
you will consider the ways the student might go about doing this, some of them appropriate and
some of them not.
2.1 Read the examples of incorporated text below. Decide whether each one is a
quotation or a paraphrase and tick (✔) the appropriate box.

Incorporated text

1. The difference between green buildings and intelligent buildings is confusing, and
thought by many to be the same. The basic difference is that green buildings are
built in an environmentally friendly way, i.e., without damaging the environment,
and as far as feasible, using only sustainable resources. Intelligent buildings
on the contrary are buildings which are in tune with their environment and
adjust automatically when the need arises, e.g., depending on the temperature
(McCormack & Slaght, 2011).

Quotation Paraphrase Plagiarism

2. Green buildings and intelligent buildings differ in terms of their main function.
Green buildings are purposely constructed in such a way as to minimize their
impact on the environment. Conversely, intelligent buildings are designed so
that technology ensures that they adjust to their environment; for example, by
regulating the temperature (McCormack & Slaght, 2011).

Quotation Paraphrase Plagiarism

3. Green buildings are ‘built in an environmentally friendly way, i.e., without

damaging the environment, and as far as possible only using sustainable
resources’. This is different to intelligent buildings which are ‘in certain ways
sensitive to their environment and can adjust automatically; for example,
in accordance with the temperature or the presence or absence of people’
(McCormack & Slaght, 2011, p. 4).

Quotation Paraphrase Plagiarism

56 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project 4

Incorporated text

4. There is often confusion about the difference between green buildings and
intelligent buildings. The basic difference lies in the purpose of each. The former
is constructed with the specific purpose of being friendly to the environment,
i.e., not abusing natural resources, and the purpose of the latter is to draw on
technology to make the building as efficient as possible.

Quotation Paraphrase Plagiarism

5. Green buildings are friendly and intelligent buildings are intelligent and quite
popular. Sustainable development is very important these days, so it is important
to make all buildings green and intelligent, using technology and resources from
the environment that do not destroy it (McCormack & Slaght, 2011).

Quotation Paraphrase Plagiarism

2.2 Study the examples of incorporated text again.

Study tip
Tick (✔) the box marked plagiarism if you think
the student would be considered guilty of this. If you decide to use a direct
quotation, make sure you copy it
correctly. If any of the words are
wrong, they could change the
meaning of the whole quotation.

Task 3 Avoiding plagiarism

3.1 Study the following reasons a student might give for plagiarizing. Think about
what advice you could give.
Note: Your advice should contain constructive help on how to avoid plagiarism.
1. I didn’t know it was wrong.
2. I don’t know how to use references or how to cite my sources.
3. I don’t have enough time to do the necessary reading or to develop my own ideas.
4. The text was too difficult for me to understand so I just copied it – and hoped it
was OK.
5. The text I copied said exactly what I wanted to say, and I couldn’t express it better.
6. In my country, we are expected to reproduce the exact words and ideas of the text or
the teacher.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 57

 3.2 Discuss your ideas with another student and agree on a common strategy. Then
write your advice beside each reason.

Advice on avoiding plagiarism

1 Lack of awareness of rules

2 Lack of familiarity with how to reference

3 Lack of time

4 Level of difficulty of reference text

There are no short cuts, so if you don’t understand the

text, either don’t use it, or consult someone who does.

5 Inability to express ideas better

6 Different cultural experience

58 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project 4

Task 4 Working with abstracts

WHAT THEY ARE

An abstract is a form of summary used to summarize the contents of an academic text, such as
an academic paper, a journal article or an oral presentation. When you first look at an academic
INPUT

article, the title and abstract give you an overall impression of what the article is about.
The abstract normally describes the aims of the research, the methods used to investigate the
aims, and the main findings and conclusions. The abstract should stand alone, independent of
the rest of the paper. By reading an abstract, the reader can understand the broad content, results
and conclusions without needing to read the whole paper.

HOW THEY ARE USED Study tip

Abstracts allow researchers to find and assess a wide range When carrying out research, you
of relevant work, thus remaining in touch with the large might find many sources that
quantity of literature in their field. In effect, they assist appear relevant; you therefore
the wider academic community to work together on need to decide which sources
common problems or areas of interest. When searching to concentrate on. By referring
for information, researchers use key words to find relevant to the abstract first, you will be
information. An abstract should therefore contain key able to make more informed
decisions.
words relating to the article or paper, for ease of retrieval.
As a student, it is very useful to look at abstracts in order to find out quickly about the main
ideas of a text, and thus to decide whether the text is relevant to your needs. You may be
expected to include abstracts at the beginning of pieces of extended writing, as well as to submit
an abstract if you are going to give an oral presentation based on your project.
As with other aspects of academic writing, such as introductions and conclusions, abstracts have
certain typical features. We will look at these in detail in the tasks that follow. In Unit 8, you
will work on developing an abstract for your own project.

4.1 Read Abstracts A and B on page 60. What features can you identify?

Essential background information

Extended Writing & Research Skills 59

 Abstract A
In the last 20 years, several researchers have described the
changes that computers may bring to the field of language
testing. Since the review carried out by the University of
Fredericktown (Huntley-Gordon, 2008), writers in the
Candleford Language Testing and Assessment Series have
made various predictions as to how computer technology could
change the testing of foreign language skills. The enthusiasm
for much greater use of computers in language testing is
based on the idea that computer-based tests will be better
than traditional pencil-and-paper tests. This paper sets out
to examine the accuracy of this belief and will suggest some
important advantages of computer-based testing, together with
some words of caution.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Abstract B
Assessment of observed teaching practice sessions on teacher
training courses is viewed in general by the teaching profession
as a flawed but necessary method of evaluation. The nature of
observations means that criteria must be flexible to account for
diverse teaching styles, while at the same time providing the
observer with the guidance to make an informed decision on
the trainee’s performance. Inevitably, observers have their own
set of personal theories that affect their assessment, resulting
in inconsistency of grades awarded by different observers. The
results suggest that standardization can help effect greater
observer agreement, but the limitations of the study mean
that the results need ratification through further research. It
was found that discussion of grades raised issues such as the
need for clearer criteria for grades, the need to limit the list of
attributes graded and the importance of high-inference factors
in teaching.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

60 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project 4

4.2 Compare your ideas with the list of features below and tick (✔) the features you
have identified.

Abstract A B

1. a general statement/essential background information

2. the aims of the project, dissertation or thesis

3. the implementation of an investigation in a real-world situation

4. how the text is organized

5. details of research carried out by the writer

6. what the results of the research suggest

7. a thesis statement

8. a definition

4.3 Look at Abstracts C, D, E and F. Identify the features and complete the table on
page 64.

Abstract C
Overfishing has been among the key threats to the sustainability
of aquatic ecosystems for decades. Developing African countries
with great lakes, such as Zambia and Tanzania, need to address,
in their policies, ways to solve this problem. However, the causes
and effects of overfishing need to be identified before this policy
is determined. ‘Overfishing’ means that exploitation outweighs
what is restored in the lakes as fish stock biomass (Travers et al.,
2010). The overfishing problem and its underlying causes are
examined, followed by an explanation of the current policy in the
East African region and the weaknesses of this policy. Solutions
to the overfishing problems are discussed, with an emphasis on
sustainable fishing.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 61

 Abstract D
The challenges faced by modern rapidly urbanizing societies
are felt not least by developing countries. Most of the urban
population growth and future megacities are located in these
countries. Sustainable development will require the provision
of healthy and sustainable living environments with all the
necessary basic services. It is argued here that a sound and
multifunctional urban green structure is one of the basic services
which should be provided. As green spaces can contribute to local
livelihoods and economics, and provide essential environmental
and social services, these should not be considered merely a
luxury. The concept of urban and peri-urban forestry (UPF) is
one of the innovative approaches developed for the planning and
management of urban green structures. UPF, focusing on the
tree-dominated part of urban green, is a strategic, integrative,
interdisciplinary and participatory approach, aimed at sustainably
developing the multiple benefits of forests and trees in urban
environments. This paper introduces this strategy, which aims at
awareness raising, state-of-the-art development, new technology
and knowledge generation, as well as institutional and policy
strengthening, information and knowledge dissemination, and
enhancing sustainable UPF as a powerful tool. Examples of
existing UPF experience and good practices from around the
world are given, as much can be learnt from these.

Source: Konijnendijk, C. C., Sadio, S., Randrup, T. B., & Schipperijn, J. (2003, September 21–28). Urban and peri-urban forestry
for sustainable urban development. Paper presented at 12th World Forestry Congress, Québec City, Canada. Retrieved May 10,
2011 from www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0976-B5.HTM

Abstract E
In an energy-scarce future, ecosystem services will become more
important in supporting the human economy. The primary role
of the field of ecology will be the sustainable management of
ecosystems. Energy scarcity will affect ecology in a number of
ways. Sustaining the ecology will become more expensive, which
will be justified because it helps in solving societal problems,

62 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project 4

especially in maintaining ecosystem services. Applied research

on highly productive ecosystems is linked to the preservation
of productive ecosystems and the provision of high ecosystem
services. The restoration and management of rich natural
ecosystems will be as important as the protection of existing
wild areas. Meanwhile, the energy-intensive micromanagement
of ecosystems will become less feasible. Eco-technology and,
more specifically, ecological engineering and self-design,
are appropriate bases for developing sustainable ecosystem
management. On this occasion, we use the Mississippi River
basin as a case study for ecology in times of scarcity.
Keywords: Mississippi River basin, ecosystem management,
sustainability, peak oil, energy scarcity

Source: Day, J. W., Hall, C. A., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., Pimentel, D., Ibáñez Martí, C., & Mitsch, W. J. (2009). Ecology in Times of
Scarcity. BioScience, 59(4), 321.

Abstract F
Critical thinking, or higher-order thinking skills, are considered
essential for higher education across academic disciplines.
Reflecting current trends, critical thinking has been introduced
into language classrooms, especially in writing and reading classes.
Language teaching researchers have carried out experiments in
critical thinking through various pedagogies, and Thai educators
are following the same path. This paper aims to review the
range of critical-thinking definitions proposed according to
various theoretical frameworks, and the widely accepted models
of learning, and then looks at ways to assess this cognitive
skill. The paper then focuses on the implementation of critical
thinking in Thai language classrooms, particularly in reading and
writing classes. Classroom research is also considered in order to
investigate the research trends in the Thai environment.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 63

 Abstract C D E F

1. a general statement/essential background information

2. the aims of the project, dissertation or thesis

3. the implementation of an investigation in a real-world situation

4. how the text is organized

5. details of research carried out by the writer

6. what the results of the research suggest

7. a thesis statement

8. a definition

4.4 Based on your reading of each abstract, suggest what you think the titles of the
projects or papers A, B, C and F are.

Abstract Possible title

D Urban and peri-urban forestry for sustainable urban development

E Ecology in Times of Scarcity

64 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project 4

Unit summary

In this unit you have learnt about the tutorial system and how best to use it. You have also
discovered more about plagiarism and how to avoid it. Finally, you have learnt about the features
and purpose of abstracts.

Mark each of these statements T (true) or F (false).

1
a. You will probably be your tutor’s only tutee.

b. You can organize a tutorial with your tutor whenever you like.

c. Tutorials usually have a fixed duration.

d. Your tutor will decide what to talk about during a tutorial, so you don’t
need to prepare for it.

e. Sometimes it’s a good idea to make notes during a tutorial.

Write down three things that you might want to talk about during a tutorial.
2
a.

b.

c.

Answer these questions about plagiarism.

3
a. The word plagiarism comes from Latin. What is the meaning of the Latin word it
comes from?

b. If you plagiarize, what exactly are you stealing?

c. What do you think is the most common reason why students plagiarize?

d. What are the possible consequences of plagiarizing?

e. If you paraphrase the ideas that you use as a source, does it always mean that you
avoid plagiarism?

f. Suggest some ways of avoiding plagiarism.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 65

 Complete these statements about abstracts. Imagine you are giving advice to
4 another student.

a. An abstract is

b. Abstracts are very useful because

c. Three typical features of abstracts are

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide you with information on what plagiarism is and how to avoid it, as
well as a guide to writing an abstract.

66 English for Academic Study

 Developing your project

5 Developing a focus
In this unit you will:
• learn how to choose a topic
• practise narrowing down the topic to establish a focus
• come up with a working title
• consolidate some of the skills you have been developing while completing Project 1

Introduction

One of the most challenging aspects you face when working on a project is to decide on
an appropriate topic and establish a title. It needs to be a topic that you can narrow down
enough to establish a clear focus so that the project is not too general. This is not always
easy to do, as you may be interested in many aspects of a particular topic. However, by
INPUT

isolating one aspect, you can explore a subject in more depth. This is a requirement in
academic work.
You will have encountered the first steps to writing a project in Unit 1. These include:
• choosing a topic
• brainstorming ideas
• narrowing the focus by asking yourself questions
• establishing a working title which is flexible and which can be developed
• choosing some sources by looking at journals, books and websites
You will look at this area in more depth in the tasks that follow.

Task 1 Choosing a topic for your extended essay

Choosing a topic requires careful consideration; as you are working in your own subject area, you
need to display a level of specialized knowledge that shows you have a deeper understanding of
the subject than in Project 1. At the same time, you need to consider carefully who your reader is.

1.1 Read these steps, which describe the process of choosing a topic. Put them in the
appropriate order by numbering them 1–8.

Decide how practical it is to work on this topic.

Find something in your subject area you are interested in.

Summarize your project idea in one sentence.

Decide how much you already know about the topic.

Talk about your ideas.

Think about a possible working title.

Look for sources.

Make a plan.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 67

 Considering your reader
When you are writing an academic text, you need to
Study tip
consider your audience carefully. Note that your reader:
■■ expects an academic approach from an expert in the Your writing should sound
field authoritative, but you should not
■■ will not necessarily be an expert on the subject you make assumptions about the
reader’s knowledge.
are writing about

Task 2 Developing a topic

Developing a specific focus will help you choose a suitable topic title and will inform your search
for appropriate sources. This is particularly helpful when you are using a search engine, as precise
search data always gives the best results.

2.1 Look at the following essay titles. Write the numbers 1–9 where you think they
should go in the table that follows, according to how general or specific each title is.
1. A comparative analysis of monetary policies in the USA and Japan during the crisis
of 2008–2009.
2. Why organic foods are better for the consumer.
3. Three results of global warming in China.
4. The causes of unemployment.
5. The intelligence of intelligent buildings; evaluating current trends and examining what
the future holds.
6. The melting poles: the greatest danger from climate change.
7. Herbal medicine and human health.
8. The establishment of the Asian Currency Unit; a comparative analysis with the
European Currency Unit.
9. The Internet and marketing.

Most general   General/specific   Most specific

68 English for Academic Study

 Developing a focus 5

Task 3 Establishing a focus

There are three stages in producing a project: planning, researching and writing up. In each of
these stages, there are a number of smaller steps.
One way to establish a focus for your topic is to ask yourself questions about it. For example,
tourism is a very general topic; in order to narrow it down, you could ask yourself some specific
wh~ questions: Why? Who? What? Where? When? Which? and How?
Note that you may not need to ask all these questions about each topic.
Example questions:
■■ Why is tourism important?
■■ Who is affected by tourism?
■■ What is tourism?
■■ Where does tourism have the most impact?
■■ Which countries are most dependent on tourism?
■■ How is tourism evolving in the 21st century?

3.1 Add to the list of questions for the following topic, based on the above examples.

The education system in Argentina

What problems exist in the Argentinian education system?

How can the Argentinian education system be improved?

3.2 Here are some general subjects chosen by students. How could you change them,
using questions like those in the previous exercise, to make each topic more
specific or focused?
■■ Milk supply and production
■■ Demographic trends
■■ Intelligent buildings
■■ The United Nations
■■ Genetically modified (GM) food
■■ China’s construction industry
■■ Class size
■■ Vitamin C and the common cold
■■ Branding
■■ Future developments in human health

Extended Writing & Research Skills 69

 Task 4 Establishing a working title
A working title is one that you think of as a starting point, before establishing a focus for your
research and writing. However, as you carry out research and become more involved in the subject
of your project, your viewpoint may change. You may then decide to modify your original plan, and
this will affect your final title. This is all part of the process of developing your ideas and fine-tuning
your research skills.

4.1 Study the following example of a working title and think about why it changed.
The pre-sessional student who created this working title felt that the original one was too
general. The student experimented with a second working title before arriving at the third
and final title.

Pollution and its relationship with

people and the environment

The social and environmental

impact of pollution

The environmental impact of

pollution in urban areas

4.2 Look at these titles. Decide why they are too general. Then rewrite them to make
them more specific, to give the essay more focus.
1. Learning a second language

2. Organic food and health

3. The effect of technology on society

4.3 Now choose two topics related to your subject area and develop your own
working titles, going through the steps listed in Task 1.
You do not need to write projects on these titles, but this task will give you practice in
focusing on specific areas. This will help you to be more precise when you write.

70 English for Academic Study

 Developing a focus 5

Task 5 Planning Project 2

5.1 You may have already done some reading, research and thinking about
Project 2 in your own subject area. Based on this, complete the following plan
as far as possible.

Project plan

What is your topic?

Why have you chosen this topic?

Key questions (what do you want to find out about this topic?)

What is your focus and/or working title?

Extended Writing & Research Skills 71

 Thesis statement

Specific title*

*This may develop later or you may not know this until you have carried out some
research in the library or online.

72 English for Academic Study

 Developing a focus 5

Unit summary

In this unit you have learnt how to choose a topic for a project, how to narrow down the topic to
establish a focus and how to create a working title.

Complete sentences a–e with the correct endings 1–6. You will not use one of
1 the endings.
a. If I choose a topic that is 1. I might find it difficult to gather enough
too general, information.
b. If I choose a topic that is 2. it might be difficult to choose which
too specialized, information to use.
c. If I isolate one aspect of a 3. my project will not be accessible to the
general topic, average reader.
4. I will understand the information
d. If I choose a topic I already
I use better.
know about,
5. I can explore it in more depth.
e. If I display too much specialist
knowledge, 6. it will be difficult to establish a clear focus.

A student has asked for advice about establishing a focus for his/her project.
2 Answer his/her questions below.
a. Why is it important to establish a focus when choosing a topic for a project?
b. How can I make a very general topic more specific?

Delete the incorrect option in each of these statements about establishing a

3 working title.
a. Having a working title helps the writer to finish a project / establish a focus.
b. A working title very rarely / frequently changes as a project develops.
c. If a working title changes, it usually goes from being general to being specific / being
specific to being general.

Complete this statement so that it is true for you.

4
In this unit, the most important thing I have learnt about writing an extended essay is

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide tips on how to narrow down your essay topic and write a thesis
statement, as well as a clarification of the role of the thesis statement.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 73

 6 Introductions, conclusions
and definitions
In this unit you will:
• analyze the features of introductions
• analyze the features of conclusions
• analyze the features of definitions
• identify the language of each of these three components in a typical academic text

Introduction

WRITING INTRODUCTIONS
When writing an academic text such as a project, it is important to think about the structure,
i.e., the individual components of the text, such as introductions and conclusions. The
introduction has a clear function as the first part of the text: it sets the tone for the reader by
INPUT

giving some idea of the content and the stance of the writer; it also suggests how the piece of
work is organized. The conclusion rounds off the essay: it refers back to the introduction and
pulls together all the main ideas; it is an opportunity to show how well you have dealt with
the issues you raised in the introduction.
These are some key features that can be included in an introduction:
1. an introduction to the topic of your essay/background information
2. justification for your choice of topic focus
3. an outline of the structure of the essay
4. definitions of key terms related to the topic
5. your thesis statement (your viewpoint or perspective)
6. your purpose for writing the essay

Task 1 Features of introductions

1.1 Introduction 1 is taken from the project of a pre-sessional student. Discuss the
features of the introduction with another student.

Introduction 1

To what extent is bank borrowing the best choice for small and medium-sized
enterprises raising funds in Vietnam?
In the economic development process in Vietnam, small and medium-sized
enterprises are increasingly encouraged to expand. In promoting the growth
of these companies, raising capital plays an important role in improving and
marketing new products, expanding industries and managing daily operations.
According to the World Bank’s reports, companies can raise money from several
sources: from capital markets, from buying and selling shares, owning the
franchise or increasing venture capital (2006).

74 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

Another common alternative is bank borrowing. Although bank loans entail the
disadvantages of high interest rates and limitations on the amount of the loan,
they still bring undeniable advantages such as flexibility and safety. Borrowing
from the bank appears to be particularly convenient for small firms in developing
economies. By examining the features of bank borrowing, this paper will show
that this is the best choice for Vietnamese small enterprises.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

1.2 Look at how certain features can be identified using the following table.
a. Which features do you think overlap?
b. Why do you think two of the features are not included?

Table 1: Features of Introduction 1

Feature Relevant section of text

introduction In the economic development process in Vietnam, small and

to topic medium-sized enterprises are increasingly encouraged to expand.

background In promoting the growth of these companies, raising capital plays an

information important role in improving and marketing new products, expanding
industries and managing daily operations.

justification According to the World Bank’s reports, companies can raise money
from several sources: from capital markets, from buying and selling
shares, owning the franchise or increasing venture capital (2006).
Another common alternative is bank borrowing.

outline of
Not included.
structure

definition of
Not included.
key terms

thesis Borrowing from the bank appears to be particularly convenient for

statement small firms in developing economies.

writer’s By examining the features of bank borrowing, this paper will show
purpose that this is the best choice for Vietnamese small enterprises.

Note: From Ex 1.2, it will be clear that certain features overlap. For example, background
information may be considered in part as justification, and the thesis statement may be
linked with the writer’s purpose. Furthermore, certain features are not always included. For
example, in Introduction 1 there is no definition or outline of what is to follow in the text.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 75

 1.3 Now analyze Introduction 2 in the same way. Then match the lettered extracts to the
appropriate features in Table 2.
Introduction 2

What role does the real estate property market play in the economy?
1 a The real estate property market plays an essential role in the economic
system of any country. On average, property accounts for 60% of national
wealth (Walker & Flanagan, 1991). b Broadly speaking, the real estate
market involves many industries, including construction, commerce, retail
5 and services, thus acting as an economic focus point.
c This essay aims to show that even though the real estate market plays a
similar role in different countries, it does in fact have a different impact on
economies at different stages of maturity: for example, the different impact
on developed and developing countries. d Two countries are compared in
10 order to identify these differences: the USA as a developed country, and
China as a developing country. It gives some background to the real estate
market: specifically property and capital. Secondly, it describes the role real
estate plays in the economy, and finally it evaluates the key differences,
showing that – in developing countries – the real estate market promotes the
15 national economy through industry, and in developed countries this is done
through the capital market.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Table 2: Features of Introduction 2

Feature Relevant section of text

introduction to topic

background information

justification

outline of structure

definition of key terms .

thesis statement Not included.

writer’s purpose

76 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

1.4 Analyze Introduction 3. Then write the line number for the part of the
introduction that corresponds to the appropriate feature in Table 3.

Introduction 3

A discussion of how green buildings can be both environmentally

friendly and a profitable venture
1 Most human activities occur within a building. This is where we live, work,
produce goods and products, and entertain. At the same time, the function of
any ‘construction’, from the time of primitive caves, has been to protect people
from the hazards of their surroundings. Nevertheless, the environment has
5 suffered serious damage caused by buildings, due to their reliance on energy
production and the amount of waste water that is generated.
With recent discussion about the importance of the environment and climate
change, society has begun to show concern about how its habits and processes
might be modified in order to have less impact on nature. In civil engineering,
10 this view – combined mainly with the increase of energy prices – has led to
the advent of green buildings (BAHBA, 1994). Those who construct or manage
buildings – the real estate investors – are faced with the challenge of seeking a
solution to reduce the costs of construction and maintenance.
As far as investment in the real estate market is concerned, investors are
15 especially interested in projects with the highest yield, which sometimes
means that the initial investment, namely the construction of the building,
might be low. However, as green building techniques are currently not
widely used, the construction of a green building generally requires a
greater amount of initial funding than for traditional buildings. Despite
20 the cost factor, the United States Green Building Council (USGBC, 2009)
indicates that the construction of these ventures is rapidly increasing in
the USA; from 2% on non-residential buildings in 2005 to 10% in 2008,
and predicted to be 20% in 2013. In other sectors of construction, where
green buildings are not yet significant, they are not as costly a solution for
25 reducing the impact of houses on the environment as is often believed.
The aim of this essay is to show how buildings cause damage to the
environment, emphasizing the issues of energy and water supply, and
discussing the extent to which green buildings can mitigate these problems
whilst still being profitable ventures for investors.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Table 3: Features of Introduction 3

Feature Relevant section of text

introduction to topic

background information

justification

outline of structure Not included.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 77

 Feature Relevant section of text

definition of key terms Not included.

thesis statement

writer’s purpose

1.5 Analyze Introductions 4 and 5. Then write the line number for the part of
the introduction that corresponds to the appropriate feature in Table 4 for
Introduction 4 and Table 5 for Introduction 5.

Introduction 4

Developing customer loyalty: Current strategies and their effectiveness

1 Nowadays, as companies compete with each other for survival, there are a
number of factors which influence every market. These include customer
care, which is one of the best ways to guarantee the future of a company.
Customer care represents long-term investment and generates income.
5 Satisfied customers are more likely to repeat their purchases. For this reason,
understanding their behaviour is the key to survival. To this end, different
companies have experimented with new methods in order to build a strong
customer relationship. These can be categorized as indirect and direct
methods, depending on the kind of marketing they involve. The former
10 focuses on maintaining the corporate image, whilst the latter emphasizes
the product. Even though both methods have the same goal of extended
loyalty, recent research shows that direct methods seem to lead to different
ends, probably due to the nature of this specific methodology. This essay
analyzes the different types of loyalty and discusses the extent to which the
15 main approaches that are used by companies to gain customer loyalty are
actually effective.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Table 4: Features of Introduction 4

Feature Relevant section of text

introduction to topic

background information

justification

outline of structure

definition of key terms

thesis statement

writer’s purpose

78 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

Introduction 5

The problem of overfishing in the great lakes of developing African

countries and a review of current policy
1 Over the past few decades, overfishing has been identified as one of the
main threats to the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems, although policies
to regulate it are in place. The current policy implemented by developing
African countries with great lakes, such as Zambia and Tanzania, addresses
5 the conservation and sustainable use of fisheries’ resources, but has not been
successful in addressing the problem of the depletion of these resources.
This is because the policy emphasizes resource conservation rather than
alternatives that would remedy the situation. Hence, the policy needs to
be reviewed in order to incorporate measures that would have a positive
10 impact and reduce the depletion of resources that has caused an overfishing
problem in the lakes.
The term overfishing can be defined as the ‘exploitation of the resource
beyond the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) as a result of over-intensive
fishing as the stock biomass is decreasing’ (Travers et al., 2010). This implies
15 that when a particular species is overfished, either for food or commercial
purposes, there is a problem. This is experienced particularly when most of
the fishing community in developing African countries depend on fishing as
one of their main socio-economic activities and overfishing can lead to loss
of employment, income and sources of food.
20 Fish numbers taken from lakes have undoubtedly increased at an alarming
rate over the last 10–15 years, and this threatens the availability of some
varieties. A policy with a precautionary approach would reduce the
overfishing problems and improve the fishery resource stock. This essay
will give an overview of the overfishing problem and explain how it
25 happens. It will attempt to identify the people responsible for this problem,
evaluate the current policy on overfishing and recommend how the problem
can be reduced.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Table 5: Features of Introduction 5

Feature Relevant section of text

introduction to topic

background information

justification

outline of structure

definition of key terms

thesis statement

writer’s purpose

Extended Writing & Research Skills 79

 Task 2 Analyzing your introduction

2.1 Look at the introduction for your own project. Identify which features
it contains and tick (✔) them in the ‘My project’ column of the table.

Feature My project My partner’s

project

introduction to topic

background information

justification

outline of structure

definition of key terms

thesis statement

writer’s purpose

2.2 Exchange your introduction with a partner. Identify the features from his/her
introduction and tick (✔) them in the ‘My partner’s project’ column of the table.

2.3 Now compare your findings. Did you find any other features that are not
on the list?
Discuss with other students or your teacher.

Task 3 The language of introductions

3.1 Look again at Introductions 1–5. Underline any expressions or phrases in these
introductions that you think might be useful.
Examples:
Introduction 1: By examining the features of bank borrowing, this paper will show that …
Introduction 2: Broadly speaking, the real estate market involves many industries,
including construction, commerce, retail and services, …

80 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

3.2 Think about how you might use some of these in your own academic writing and
write some examples.

By examining the role of the Internet in marketing, this paper will show that …

Broadly speaking, marketing involves the four ‘Ps’: product, price, promotion and place.

Task 4 Identifying the thesis statement

The thesis statement should be one of the key elements of your academic writing. Normally, it
should be included in the introductory part of your text and should indicate to your readers your
perspective or attitude to the topic you are introducing (stance). It may also indicate how your ideas
are organized within the text. A well-expressed thesis statement will help to:
■■ provide a clear focus
■■ direct the reader

Key points in a thesis statement

A strong thesis statement is specific and makes a point effectively.
Example: Obsessive and excessive exercise is a cause of mental and physical problems.
Note the following points.
■■ There is one key idea.
■■ The cause and the effect are distilled in a single sentence.
■■ The reader gets a clear idea of the content, the stance (or viewpoint) and the probable
organization of the text from this single sentence.
This suggests that a thesis statement is a condensed form of the writer’s purpose.

4.1 Study the sentences below and identify the purpose of each. Label each one with
the appropriate letter: B for background information, E for explanation or T for
thesis statement.
One sentence contains simple background information, one is an explanation and the other
is a thesis statement.
1. The cocoa bean contains many nutrients, from fat to vitamin C, as well as caffeine.
2. Although excessive amounts of caffeine can be damaging to health, recent research
indicates that a limited amount can be beneficial.
3. It stimulates the brain, aids concentration and may help to limit the effects of certain
diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
Discuss your answers with another student.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 81

 4.2 Read the introduction below and underline the thesis statement. Then answer
the questions.

The only consistent thing about cities is that they are always changing. Classifying
and understanding the processes of urban change present problems for geographers
and others studying the city. Cities, since their inception, have always demonstrated
gradual, piecemeal change through processes of accretion, addition or demolition. This
type of change can be regarded as largely cosmetic and the underlying processes of
urbanisation and the overall structure of the city remain largely unaltered. However,
at certain periods fundamentally different processes of urbanisation have emerged.
The result has been that the rate of urban change has accelerated and new, distinctly
different, urban forms have developed. This occurred, for example, with the
urbanisation associated with industrialisation in the UK in the nineteenth century.
Source: Hall, T. (2001). Urban geography. London: Routledge.

1. How does this thesis statement help to direct the reader and possibly determine the
organization of the text that follows?
2. What functions do other sentences in this introduction perform?
The role of the thesis statement in text organization
The thesis statement may also determine the organization of the text. You can use the
following guidelines to arrive at your thesis statement.
■■ Turn the title of the text into a question.
■■ Distil the answer into one or two sentences.
■■ If the title is already a question, simply write the answer.
■■ Ask yourself what your viewpoint is.

4.3 Write a short, four- or five-sentence introduction to a topic of your choice

(preferably related to your subject area).
The introduction should contain a thesis statement.

4.4 Compare your introduction with one your teacher will show you.

Task 5 Features of conclusions

WRITING CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion at the end of your essay serves a number of functions:
• It is the final part of your text and so needs to pull together all the main ideas.
INPUT

• It should refer back to what you outlined in your introduction and to your thesis statement.
• It is an opportunity to show the extent to which you have been able to deal with the
issues involved in your thesis statement.
Just like introductions, conclusions can have a number of features:
1. a logical conclusion that is evident from the development of the ideas in your essay, as
well as a brief summary of the main ideas in the essay
2. comments on these ideas
3. predictions for future developments in the topic area or statement of further research
that might be required
4. a statement of the limitations of the work covered by your essay
5. a reference back to the thesis statement first mentioned in the introduction

82 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

5.1 Study the example conclusion below from the project of a pre-sessional student.
Complete column 1 of the table below and on page 84 with the features 1–7 below.

  1 further research suggestions  2 limitations  3 comments on ideas 

  4 logical conclusion  5 predictions 
  6 brief summary  7 reference to thesis statement 

Example:

To what extent is bank borrowing the best choice for small and medium-sized
enterprises raising funds in Vietnam?
This project has examined how the development of small and medium-sized businesses
in the economic sector partly depends on financial management and financial
decisions where choosing a suitable method to raise funds is crucial. The importance of
a clear financial plan, understanding financial situations, and clarifying the advantages
and disadvantages of each method has been discussed. Although there are a number
of methods in capital markets for raising funds, borrowing from banks seems to be
the best choice for small and medium-sized enterprises that want to expand. Despite
the disadvantage of bank borrowing with high interest rates, and limits on borrowing,
this essay has shown how bank borrowing is suitable for the business environment in
Vietnam. This is because many businesses are family-run, with a lack of management
experience, but also because interest charges are deductible for such companies. The
same lack of experience would make it difficult to venture into new capital markets,
and currently, at least, bank loans are the most appropriate source of funding. As
experience grows, however, and the depth of knowledge increases, it is important for
these companies to consider other possible financial options.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Feature Relevant section of text

Although there are a number of methods in capital

markets for raising funds, borrowing from banks
seems to be the best choice for small and
medium-sized enterprises that want to expand.

This project has examined how the development of

small and medium-sized businesses in the economic
sector partly depends on financial management and
financial decisions when choosing a suitable method
to raise funds is crucial. The importance of a clear
financial plan, understanding financial situations, and
clarifying the advantages and disadvantages of each
method has been discussed.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 83

 (… this essay has shown how bank borrowing is
suitable for the business environment in Vietnam.) This
is because many businesses are family-run, with a lack
of management experience, but also because interest
charges are deductible for such companies. The same
lack of experience would make it difficult to venture
into new capital markets, and currently, at least, bank
loans are the most appropriate source of funding.

As experience grows, however, and the depth

of knowledge increases, it is important for these
companies to consider other possible financial options.

Not included.

Not included.

… this essay has shown how bank borrowing is

suitable for the business environment in Vietnam.

5.2 Conclusions 1–4 are also taken from the projects of pre-sessional students. They
all contain some of the features, 1–7, in the list on page 83. Identify and highlight
features from the list. Then write the numbers 1–7 in the margin beside the
appropriate feature.

Conclusion 1

What role does the real estate property market play in the economy?
This essay has shown that the real estate market has different functions
6 depending on whether the country involved has either a developing or
developed economy. In general, real estate property is a national asset, and
the real estate market is indispensable for national economic development.
In China, where the real estate market is immature but growing rapidly,
the national economy is more dependent on this market with its potential
for employment, and possibility of attracting capital. In this situation, and
ultimately as the Chinese government is the largest investor, the real estate
market can be considered the engine of change. In contrast, the real estate
market in the USA is mature, involved in many sections of the economy,
and individuals are the largest investors. It remains to be seen whether the
development of the Chinese economy will have a significant impact on the real
estate market, creating a situation more similar to that of the American model.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

84 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

Conclusion 2

A discussion of how green buildings can be both environmentally

friendly and a profitable venture
Ways of decreasing the impact of construction on the environment have
been analyzed, and the way in which these solutions can result, to some
extent, in higher profits for their investors has been explained. It is suggested
that green buildings can create additional value for the investor, since they
reduce maintenance costs and thus increase profitability. Although only
the use of solar energy for heating and light has been analyzed, it has been
demonstrated how this usage can diminish the impact of building activities
on the environment, and increase the profits for investors. However, this
cannot be a global solution, since its effectiveness is restricted to sites with
sufficient intense sunlight. In other areas, the re-use of ‘grey’ water and the
harvesting of rainwater are alternative environmentally friendly solutions
even though the high cost of drinkable water decreases its feasibility as a
profitable venture. Nonetheless, should these techniques become widely
used, and other cheaper solutions evolve, green buildings might indeed
become both a totally environmentally friendly and profitable solution.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Conclusion 3

Developing customer loyalty: Current strategies and their effectiveness

Customer loyalty is essential for the future of firms, and companies need to
develop different marketing strategies in order to create long-term loyalty.
Both indirect methods, which are concerned with the image of the company,
and direct methods, which emphasize the product, goods or service, are
identified as possible strategies. Although both methods work well in
theory, in practice it is shown that indirect methods are more efficient, and
can provide a deeper loyalty, mainly based on trust and customer care. As
indicated, the IKEA model is evidence of how a trained staff member can
retain a customer’s loyalty, even in different cultural situations.
In contrast, direct methods often create ‘false’ loyalty, which may be useful
only in the short term. Furthermore, building loyalty is not guaranteed
with this approach, and sometimes there are huge drawbacks. Thus, if the
marketing plan is not well thought out and executed, companies may waste
money in useless reward programmes. Many approaches used in recent years
have shown that customers have individual personalities and gifts are not
a sufficient general means of ensuring loyalty. Even though direct methods
have some drawbacks, they can be useful, at least whilst the company is
building a better image. For this reason, a combination of both methods
might be a better option. As Riechheld’s research demonstrates, the best way
to guarantee a company’s future is to build a better corporate and brand
image which shows the strengths of the company, without gimmicks.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 85

 Conclusion 4

The problem of overfishing in the great lakes of developing African

countries and a review of current policy
This essay has shown that in order to reduce or eliminate the overfishing
problem in developing East African countries, current policy needs to be
reviewed to include a precautionary approach in rectifying the drastic
depletion of fishing stock. This approach should address issues such as the
stakeholders’ future position if restrictions such as quota fishing and closed
season fishing are imposed. It would also be significantly more effective
if other alternatives for obtaining fish for local industry and personal
consumption by the local community were considered. For example, fish
farming would be a good option as the commercial industry would still get
raw fish material for the factories and hence continue to meet its fish market
demand. This would also ensure that local communities could generate
sufficient income for their needs. Eventually, this approach would reduce
the fishing pressure on inland waterways and eliminate the overfishing
problem in the region.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

5.3 Discuss your analysis of the conclusions in small groups.

5.4 Complete the summary table by ticking (✔) the appropriate columns.

Summary table

Feature Conclusion 1 Conclusion 2 Conclusion 3 Conclusion 4

logical
conclusion

brief summary

comments on
ideas

predictions

further
research
suggestions

limitations

reference
to thesis
statement

86 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

Task 6 Analyzing your conclusion

6.1 Look at the conclusion of your own project (Project 1). Which of the features from
the table below can you identify? Place a tick (✔) in the appropriate row.

Feature My project My partner’s project

logical conclusion

brief summary

comments on ideas

predictions

further research suggestions

limitations

reference to thesis statement

6.2 Exchange your conclusion with another student. Tick (✔) the features you can
identify in his/her work.

6.3 Now compare your findings. Are there any other features that are not on the list?
Discuss with other students or your teacher.

Task 7 The language of conclusions

7.1 Look again at Conclusions 1–4 on pages 84–86. Underline any expressions or
phrases you think might be useful in your own academic writing.

Conclusion 2

Ways of decreasing the impact of construction on the environment have

been analyzed, and the way in which these solutions can result, to some
extent, in higher profits for their investors has been explained.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 87

 Task 8 Features of definitions

When writing about a topic, it is essential to clarify your terms,

Study tip
i.e., to explain clearly what you mean by key words in the essay.
When defining terms, make
sure you are clear about who
your audience is. You need to
define any specialist terms that
you do not believe will be shared
knowledge.

WRITING EXTENDED DEFINITIONS (1)

If you were writing about human resource management, for example, you would need to
explain what you meant by human resources, so that both the writer and the reader have
INPUT

exactly the same interpretation of the term. You will often find that definitions form at least
part of the introductory texts to your subject area.
The extent to which you need to define your terms will depend on your reader and your
purpose for writing. For example, if you are new to the subject area, then you will need to
clarify some of the most basic terms, for yourself (as well as, perhaps, your tutor). As you gain
a deeper knowledge and understanding of the subject, and you are writing for specialists, the
meaning of certain key terms can be assumed as part of shared knowledge.

8.1 Look at the definition of the Academic Studies course below and think about how
useful it is for your purposes as a student.

Term Definition

Academic Academic Studies is a course that is designed to help students develop

Studies some of the research skills required in their future field of study.

As you will notice, this definition does not give you very much information about the course;
an extended definition would be more useful to you. You might add to the short definition
above by explaining what students are expected to do on an Academic Studies course.

Term Extended definition

Academic Students work to produce an extended piece of writing on a topic in

Studies their subject area, and will also give an oral presentation on this topic.
They are expected to read widely and select appropriate sources to
support the ideas related to their topic. They work on summarizing
and synthesizing information accurately, as well as evaluating what
they read. They learn about the conventions of referencing and how
to write a bibliography, as well as developing their critical thinking
skills. Students are, to a large extent, expected to work autonomously.

88 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

8.2 Study Definitions 1–4, which have been taken from the projects of pre-sessional
students. Identify the features of the definitions from 1–4 below:
1. a formal definition, e.g., from a dictionary or an expert in the field
2. an expansion of the definition with an explanation and/or examples
3. a comment on the definition by the writer
4. references

Definition 1: Language aptitude

Some people have a natural language ability, which makes them adept
at learning foreign languages, whereas others are rather poor at this and
struggle to acquire a basic communicative ability in the language. A factor
that makes a difference to the individual is often referred to as language
aptitude. Although difficult to define in concrete terms, it is understood to
be not necessarily the ability to learn the language in the classroom, but
rather to be able to apply this knowledge in a real-life situation (Cook, 1991).
While some people argue that this ability is not fixed, Carroll (1981) believes
that aptitude is an innate or stable factor, which cannot be changed through
training and is constant throughout one’s life. He also insists that is it not
related to past learning experience. This implies that language aptitude is
not something that is accumulated as we age, but something we are born
with. This may sound demotivating for those who are not equipped with
language aptitude. However, as Ellis (1994) suggests, aptitude is only a
facilitator which encourages learning, especially in accelerating the rate of
learning, but does not determine learning.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Definition 2: Critical thinking

As the importance of critical thinking has become widely accepted,

scholars and theorists have attempted to establish a clear definition.
Critical thinking can be traced back more than 2,500 years to Socrates’
time. Paul, Elder, and Bartell (1997) explained that it was originally
defined as a method for arriving at the truth and analyzing complex
ideas. This method of questioning, now known as ‘Socratic questioning’,
is a series of questions about a certain issue used to investigate that issue
by applying logical points of view.
However, the actual term ‘critical thinking’ only emerged in the 20th
century. Renaud & Murray (2008) then assembled several popular
definitions of critical thinking (e.g., Ennis, 1985; Furedy & Furedy, 1984;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Watson & Glaser, 1980) which contain
the following five common elements: identifying central issues and
assumptions, making correct inferences from data, deducting conclusions
from data provided, interpreting whether conclusions are warranted,
and evaluating evidence or authority. Other elements of critical thinking
include: making a statement or argument supported with evidence
(Beyer, 1987), recognizing important relationships (Ennis, 1985; Furedy &
Furedy, 1984; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005), defining a problem (Dressel &
Mayhew, 1954; Ennis, 1985), and forming relevant hypotheses (Dressel &
Mayhew, 1954; Ennis, 1985).

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 89

 Despite this range, one of the definitions of critical thinking which is
extensively accepted and frequently cited in academic works comes from the
work of Michael Scriven and Richard Paul.
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively
and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/
or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief
and action. (Scriven & Paul, 1987, p. 5)
After this came a research project with the purpose of gaining consensus
among 46 specialists from various disciplines who participated. The result
was the Delphi Report, which emphasized that critical thinking was:
... purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of evidential,
conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations
upon which that judgment is based. (Facione, 2010, p. 22)
This final definition is the basis of a number of education models which will
be discussed in this paper’s analysis of critical thinking.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Definition 3: A green building

Before defining the concept of green buildings, it is important to explain

that although both constructions share some similarities, there are some
misunderstandings about the differences between ‘intelligent’ buildings
and ‘green’ buildings. Ehrlich (2007) conceptualizes intelligent buildings
as structures that use technologies and processes in order to increase
productivity, efficiency and security in a building. The main purpose of
a green building, on the other hand, is for it to be built in a way that is
‘friendly’ to the environment, i.e., doesn’t involve damaging it, and, as far as
possible, uses sustainable resources. Green buildings also use technologies
based on natural processes, with the purpose of reducing the dependence on
or use of resources, and consequently pollution.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Definition 4: Brand loyalty

A simple definition of brand loyalty is not easy to produce because the

loyalty idea does not just depend on one factor, but is instead a combination
of factors that enlist the trust of customers in products and services. Brand
loyalty is simply derived from the word ‘brand’, but it is bonded through the
company trademark and trustworthiness certification to encourage ‘loyalty’.
Trust is built on a long-term relationship between customers and companies
that provide preferential services and products for customers (Larry, 1994).
The three main factors involved in brand loyalty are customer satisfaction,
customer rewards and customer retention (Pallister & Law, 2007). However,
no one factor can generate loyalty on its own.

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

90 English for Academic Study

 Introductions, conclusions and definitions 6

8.3 Now complete the table below by ticking (✔) the appropriate cells.

Feature 1 2 3 4

a formal definition, e.g., from a dictionary or an expert in the field

an expansion of the definition with an explanation and/or examples

a comment on the definition by the writer

references

8.4 Underline, highlight or annotate the relevant parts of the definitions and discuss
them with another student.

8.5 Which definition is the most useful for the reader? Discuss in small groups. Make
sure you are able to explain your choice.

WRITING EXTENDED DEFINITIONS (2)

When you give a definition, it is essential not to write a circular definition, e.g.,
an extended writing class is a class where students learn to write extended essays. This
INPUT

is not helpful for the reader who wants to understand the meaning of an extended
essay class.
A more useful, non-circular definition might read, for example, an extended writing
class is one where appropriate academic writing skills and essential research skills are
developed in order to help students produce longer academic texts such as projects or
dissertations.
It is recommended that you use an acknowledged source of reference, e.g., a
dictionary or a recognized authority in the field. However, it is also important to
comment on the definition, especially if you are looking at several sources with
differing definitions. If you refer to more than one definition, it is important to state
clearly which definition you prefer.

8.6 Write an extended definition of your own subject area. Make sure you include all
the features you found in the definitions in Ex 8.2.
Your audience consists of your classmates and your teacher, who are not experts in the
field, so remember to use terminology that you can easily explain.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 91

 Unit summary

In this unit you have analyzed typical features of introductions, conclusions and definitions.

Mark a–k with either FI, for features of introductions, or FC, for features of conclusions.
1
a. background information about the topic
b. a brief summary of the main ideas in the essay, and comments on these
c. justification for the choice of topic focus
d. predictions for future developments
e. mention of further research that might be required
f. an outline of the structure of the essay
g. a definition of key terms related to the topic
h. limitations of the work covered by the essay
i. the thesis statement (the writer’s viewpoint or perspective)
j. the writer’s purpose in producing the essay

k. a reference back to the thesis statement

Mark each of the features above as follows.

2
✔ I used this in my project and think I used it well.
? I used this in my project, but I don’t think I used it very well.
✘ I didn’t use this in my project.

Complete the summary about definitions below with words from the box.
3
examples terms dictionary interpretation
shared knowledge comment knowledge

When writing about a topic, you must clarify your (explain clearly
what you mean by any key words you use) so that the writer and the reader have the
same . If you are new to the subject, you will need to define the most
basic terms so that you understand them properly. As you gain of
the subject, and if you are writing for specialists, the meaning of certain key terms can be
assumed as part of . You can use formal definitions from a
or an expert in the field, expand a definition with explanations or
, or make a about the definition.

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide you with an explanation of the features of introductions and conclusions
in academic writing, as well as a summary of how to use formal, informal and expanded definitions.

92 English for Academic Study

7 Incorporating data and
illustrations
In this unit you will:
• learn how data are incorporated into academic texts
• learn how to analyze data
• practise using the language of data commentary

Introduction

Another aspect of academic writing is data commentary. Data are statistical information that
is presented graphically in the form of tables or figures; they are used to support the information
and ideas of the academic researcher. Illustrations include a range of images such as photographs,
screenshots and diagrams. In academic writing, illustrations should only be used to help clarify ideas
or information; in other words, they should enhance an explanation. You should always provide the
source of your data.
In this unit, you will look at data connected with digital media, visits to Britain and perceptions of
Britain as a holiday destination.

Task 1 The purpose of data

1.1 Brainstorm the following questions in groups. Use

Study tip
your own knowledge and the information above.
1. What are data? Graphs and charts (known as
2. Why are data sometimes included in academic texts? figures) and tables can
summarize key information in a
very concise way.

Task 2 The language for incorporating data

2.1 Look at the examples of data (1–4) on pages 94–95. Identify whether each piece
of data is a figure or a table and label it appropriately.
If it is a table, write Table [1] above. If it is a figure, write Figure [1] below.
Note: The data includes two graphs, a bar chart and a table.

2.2 The two captions below match two of the pieces of data. Identify which
pieces they belong to and write them in the appropriate position above or
below the data.
1. Household take-up of digital television by type of service
2. Selected media activities that would be missed the most according to age, 2008

2.3 Now think of captions for the other two pieces of data and write them in the
appropriate places.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 93

 2.4 Read the text below and add a reference to each piece of data at a suitable place
in the text.

In 2008, the ‘digital switchover’ began. Data from Ofcom (Figure 2)

Fig. 2
shows that nearly 87 per cent of homes in the UK had a digital television
service at the end of the first quarter of 2008, a rise of 71 percentage
points since 2000. A digital television set can also transmit digital radio
stations. According to Radio Joint Audience Research Limited, the
average time spent listening to the radio by people in the UK in the first
quarter of 2007 was 19 hours and 24 minutes per week; average listening
time increases with age. Between 2001–2002 and 2006–2007, radio
listening fell among most age groups. The proportion of people reading
a daily newspaper has also been declining for a number of years. The
National Readership Survey shows that, on an average day, less than 44
per cent of people aged 15 and over in Great Britain read a national daily
newspaper in the 12 months to June 2008, compared with 72 per cent in
the 12 months to June 1978. In 2007, Ofcom asked which media activity
respondents would miss the most if they were all taken away. Watching
television would be the most missed activity for all age groups except
those aged 16 to 19, who would miss the mobile phone the most.

Source: Adapted from Self, A. (Ed.). (2008). Social trends 38 and Hughes, M. (Ed.). (2009). Social trends 39. Retrieved
April 21, 2009, from National Statistics Online: www.statistics.gov.uk

1.


Great Britain Percentages

1978 1988 1998 2008
The Sun 29 25 21 16
Daily Mail 13 10 11 11
Daily Mirror 28 20 14 8
The Daily Telegraph 8 6 5 4
Source: National
The Times 2 2 4 4
Readership Survey.
Daily Express 16 10 6 3 Adapted from
Daily Star – 8 4 3 Hughes, M. (Ed.).
(2009). Social trends
The Guardian 2 3 3 2
39. Retrieved April
The Independent – 2 2 1 21, 2009, from
Financial Times 2 2 1 1 National Statistics
Online: www.
Any national newspaper 72 67 56 44 statistics.gov.uk

94 English for Academic Study

 Incorporating data and illustrations 7

2. 

25

Overall average weekly listening hours

Average weekly listening hours

20

15

10

Source: Radio Joint

5 Audience Research Limited.
Adapted from Self, A. (Ed.).
(2008). Social trends 38.
Retrieved April 21, 2009,
0
4–14 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55 and from National Statistics
over Online: www.statistics.
gov.uk


3. 

100

80 Total digital television

Digital satellite
Digital terrestrial
60
Percentage

Digital cable

40

20 Source: Ofcom. Adapted

from Hughes, M. (Ed.).
(2009). Social trends 39.
0 Retrieved April 21, 2009,
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 from National Statistics
Online: www.statistics.
gov.uk


4. 

80
Watching television
Using a mobile phone
Using the Internet
60 Listening to radio
Reading newspapers
or magazines
Percentage

40

20 Source: Ofcom. Adapted

from Hughes, M. (Ed.).
(2009). Social trends 39.
Retrieved April 21, 2009,
0 from National Statistics
5–7 8–11 12–15 16–19 20–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65–74 75 Online: www.statistics.
and over gov.uk

Extended Writing & Research Skills 95

 Task 3 Assessing and interpreting data

3.1 Read the text from a website called VisitBritain. Then compare the information
in the text with the information in Figure 1 on page 97. Highlight the sections of
text that contain the same information as that shown in Figure 1.

Perceptions of Britain employing a UK national (rank fifth) and would be

open to having close friends from the UK (fifth).
Key insights
➜ B
 uilt heritage, cultural heritage and contemporary
culture are core to Britain’s offer, and attract Tourism
approximately £4.5 billion of spending by visitors If money were no object, the UK would (on average)
from overseas annually. be eighth on people’s list of nations to visit. The
➜ T
 here is scope to improve perceptions of the UK is seen as being rich in built/historical heritage
‘welcome’ received by overseas visitors; research (fourth position), with vibrant cities (fourth).
suggests that the reality of Britain’s welcome However, it is not seen as being a world-leader in
exceeds pre-trip perceptions. terms of the richness of its natural beauty (24th), so
➜ B
 ritain’s perceived expense is frequently competitors have an advantage here considering
mentioned as the biggest barrier to visiting. The that it is a strong motivator to visit a destination.
cost of sterling fell significantly for most visitors in Britain needs to showcase its most outstanding
2008, so it is essential to keep communicating how landscapes to improve perceptions, whilst
much more affordable Britain now is. promoting its other strengths, such as its heritage
and culture.
How the world rates the UK
The Anholt-GfK Nation Brands Index (2009) is an
online survey of approximately 20,000 respondents The UK as a place to live
from 20 nations around the world. Respondents are The UK is rated as the second-best place to study
asked to give their opinion of 50 nations, including for educational qualifications and seventh as a
the UK, regardless of whether they have visited or nation with a high quality of life – many people
not (so views captured can be based on perceptions would be prepared to live and work in the UK for a
as well as experiences).
substantial period.
The chart (Figure 1) shows how respondents rated
the UK on a number of different aspects compared
with the other 49 nations. It can be seen that online Exports
respondents generally have positive views of the People feel positive about purchasing a product that
UK, usually ranking the UK as one of the top ten says it was made in the UK (ranking it as the sixth-
nations for each of the measured attributes (with a best nation on this aspect) and view the UK as quite
couple of exceptions). a creative place in terms of its cutting-edge ideas
and new ways of thinking (fifth).
Culture
The UK is viewed as the fourth most exciting
Cultural associations
country in terms of its contemporary culture (e.g., Thinking of cultural products, the UK is most often
music, films, art and literature). It is also seen as associated with museums, music, films, sports
having a rich cultural heritage (seventh). The UK’s and pop videos, reflecting its mixture of cultural
sporting prowess is also recognized (eighth). heritage and contemporary culture (NBI, 2009).

People The UK as a tourist destination

Other nations are often seen to be more welcoming Given that the UK is often associated with
than the UK (rank 13th), so there is room for museums, it is not altogether surprising it is
improvement here. However, perceptions of British primarily seen as ‘educational’. Whilst each of these
people are not negative; many would be positive about words is positive, an ‘educational’ destination in

96 English for Academic Study

 Incorporating data and illustrations 7

itself does not arguably meet the emotional needs an educational experience, rather than one that
of the majority of holidaymakers. Therefore really provides the emotional connection potential
it is essential that Britain is seen not only as a visitors are looking for.
destination with a world-class historical offering,
but also as an exciting destination, with the power
to surprise visitors and engage them on a more
Attitudes towards competitor
emotional level. Encouragingly, the UK is also seen destinations
as ‘fascinating’ and ‘exciting’, which gives it greater Qualitative research continually shows us that key
pull as a holiday destination. competitors Italy and France have a strong allure,
The UK is seen by some to be ‘romantic’ (more especially when it comes to repeat travel. Italy
often by people from Asian nations) and is seen to be passionate and exciting with good
‘relaxing’, but not overwhelmingly so (NBI, 2009). food and warm, welcoming people. France is seen
Competitors such as France and Italy, which are to be sophisticated and romantic with a wealth
also seen to excel in offering world-class culture of sensory experiences (food, fashion) and offers
and heritage, are often seen as more ‘romantic’ continuing appeal.
destinations than the UK. Research conducted in Australia, New Zealand
and Canada in 2008 explains that when Britain
Britain as a ‘museum’ is compared with other destinations, consumers
feel these ‘other destinations’ are able to offer
The findings above have also been reflected beaches, different cultures, better food and different
in numerous qualitative research projects that languages, whereas Britain is seen to be an extension
VisitBritain has conducted around the world. of home. Britain is perceived to be easy to visit;
Research commissioned by VisitBritain in visitors and hosts generally share the same language,
Canada, Australia and New Zealand showed that and people feel at ease when in Britain. Other
Britain is often seen as ‘safe and cerebral’ and is positives include the fact that it has a rich culture,
often perceived to be more about the sights than is modern yet historical and is in a good central
experiences. Sometimes Britain is referred to location to access the rest of Europe.
as being like a museum: visiting it is primarily

Source: Adapted from VisitBritain (2010). Overseas visitors to Britain: Understanding Trends, Attitudes and Characteristics.
London: VisitBritain. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from www.visitbritain.org/Images/Overseas%20Visitors%20to%20Britain_
tcm29-14708.pdf

UK’s rank out of 50 nations

0 10 20 30 40 50
Would like to visit if money is no object

Rich in natural beauty

Rich in historic buildings and monuments

Has vibrant city life and urban attractions

Excels at sports

Has rich cultural heritage

Interesting/exciting contemporary culture such as music,
films, art and literature
Would make me feel welcome

Would like to have person from country as close friend

Willingness to hire well-qualified person from country

Would live and work for substantial period

Is a place with high quality of life

Good place to study for educational qualifications

Feel good about buying products from that country

A creative place with cutting-edge ideas and new
ways of thinking
Better / Worse

Figure 1: How the world rates the UK compared with 50 nations

Source: As above.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 97

 3.2 Answer the following questions as briefly as possible using information from
Figure 1. The first one has been partly completed for you.

1. What is the purpose of the graph in Figure 1?

The graph displays showing how Britain is by

overseas visitors in various categories of life. This information is used to describe
how Britain rates in each of these compared with 50 other
.

2. Which particular aspects of life in Britain do overseas visitors seem to appreciate most?

3. Which aspects of life in Britain seem to be the least appreciated?

3.3 Write three more positive comments about the way the information in Figure 1
is displayed.

1. A lot of information is easily accessed and interpreted.

2.

3.

4.

3.4 What overall impression does the data in Figure 1 give about how the world rates
the UK?

98 English for Academic Study

 Incorporating data and illustrations 7

Task 4 Working with data

4.1 Answer the questions that follow.

Museums

Music

Films

Sports

Pop videos

Modern design

Opera

Sculpture

Street carnival

Circus

None of these

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Figure 2: Cultural products associated with the UK

Educational

Fascinating

Exciting

Romantic

Relaxing

Boring

Stressful

Spiritual

Risky

Depressing

None of these

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Figure 3: Words associated with the UK as a tourist destination

Source: Adapted from VisitBritain (2010). Overseas visitors to Britain: Understanding Trends, Attitudes and Characteristics.
London: VisitBritain. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from www.visitbritain.org/Images/Overseas%20Visitors%20to%20Britain_
tcm29-14708.pdf

1. What is the main purpose of Figure 2?

2. What do you find most or least surprising about the data in Figure 2?
3. What main conclusion can you draw from the information in Figure 3?
4. What type of chart is used in Figures 2 and 3?

4.2 You are going to conduct a mini-survey with students from your class and
compare your findings with those in Figure 2.
a. Work in small groups to decide the best way to collect and collate the data, e.g.,
creating a short questionnaire.
b. Carry out your survey and make a note of the results.
c. Compare your results with the data in Figure 2. To what extent do they agree?

4.3 Complete the notes on page 100 by referring to Figure 4 and using words and
phrases from the box.
There is one word/phrase that you will not use.

 popular represented obviously a result of 

 accounting for a quarter 49% 

Extended Writing & Research Skills 99

 Percentage of nights spent in different
types of accommodation (2009)

2% 2%

24%
Hotel/guesthouse
Bed & breakfast
Camping/mobile home
Hostel/university/school
Holiday village/centre
3%
Rented house
1%
Paying guest at family or friend’s house
49% Free guest with relatives or friends
7%
Own home
Other
10%
2%

Figure 4: Accommodation type (all inbound visitors to the UK)

Source: Adapted from VisitBritain (2010). Overseas visitors to Britain: Understanding Trends, Attitudes and Characteristics.
London: VisitBritain. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from www.visitbritain.org/Images/Overseas%20Visitors%20to%20Britain_
tcm29-14708.pdf

In 2009, hotels/guesthouses were the most type of paid

accommodation for overseas visitors to the UK: stayed in this type
of accommodation, 24% of all nights. There is
some visiting friends and relatives (VFR) crossover in the market, with
of holiday visitors staying as a free guest with family or friends. Forty per cent of overseas
visitors stayed as a free guest with friends or relatives, which 49% of
all nights spent in the UK.

Task 5 Incorporating references in a text

5.1 Read the Visitors to Britain text on page 101 and add a reference to each sample
of data, Figures 4, 5 and 6 and Table 1, at a suitable place in the text.
One example has been done for you.
Trends of visits (000) by quarter of visit
12,000

10,000
Jan–Mar

8,000
Visits (000)

Apr–Jun

6,000 Jul–Sep

4,000 Oct–Dec

2,000

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Figure 5: Seasonal spread (all inbound visits to the UK)

Source: Adapted from VisitBritain (2010). Overseas visitors to Britain: Understanding Trends, Attitudes and Characteristics.
London: VisitBritain. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from www.visitbritain.org/Images/Overseas%20Visitors%20to%20Britain_
tcm29-14708.pdf

100 English for Academic Study

 Incorporating data and illustrations 7

All inbound visits to the UK

Trend of visit (000) by duration of visit

Source: Adapted from VisitBritain

(2010). Overseas visitors to Britain:
Understanding Trends, Attitudes
and Characteristics. London:
VisitBritain. Retrieved May 13, 2011,
from www.visitbritain.org/Images/
Overseas%20Visitors%20to%20
Britain_tcm29-14708.pdf

Figure 6: Length of stay (all inbound visits to the UK)

Table 1: Visiting the UK as part of a multi-country trip

Visited UK only 81%

Visited another country before the UK 5%
Visited another country after the UK 7%
Visited another country before and after the UK 7%

Visitors to Britain

Information has recently been released describing a variety of trends

amongst visitors to Britain during 2000–2010. From the data, there is
evidence of significant differences in how long overseas visitors tend
to stay in Britain during a visit . Clearly the VFR (visiting friends and Fig. 6
relatives) sector is of some significance. This group tend to stay the
greatest length of time, although up to 50% stay for free with friends or
relatives. As might be expected, there tend to be fluctuations in visitor
numbers depending on the time of year. Not surprisingly, the spring and
summer periods attract the greatest number of visits. It is noticeable that
these visits reach a peak during July–September. However, since the peak
years of 2006–2007, there has been a steady decline in visitor numbers
during all times of the year. In addition, the number of visitors who visit
the UK from another country rather than their country of origin, or who
visit a further country after their departure, is relatively small.

Source: Adapted from VisitBritain (2010). Overseas visitors to Britain: Understanding Trends, Attitudes and Characteristics.
London: VisitBritain. Retrieved May 13, 2011, from www.visitbritain.org/Images/Overseas%20Visitors%20to%20Britain_
tcm29-14708.pdf

Extended Writing & Research Skills 101

 Unit summary

In this unit you have looked at how data are incorporated into academic texts and learnt how to
analyze them. You have also practised using the language of data commentary.

Decide which one of these statements is not true.

1 a. Data should be used to support information and provide evidence that information is
correct.
b. Data and illustrations should clarify ideas.
c. Data and illustrations should enhance an explanation.
d. Data and illustrations should be used to decorate a text and make it more appealing.
e. Data and illustrations should only be used if they have a definite purpose.
f. The writer should always refer to or comment on any data or illustration in the text.

Highlight the option in each statement that is true for you.

2 a. I sometimes / usually / always understand data and illustrations that support a text
I am reading.
b. I often don’t / usually / always know when I should use data to support my essays.
c. I am not very / quite / very confident about using the appropriate language to refer
to data in the main text of my essays (expressions like see Figure 1, this shows, the
figures indicate).
d. I am not very / quite / very confident about labelling and captioning data correctly.
e. I am not very / quite / very confident about using a range of appropriate language to
describe data (phrases like sharp rise, fell dramatically).

What are the most useful things you have learnt about using data in this unit?
3


For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide help with the vocabulary and grammar needed to describe trends,
as well as a list of useful phrases for each stage of data commentary.

102 English for Academic Study

8 Preparing for conference
presentations
In this unit you will:
• analyze, evaluate and practise writing abstracts
• prepare for an oral presentation using note cards and PowerPoint
• learn how to prepare a poster presentation
• edit the final draft of your project

Introduction

Writing abstracts
As discussed in Unit 4, an abstract is a short summary of a Study tip
complete project. An introduction, on the other hand, is an Take careful note of the word
outline of the structure of a project, but does not usually refer limit when writing a conference
to the findings of the project (among other things). You can refer abstract, and make sure you keep
back to Unit 4, Task 4, to remind yourself of the purpose of within it.
writing an abstract and its typical features.
The purpose of abstracts, whether in academic writing or conference programmes, is to provide an
overview of the contents of the article or presentation. The reader or conference attendee can then
make an informed decision about whether the text or presentation is going to be of interest.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 103

 Written project abstract
In this unit, you will develop your own abstract to place at the start of your written project. This is
an appropriate time to begin writing, as you have now completed the first draft of your project. As
a guideline, for a 3,000-word essay, an abstract of 100–150 words would be an appropriate length.
The features you include in the abstract will depend on your subject area and the focus of your
piece of work. They may include:
1. a general statement
2. essential background information
3. the aims of the project
4. an investigation into a particular topic or subject area
5. the implementation of the investigation in a real-world situation
6. how the text is organized
7. details of the research carried out by the writer
8. what the results of the research suggest
9. a thesis statement
10. a definition
Note: You will use this list for Ex 1.1.

Task 1 Identifying the features of abstracts

1.1 Study Abstracts 1 and 2 and identify features from the list above. Tick (3) the
appropriate rows in the table opposite.

Abstract 1

The evolution of foreign management consultancy firms in Italy and

China: An evaluation of their localization processes
Management consultancy has been developing for more than 100 years. It
originated in the United States, before spreading to other countries. Localization
plays an important role in the expansion of management consultancies.
This, according to Crucini (1999), is the process of ‘adapting and translating
management tools and ideas to work in a foreign market with a different
economic or social background’. The history of the spread of management
consultancies is first described, followed by an outline of the localization processes
of foreign management consultancy firms in Italy and China. Some common
problems encountered in the processes are then identified. Finally, advice is given
on how to achieve successful localization. (110 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

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 Preparing for conference presentations 8

Abstract 2

The manufacturing industry in the Mexican economy: A competitiveness

model
In Mexico, the meaning and use of the term ‘competitiveness’ has evolved
significantly in recent times. The lack of agreement among Mexican economic
agencies about the meaning of the term partially explains the economic situation
in recent decades, and has been a core problem in industrial policy. This paper
proposes a model to assess competitiveness and explain its complex meaning.
First, it reviews some important economic concepts from the literature. Then,
the relevance of the industrial sector in the Mexican economy is explained. Next,
the model is applied to a specific situation in the manufacturing industry. The
main conclusion is that this simple concept could be the beginning of a more
sophisticated tool for implementing industrial policy in Mexico. (119 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Feature 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Abstract 1

Abstract 2

1.2 Write an abstract for your written project. Write in the space below only. Try
writing your abstract from memory, without looking at your project.

1.3 Exchange your abstract with a partner. Which features from the list on page 104
can you identify in his/her work?

Extended Writing & Research Skills 105

 Task 2 Conference abstracts

Participants in conferences have to write a short abstract to appear in the conference programme.
This should summarize the contents of the presentation. Presentations are often based on a piece
of research or a written paper and, as time is usually limited, they focus on one aspect of this work.
Similarly, you will need to write an abstract for your presentation.
Before writing the abstract, you need to decide which aspect of Study tip
your project to focus on; the time you have for your presentation When writing a conference
is limited, so you will not be able to include everything. abstract, think carefully about
your audience; your abstract
The following two tasks look at some examples of conference
should tell them about the main
abstracts and the factors to consider when preparing your purpose of the presentation.
presentation.

2.1 Study the following abstracts A–H and match the titles below with the abstracts.
■■ Banking systems and management: Challenges facing Taiwanese banks
■■ Foreign investment in China
■■ Communication management in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
■■ Interpretation and analysis of financial statements for non-accountants
■■ Mixed-use developments in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
■■ Situation analysis in marketing
■■ How the construction industry can contribute to the need to reduce energy
consumption
■■ The impact of RMB appreciation

Abstract A

In the history of urban development, the use of the land in one relatively discrete
area for a variety of purposes, for example, for residences, trade, employment
and entertainment, has often been practised. The evolution of mixed-use
developments was based on the idea of compact land use developments in areas
with overgrown populations. This practice of mixed-use developments will be
discussed with reference to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (68 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Abstract B

In an economic system, banks not only facilitate the matching of funds between
savers and investors, but are also the main institutions for executing monetary
policies. These policies need to be evaluated, and the ‘CAMEL’ model is one of the
most effective ways to assess banking performance. This presentation attempts to
evaluate the five criteria on which the ‘CAMEL’ model is based, and then applies
them to the Taiwanese system of banking. (72 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

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 Preparing for conference presentations 8

Abstract C

Financial statements can be used as a tool for decision-making, planning and control
by various user groups. The objective of this presentation is to describe how to
globally transmit annual reports to non-specialist groups in accounting. Currently,
some countries, including Thailand, are facing economic crises. This is owing to
businessmen and women not properly understanding the meaning of financial
statements, and making poorly informed decisions for their corporations. (68 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Abstract D

This presentation explains the basics of computer networks and Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP). It discusses the behaviour of TCPs in abnormal events
as connections are being opened. Following this, normal closing processes and
abnormal situations are explained. Finally, a Finite-State-Machine-Model is used
to illustrate the status of the TCP unit during opening or closing of connections.
(56 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Abstract E

This presentation will examine some feasible approaches to saving energy in the
construction industry. The main focus is on the integration of design systems
as the most effective way to reduce energy consumption. It is suggested that
sustainable building and intelligent building systems need to be considered in
order to maximize such energy efficient methods as they will ultimately protect the
environment. (62 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Abstract F

Analyzing the marketing situation is the first step that companies have to take
when they prepare a marketing plan. This paper will describe the three frameworks
of situation analysis and outline how Japanese frameworks compare with Western
company frameworks. (39 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 107

 Abstract G

Since 1997, China has made a great improvement in its economy, and has become
the economic centre of Asia. Foreign investment is the most obvious contributor
to this performance, and has encouraged China’s economic development. The
purpose of this project is to analyze the investment environment in China,
particularly the development and impact of foreign investment. (56 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Abstract H

Since China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Chinese
domestic market has been changing considerably, not only in terms of exports and
imports, but most importantly in terms of the currency (RMB) exchange rate. This
presentation will discuss the impact of this RMB appreciation. (46 words)

Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.

Characteristics of a conference abstract

A good conference abstract typically has the following characteristics:
■■ accurate description and use of terminology
■■ concise reference to key points
■■ a summary of the whole project, including the main conclusion

It is essential to remember that an abstract helps the reader decide whether to attend a
presentation. Therefore, the text of the abstract must be accessible.

2.2 Evaluate Abstracts A–H according to the three characteristics above.

a. Which would you rate as the most well-written?
b. Which conference would you be most interested to attend and why?

2.3 Practise writing a conference abstract, based on your project.

Keep your abstract as brief as possible (maximum 60 words).

2.4 In small groups and/or with your teacher, edit and discuss each other’s abstracts.
Pay attention to the typical features of abstracts and discuss content and language.

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 Preparing for conference presentations 8

Task 3 Preparing an oral presentation

Nowadays, most presentations rely on PowerPoint. Using slides is a

Study tip
recommended way of showing the key points of a presentation
clearly and concisely; the notes section – visible only to the presenter – Good presenters do not read
gives you all the prompts you need. However, it is important that your notes aloud; they just use
slides are a tool for supporting your presentation, rather than them as a way of reminding
dominating it. themselves of what to say.

Another way of presenting information is by creating a set of PDFs.

The advantage in this case is that it is easier to display certain types of graphics, especially larger
diagrams or flow charts. You can also include more text on any single page. The disadvantage is
that once you have created a PDF you can no longer alter it, unlike a PowerPoint slide.

3.1 Read the advice on giving a presentation in the information panels. Then discuss
the information in groups. For example:
■■ What do you do already?
■■ What points do you find particularly useful?
■■ What advice do you think you will follow in the future?

Questions to ask when planning your presentation

■■
■■

■■

■■

Practising your presentation

■■

■■

■■

■■

■■

Extended Writing & Research Skills 109

 Giving the presentation
■■
■■
■■
■■

3.2 Study the example of a note card being used by a student to give a presentation
on International Relations. Think about:
1. how it might help the student with his/her talk
2. any changes you would make to it

CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR

a) Decline in relations – United States/Soviet Union
b) Nuclear arms race
c) Results of World War II

Discuss your views with another student.

3.3 Look at the following presentation titles, which were chosen by students on a
pre-sessional course. Prepare a presentation on one of these topics – or an
aspect of your own project – that will give you enough information to speak
for two minutes.
■■ The retail trade in China: Why native enterprises often fail
■■ Modern migration and its economic impact
■■ The causes and effects of climate change in recent years
■■ Will eco-tourism become the most of important area of tourism in the future?
■■ The economic importance of sport

Task 4 Editing your presentation slides

4.1 Study the slides on page 111 prepared by a student about sustainable development
policies. Think about any changes you would make to the individual slides.
The presentation is based on Part 2 of the following assignment.

Part 1:
Write an extended essay (3,000 words) on the following topic based on the research
you have been carrying out:
The needs of future generations are being met by current policies of sustainable
development. To what extent do you agree with this statement?
Part 2:
Give a presentation based on the key ideas that you developed in your extended essay.

110 English for Academic Study

 Preparing for conference presentations 8

Slide 1 Slide 2

Slide 3 Slide 4

4.2 Read the advice panel below and discuss. Following your discussion, create an
edited version of the slides using the advice in the panel above.

Make sure you pay attention to the following when preparing your
PowerPoint/PDF slides:
■■
■■

■■
■■

■■

Extended Writing & Research Skills 111

 Task 5 Preparing a poster presentation

The purpose of a poster is to present ideas clearly and concisely. The main idea of a poster
should therefore be immediately clear to the audience when they first see it. You need to
think carefully about the impact, for example, by being selective in what you display. If you
try to communicate too many ideas on a poster, your main idea will be lost.
INPUT

Elements that your poster should normally include are as follows:

• a heading providing the title of the project, the participants involved in completing the
work and their affiliation
• a brief outline of the project describing the aims, how these have been achieved and the
main conclusions
• an introduction with a clear statement about the issues you are interested in, your thesis
statement and essential background information
• a methodology section that explains the basis of the technique you are using, or the
procedure you have adopted in your study. You should also state and justify any
assumptions so that your results can be viewed in context
• a results section that you should use to show illustrative examples of the main results of
the work
• a conclusion describing the main findings of your research and any recommendations
about future research that could be carried out, or experiments or tests that could be
applied

5.1 Produce your own poster presentation based on the following steps.
a. Make a sketch of the poster, using an A4 sheet of paper.

297mm

210mm

b. Arrange the contents in a series of three, four or five columns. This will help people
follow the information on the poster.

Title The title will appear across the top

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5

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 Preparing for conference presentations 8

c. Assemble the elements of the poster.

A brief introduction Title
(three to five
Intro
sentences) will appear
in the upper left
section The conclusions will
appear in the lower
right section; method
Conclusion and results will fill the
remaining space

An important issue with poster presentations is that you must present specific information
in a limited space. Before you rush to put pen to paper, you should therefore spend time
planning your presentation. This is particularly important as – unlike in oral presentations
where a good presenter may be able to divert attention from a poorly planned
presentation – with posters, poor planning is there for all to see.

Task 6 Editing your written work

It is very common for students to work right up to a submission deadline, handing in tasks at the
last moment. It is therefore easy to miss out the essential editing stage. Two hours spent editing
your work can make the difference between an impression of a sloppy, careless piece of work
and one that is thoughtful and well executed. Below are some guidelines to use as a checklist
when editing.

6.1 Think about how to edit your project.

a. What aspects of your work do you need to check before you submit or present it?
Make a list of the things that you may need to edit, e.g., language.
b. Compare your list with another student.

6.2 Read the checklist below and on page 114. How do these guidelines compare
with your list?

The title of your work should stand out. You also need to make
sure that this page gives sufficient information, such as: your
Title page
name, tutor, course title, date and department. (See example on
page 114.)

Headings are a way of guiding the reader through the text. Make
Headings sure you have used enough of them, that they are suitable and
that they are numbered correctly, if appropriate.

Make sure you have acknowledged any ideas you have used from
other sources; check each reference thoroughly to ensure you
References
have worded it in the correct way (author’s family name, date and
so on).

Check that your bibliography is arranged according to academic

Bibliography
convention. Make sure it is in alphabetical order.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 113

 If possible, exchange your project with a classmate and read each
other’s work to make sure each section can be clearly understood.
Language
It is often easier to identify another person’s language errors than
your own.

Check that each section is related to the previous and the

Linking ideas
following sections.

Introduction Check your introduction and conclusion. Are they linked to

and conclusion your title?

Check the feedback from your tutor on previous drafts of your

Feedback
project. Have you responded to this feedback appropriately?

Example title page

UNIVERSITY OF READING
INTERNATIONA L STUDY AND L ANGUAGE CENTRE

Pre-sessional Course Block 3, 2011

Can the fashion industry be sustainable?

An eco-approach to designer clothing.

WANG Wei
Tutor: Dr M. V. Rainbow

September 2011

114 English for Academic Study

 Preparing for conference presentations 8

Unit summary

In this unit you have analyzed and evaluated abstracts and written an abstract for both your
project and a conference presentation based on your project. You have also prepared for an oral
presentation, learnt how to prepare a poster presentation, and looked at how to edit the final draft
of your project.

Complete the possible features of an abstract, below, in the spaces provided.

1 Then tick (✔) the features that you applied to the abstract you wrote for
your project.

a. a g statement

b. essential b information

c. the a of the project

d. an investigation into a particular topic or s area

e. the implementation of the investigation in a r -world situation

f. how the t is organized

g. details of the r carried out by the writer

h. what the r of the research suggest

i. a th statement

j. a def

Complete these sentences about the conference abstract you wrote for
2 your project.

a. One thing I liked about my conference abstract was

b. One thing I wasn’t so happy with was

Complete the sentence below about using note cards when giving an
3 oral presentation.

Using note cards is a good idea because

Extended Writing & Research Skills 115

 Complete this advice about poster presentations with some of the words and
4 phrases from the box.

 main point experts complicated impact 
 concise details audience 

A poster presentation must be clear and . The main point must be

immediately clear to your , so you need to think carefully about
. You must be selective – if you try to communicate too many ideas,
your will be lost.

Another student has asked you for advice about editing written work before
5 handing it in. Think of one piece of advice you could give about each of the
following:
a. heading
b. references
c. bibliography
d. language used
e. linking ideas
f. introduction and conclusion
g. previous feedback from tutors

Which aspects of your project were you happy with? What would you like to do
6 better next time?

For web resources relevant to this book, see:

www.englishforacademicstudy.com
These weblinks will provide you with further help with organizing and structuring academic
presentations and will provide more ideas on how to approach different stages in the
writing process.

116 English for Academic Study

g Glossary
abstract critical thinking skills
A short summary of the main points of an Thinking critically includes the following skills:
academic text that is written after a paper has supporting your own views with a clear rationale;
been completed, when the author has a clear idea evaluating ideas that you hear and read; and
of the content. An abstract is written to give the making connections between ideas, as well as
reader a brief overview of a journal article, for detecting and identifying bias.
example. data* commentary
academic conventions The description of trends in tables or figures
Written and unwritten rules for the way things within a piece of academic writing, for example,
are carried out within the university world. For ‘there has been a steady increase in sales, as seen
example, written work has to be referenced in a in Figure 1’.
particular way. *data is the plural form, the singular is datum
academic paper descriptive writing
A piece of academic writing containing original Writing that gives a clear and detailed impression
research or reviews of existing research. A paper of what something is like, how something works
that is published in an academic journal is also or what has been said or done.
referred to as an academic article.
direct quotation
academic weight The use of a writer’s exact words, within inverted
The authority that is given to an argument, commas or sometimes in italics.
whether written or spoken, by the inclusion of
references to reliable academic sources. discursive (writing)
Writing based on the presentation of ideas, with
annotate arguments and evidence to support them.
To write comments or explanatory notes directly
onto a piece of text, e.g., in the margin. dissertation
A detailed, formal piece of writing on a specific
bibliography subject normally submitted for the purposes of
A list of written sources, such as books, articles gaining a university degree.
and websites, that have been used in a piece of
writing. encapsulate (an idea)
To express an idea in a clear, brief and concise way.
brainstorming
Working alone or with others in a group to establish a clear focus
generate a large number of ideas. Everyone Narrow down a general topic into something more
suggests as many possible ways as they can to specific that can be addressed clearly within a
solve a problem or complete a task. piece of extended writing.
caption evaluative writing
A brief description of the content of a figure, table Writing that presents a balanced argument,
or illustration. taking into consideration all aspects of a topic
and drawing a conclusion based on the ideas
case study presented. Also known as analytical writing.
A study of a specific person, group or situation
over a period of time. evidence
Supporting statements from reliable sources that
circular definition provide proof for what is being stated.
A definition that uses the word or phrase
being defined as part of the definition, e.g., ‘an extended definition
extended writing class is a class where students A definition that is longer and more detailed than
learn to write extended essays’. a simple dictionary-style definition. It may contain
supporting examples and/or a contrast with other
cite (sources) similar, but distinct, concepts.
To refer to the source of an idea used in academic
work. This may be an in-text reference to an extended writing
author, a reference in a bibliography or footnote In the context of university study, extended writing
or a verbal reference in a talk or lecture. is a means through which students can express
views, display knowledge and demonstrate an
ability to use evidence to refute or support existing
theories in considerable detail.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 117

 extensive reading persuade
This generally involves reading several sources, A major purpose of academic writing is to persuade,
some of which may be quite long and detailed. It i.e., to convince the reader of a particular point of
therefore requires a clear purpose and a selective view, which the writer sets out in her/his work.
approach. plagiarism
formal definition Reproducing sections of another writer’s material
A definition from an acknowledged source, such and claiming it as your own, whether in the form
as a dictionary or an acknowledged expert in the of long chunks of text or short lines or phrases.
field. This practice is unacceptable in academic writing.
framing a title Any reproduction of another writer’s work has to
Structuring an essay title in a certain way, in order be clearly acknowledged.
to elicit specific responses from the writer. For poster presentation
example, a title may be presented in the form of a A visual display, for example a placard displayed in
question or a statement. a public place during a conference, incorporating
hypothesis information and pictures or diagrams. The
Something that is assumed to be true for the audience generally reads the poster while the
purpose of an investigation or argument. presenter stands next to it and provides additional
explanation.
inform
A major purpose of academic writing is to inform, referencing
i.e., to provide information that is either new to Acknowledging the quotations of other writers in
the reader or presented from a new or different a way that is academically acceptable, for example,
point of view. using the APA style. This involves acknowledgement
within the text and a full bibliographical reference
interact with the text at the end. There are a number of different
This involves taking a critical approach to reading, referencing systems. The system used may depend
making the reader an active participant in the on the location of the institution, or on the
process. disciplines within that institution.
journal article refute/support (an argument)
An academic paper that has been published in A major purpose of academic writing is to use
a journal and has to conform to the particular reasoning and evidence to show that an argument
academic requirements of that journal. It will is false (refute the argument), or that there is some
generally include an abstract, an introduction basis for it being true (support the argument).
and a conclusion as well as the main body and
references. Articles in serious scientific journals reiterate (an idea)
have to be peer-reviewed, i.e., reviewed by To explain in a different way ideas that have
recognized specialists in the field. already been mentioned.

(academic) literature relevant information

Existing textbooks, research and discussion papers Information that directly or indirectly addresses the
that may be referred to in extended academic issues within the chosen topic.
writing. scanning
logical conclusion Reading in order to find specific information. For
A conclusion based on clear, consistent reasoning example, it is normal to scan a text to find dates,
and which follows from the development of the names or facts. In such cases, the reader knows
essay. what he/she is looking for.

oral presentation shared knowledge

A short lecture, talk or demonstration (usually Information that, it can be assumed, is understood
formal) given in front of an audience. The speaker by the reader of the particular piece of writing.
prepares and structures a presentation in advance An example might be that global warming is the
and will often use visual aids to illustrate it. result of human activity.

paraphrase skimming
A rewritten version of a writer’s or speaker’s idea, Reading in order to understand the general idea or
usually relating to a specific point that the writer gist of a text. This involves reading the text quickly
has made, with an acknowledgement of the source. to take in the main points, rather than focusing on
every word. For example, it is normal to skim a letter
or book cover to find out what it is about. This often
precedes reading for more specific information.

118 English for Academic Study

 Glossary g

stance thesis statement

The point of view of the writer, which is normally This expression of the writer’s thesis is a key
established in the thesis statement and is then element of the introduction to an academic text,
developed and exemplified in the remaining text. which directs the reader and helps to focus the
summarizing content. The thesis is then supported by evidence
Stating clearly and succinctly the key ideas and reasoning in the main body of the essay or
of an argument in your own words, with an presentation.
acknowledgement of the source. tutorial
synthesizing Usually a private meeting between a student and a
Compiling and organizing different views in a way tutor (a teacher or lecturer) who has been assigned
that shows their relationship and the differences to provide her/him with help and support.
between them.
thesis
A writer’s point of view or position on the main
issue addressed within a text may be referred to
as her/his thesis. In order to write an evaluative
project, the writer needs to develop a thesis as the
starting point.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 119

 a Appendices
APPENDIX 1: Sample project

University of Reading

Pre-sessional Course Block 4

September 2008

To what extent should insider dealing be regulated,

and how can this be done effectively?

Name: Mansoor Alhagbani

Date: 19 September 2008

120 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 1 a

Abstract

Insider dealing is considered a financial crime in many countries. This criminalization

of insider dealing is recent and regulators have been struggling to control it, as it is
a complex situation. Furthermore, regulating insider dealing has never gained a
consensus, as many economists and lawyers think it should not be regulated. This paper
tries to analyze this activity from different perspectives, by first defining insider dealing
and looking at how it happens. Then the argument for legalizing insider dealing
is analyzed, and a discussion about why it is flawed is presented. Finally, this paper
suggests that a proactive approach is the most effective way to regulate insider dealing.

Introduction

Financial markets in many countries such as the UK, USA and Saudi Arabia
constitute an integral part of the domestic economy and help create a sound market.
This task requires providing a market where efficiency and market integrity are
dominant characteristics. In other words, in order to have an attractive market,
where shares are traded, the performance of companies that should be reflected are
quoted in it. Wrongdoing in general is a stumbling block to ensuring an efficient
market. It is the job of regulatory bodies to eliminate such obstacles. However, some
forms of wrongdoing are difficult to combat, not to mention the opposition against
criminalizing them. Insider dealing is such a subject. Suter considers insider dealing
one of the most challenging topics that have been encountered by legislators (Suter,
1989, p. 1). This may be due to two main reasons. First, the opposition against
regulating insider dealing. There are many economists and lawyers who advocate
deregulated insider dealing for many reasons that will be dealt with in more depth
later on in this essay. Moreover, if the battle over regulating insider trading is won
by those who are in favour of regulating it, there will be another issue, which is the
difficulty, although not an impossibility, of imposing effective regulation due to
the complexity of the controversial crime. Nevertheless, all forms of insider dealing
should be regulated. A possible way of doing this effectively may be through a
proactive approach. This essay will first define insider dealing and examine when it is
committed. Secondly, it will look at the argument against regulating insider dealing
and why this is inadequate. Finally, it will discuss how insider dealing could be
regulated effectively by taking a proactive approach.

Definition

The definition of insider dealing is absolutely vital as an inadequate definition

may create a loophole through which the crime might be committed without, if
proved, successful prosecution. The ‘traditional view’ of insider dealing is defined

Extended Writing & Research Skills 121

 by Hannibal as ‘the use by an insider of price-sensitive information (known to him
but not generally and which he has acquired by virtue of his position) to trade to
his advantage in the shares of a company’ (McVea, 1993, p. 42). The ‘insider’ in
this definition is someone who is likely to come across information (as part of his/
her job) that is not known by the public. This information has to be price-sensitive,
which means that once it is made public it is likely to provoke a movement in the
price of certain shares (McVea, 1993). However, this definition, if not complemented
by other rules, will be flawed from a legal viewpoint. This is true as the definition
merely covers the deal when it is traded to the insider’s advantage. The insider can
easily avoid this by passing the confidential information to a relative such as his
wife, or even more cautiously, the insider may recommend his wife to buy or sell
in particular shares without revealing the information. In this case, and according
to that definition, a crime is not constituted, despite an advantage being gained
from the confidential information. Therefore, the definition that will be used to
criminalize insider dealing has to cover all possible forms of abusing confidential
price-sensitive information, or alternatively complemented by additional rules. For
example, in the UK, the CSA Act 1985, amended by the FSA 1986, does not define
insider trading, yet the Act differentiates between direct insider dealing, mentioned
in the definition above, and indirect or ‘secondary’ insider dealing (ibid., p. 69).
The latter criminalizes the incident in which an insider makes recommendations,
based on confidential information, to another person to trade. Both of them will
be liable for insider dealing if the recipient knows that the recommendation is based
on confidential information, and only the insider will be liable for the crime if the
recipient does not know (ibid., p. 75). This approach ensures that all forms of abusing
information will be considered as insider dealing. Nevertheless, it must be borne
in mind that criminalizing an action does not mean prosecuting anyone who has
carried it out, it means that anyone who carries it out will be prosecuted if there is
sufficient evidence. It is this issue of evidence that makes insider dealing a difficult
action to control.

Having clarified what insider dealing is and what elements constitute such an
action, it is important to decide whether such an action should be considered a
crime or not. In many countries, such as the UK, the USA and Saudi Arabia,
insider dealing is a financial crime. However, numerous lawyers and economists
disapprove of this criminalizing of insider dealing. Their argument centres around
three main justifications for insider dealing.

122 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 1 a

The economic benefit of insider trading

First, the economic benefit that insider trading brings about. Donald J. Boudreaux,
a distinguished economist, claims that insider trading is beneficial in the sense that
it gives an immediate reflection of the information generated by a certain company.
He argues that when insiders of a company buy or sell shares in their company
according to specific information, this implies to the public that some information is
available, even before it is announced. In other words, if insiders start to buy shares,
outsiders or other investors can anticipate that good news is about to be announced
and therefore imitate the insiders in their actions (Boudreaux 2003). Marine, a very
well-known lawyer who wrote a book in 1966 condemning the criminalization of
insider dealing, agrees with Boudreaux on this point (McVea, 1993, p. 54). This view
seems to ignore the fact that profiting in an efficient financial market should be based
on the investors’ abilities to analyze information, not to imitate other traders while
perhaps the information available to them suggests doing the contrary. McVea argues
that the economic benefit argument is flawed in two ways; he asserts that such a
phenomenon would encourage insiders to delay the announcement of the information
as they accumulate quietly and leisurely, in order not to be noticed by outsiders, a vast
number of stocks so when the information comes out the price soars (ibid., p. 54).
He also argues that the price at such a stage would be an ‘artificial one’ and this is a
‘distortion’ of the market that will affect efficiency and dent public confidence (ibid.,
p. 55). Therefore, it seems that the economic argument for legalizing insider dealing
provides no ground upon which insider dealing can be legitimized.

Insider trading as an incentive for workers

As well as the economic argument for legalizing insider trading, Marine put
forward another argument, which is that insider dealing should be used as an
incentive for the personnel of conglomerates (McVea, 1993, p. 51). He believes
that since managers and directors contribute to a great extent to the increase of
the organization’s wealth, salaries are not adequate to reward them. He therefore
believes that they ought to be able to take advantage of the information that they
exclusively possess to trade in the company’s shares (ibid.). Otherwise ‘innovation’,
which increases profits and is essential to any company’s success, would not be
encouraged and therefore the company would be worse off (ibid.). This scheme
of rewarding managers and directors, although it will increase their income quite
substantially, will not necessarily boost the company’s performance. An insider
can make use of both good and bad news. Use can be made of the good news by
buying, and of the bad news by selling. Here a manager will benefit from generating
bad news to the company by avoiding loss (ibid., p. 52). This means creating a kind

Extended Writing & Research Skills 123

 of rewarding scheme that is not ‘commensurate with effort’, which should be the
basis of any rewarding scheme (ibid.). Furthermore, using trading upon insider
dealing as a perk or a scheme of rewarding is extremely unfair. This can be seen
when considering that confidential information is provided to an employee as a
result of his or her position regardless of his/her contribution to this information.
For example, a manager who has been performing very badly is likely to come
across price-sensitive information and trade upon it. At the same time, another
employee who has been performing extremely well may be unable to access the
same information. This means that employees will be rewarded according to their
position and regardless of their actual performance. Again and for the above reasons,
Marine’s argument cannot justify legalizing insider dealing.

The ‘impossibility’ of effective regulation of insider trading

Finally, the advocates of unregulated insider dealing argue that insider dealing
cannot be regulated properly and it is impossible to have effective regulation, thus
it should not be regulated. Insider trading is a very complex crime and detecting
it can be impossible in some cases. For example, the defendant can claim that they
did not know that the information was price-sensitive or they may argue that they
would have traded even if they had not known about the information (Cole, 2007).
This makes successful prosecution extremely difficult. Margaret Cole (2007), the
director of enforcement at the FSA, conceded that prosecuting an insider is extremely
challenging. She stated that not only proving the elements of the crime is difficult, but
also ‘the practical challenges of presenting complex insider dealing cases to a jury are
immense’ (ibid.). However, while Marine sees this obstacle as a justification to legalize
insider dealing, Margaret Cole does not. McVea (1993, p. 57) summarized Marine’s
argument as ‘anti-insider dealing law is unenforceable; unenforceable law is a bad law;
bad law should not be on the statute books’. Then McVea (ibid.) criticized Marine’s
argument by stating that ‘partial enforcement’ on undesirable actions such as insider
dealing is better than not having any restrictions. McVea’s argument seems to suggest
that even if it is impossible to control insider dealing, it is still an immoral activity
and regulators should not approve of it by not criminalizing it. Furthermore, despite
being a really difficult crime to detect, insider trading can be tackled. This will not
be achieved by the capacity to prosecute every insider, rather it may be accomplished
through preventing insider trading from occurring. In other words, a proactive
approach may well be the remedy to this obstacle.

A proactive approach

The introduction of a proactive approach aims to reduce the occurrence of insider

dealing as much as possible. This can be achieved by restricting the flow of

124 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 1 a

information between conglomerate departments. For example, information gained

by the marketing division should not be passed on to the investment division. This
restriction may have a negative effect on financial conglomerates as it will restrict
the liaison between internal departments, but not to the extent that it should be
abandoned (McVea, 1993, p. 350). Furthermore, this policy will be effective in
terms of reducing insider dealing among financial conglomerates rather than all the
quoted companies and individuals involved. This can be complemented by a more
holistic approach which is forcing companies listed on the stock market to disclose
all information once they gain it. This will eliminate the benefit of trading upon
inside information as it will be known to the public immediately. Disclosure and
transparency as two rules to which companies have to adhere are already imposed in
many markets; however, not efficiently enough to eliminate the occurrence of insider
dealing. Margaret Cole (2007), the director of enforcement at the FSA, asserts
that the FSA ‘put a significant emphasis’ on proactive policies such as ensuring ‘a
steady flow of information’. The FSA in this sense has accomplished encouraging
results. Figures show that the level of undesirable activities, including insider
dealing, plummeted from 19.6% in 1998–2000 to 2% in 2004–2005 (Cole, 2007).
This reduction is clearly the result of the proactive measures. Yet, the figures also
show no reduction in illegal activities when it comes to dealing upon information
to do with mergers and acquisitions, and this is mainly due to the huge number of
people involved in such a process, and therefore the higher likelihood of information
leakage (ibid.). However, the FSA is working on coordinating between the different
parties in order to overcome this issue. Despite this, the overall reduction shows that
the FSA succeeded in preventing a great deal of insider dealing from taking place.
This means that a proactive approach can be effective and Marine’s argument in this
regard is no longer valid.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a perfect market where no kind of wrongdoing is taking place can be

an unrealistic ambition. Nevertheless, market regulators ought to do their utmost
in combating all forms of wrongdoing in order to provide the highest possible level
of market integrity, which will attract investors from all over the world. Insider
dealing as a form of wrongdoing, as previously mentioned, is rather controversial.
Many lawyers and economists believe that insider dealing is efficient and beneficial
not only for insiders, but also for outsiders. This argument was not compelling
enough to persuade major economies such as the USA, UK and Japan to legalize
the controversial crime. Rather, those countries and many others opted to fight
insider trading and follow the argument that insider dealing is neither efficient nor
beneficial for outsiders. When doing this, the supporters of legal insider trading

Extended Writing & Research Skills 125

 believe that regulators and authorities will be spending a great deal of money and
time in vain. They are convinced that even if insider trading were to be regulated,
there are no means to combat it. This is mainly due to the complexity of this
action and the elements that constitute it. However, although insider dealing is an
extremely difficult action to detect, combating it can be achieved by preventing
it. This approach has shown great results in the UK market. Yet this policy can
be developed to be more effective and less harmful to companies, as they may be
affected by the restricted liaison between different departments. In other words, a
proactive approach is the right solution and regulators ought to work on improving
this policy in terms of both preventing insider dealing and not affecting the
performance of organizations. This task, despite being extremely difficult, has to be
done, as regulators ought to do their utmost to provide the highest possible level of
market integrity.

Bibliography

Boudreaux, D. J. (2003). Insider-trading prohibitions should go out of style. Retrieved

August 28, 2008, from www.ff.org/comment/com0306fasp

Cole, M. (2007). Insider dealing in the city. Retrieved September 3, 2008, from
www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Communication/Speeches/2007/0317 mc.shtml

McVea, H. (1993). Financial conglomerates and the Chinese Wall Regulation conflict
of interest. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Suter, J. (1989). The regulation of insider dealing in Britain. London: Butterworths.

126 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 2 a

APPENDIX 2: Self-evaluation checklist

Below and on page 128 is a list of the skills you will need when working on extended pieces of
writing during your university career*. The work you do in this book, as well as on other aspects of
your pre-sessional course, will help you develop these skills. Tick the appropriate box for each skill,
according to how well you feel you can do this. From time to time, look again at this checklist and
decide whether you have made progress with any of these skills.

Skills Do not know Find this Can partially Can do this

about this difficult/ do this well
cannot do this

Looking for information

Identify which books/

journals/websites to use

Select relevant parts of

a text

Evaluate sources

Using sources

Acknowledge sources of
information

Synthesize information
from more than one source

Write a bibliography
correctly

Avoid plagiarism

Planning/Writing

Brainstorm ideas

Plan written work

Organize text

Link ideas effectively

Summarize ideas

Paraphrase ideas

Write an introduction

Write a conclusion

Critically edit written work

*You may not require all the skills mentioned – there is some variation from department to
department.

Extended Writing & Research Skills 127

 Skills Do not know Find this Can partially Can do this
about this difficult/ do this well
cannot do this

Personal study

Work independently

Manage time – meet

deadlines

Oral expression

Give a presentation on
my work

Discuss ideas for a project

with other students

Discuss written work in

a tutorial

Deal effectively with

questions

IT

Access the Internet

Use search engines

Create Word documents

Use PowerPoint

Organize text

Link ideas effectively

Summarize ideas

Paraphrase ideas

Write an introduction

Write a conclusion

Critically edit written work

REMEMBER – a skill improves with practice!

128 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 3 a

APPENDIX 3: Taking notes

Why do you take notes? You may take notes in order to:
■■ record information
■■ help you concentrate
■■ use them as the basis of a summary
■■ use them in essays
■■ help you remember things
■■ help you categorize the main points and supporting information

Below are some characteristics of good notes.

■■ They are accurate – the information recorded is correct.
■■ They are clear – you can read them weeks later.
■■ They are easy to understand – even months later.
■■ They are organized (e.g., highlighted or underlined) – you can identify the main points at a glance.
■■ They can be used for your specific purpose – you have enough detail for an essay, if that is what
you need to write.

Task 1 Taking notes when listening or reading

What is the difference between taking notes when listening to a lecture or when
reading an article? Fill in the table below with more differences.

Listening Reading

You only hear it once, cannot rewind. You can read it again and again.

Task 2 Discussion

What do you find most difficult about taking notes? Discuss with a partner and note
your ideas in the table below.

Listening Reading

Extended Writing & Research Skills 129

 Below are some characteristics of good notes.
■■ Choose a note-taking style that suits you, e.g., mind-mapping or linear notes.
■■ Think about your purpose before you write – why are you taking these notes?
■■ Use your own words as much as possible – this means you must understand what you
read or listen to.
■■ Sometimes, it is more appropriate to annotate photocopied sheets or handouts, or to
use a highlighter pen or a pencil to underline key information. However, this makes it
much more difficult to use your own words (or paraphrase the information) later.
■■ Be selective – only note down information that you think will be useful for your
purpose, e.g., if you are looking for specific information to support a point in your
project, you can ignore a lot of what is in the text.
■■ Give yourself plenty of space to write your notes, as you may want to add to them later.
■■ Use abbreviations. Make sure that you know what your abbreviations mean!
■■ When you have finished taking notes, look back and comment on what you have
written. Write questions about the information/ideas, and write down any connections
or links with other notes you may have made. Be proactive when making notes, as this
will make them more meaningful.

Task 3 Note-taking strategies

Add any other note-taking strategies you know of below.

130 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.1 a

APPENDIX 4: Source 1

Ecology in Times of Scarcity

John W. Day Jr, Charles A. Hall, Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia, David Pimentel,
Carles Ibáñez Martí and William J. Mitsch
In an energy-scarce future, ecosystem services will become more important in supporting
the human economy. The primary role of ecology will be the sustainable management of
ecosystems. Energy scarcity will affect ecology in a number of ways. Ecology will become
more expensive, which will be justified by its help in solving societal problems, especially
5 in maintaining ecosystem services. Applied research on highly productive ecosystems,
including agro-ecosystems, will dominate ecology. Ecology may become less collegial and
more competitive. Biodiversity preservation will be closely tied to preservation of productive
ecosystems and provision of high ecosystem services. Restoration and management of
rich natural ecosystems will be as important as protection of existing wild areas. Energy-
10 intensive micromanagement of ecosystems will become less feasible. Ecotechnology
and, more specifically, ecological engineering and self-design are appropriate bases for
sustainable ecosystem management. We use the Mississippi River basin as a case study
for ecology in times of scarcity.

Keywords: Mississippi River basin, ecosystem management, sustainability, energy scarcity

15 The functioning of natural ecosystems the industrial and modern agricultural

and the health of the human economy 45 revolutions and the degradation of
have been intrinsically linked since our ecosystems and their services (Hall et al.,
species evolved. Human society has 2003; Heinberg, 2003). In this article, we
depended on solar-based ecosystems for address these issues by first discussing
20 all of its existence. With the development the role of the biosphere and the
of the Industrial Revolution, massive 50 increasing industrial use of energy in the
increases in fossil-fuel use spurred human economy.
dramatic growth of the human population
and the economy (Hall et al., 2003; We then review several lines of evidence
25 LeClerc & Hall, 2007) and widespread for a coming transition, focusing
environmental degradation (MEA, 2005). especially on oil because of its central
Although natural ecosystem services 55 role in the industrial economy. We
are still absolutely necessary for human conclude by discussing how these trends
existence (Costanza et al.,1997; De Groot will affect the science of ecology and,
30 et al., 2002), fossil-fuel use has distanced more important, what roles ecologists
most humans from direct contact with will need to play in the coming societal
nature and obscured the important role 60 transition. Our thesis is that major forces
of the natural world. Over the past several in coming decades will drastically affect
decades, it has become increasingly both the science of ecology and the role
35 clear that the trajectory of rapid growth of ecology and natural systems in society.
of the past two to three centuries – what These forces include energy scarcity,
many refer to as progress – cannot 65 climate change, resource depletion, and
continue much longer, and that we are on continued population growth. The most
the threshold, or tipping point, of a new important roles for ecologists in this time
40 age (Odum & Odum, 2001; Wackernagel of transition are to quantify connections
et al., 2002; Meadows et al., 2004). This between the biosphere and society and
situation stems primarily from the growing 70 to help define sustainable future paths as
scarcity of the cheap energy that fueled natural energy flows again assume a

Extended Writing & Research Skills 131

 greater importance. We define ecology Preindustrial

broadly as the study of the functioning of Biosphere

the biosphere, and ecologists as those

CO2

Human economy

who seek to understand this functioning.

Natural resource $ Prices
75 productivity
Goods

Goods
and Consumers

The importance of natural ecosystems

services
Sun
Agriculture Labor

to the human economy $ Wages

In the preindustrial world, solar-powered Pollutants

ecosystems supported the human Nonrenewable

resources

economy (Figure 1). This was recognized Low depletion

Low negative feedback

by the earliest formal school of economics,

High recycling

Industrial
the French physiocrats, who focused on
Global change
Biosphere
80 Sea-level rise
Increase temperature

land as the source of all wealth. Practically Fossil

fuels Human economy CO2

all materials used in preindustrial societies Natural

$ Prices

Goods

– including food, fiber, and fuel, as well

resource
productivity

as ecosystem services such as climate Sun Goods

and Consumers
Agriculture services

85 regulation, clean fresh water, fertile soils, Labor

wildlife, and assimilation of wastes – were $ Wages

dependent on solar-driven natural systems Non-

renewable
Exponential population growth
Pollutants

and agro-ecosystems. There was low resources

High negative feedback

use of non-renewable materials, such as Low recycling

90 metals and clay. For millennia, energy flow

Figure 1. The economic system and the biosphere.
in the human economy was a small part of The economic system is a subset of the biosphere
that of the overall biosphere. and is absolutely dependent for its functioning
on biosphere sources and sinks. The economic
There was low generation of pollutants system has grown dramatically over the last two
and a high degree of recycling, and centuries. An important role of ecologists is to
95 humans had little impact on global develop an understanding of how to sustainably
energy and material cycles. Early primitive manage the biosphere to maintain its support for
the economic system.
farmers may have affected the climate
through changes in land use (Muir, economy as represented by transactions
2008), but this did not have an impact in the marketplace and far less on the
100 on greenhouse gases. Until about three 125 natural world than had earlier physiocrats
centuries ago, the regenerative and and classical economists such as Adam
assimilative capacities of the ecosphere Smith and David Ricardo. But the value
supported a human society that lived of ecosystem services remained very
sustainably on Earth. This changed high, even as economics began to value
105 dramatically about two centuries ago with 130 those services less (Costanza et al., 1997;
the advent of the Industrial Revolution, De Groot et al., 2002). These authors
and the change accelerated rapidly in and others have valued the world’s
the 20th century (Figure 1). The human ecosystem services at trillions of dollars
population grew from two billion in (bee pollination in the United States alone
110 1800 to almost seven billion in 2000. 135 is worth US$16 billion annually; Pimentel
The use of fossil fuels – first coal, then et al., 1997). The societal disconnect
oil and natural gas – burgeoned, and from the natural world was so large that
the great reserves of these fuels began by the mid-fifties, the old production
to be drawn down, until almost half of functions that were based on land, labor,
115 recoverable conventional oil reserves had 140 and capital were replaced with new ones
been used, mostly in recent decades that did not even consider land – let alone
(Campbell & Laherrère, 1998; Deffeyes, energy, water, or other critical resources
2001; Meng & Bentley, 2008). A new world (Solow, 1956). This new technological
view of human society and its place in the and philosophical world view contrasted
120 natural world arose. This new world view, 145 sharply with traditional beliefs about the
neoclassical economics, focused more place of humans in the natural world (e.g.,
directly on the immediate human Moyers & Campbell, 1988).

132 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.1 a

The evolution of human social dominate human thinking about growth,

organization and energy use our place in the world, and the future are
The rapidity of change in the last several extremely recent and run mostly counter to
centuries becomes evident if we consider 205 long-term sustainability. A very important
150 time on the scale of human generations. societal role of ecology and ecologists in
Our species, Homo sapiens, is about the 21st century will be to help define the
200,000 years old. But a humanlike environmental and ecological realities and
existence is much older, and many of values that foster sustainability.
the characteristics we associate with the
Evidence for a coming transition
155 human lifestyle evolved before Homo
sapiens became a distinct species. If we 210 Humans have used much of Earth’s
consider the human lifestyle to include resources, and the resulting environmental
living in bands of hunter-gatherers and impacts are global. There is strong
using fire and tools, cognition (meaning, evidence that society is approaching a
160 apprehension, perception), social behavior transition and the patterns of the 20th-
that is not purely instinctive, and walking 215 century consumption and growth cannot
upright, then humanlike creatures have be sustained. The interconnected forces
been in existence for about 1 million to 2 leading to this transition include energy
million years, or about 50,000 to 100,000 scarcity, human impacts on the biosphere,
165 generations (assuming 20 years per climate change, and population growth.
generation). A time span of two million Coming energy scarcity
years is enough time for species evolution
to occur, and indeed it did. Our distant 220 Compelling evidence suggests that the
ancestors went through a series of species world’s conventional oil production has
170 before evolving into modern Homo sapiens. already peaked, and that total oil production
And as our species evolved, so did the (all liquids) will peak within a decade
human lifestyle. Language began about (Figure 2), which implies that demand
50,000 years ago (2,500 generations), 225 will consistently exceed supply and that
agriculture about 10,000 years ago (500 energy costs will increase significantly
175 generations), and civilizations first appeared (Campbell & Laherrère, 1998; Deffeyes,
about 5,000 years (250 generations) ago. 2001; Hall et al., 2003; ASPO, 2008; Meng
Most initial civilizations began in resource- & Bentley, 2008). Projections of peak world
rich coastal zones and lower river valleys 230 oil production are generally based on the
after the sea level stabilized, partially approach developed by M. King Hubbert,
180 as a result of the subsidy of abundant who became well known because he
resources and energy in these areas (Day predicted in 1956 that US oil production
et al., 2007). The industrial revolution and would peak in the early 1970s, and it did.
intensive fossil-fuel use began about 200 235 Hubbert also predicted that world oil
years (ten generations) and a century (five production would peak early in the 21st
185 generations) ago, respectively. Intensive century (Hubbert, 1962; see also Deffeyes,
fossil-fuel use represents only 0.1% of the 2001). The Hubbert approach is based on
age of our species, and about 0.01% of the concept that oil discoveries in an area
the time over which the human lifestyle 240 generally precede peak production by 30
evolved. The ‘information age’ has existed to 40 years. Oil discovery in the United
190 for only about two generations. But States peaked about 1940, and production
‘information age’ is a misnomer, as we about 30 years later. World oil discoveries
live in a petroleum age, in which intensive peaked by 1970 and have been falling
energy use supported the development of 245 since; recent discovery success has been
most technologies, including information very low, despite increased drilling efforts
195 technology. Survival values that developed (Campbell & Laherrère, 1998; ASPO, 2008),
over human evolution (i.e., two million years) and most estimates since 1965 of ultimately
had time to make it into our DNA. But the recoverable conventional oil run to about
current reigning intellectual and social world 250 two trillion barrels (Hall et al., 2003). Global
views, which are only a century or two old, production increased exponentially until
200 mostly ignore these older values. Our main about 1970, but the rate of increase has
point is that these views that currently declined since. Production is now two to

Extended Writing & Research Skills 133

 three times the discovery rate, and current annually. World oil demand is increasing,
255 production is mostly from reservoirs especially in China and India. For the past
discovered 30 to 40 years ago. Four few years, all drilling globally did not find
hundred or so giant and supergiant 265 enough oil even to pay for the drilling,
oilfields provide roughly 80% of the world’s which implies that we may be approaching
petroleum (Skrebowski, 2004). Of these, the end of a positive return on energy
260 roughly one-quarter are declining in investment for searching for new oil (e.g.,
production at an average rate of at least 4% Hall & Cleveland, 1981; Hall et al., 2008).

Figure 2. Worldwide oil discovery

and consumption from 1930 until
the present, and projected future
discoveries. Most major discoveries
were made before 1980. World
consumption is currently four to five
barrels for each barrel discovered, with
most production coming from fields
discovered three to four decades ago.

Source: Printed with permission from

the Association for the Study of Peak
Oil (ASPO 2008).

References cited Meadows, D., Randers, J., & Meadows, D. (2004). Limits to
Growth: The 30-Year Update. White River Junction VT: Chelsea
ASPO = Association for the Study of Peak Oil (2008). Oil and
Green.
Gas Liquids 2004 Scenario. Retrieved March 5 2009 from
www.peakoil.net/uhdsg Meng, Q., & Bentley, R. (2008). Global oil peaking: Responding
to the case for ‘abundant supplies of oil’. Energy, 33, 1179–84.
Campbell, C. J., & Laherrère, J. H. (1998). The end of cheap oil.
Scientific American, March, 78–83. Retrieved January 29, 2009 Moyers, B., & Campbell, J. (1988). The power of myth. New
from www.dieoff.org/page140.htm York: Doubleday.
Costanza, R., et al. (1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem Muir, H. (2008). The climate changers. New Scientist, 199,
services and natural capital. Nature, 387, 253–260. 32–36.
Day, J. W., Gunn, J., Folan, W., Yáñez-Arancibia, A., & Horton, Odum, H. T., & Odum, E. C. (2001). A prosperous way down:
B. (2007). Emergence of complex societies after sea level principles and policies. Boulder CO: University Press of
stabilized. EOS, 88, 170–171. Colorado.
Deffeyes, K. S. (2001). Hubbert’s Peak: The Impending World Pimentel, D., Wilson, C., McCullum, C., Huang, R., Dwen, P.,
Oil Shortage. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Flack, J., Tran, Q., Saltman, T., & Cliff, B. (1997). Economic and
environmental benefits of biodiversity. BioScience, 47, 747–757.
De Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. A., & Boumans, R. M. J. (2002).
A typology for the classification, description, and valuation Skrebowski, C. (2004). Oil Fields Mega Projects 2004.
of ecosystem functions, goods, and services. Ecological Petroleum Review, January, 18–20.
Economics, 41, 393–408. Solow, R. (1956). A contribution to the theory of economic
Hall, C. A. S., & Cleveland, C. J. (1981). Petroleum drilling and growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70, 65–94.
production in the United States: Yield per effort and net energy Wackernagel, M., et al. (2002). Tracking the ecological
analysis. Science, 211, 576–579. overshoot of the human economy. Proceedings of the National
Hall, C. A. S., Tharakan, P. J., Hallock, J., Cleveland, C., & Academy of Sciences, 99, 9266–9271.
Jefferson, M. (2003). Hydrocarbons and the evolution of human
culture. Nature, 425, 318–322.
John W. Day Jr is with the Department of Oceanography and
Hall, C. A. S., Powers, R., & Schoenberg, W. (2008). Peak oil, Coastal Sciences at the School of the Coast and Environment of
EROI, investments and the economy in an uncertain future. In: Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, LA. Charles A. Hall
D. Pimentel (Ed.), Renewable Energy Systems: Environmental is with the College of Environmental Science and Forestry at the
and Energetic Issues (113–136). London: Elsevier. State University of New York in Syracuse, NY. Alejandro Yáñez-
Arancibia is with the Coastal Ecosystems Unit at the Institute of
Heinberg, R. (2003). The Party’s Over: Oil, War and the Fate of
Ecology, A. C., in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. David Pimentel is
Industrial Societies. Gabriola Island (Canada): New Society.
with the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and
Hubbert, M. K. (1962). Energy Resources (Publication 1000- Life Sciences, at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY. Carles Ibáñez
D). Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences/National Martí is with IRTA Aquatic Ecosystems in Catalonia, Spain.
Research Council. William J. Mitsch is with the Wilma H. Schiermeier Olentangy
River Wetland Research Park and the School of Environment and
LeClerc, G., & Hall, C. A. S. (Eds.) (2007). Making World
Natural Resources at Ohio State University in Columbus, OH.
Development Work: Scientific Alternatives to Neoclassical
Economic Theory. Albuquerque NM: University of New Source: Adapted from Day, J. W., Hall, C. A., Yáñez-
Mexico Press. Arancibia, A., Pimentel, D., Ibáñez Martí, C., & Mitsch,
MEA = Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems W. J. (2009). Ecology in Times of Scarcity. BioScience, 59(4),
and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment. 321–331. Retrieved May 17, 2011, from www.aibs.org/
bioscience/bioscience_online_2009.html
Washington DC: World Resources Institute.

134 English for Academic Study

 AppendixTitle
4.2 a

APPENDIX 4: Source 2

Sustainability: science or fiction?

Pim Martens
It is clear that in making the concept of sustainable development concrete, one has to
take into account a number of practical elements and obstacles. There is little doubt that
integrated approaches are required to support sustainable development. Therefore, a new
research paradigm is needed that is better able to reflect the complexity and multidimensional
5 character of sustainable development. The new paradigm, referred to as sustainability science,
must be able to encompass different magnitudes of scales (of time, space, and function),
multiple balances (dynamics), multiple actors (interests) and multiple failures (systemic
faults). I also think that sustainability science has to play a major role in the integration of
different styles of knowledge creation in order to bridge the gulf between science, practice,
10 and politics – which is central to successfully moving the new paradigm forward.

What is sustainable development?

The essence of sustainable development is But this ideal, upon which so much emphasis
simply this: to provide for the fundamental 45 has been laid recently, has to reckon with
needs of humankind without doing violence the Earth itself. This reckoning began with
to the natural system of life on earth. This concern about the exhaustion of our natural
15 idea arose in the early 1980s and came resources and only later did it dawn on us
out of a scientific look at the relationship that a disturbance of the complex systems
between nature and society. The concept 50 upon which our lives depend can have
of sustainable development reflected the enormous consequences.
struggle of the world population for peace,
The last 25 years have been characterized
20 freedom, better living conditions, and a
by an attempt to link together the four ideals
healthy environment (NRC, 1999). During
cited above – peace, freedom, improved
the latter half of the 20th century, these
55 living conditions, and a healthy environment
four goals recurred regularly as worldwide,
(NRC, 1999) – an ambition that stems
basic ideals.
from the realization that striving for one of
25 With the end of World War II in 1945, it these principles often means that we must
was widely believed that the first goal of strive for the others as well. This struggle for
peace had actually been achieved. But 60 ‘sustainable development’ is one of the great
then came the arms race and, although a challenges for today’s society.
kind of global peace was maintained, the
Sustainable development is a complex
30 Cold War led to a range of conflicts fought
idea that can neither be unequivocally
out at the local level. When one looks today
described nor simply applied. There are
at many parts of the world – the Middle
65 scores of different definitions, but we shall
East and Central Africa, for example – it
restrict ourselves to the most frequently
is all too evident that peace is still a long
quoted, that of the Brundtland Commission
35 way off.
(WCED, 1987): ‘Sustainable development is
Under the banner of freedom, people development which meets the needs of the
fought for the extension of human rights 70 present without compromising the ability of
and for national independence. Today, the future generations to meet their own needs.’
poorest two-thirds of the world population
40 see ‘development’ as the most important If we look at the lowest common denominator
goal, by means of which they hope to of the different definitions and interpretations
achieve the same material well-being as of sustainable development, it is possible to
the wealthy one-third. 75 identify four common characteristics

Extended Writing & Research Skills 135

 (Grosskurth & Rotmans, 2005). The first The fourth common characteristic concerns
indicates that sustainable development is the multiple interpretations of sustainable
an intergenerational phenomenon: it is a development. Each definition demands
process of transference from one to another 135 a projection of current and future social
80 generation. In other words, if we wish to needs and how these can be provided for.
say anything meaningful about sustainable However, no such estimate can be really
development, we have to take into account objective and, furthermore, any such estimate
a timespan of at least two generations. is inevitably surrounded by uncertainties.
The time period appropriate to sustainable 140 As a consequence, the idea of sustainable
85 development is thus around 25 to 50 years. development can be interpreted and applied
from a variety of perspectives.
The second common characteristic is the
level of scale. Sustainable development As is apparent from the above discussion,
is a process played out on several levels, a concept such as sustainable development
ranging from the global to the regional and 145 is difficult to pin down. Because it is by its
90 the local. What may be seen as sustainable nature complex, normative, subjective, and
at the national level, however, is not ambiguous, it has been criticized both from
necessarily sustainable at an international a social and from a scientific point of view.
level. This geographic incompatibility is One way of escaping from the ‘sustainability
due to shunting mechanisms, as a result 150 dilemma’ is to begin from the opposite
95 of which negative consequences for a position: that of non-sustainable development.
particular country or region are moved to Non-sustainable or unsustainable
other countries or regions. development is only too visible in a number
of intractable problems entrenched in our
The third common characteristic is that of 155 social systems, that cannot be solved through
multiple domains. Sustainable development current policies. These obdurate problems are
100 consists of at least three domains: the characterized by the involvement of multiple
economic, the ecological, and the socio- interests, as well as by their great complexity,
cultural. Although sustainable development lack of structure, structural uncertainty, and
can be defined in terms of each of 160 apparent uncontrollability.
these domains alone, the significance
Such problems can be recognized in many
105 of the concept lies precisely in the
national and global economic sectors. One
interrelationship among them.
sees them in agriculture, for example, with
The aim of sustainable social development its many facets of unsustainability
is to influence the development of 165 becoming manifest in the form of protein-
people and societies in such a way that related diseases such as BSE (‘mad cow
110 justice, living conditions, and health disease’) and in foot-and-mouth disease. The
play an important role. In sustainable water sector has to deal with such symptoms
ecological development, the controlled as flooding, droughts, and water-quality
use and protection of natural systems 170 problems, while the energy sector performs
is the main focus of concern and the in a one-sided manner and – as a direct
115 maintenance of our natural resources is result – harms the environment. One sees
of primary importance. In sustainable the same symptoms in traffic and transport
economic development, the focus is on the systems, where atmospheric pollution and
development of the economic infrastructure 175 congestion are symptoms of unsustainability.
and on an efficient management of natural As far as our health is concerned, the spread
120 and social resources. of severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS) and the global increase in the
At issue here are three aspects of incidence of malaria, as well as malnutrition
sustainable development that in theory 180 and its counterpart obesity, are all far from
need not conflict, but that often do in sustainable.
practice. The underlying principles are
125 also essentially different: with sustainable These unsustainable developments reflect
economic development, efficiency has a systemic faults embedded in our society. In
primary role, whereas with sustainable contrast to market faults, systemic faults
social development the same may be said 185 derive from deep-seated deficiencies or
of justice, and with sustainable ecological imbalances in society. They cannot be
130 development resilience or capacity for corrected through the ‘market’ and form a
recovery is primary. serious impediment to the optimal functioning

136 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.2 a

of our social system. Systemic faults paradigm must be able to encompass

190 operate at various levels and can be different magnitudes of scales (of time,
economic, social, or institutional in nature. space, and function), multiple balances
If such intractable problems are a sign (dynamics), multiple actors (interests) and
of an unsustainable development, they 245 multiple failures (systemic faults).
can only be solved through fundamental
This new paradigm emerges from a scientific
195 changes in our society. Only thus can
sub-current that characterizes the evolution
non-sustainable conditions be transformed
of science in general – a shift from mode-1
and put on a more sustainable basis.
to mode-2 science (see Table 1; Gibbons
250 et al., 1994). Mode-1 science is completely
Sustainability science: academic and monodisciplinary in nature,
A new paradigm and the scientists themselves are mainly
responsible for their own professional
It is clear that in making the concept of performance. In Mode-2 science, which is
sustainable development concrete, one has 255 at core both inter- and intra-disciplinary,
200 to take into account a number of practical the scientists are part of a heterogeneous
elements and obstacles. Thus, there is network. Their scientific tasks are
little doubt that integrated approaches are components of an extensive process of
needed to support sustainable development. knowledge production and they are
Questions as to exactly how such integration – 260 also responsible for more than merely
205 underpinned by the right research – should be scientific production.
conceived and put into effect have so far been
the preserve of a select group. Table 1: Properties of Mode-1 and
Mode-2 science
On a global scale, great progress has
been achieved, within the framework of Mode-1 science Mode-2 science
210 the international ‘global change’ research Academic Academic and
program, in the integration of previously social
separated disciplines. Mono-disciplinary Intra- and
Fifteen years ago, atmospheric chemists interdisciplinary
and biologists were not sharing the Technocratic Participative
215 knowledge emerging from their studies Certain Uncertain
of atmospheric change – despite the fact Predictive Exploratory
that biological processes are an important
factor in regulating the composition of Another paradigm that is gaining increasing
the atmosphere. Nor was either discipline influence is what is known as post-normal
220 well integrated with atmospheric physics, science (Funtowicz & Ravetz, 1993). It is
oceanography, or climatology. Today these 265 impossible to eradicate uncertainty from
disciplines are much more closely linked decision-making processes, and therefore
and together, on the basis of integrated this must be adequately managed through
research and risk analysis, they form the organized participatory processes in which
225 core of our knowledge about global different kinds of knowledge – not only
climate change. 270 scientific knowledge – come into play. As a
The international research community result, those making policy need to be as well
that is concerned with global change has informed as possible about complex social
thus made huge progress in coupling problems of major importance The research
230 the various relevant natural sciences. program that is beginning to emerge from this
Unfortunately, however, despite great 275 movement is known as ‘sustainability science’
national and international commitment, (Kates et al., 2001). The virtual Forum on
there has been far less progress in Science and Technology for Sustainability
understanding the interactions between (http://sust.harvard.edu) is at the moment
235 humankind and environment. one of the motors behind this initiative.
280 Sustainability science, however, is not an
To realize the high level of expectations, independent profession, let alone a discipline.
a new research paradigm is needed that It is rather a vital area in which science,
is better able to reflect the complexity practice, and visions of North and South meet
and the multidimensional character of one another, with contributions from the
240 sustainable development. The new

Extended Writing & Research Skills 137

 285 whole spectrum of the natural sciences, References
economics, and social sciences. Funtowicz, S., & Ravetz, J. (1993). Science
Sustainability is characterized by a number for the post-normal age. Futures, 25(7),
of shared research principles. ‘Shared’ 739–755.
here implies a broad recognition by a Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H.,
290 growing group of people who – in a steadily Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M.
extending network – are active in the (1994). The new production of knowledge:
area of sustainability science. The central The dynamics of science and research in
elements of sustainability science are: contemporary science. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
• inter- and intra-disciplinary research Grosskurth, J., & Rotmans, J. (2005). The
295 • co-production of knowledge scene model: Getting a grip on sustainable
• co-evolution of a complex system and its development in policy making. Environment,
environment Development and Sustainability, 7(1), 1,
135–151.
• learning through doing and doing through
learning Kates, R., Clark, W., Corell, R., Hall, J., Jaeger, C.,
Lowe, I., et al., (2001). Sustainability science.
300 • system innovation instead of system Science, 292(55A), 5517, 641–642.
optimization US National Research Council (NRC). (1999).
Simply stated, this new model can be Our common journey: A transition toward
sustainability. Washington, DC: National
represented as co-evolution, co-production, Academy Press.
and co-learning. The theory of complex
Rotmans, J. (1998). Methods for IA: The
305 systems can be employed as an umbrella challenges and opportunities ahead.
mechanism to bring together the various Environmental Modelling and Assessment,
parts of the sustainability puzzle. 3 (3), 155–79.
Van Asselt, M., & Rijkens-Klomp, N. (2002).
Integrated analysis of sustainability A look in the mirror: Reflection on
participation in integrated assessment
This new paradigm has far-reaching from a methodological perspective. Global
consequences for the methods and Environmental Change, 12 (3), 167–84.
310 techniques that need to be developed World Commission on Environment and
before an integrated analysis of Development (WCED). (1987). Our Common
sustainability can be carried out. These Future. New York: Oxford University Press.
novel methods and techniques can be
characterized as follows: Pim Martens is director of the International
Centre for Integrated Assessment and
315 • from supply-driven to demand-driven
Sustainable Development at Maastricht
• from technocratic to participant University in the Netherlands.
• from objective to subjective Source: Adapted from Martens, P. (2006). Sustainability:
• from predictive to exploratory science or fiction? Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy,
2(1), 36–41. Retrieved May 17, 2011, from http://sspp.
• from certain to uncertain proquest.com/archives/vol2iss1/communityessay.martens.html
320 In short, the character of our instruments
of integrated analysis is changing. While
previous generations of these instruments
were construed as ‘truth machines,’ the
current and future generations will be
325 seen more as heuristic instruments, as
aids in the acquisition of better insight
into complex problems of sustainability. At
each stage in the research of sustainability
science, new methods and techniques will
330 need to be used, extended, or invented.
The methodologies that are used and
developed in the integrated assessment
community are highly suitable for this
purpose (Rotmans, 1998; Van Asselt &
335 Rijkens-Klomp, 2002).

138 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.3 a

APPENDIX 4: Source 3

Innovative Strategies for

Urban Heritage Conservation,
Sustainable Development,
and Renewable Energy
Luigi Fusco Girard

Sustainable urban development

Currently there are three important • Reducing inequality and the growing
challenges to be addressed in the disparities in wealth, income,
coming decade: employment opportunities, and
overall quality of life
• Mitigating the negative impacts 10 • Reversing the tide of climate change
5 of global economic competition
and global warming

Extended Writing & Research Skills 139

 These three interdependent issues are of direct and indirect impacts, both in
concentrated in urban areas. Cities and the medium term and the long term. Any
urbanized regions produce the highest level rehabilitation or restoration proposal is
15 of water, soil, and air pollution. Poverty, 65 designed in part to stimulate higher use
once a mainly rural issue, is rapidly rising values. Generally, this involves increased
in urban regions. Increasingly, advanced energy consumption. If the energy sources
production processes are urban-based. are based on conventional carbon-based
Cities can make a difference in resolving fuels, then even as heritage conservation
20 the above three critical issues. Urban
70 induces new economic investment and
policies are essential in order to counteract development, it also negatively contributes
the negative effects of climate change. to the problem of climate change. In other
These policies include land use, words, the long-term effects of these heritage
transportation, waste management, restoration projects may be harmful in that
25 construction methods, and many other
75 without energy conservation, they are not
aspects of the current environmental environmentally sustainable.
challenge. Similarly, overcoming of poverty,
unemployment, and social exclusion, Sustainable conservation and
along with improving overall economic renewable energy usage should
30 performances in the face of global
competition, depends on specific urban be closely linked
policies, programs, and related initiatives. Heritage conservation should be an
Urban development strategies related to the important part of a more general urban
physical structure of cities are a key element economic development strategy of the city, as
35 of community economic regeneration 80 well as a spatial development strategy. At the
by enhancing urban assets that improve same time, it must also be part of an energy
attractiveness. This means assigning a ‘focus’ conservation and renewable resources
to every urban neighborhood that orients utilization strategy. For example, ‘solar city
its future growth as an integrated asset of strategies’ can promote closer integration of
40 a polycentric region. This ‘focus’ is often 85 the economic and ecological systems, such
represented by cultural and architectural that urban environmental economics can be
heritage that is restored to new and greater implemented to foster sustainable prosperity
vitality, involving an important contribution and quality of life. A strategy based on
to urban environmental quality of life, and renewable energy can positively affect the
45 to cultural and architectural place-identity. 90 physical structure of a city — both its form
Cities and urban regions become more and its building architecture.
able to generate new functions and prevent Strategies for conserving the built
the loss of existing activities. The role of environment are designed to preserve and
conservation of urban physical and cultural enhance cultural, historic, and artistic
50 heritage can be interpreted not only as
95 values, and more importantly, to provide
an ‘attractor’, but also as an ‘incubator’ or a set of economic and social benefits and
catalyst for new economic services, from contribute to improving the quality and
tourism to innovation. sustainability of the urban ecology. Urban
planning and spatial development policy
Conservation and renovation 100 can be both economic and ecological if
projects as vital elements of the overall systems are balanced, starting
with energy production and consumption.
urban regeneration Conservation of urban heritage can be
Which kind of conservation project? Each genuinely sustainable to the extent that
55 conservation project or plan implies choices
105 it revitalizes communities by creating a
among different values, objectives, uses, dynamic, growth-oriented mix of new
functions, materials, technologies, and functions that regenerate economic and
combinations among new and ancient social life, while at the same time reducing
architecture, and between arts and sciences. energy consumption and increasing the use
60 It is always necessary to compare different
110 of renewable resources.
alternatives in terms of the entire range

140 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.3 a

Cultural heritage in global mountains, and monuments), and the

supply of various amenities and services
economic competition: Tourism (cultural and social). It is characterized by a
and local economic development 160 major positive-multiplier effect on business
activities, employment, investment, and
The need to emphasize the elements development by drawing in revenues and
that ‘make the difference’ in urban areas resources from outside of the marketplace.
rises from increasing global economic Direct employment resulting from renewed
competition. This implies a widespread 165 cultural assets can be calculated to generate
115 strategy of city and regional maintenance, 1.5 overall new jobs for every 10,000 visitors,
rehabilitation and restoration, characterized to which new jobs specifically in the tourism
by the recycling and renewal of all major sector along with temporary construction
spatial resources. Communities, cities, and and renovation jobs in the field of heritage
urban regions are investing in heritage 170 investments must be added. Tourism helps
120 conservation to become more attractive increase property values, wealth, jobs,
for foreign investment and for creating incomes, and a positive international balance
decent employment opportunities. If they of payments for the tourist destination and
also are able to link conservation to the its surrounding region and nation. This is
use of renewable energy sources, they 175 also its limitation, because of the negative
125 can help reduce the negative impacts of impacts of tourism on the same resources
climate change and thus become far more (the natural and built environment) on
sustainable and economically viable in which it is based. Each site has a specific
the long run. Potential conflicts between ‘carrying capacity’ that should not be
conservation and development can be 180 overly utilized. Also, tourist demand is
130 avoided by increasing the functional characterized by high variability. It is
integration of urban space through better necessary to identify new ‘strategic niches’
and more comprehensive planning and such as tourism linked to health and welfare
research. Enhancing the functional (thermal or ‘medical tourism’), sports
integration of housing, work, leisure, and 185 tourism linked to recreational activities
135 mobility, along with social, cultural, and (riding or golf), agricultural tourism
public services helps reduce exchange linked to specialized local farming activities
distances and circulation length, and is (biofarming), ‘elite tourism’ (oriented
an essential means of minimizing the towards longer stays by the same absolute
displacement of people and the excessive 190 number of users but with a much higher
140 consumption of physical assets such as willingness to pay), and cultural tourism
materials, water, and energy. (based on the supply of cultural sites,
amenities, and services).
Organizing the multifunctional Historic urban centers can again become
use of space in more efficient 195
the places where traditional activities of
the ‘old economy’ like craftsmanship and
ways trade (sometimes informal and hidden)
The ecological restoration process aims can be combined with information
to preserve and increase the use values of technology and telecommunications-based
green spaces, avoiding their transformation 200 ‘new-economy’ entrepreneurial functions.
145 into exchange values under the pressure Such multifunctional development ‘growth
of speculative urban rents. Cultural and poles’ and hubs currently characterize
environmental integrated conservation most recent urban regeneration
produces relevant economic and social investments and strategies.
benefits overall. For example, tourism 205 Central cities must realize that in order to
150 represents an economic sector of increasing compete in global markets to attract capital,
importance for many local, regional, and economic activities, and most importantly,
national economies. The success of tourism people, they first need to valorize their
depends on a set of elements including specific cultural identity, represented best by
transportation accessibility (infrastructure 210 their historic urban core. But the economics
155 and network links), attractiveness due to of historic urban centers does not simply
natural and cultural resources (beaches, correspond to the promotion of tourism,

Extended Writing & Research Skills 141

 because while building hotels, residences 265 Beauty is linked not only to the existing
and supermarkets can create jobs, it can also order in a territory. It reflects the harmony
215 destroy physical and cultural heritage values existing among its different elements. It
that are much greater economic assets over transmits a sense of completeness rising
time, and once they are destroyed and lost, from the perception that some attributes
they cannot easily, if ever, be replaced. 270 are satisfied at their maximum level. Beauty
Renewal and restoration of urban is the synthesis of different dimensions:
220 cultural heritage with many greatly it is the perception that every element is
specialized functions in the rising fields mutually interconnected, and fosters a sense
of the ‘knowledge economy’ are rapidly of connection between community, capital,
multiplying, through the transformation 275 and assets.
of cultural assets concentrated in historic The excellence or beauty of a site is not
225 urban centers into areas of excellence for only an aesthetic element, but contributes
new multi-media production and services, to economic development. The natural
graphic design, software research, and manmade beauty helps to increase
Internet website construction, and many 280 productivity of all forms of capital. Giovanni
related activities. Botero asserted back in 1538 that beauty was
230 The challenge is not only to link these one of the four ‘attractive virtues’ of a city.
artistic and cultural activities to It attracts new economic activities, and both
entrepreneurial initiatives, such as enhances and therefore helps retain existing
investing in the installation of high-speed 285 activities. Many experts now argue that
broadband cable infrastructure to help quality of life is one of the most important
235 expand information and communications factors in the success or failure of economic
technology usage by small and medium- growth and prosperity. Beauty and quality of
sized enterprises, but also to spread their life are closely linked.
utilization in schools and among citizens 290 A high-quality environment can improve
living and working in these communities. the sense of well-being in a specific site; it
240 New ‘incubators’ of development and can also open people’s minds and lift their
cooperation capabilities are implemented vision to a greater sense of community and
in this way, by means of advanced civic spirit. Sites characterized by beauty
research and development and technology 295 can help overcome civic fragmentation and
commercialization. Cultural assets and contribute to social integration.
245 heritage conservation can be promoted Social capital and cultural heritage are
in the context of developing new direct, important elements of urban attractiveness.
indirect, and induced business and Increasingly the attractiveness of a site
employment growth, with significant 300 is being perceived in relation to its
impacts on economic, social, and sustainability, such as possible utilization
250 environmental conditions. This might of renewable resources. Culture, arts,
include, for example, linking a potentially and innovation in the field of energy
dynamic growth sector with improving the conservation can help generate a stimulating
conditions of everyday life, through the 305 economic environment.
adoption of new informatics, telematics, and
255 communications technologies.

‘Beauty’ for improving wealth

and reducing poverty
Today, ‘attractiveness’ reflected in the quality
of life is a key economic development factor
due to a combination of environmental,
social, cultural, and economic values.
260 Both artistic and ecological resources
contribute to the beauty of a site or a
landscape, which in turn can potentially
attract economic activities that produce
wealth and reduce poverty.

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 Appendix 4.3 a

The beauty of a landscape or a site can be are destined to harm our cultural and
compromised by pollution or improper agricultural landscapes, reducing the
usage such as inappropriate ‘modernization’. carrying capacity of land and producing a
Excessive energy consumption leads to major loss of ecological and economic value.
310 climate changes due to the greenhouse gas 360 Economic and social systems need energy in
impacts of carbon dioxide (CO2) pollution. order to survive and grow. However, beauty
In the long run, this can damage many and new renewable energy sources are
currently attractive and productive cultural congruent and can produce economically
and agricultural landscapes, because of the sustainable development by connecting
315 rising variations in temperature and the 365 cultural and environmental heritage
rising frequency of extreme meteorological conservation with innovations in the
events like hurricanes, floods, and tsunamis. energy field, through the use of renewable
Changes in the hydrological cycle of surface- energy sources combined with substantially
water evaporation, precipitation, and flow improved energy efficiency. Geothermal
320 may become catastrophic in terms of a 370 springs, water, wind, and solar power are
growing lack of fresh water, parching forests all widely available in varying degrees
and agricultural soils, drying up rivers from place to place, and they can be used
and lakes, and rapid soil erosion, with the effectively to make urban heritage both
harmful consequences both of increased more sustainable and more valuable. This,
325 flooding and greater drought. Landscape 375 in turn, can help promote technological
beauty is more and more threatened by the innovation and related spin-off activities
use of fossil fuels like oil and gas, coke such as research and development, which
and coal. generates substantial new employment.
The value of preserved (or lost) beauty is an The productive sector of renewable energies
330 important benefit (or cost) item to take into 380 is characterized by a very promising
account when comparing traditional energy potential for expansion, especially relating
sources versus newer and cleaner fuels. This to small and medium-sized enterprises
comparison must include cultural, visual, that can help stimulate local economic
and symbolic values, not just functional ones. development. The capability to generate new
385 employment in technology-oriented sectors
Conservation, restoration, will arise from the increasingly widespread
renewal, and new energy application of energy conservation and the
use of renewable energy sources in housing,
sources transportation, industry, trade, services,
335 Conservation and renovation of physical 390 education, health, and many other aspects of
and cultural heritage is more effective when urban daily life.
linked to innovative economic production The above is true, in general, for western
and investment. The multifunctional use of and northern European cities and
urban space can become the new integrated regions, characterized by their specific
340 and sustainable conservation strategy that 395 cultural heritage. But the perspective of
brings about a set of agglomeration heritage conservation in the framework
economies and social benefits. But there of conservation and renewable energy
are also negative externalities, because the strategies is even more necessary for cities
multifunctional use of space implies an and regions in southern and eastern Europe
345 increase of energy consumption. Such a 400 that are on the threshold of a widespread
rehabilitation process may be an advantage new development and modernization
for present users, but represents a distinct processes. To attract economic investment
disadvantage for future generations due to and production, including heritage tourism,
pollution and its negative impacts on they must face these difficult challenges
350 climate change. 405 in new and innovative ways. Conservation
Beauty and conventional energies are in strategies must be part of overall urban and
conflict in the future. The impacts of the regional economic development strategies,
greenhouse effect and of air and water which in turn should be closely linked to
pollution caused by sulfur oxide, nitrogen renewable energy strategies.
355 dioxide, benzene, and various particulates

Extended Writing & Research Skills 143

 Toward the scenario of ‘solar dramatic rise in traditional energy prices,
and correspondingly, the decreasing relative
cities and regions’ 465 costs of renewable energy.

410 Today each community, town, city, and

region faces at least two very different Good and best practices
scenarios. One scenario is a continuation In order to transform urban and regional
of the status quo approach, with all of economies from running on fossil fuels to
the predictably harmful consequences in operating through energy conservation
415 terms of environmental and social impacts.
and energy-efficient renewable sources,
Alternatively, based on a new social and 470 new technologies and techniques must be
environmental vision, there is an ecological- tried and tested. Today there are a growing
economic scenario. We can imagine that number of good and best practices involving
this much more sustainable scenario adopts conservation projects using energy-efficient
420 a longer-term perspective by planning for a renewable sources. These initiatives must be
transition towards a human economy that is 475 assessed carefully, identifying their positive
no longer carbon-based, but more and more and negative aspects. Freiburg in Germany
‘de-carbonized’. is an excellent example not only of building
The so-called ‘solar city and region’ is a solar city and region, but of doing so with
425 characterized by a new and original mix of widespread and active citizen participation.
renewable energies. The most sustainable 480 In the Vauban district of France, where low-
scenario is represented by a combination energy-consumption dwellings and passive
‘solar/hydrogen’, ‘wind/hydrogen’, solar dwellings were built, military barracks
‘geothermal/hydrogen’, ‘micro-hydroelectric from the early 19th century were renewed
430 water power/hydrogen’, and ‘biomass/ using photovoltaic technology. A
hydrogen’, with hydrogen production also 485 co-generation system, fed by nearby woodland
from urban wastes converted to energy area byproducts, produces electric power
through thermovalorization power plants. and heating for the whole district. Due to
Solar cities and regions will directly use the promotion of mobility based on walking,
435 sunlight (or indirectly use wind power, cycling, and public transit rather than private
water power, or biomass) to produce 490 automobiles, energy consumption in the
energy. Accumulation is possible through Vauban district was substantially reduced,
hydrogen (produced mostly by a water along with major reductions in emissions of
electrolysis process). Hydrogen can be used carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and a variety
440 for heating and cooling buildings and water, of other minerals. In addition, photovoltaic
as well as for urban ground, water, or air 495 cells were used in the renovation of the town
transportation, including through the use of hall and the Victoria Hotel, close to the
fuel cells. Fixed fuel cells will likely become historic city center. Similarly, the restoration
more widely utilized in the coming decades. of the parliament building in Berlin involved
445 Projects that provide for the matching of the installation of a Foster dome and
photovoltaic panels with electrolysis process
and fixed fuel cells correspond to the vision
of the solar city/region.
In promoting and supporting sustainable
450 heritage conservation, fuel cells can be used
in residential, commercial, and industrial
buildings and landscapes. With these fuel
cells, it will be possible to store the surplus
energy in the form of hydrogen for use
455 during the night when additional power is
needed to offset the loss of direct sunlight.
Waste collection also can contribute to the
decentralized production of hydrogen.
The convenience and economic viability of
460 this strategy is based over the long term on
favorable cost comparisons with conventional
forms of carbon-based fossil fuels due to the

144 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.3 a

500 photovoltaic panels. The Austrian on oil and gas. Overall, these enlightened
experience has become somewhat of a and sustainable practices can help encourage
model in Europe, especially with respect new cultural and civic values.
to the reduction of carbon emissions. In
particular, the city of Vienna implemented Tools for building the transition
505 a subsidized building renewal program
that significantly decreased both fossil-fuel toward the solar city/region:
consumption and carbon-based emissions. Urban conservation and energy
Older buildings can be more expensive to planning
maintain and manage due to inadequate
510 insulation that leads to greater energy loss The ‘solar city/region’ represents a
compared with more modern buildings. 560 perspective linked to the systematic
One study in Denmark determined that introduction of renewable energy. The
older buildings require two to four times transition towards the solar city/region
more energy per square meter for heating requires active participation by citizens,
515 and cooling. Thus in restoring and institutions, planners, and designers.
renovating older structures of old assets, 565 This change will proceed more rapidly
new energy-conservation techniques and if architects and urban planners develop
renewable energy-efficient technologies creative solutions to reshape urban buildings
must be introduced to lower ongoing costs, and open spaces in new ways, saving on both
520 though these machines and methods must materials and energy consumption and costs.
be made compatible with the preservation Energy availability is a vital factor in urban
570
of historic cultural and architectural values. life because it assures its vitality in terms
In Kolding, Denmark, photovoltaic cells of economic development and quality of
are being used in the renewal of historic life, with impacts on employment rates,
525 buildings and neighborhoods. In Arles, social conditions, and cultural styles. The
France, the municipality restored a church 575 development and use of renewable energy
built a thousand years ago, to be used in urban regions can be accelerated by
today as a major tourist attraction and clearing away various existing economic,
information center. Three photovoltaic technical, and institutional constraints,
530 fronts with 70 panels were installed on the especially those linked to the adoption of
church. In Dublin, Ireland, energy-efficient 580 specific technologies such as harnessing
materials, solar panels, photovoltaic and solar and wind power. In addition, it will be
wind energy systems, and other modern necessary to make urban planning an ‘active’
conservation methods were used in the (not neutral) tool supporting research and
535 renovation of Temple Bar, turning this development of energy conservation methods
historic structure into a 21st-century ‘green585 and renewable energy sources, which not
building’ that reduced energy costs by 80 only reduce negative environmental
percent, more than offsetting the added impacts including air pollution, but can
costs of energy innovation. help generate new economic activities and
540 Added capital costs of restoration costs increased employment. Urban planning
are balanced not only by reductions in 590 policies and regulations can encourage
ongoing energy consumption expenses, more energy-efficient insulation of cultural-
but by a wider set of environmental, heritage structures, including public works
social, economic, and cultural benefits. and infrastructure, residential dwellings,
545 Diminishing the damaging air pollution and commercial buildings. This new type
emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, 595 of urban planning can promote creation of
nitrogen dioxide and other particulates thermal districts that integrate heating and
causes far less harm to human health and cooling with electric power generation, and
to the health of our ecosystem. Combining it also can foster combining the management
550 energy-efficient conservation with energy of waste products and materials with
production using renewable sources 600 recycling and re-use. Moreover, through
contributes to increased employment, more aggressive rule-making along with
enhancing overall demand with clear financial incentives, urban planning can
multiplier effects, while at the same time enhance the capacity of individual dwellings
555 escaping the harmful effects of dependency and entire neighborhoods both to conserve

Extended Writing & Research Skills 145

 605 energy and to produce at least some energy beauty value can be assessed in terms of
locally to help meet the growing demand. At different approaches (economic, ecological,
the same time, urban planners should focus and socio-cultural) or different levels of
on buildings and communities providing intervention (strategic or operational).
for natural ventilation and the cooling of 660 Local Agenda 21 movements in urban
610 spaces. This should help induce market- communities promoting sustainable
based investors to find an appropriate rate of development to improve the environment
return in energy innovations, which, through and stop climate change seem to be the best
conservation, sustainable technology, and political arena for creating a strategic vision
economic competition, should reduce 665 of the solar city/region, through widespread
615 production costs in the long run. and coherent participatory processes. The
Conservation planning has its foundation adoption of a ‘Local Agenda 21 of Culture’
in the ways that energy is produced and at the 2004 UNESCO-sponsored Universal
consumed. In other words, it must be Forum of Cultures in Barcelona as a
670 central element for making strategic and
closely tied to energy planning. The
620 combination of heritage conservation
participatory urban development decisions
activities and renewable energy systems based on cultural heritage and comparable
represents the ‘entrance point’ and issues can serve as a model for evaluating
the critical element needed to activate the production of new values as opposed to
675 existing status quo values.
sustainable urban development strategies.
625 From careful energy and conservation An example of evaluations derived from
planning, genuine sustainable economic participation is the concept of ‘intrinsic
development can result. In fact, the energy values’ of cultural landscapes. The value of
issues are structurally interdependent, the historic center of Italian communities
with land-use, urban spatial planning, 680 like Assisi or Gubbio is not only represented
630 transportation, housing, infrastructure, by each of their monuments, but by the
and industrial policies. integration between the various monuments
Urban communities and regions represent and the surrounding environment that
the places where the transition from a has been shaped over many centuries to
carbon-based economy to an economy based 685 define their collective cultural identity
635 on renewable sources can start occurring ‘on and particular historical sense of unity.
the ground’. Sustainable urban development Intrinsic value reflects this sense of cultural
strategies that include both heritage belonging, resulting from the unified
conservation and renewable energy can be integration of many diverse components
690 that all combine to express the ‘spirit’ of
the starting point for activating a process
640 of change.
the place. Sacred sites, both natural and
built monuments, are examples of resources
that represent predominantly ‘intangible’
Participatory evaluation of values unrelated to their construction and
cultural heritage landscapes 695 maintenance costs or to the revenues they

We are now faced with new choices: how do

we compare different alternative actions in
multidimensional urban space? Further,
how do we compare newly produced
645 values with lost values? Which are the
most important values in urban heritage
conservation? Which heritage values have
recently been damaged? What are the
impacts of combining heritage conservation
650 with renewable energy strategies for the
sustainable regeneration of economic, social,
cultural, and ecological life?
There are many evaluation issues related
to the above-mentioned comprehensive
655 and innovative strategies. For example,

146 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 4.3 a

directly or indirectly generate: people assign multidimensional approaches to values

them spiritual values that are not overtly assessment with respect to heritage
connected to the economic dimension, conservation.
even if some benefits can be monetarily If all of us are not careful, these intrinsic
755
700 measured, such as spending and donations
historic values could be lost forever due
by visitors and tourists. to excessive ‘modernization’ initiatives,
The roots of these intrinsic values are and also because of the harmful impacts
in cultural traditions, in the history of a of greenhouse gases, air pollution, and
community that reflects itself in the whole 760 climate change. The perception and
705 of the physical signs, symbols, and spiritual acknowledgement of these values help to
values that inspire it. The value of natural build a new strategic vision, comparing
holy places is not just through preserving benefits lost versus benefits gained, costs
biodiversity, but in the richness of nature incurred versus costs forgone. At this
that provides the essence for a number of 765 level, evaluations consist first of all in
710 goods and services, including ingredients for acknowledging new and future, not just past
products such as medicines and cosmetics, or current values. Producing value added
and most importantly through the deep can involve both continuity and change.
linkages with human relationships and Evaluation of the ‘complex convenience’
communities. For example, places represent 770 of the investment in cultural heritage
715 living embodiments of the collective memory
conservation should always be included
of vital historic events that help determine a in a multidimensional perspective, using
sense of co-belonging, of deep unity between specific techniques and indicators. The
people and nature and between individuals, economic impacts of the introduction of
families, and larger communities: of mutual 775 renewable energy sources in urban heritage
720 interdependence that connects all of us
preservation can be effectively highlighted
together as a fundamental characteristic by emphasizing the convenience of the
of humanity. investment in renewable sources if all the
Likewise, the value of a religious external monetary effects and the saved costs
monumental complex, or of places of 780 to the heritage site are included together
725 pilgrimage, goes beyond the emotions with cultural and symbolic benefits. They
evoked by their esthetic beauty by opening will clearly indicate that it is entirely possible
one’s self to a spiritual relationship and even very desirable to implement
characterized by the acknowledgement of positive-sum game strategies that conserve
a deeper unity with the cosmos, inspiring, 785 the natural and the human environment and
730 in turn, decisions and behavior that guide generate sustainable prosperity and quality
human actions. They touch us with the of life at the same time.
personal experience of the evolution
of community life over time, of shared Conclusion
beliefs, and of our relationships with others Investing in urban heritage conservation can
735 who share this common identity. They be a major catalyst of economic development
emanate an ‘intrinsic’ value that is an 790 and urban regeneration, far beyond the
expression of cultural patterns, and these simple appeal to cultural and/or physical
differences from place to place are more attractiveness. Historic buildings and sites
urgently in need of preservation in our characterized by special beauty are able — in
740 increasingly globalized and homogenized
rich and poor countries alike — to improve
world. UNESCO’s World Heritage Forum 795 quality of life, and then to more effectively
acknowledges intangible/spiritual/religious promote investment, development, and
values in designating world heritage sites, growth of jobs, businesses, incomes, and
in addition to archeological, artistic, and wealth. Beauty is an economic resource that
745 many other historic values to be honored, is able to attract a wide range of production
and conserved. These values do not always 800 and consumption activities: we have to
revolve around cost-benefit analyses or conserve it in a sustainable way, because,
measurements of ‘willingness to pay’ and in turn, beauty lifts the human spirit and
thus cannot generally be characterized contributes to the ‘good life’ for families
750 in precise monetary data. Thus it is
and communities.
necessary to develop more sophisticated,

Extended Writing & Research Skills 147

 805 ‘Solar’ cities and regions really are values, new ideas, and visions of the future.
sustainable cities and regions. Energy Culture is one of the main engines of urban
conservation and renewable energy development. The world needs a strategic
generation and use is fast becoming our cultural plan for stimulating widespread
only viable future, if we want to build and 845 democratic citizen participation concerned
810 maintain a better world. The environment, with identifying and prioritizing goals,
energy, and economic development form a strategies, and actions. The starting point
very complex and interdependent triangle, for good urban governance is represented
one that ultimately emphasizes the benefits by heritage conservation closely integrated
of clean and renewable energy sources. 850 with ‘solar’ urban regions.
815 Environmental conservation and energy
efficiency are necessary though not sufficient Luigi Fusco Girard is a Professor of
preconditions for sustainable development of
Economy and Environmental Evaluation
our world over the next millennium.
and director of the Department
Sustainable heritage conservation is of Conservation of Cultural and
820 characterized by a multifunctional renewal
Environmental Heritage in the Faculty
of urban space and by a high rate of relative of Architecture at the University of
utilization of a multiplicity of renewable
Napoli Federico II in Naples, Italy. Dr
energy sources, including but not limited
to photovoltaics, wind, geothermal, micro- Fusco Girard is a member of the board of
825 hydroelectric, and biomass, in various directors of the organization Global Urban
desirable combinations with hydrogen. Development, serving as co-chair of the
Restoration and preservation of urban GUD program committee on Celebrating
heritage sites is sustainable if it is able to Our Urban Heritage.
use energy with the highest efficiency, Source: Adapted from Fusco Girard, L. (2006). Innovative
830 and especially if it manages to produce by Strategies for Urban Heritage Conservation, Sustainable
itself the energy it needs, together with the Development, and Renewable Energy. Global Urban
recycling of water and material resources. Development, 2(1), 1–9. Retrieved May 17, 2011, from
www.globalurban.org/GUDMag06Vol2Iss1/Fusco%20
In fact, both are fundamental to sustain life. Girard.htm
A worldwide movement — ‘Local Agenda
835 21 for Culture’ — should be organized to
support integrated heritage conservation
and renewable energy strategies in every
nation, region, city, town, and community.
Urban planning and development has always
840 succeeded based on cultural dimensions: on

148 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 5 a

APPENDIX 5: Symbols and abbreviations

Symbols Meaning

&, + and, plus

- less, minus

= is, equals, is the same as

≈ is approximately equivalent to

> is greater than, is more than, is over

< is less than

£, $ money; cost, price

→ gives, produces, leads to, results in

↑ rises, increases, grows

↓ falls, decreases, declines

ʺ ditto (repeats text immediately above)

∴ therefore, so
∴
because, as, since

@ at

C century, as in 20th C

# number, as in #1

? this is doubtful

Abbreviations Meaning

approx. approximately

asap as soon as possible

c. approximately, as in c.1900

cf. compare

Ch. chapter

C century, as in C19

co. company

dept. department

diff. difference

ed./eds. editor(s)

e.g. for example

Extended Writing & Research Skills 149

 Abbreviations Meaning

and the other people (used when referring to a book with more than
et al.
two authors)

etc. et cetera, and all the rest, and so forth

ff. and the following pages as in p.10ff.

fig. figure (used when giving a title to a drawing or table)

i.e. that is, that means, in other words

ibid. in the same place in the source already mentioned

incl. including

ltd. limited

max. maximum

min. minimum

N.B. important, note

n.d. no date given

No., no. number

op. cit in the source already mentioned

PARA paragraph problem, add or combine paragraphs

p./pp. page/pages, as in pp.1–10

poss. possible/possibly

Q. question

A. answer

re. concerning, regarding, about

ref. with reference to

st./sts. student/students

v. very

viz. namely

vol. volume

yr. year

150 English for Academic Study

 Appendix 6 a

APPENDIX 6: Compiling a bibliography

A book – single author

last year
name brackets
comma full stop
one space one space
place (city or town)
initial title of book – italics of publication
full stop full stop colon
one space one space one space

Milroy, L. (1980). Observing and analysing natural language. Oxford:

Basil Blackwell.

publisher
full stop

A book – more than one author

last
name initial title of book – italics
comma full stop full stop
one space ampersand one space one space
last year place (city or town)
initial
full stop name brackets of publication
comma comma full stop colon
one space one space one space one space

Chambers, J., & Trudgill, P. (1980). Dialectology. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

publisher
full stop

A journal article

last year
name brackets title of journal – italics
comma full stop comma
one space one space one space

initial title of article

full stop full stop
one space one space

Bell, A. (1984). Language style as audience design. Language in Society,

13(2), 145–204.

volume no. – italics page numbers

issue no. full stop
brackets
comma
one space

Extended Writing & Research Skills 151

 A section or chapter of a book

last year
name brackets last name
comma full stop In and
one space one space one space one space
first name first name
initial title of section/chapter initials initials
full stop full stop full stop full stop
one space one space one space one space

Wolfson, N. (1983). Rules of speaking. In J. C. Richards & R. W.

Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication (pp. 61–87). Harlow:
Longman.
title of book – italics page numbers
one space close brackets
full stop
one space
last name editors open brackets place (city or town)
one space full stop pp of publication
brackets full stop colon
comma one space one spac e
one space

publisher
full stop

An Internet site (print journal also available online)

name of organization
or author
full stop
one space

year
brackets title of article page numbers
full stop full stop full stop
one space one space

Huh, C. (1997). Banking system developments in the four Asian tigers.

Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Economic Letter, 97–122.
Retrieved April 8, 2009, from www.frbsf.org/econrsrch/wklyltr/el97-22.html

date you website address

title of journal – italics
one space viewed the
site

152 English for Academic Study

This fully updated edition of English for Academic Study: Joan McCormack works as an EAP lecturer and
Extended Writing & Research Skills will help develop course director at the University of Reading,
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and projects and encourage the development of an Centre for Language Learning. Her particular
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The units are organized as follows: learner autonomy. She has worked in Peru,
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ƒƒ Introduction to extended writing and research
ƒƒ Using evidence to support your ideas
J ohn Slaght has worked at the University of
ƒƒ Sourcing information for your project Reading in a variety of capacities since
ƒƒ Developing your project 1988 and now works as director of assessment
and test development in the International
ƒƒ Developing a focus
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ƒƒ Introductions, conclusions and definitions considerable overseas experiences in higher
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ƒƒ Preparing for conference presentations
work continues to provide him with extensive
The units take you step by step through the process travel to many parts of the world.
of producing an extended piece of academic writing.
Authentic source materials, model answers and detailed T he International Study and Language
advice are included to help support and guide you. This Institute (ISLI) at the University of Reading
course will require you to apply skills and strategies you has nearly 40 years’ experience in offering
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The Course Book includes unit summaries to give you tuition, materials development and the support
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This book can be used in conjunction with the following
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Writing Source Book, EAS: Reading, EAS: Writing,
EAS: Speaking, EAS: Listening, EAS: Vocabulary and
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ISBN 978 1 90861 430 8
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