Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Review article

Structural comparison of archetypal Atlantic rifted margins: A review

of observations and concepts
Gwenn Peron-Pinvidic a, *, Gianreto Manatschal b, Per Terje Osmundsen a
a
Geological Survey of Norway (NGU), Leiv Erikssons vei 39, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
b
IPGS-EOST, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, 1 rue Blessig, 67084 Strasbourg Cedex, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study we compare three pairs of conjugate rifted margins that are often referred to as archetypes
Received 4 November 2011 of rift systems. Despite numerous differences, a remarkable first-order structural similarity appears
Received in revised form between the magma-poor IberiaeNewfoundland, the magma-rich mid-NorwayeEast Greenland and the
18 January 2013
sediment-rich AngolaeBrazil rifted margins. Typical is the seaward arrangement of distinct domains
Accepted 1 February 2013
Available online 20 February 2013
(proximal, necking, distal and outer) that each present specific comparable structural characteristics. Our
study also suggests that magma-rich systems may go through a stage of hyper-extension, indicating that
extreme crustal thinning does not preclude a magmatic breakup.
Keywords:
Rifted margin
In this contribution, we clarify the definition of a number of terms introduced recently in rifted margin
Extension tectonics studies. We review the major features constitutive of these key referenced systems, discuss their simi-
Rifting larities and differences and examine how the related deformation modes develop in the ‘life cycle’ of a
Crustal thinning rift that goes to seafloor spreading. We conclude that the distinct domains observed in the margin ar-
Geophysical data chitecture represent distinct stages in the evolution of rifted margin, independently of their later evo-
Deformation modes lution into magma-poor or magma-rich environments.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction: concepts and terminology discovery of unexpected structural settings, such as exhumed sub-
continental mantle and/or hyperextended continental crust. These
1.1. Introduction results questioned the validity of some rifting models and led to the
development of new concepts and approaches. Most of these ideas
Our understanding of rifting processes and rifted margin for- and models were developed along the IberiaeNewfoundland and
mation is undergoing a paradigm shift. Rifted margins used to be East Greenlandemid-Norwegian conjugate margins and then later
presented as a juxtaposition of continental and oceanic crusts issued applied to the South Atlantic and other rift systems.
from simple shear, pure shear or composite deformation mecha- Numerous rift scenarios and rift geometries have been proposed
nisms (McKenzie, 1978; Le Pichon and Sibuet, 1981; Wernicke, 1985; to describe and explain the new observations. The end-member
Lister et al., 1986). The rifting models were mainly based on the partitioning between volcanic and non-volcanic settings has been
study of proximal domains, where data acquisition was concen- adjusted to magma-poor and magma-rich (or magma-sustained).
trated in sedimentary basins with hydrocarbon potential. Most New terms and concepts have been introduced and definitions
datasets and models were developed either based on onshore have been further developed. These include morphological terms
observations in continental rifts or in proximal offshore rift basins. (e.g. platform, terrace, taper break, marginal high; Blystad et al.,
As a consequence, little was known about the distal domains. The 1995; Osmundsen and Redfield, 2011; Planke et al., 2000),
acquisition of higher-resolution geophysical data (seismic, potential domain names (necking zone, transitional zone, oceanecontinent
field) combined with deep sea drilling and onshore analogue studies transition, zone of exhumed continental mantle, oceanecontinent
showed that the distal domains of rifted margins are different from boundary; Whitmarsh et al., 2001; Manatschal, 2004) and terms
the proximal ones. Observations from distal rifted margins led to the referring to geological processes (stretching, thinning, exhumation;
Lavier and Manatschal, 2006). Actually, many of these terms refer to
similar features or processes, although the definitions of their
boundaries are often not clearly described. We need to list the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ47 73904455.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Peron-Pinvidic), manatschal@ similarities and differences of the entities that lie behind these
illite.u-strasbg.fr (G. Manatschal), [email protected] (P.T. Osmundsen). terms (see Section 2). Furthermore, we need to understand if the

0264-8172/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.02.002
22 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

differences observed between one rift system and the other are Refraction models generally provide a good overview of the bulk
related to local variations in rift parameters, to inheritance or to architecture of rifted margins (e.g. Reston, 2009). The Angola
fundamentally different rifting processes (see Section 3). Our aim is margin (Contrucci et al., 2004), the Newfoundland margin (Van
to better identify the similarities and differences between these Avendonk et al., 2006) and the mid-Norwegian margin (Mjelde
rifted margins and to understand to what degree the concepts et al., 2009) are all characterized by comparable seismic refrac-
based on one margin system can be applied to another through a tion characteristics (Fig. 2), albeit if some controversy exists over
generic model (see Section 4). the lithological interpretation of some seismic velocity ranges (e.g.
A profound schism exists between ‘ODP drilled’ and ‘non-ODP Ebbing et al., 2006). For all three margins, a similar, first-order
drilled margins’. The IberiaeNewfoundland rifted margins were geometry appears with a seismic basement that thins oceanwards
penetrated by 18 deep holes drilled during DSDP Leg 47B and ODP from >30 km thickness in proximal settings to w0e5 km thickness
Legs 103, 149, 173 and 210 (Groupe-Galice, 1979; Boillot et al., 1987; at the most distal settings (Fig. 2). The Moho rises oceanwards
Sawyer et al., 1994; Whitmarsh et al., 1998; Tucholke et al., 2004) either rapidly over short distances (e.g. Newfoundland) or more
(Figs. 1 and 4). This unique dataset made the IberiaeNewfoundland gradually (e.g. Angola), while the top of basement steadily deepens
margins the type example of a magma-poor rift-system that went toward the distal margin. More detailed information on the archi-
to continental breakup, and a basis for revision of our views on tecture of these rifted margins is found in other datasets, such as
rifted margins. The recognition worldwide of rifted margins that seismic reflection data, potential field data and stratigraphic data
display similar first-order domains as well as structural and strat- obtained from exploration wells. They permit a more detailed
igraphic systems that resemble each other, justifies a comparison interpretation of the basement structure and sedimentary archi-
between margins with good data coverage, even if they have not all tecture. For instance, whereas proximal margins commonly contain
been subject to deep drilling. arrays of half-graben basins with syntectonic, wedge-shaped

Figure 1. Topographic map of the Atlantic Ocean. The boxes show the location of the rifted areas discussed in the contribution. Topography is ETOPO1 (Amante and Eakins, 2009)
presented in geographical latitudeelongitude coordinates (datum WGS84).
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
Figure 2. Compilation of published seismic refraction models along the key transects considered in the contribution. Vertical exaggeration w2. OC: oceanic crust. sed.: Sedimentary rocks. a: Conjugate seismic refraction profiles
illustrating the geometries of the northern segment (up) and the central segment (down) of the IberiaeNewfoundland system (data are from Funck et al., 2003; Zelt et al., 2003; Lau et al., 2006a,b; Dean et al., 2000). b: Conjugate
seismic refraction profiles illustrating the geometries of the NorwegianeGreenland Sea system (data are from Weigel et al., 1995; Kodaira et al., 1998; Mjelde et al., 2008). c: Conjugate seismic refraction profiles
illustrating the geometries of the South Atlantic system (data are from Zalán et al., 2011; Contrucci et al., 2004). The location of the profiles is shown in Figures 4e6. The red segments underline the major refraction horizons: the
seafloor, topebasement and Moho.

23
24 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

sediment units, the distal part of each of the rifted margins corre- 1.2.1. The proximal domain
sponds to a large and deep sag-type basin, filled either with sedi- The proximal domain corresponds to the inboard continental
ments (e.g. Angola, mid-Norway) or with water in the case of a crust that has been stretched at low values of extension. Such areas
more sediment starved basin (e.g. IberiaeNewfoundland). There is are commonly labeled as platforms (e.g. the Trøndelag platform;
no doubt that important differences also exist, for instance be- Blystad et al., 1995; Brekke, 2000; Faleide et al., 2008) and char-
tween the magmatic and ‘amagmatic’ outer margins, and a com- acterized by classical graben and half-graben basins filled with
parison should scrutinize both similarities and differences. Such a wedge-shaped syn-tectonic sedimentary units. Normal faults affect
comparison does, however, need to be based on a concise termi- the brittle upper crust, but crustal thinning is normally moderate.
nology that allows description under a common template. Major faults sole out at mid crustal levels and do not affect the
Moho (e.g. the Jeanne d’Arc basin; Welsink and Tankard, 2012).
1.2. Definition of terminology Deformation is decoupled at the lithospheric scale (Weinberg et al.,
2007; Sutra and Manatschal, 2012). Due to the moderate extension,
Our observations indicate that all rifted margins are character- only modest amounts of accommodation space is created across
ized by a certain set of comparable architectural elements, such as this domain during and after rifting, compared to the distal margin.
their partitioning into proximal and distal domains (see Section 2). Redfield and Osmundsen (2013) recently suggested that the prox-
As there appears to be a limited number of key elements that imal domain can extend well onshore, up to the Scandinavian
characterize their evolution and present-day geometry, we propose topographic crest in the case of the Norwegian margin.
to list these under distinct domains that would represent the
structural fundaments of every rifted margin. These are the prox- 1.2.2. The necking domain
imal, necking, distal, outer and oceanic domains. Their boundaries The necking domain corresponds firstly to a specific wedge
can commonly be considered as transitional rather than sharp, shape of the crust: this is the zone of the margin where the
which may hamper their identification in some settings (e.g. the (seismic) Moho defines an inflection point associated with a drastic
outer domain). This is related to the fact that the domains are crustal thinning from w30 km to less than 10 km (Peron-Pinvidic
associated with specific deformation processes that can overlap and Manatschal, 2009; Mohn et al., 2010) (Figs. 2 and 3). The
(and interact) in time and space (see Section 4). The schematic key (seismic) top basement and Moho converge there, and the necking
section in Figure 3 illustrates the definitions we introduce below. domain contains an area of the margin characterized by a marked

Figure 3. Schematic section of a typical rifted margin illustrating the various terms used in this contribution.
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 25

basinwards increase in total accommodation space (Sutra and geochemical characteristics (e.g. the IberiaeNewfoundland conju-
Manatschal, 2012). At the outer end of the necking domain, the gate margins), or because it is masked by material that has blan-
taper break is defined as the nearest point to the coast where the keting effects on geophysical signals, such as intrusive and/or
crustal thickness is reduced down to 10 km or less (Osmundsen and extrusive magmatic rocks (e.g. the Møre and Vøring margins,
Redfield, 2011). This has been shown to have a profound relation- Skogseid et al., 1992) or salt (e.g. the Angola margin; Moulin et al.,
ship with the margin’s onshore evolution (op. cit and Redfield and 2005), preventing any clear identification.
Osmundsen, 2013). The taper break commonly coincides with, or is Then, the oceanic domain s.s. encompasses various geophysical
close to, the coupling point, which is where the first brittle faults characteristics depending on its magma-poor or magma-rich ac-
cross cut the entire crust and penetrate mantle (crustal embrittle- cretion-type, from low amplitude, disorganized magnetic anoma-
ment of Perez-Gussinye et al., 2003; e.g. the L reflection in the Iberia lies, no clear Vp contrast with the adjacent distal domain and few
margin). This specific point limits two fundamental segments of the intra basement seismic reflectors (e.g. Iberia), to high amplitude
margin: the continentward segment where deformation is decou- well-defined linear magnetic anomalies (e.g. Norway Basin), clear
pled at the crustal scale, from the oceanward segment where it is tripartite Vp characteristics and proper seismic reflection pattern
coupled and no ductile layers prevailed in the crust. (e.g. Angola margin).

1.2.3. The distal domain 2. Observations: 3 key Atlantic rifted margins

Depending on the study area and on the terminology, the distal
domain corresponds to and/or includes the proximal and distal OCT For this contribution, we focused our interest on three conjugate
(oceanecontinent transition), the transitional domain and/or the rifted margins located in the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1): in the South
ZECM (zone of exhumed continental mantle). The distal domain is Atlantic with the AngolaeEsperito Santo system, in the southern
also regularly referenced as the hyperextended domain where North Atlantic with the IberiaeNewfoundland system, and in the
seismic refraction shows that basement has been thinned down to eastern North Atlantic with the NorwegianeGreenland Sea system.
<10 km. Depending on the settings, and on the interpretations, the
basement in question is proposed to be composed of upper and/or 2.1. The IberiaeNewfoundland system
lower continental crust, exhumed and variously serpentinized
mantle or embryonic oceanic crust. Magmatic intrusions and in- The Iberia margin is subdivided into three distinct segments
filtrations are also regularly suggested. Whatever the selected that are from north to south: the Galicia margin s.s. (or Deep Galicia
composition, one major characteristic of that domain is that no Margin), the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain and the Tagus Abyssal
remnant ductile layers prevail in the thinned continental crust, Plain (Fig. 4). In this contribution, we focus on the central segment.
allowing faults to cut from the surface into the mantle. The Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain lies South of the Galicia Bank and
is bounded further southward by the Estremadura Spur and the
1.2.4. The outer domain Madeira-Tore Rise (Fig. 4). Its Canadian conjugate corresponds to
The limits of the outer domain are less well constrained, the central part of the Newfoundland Basin, in between the South
although it is a key domain in the distinction of magma-poor and East Newfoundland Ridge and the Flemish Cap (Fig. 4).
magma-rich environments. The outer domain is located between For the purpose of this review, we describe the Iberiae
the ill-defined basement of the distal domain and unambiguous Newfoundland rift system based on conjugate sections corre-
oceanic crust (Figs. 2 and 3). The oceanward limit ideally corre- sponding to the association of the time migrated seismic reflection
sponds to the COB (continenteocean boundary), although it is not profiles SCREECH 2, Lusigal 12, IAM9, ISE1 and ISE17 (Beslier et al.,
necessarily straightforward to define (e.g. Angola, see below). The 1996; Krawczyk et al., 1996; Pickup et al., 1996; Shillington et al.,
continentward limit is more difficult to define. In some settings, it 2006; Henning et al., 2004) section is associated with the velocity
corresponds to the oceanwards closure of the sag-basin where the model proposed by Van Avendonk et al. (2006) and it crosses the
(seismic) top basement rises (e.g. Møre basin, Fig. 5). In other set- Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 210 drill Sites 1276 and 1277
tings it will correspond to a slight deepening of the seismic Moho (Tucholke et al., 2004) (Fig. 4c). The composite Iberian section is
associated with important top basement topography (e.g. associated with the CAM144, IAM9, ISE1 and ISE17 refraction
Newfoundland basin, Fig. 4). Depending on the magma-poor or constraints (Chian et al., 1999; Dean et al., 2000; Zelt et al., 2003;
magma-rich evolution of the margin, various terms have been used Perez-Gussinye et al., 2003) and also crosses several ODP holes
to describe this domain, such as marginal high (Planke et al., 2000) (901, 1065, 1067, 900, 1068, 1069, 898, 899, 897, 889, 1070) drilled
and outer high (Peron-Pinvidic and Manatschal, 2010; Bronner during Legs 149 and 173 (Sawyer et al., 1994; Whitmarsh et al.,
et al., 2011). At volcanic settings, strictly speaking, the outer high 1998) (Fig. 4d).
is part of the magmatic sequence characterizing breakup (Symonds
et al., 1998; Planke et al., 2000; Calvès et al., 2011). The composition 2.1.1. Time evolution
of the outer domain basement is in most cases undetermined. The IberiaeNewfoundland margins record a multiphase rifting
Except from the IberiaeNewfoundland rifted margins, similar history (Fig. 4). The details, including the influence of inherited
structures have not been drilled. Moreover, at many margins, the Variscan structures, are still debated. One of the key observations is
outer domain corresponds to the seaward termination of the progressive localization of rifting into the area of the future
allochthonous salt, so these structures are often poorly imaged breakup. In a review of the system evolution, Peron-Pinvidic and
seismically (e.g. South Atlantic; Moulin et al., 2005). Manatschal (2009) distinguished four major rift phases during
which extensional deformation was accommodated along different
1.2.5. The oceanic domain parts of the margins and associated with different processes. Dur-
Studies of rifted margins almost always include the definition ing the earlier phase, extension led to the formation of half-graben
of a Continent Ocean Boundary (COB) as it permits to place a type basins in domains that are now found in proximal margin
boundary between extended continental domains and oceanic positions (e.g. the Jeanne d’Arc and Lusitanian basins; Welsink and
crust. However, this definition is often ambiguous. This is mainly Tankard, 2012; Pinheiro et al., 1996). During the subsequent phases,
because either the oceanic crust is accreted very slowly and can extension migrated toward e and finally focused at e the present-
represent a heterogeneous basement with unusual geophysical and day distal parts of the margins (Whitmarsh et al., 2001). The
 26
G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
Figure 4. Synthesis figure summarizing the major characteristics of the IberiaeNewfoundland conjugate system. a: Topography of the Atlantic ocean with location of the discussed areas. b: PaleozoiceCenozoic timescale listing the
major phases of deformation and tectonic events of the IberiaeNewfoundland rifted margins. c and d: Schematic (composite) sections across the IberiaeNewfoundland margins illustrating the domains and main structural features that
characterize the architectures of the margins (after Peron-Pinvidic and Manatschal, 2009). e and f: Bathymetric maps (contours every 500 m) of the Iberia and Newfoundland margins with location of the domains, main structural
features, ODP and DSDP Sites, and illustrated profiles (the white segments refer to profiles displayed in other figures when the black ones locate the sections presented above in c and d).
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 27

lithosphere underwent drastic thinning from Tithonian to Barre- Bonnition or Horseshoe basins. Although the depths of these
mian time, that finally led to unroofing of subcontinental mantle in proximal basins are more significant than the basins on the Iberian
the distal margin (Boillot et al., 1980). The mantle exhumation side (up to 18 km for the Jeanne d’Arc; Welsink and Tankard, 2012),
extended over more than 16 Myrs, from Barremian time (138 Ma) the basement and sedimentary geometries are similar, with ‘clas-
up to the Aptian/Albian boundary (112 Ma; Gradstein et al., 2004; sical’ tilted block architectures.
this scale is used throughout). Concerning the breakup, various
interpretations have been proposed so far and the age of breakup 2.1.3. The necking domain
varies significantly from one interpretation to the other. Based on At the Galicia margin, the necking domain has been imaged by
modeling of magnetic anomalies, Whitmarsh and Miles (1995) and refraction measurements (Zelt et al., 2003) that show that the
Russell and Whitmarsh (2003) suggested a Barremian age (anom- Moho shallows from w18 km depth to w8 km over a short hori-
aly M5 to M3, w130 Ma) while Wilson et al. (2001) proposed an zontal distance (<60 km). The associated structures correspond to a
older, early Valanginian age (w138 Ma), based on structural and series of tilted crustal blocks, which decrease in size oceanwards
stratigraphic interpretation. Tucholke and Sibuet (2007) proposed (Ranero and Perez-Gussinye, 2010). The age of the necking is
that crustal rifting continued up to the end of Hauterivian Tithonian and pre-dates deformation in the future distal margin
(w130 Ma) and that mantle exhumation lasted until latest Aptian (Sutra and Manatschal, 2012).
time (w112 Ma). Alternatively, Péron-Pinvidic et al. (2007) and At the Newfoundland margin, the necking domain coincides
Jagoutz et al. (2007) proposed that ‘final break-up’ could be asso- with the continental slope at the border of the Grand Banks
ciated with a basin-wide tectono-magmatic event dated near the (Fig. 4c). Velocity models derived from refraction data indicate a
AptianeAlbian boundary (112 Ma). Bronner et al. (2011) proposed very abrupt thinning of the crust from >30 km beneath the Grand
that this final breakup was accompanied by a pulse of magmatism Banks to <6 km over distances <100 km (Lau et al., 2006a; Van
causing the J magnetic anomaly. Avendonk et al., 2006, 2009). Very little faulting can be identified
in the upper crust in the zone of greatest crustal thinning (Lau et al.,
2.1.2. The proximal domain 2006b; Shillington et al., 2006). This is in contrast with the pro-
Inboard of the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain, the offshore nounced normal faulting observed offshore Iberia (Krawczyk et al.,
proximal domain corresponds to a >200 km wide corridor of 1996; Pickup et al., 1996; Péron-Pinvidic et al., 2007). The
stretched continental crust (Fig. 4). The region notably includes the Newfoundland margin is further characterized by the presence of a
Peniche Basin (Alves et al., 2006) and the Lusitanian Basin which specific crustal block identified between the necking and the distal
partly outcrops onshore (Montenat et al., 1988; Wilson et al., 1990). domains (Fig. 4). This block is referred to as ‘residual H-Block’
This 50e100 km wide basin lies on a continental crust that is (Peron-Pinvidic and Manatschal, 2010). It is a piece of relatively
>25 km thick (Banda, 1988), is parallel to the coast, and extends undeformed upper crust, 5e10 km thick that does not have an
over 280 km. It is interpreted as part of the Triassic rift system that equivalent on the conjugate Iberian margin (see Peron-Pinvidic and
developed between Europe, Africa and North America before the Manatschal, 2009, 2010).
opening of the Central and North Atlantic (Klitgord and Schouten,
1986). The structural fabric of these proximal basins follows the 2.1.4. The distal domain
trend of Hercynian basement faults (Capdevilla and Mougenot, Structurally, in the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain, the distal
1988; Wilson et al., 1990) and is composed of distinct sectors domain corresponds to a succession of basement highs associated
divided by major tectonic lineaments. Although in detail, the ge- with grabens and half grabens, characterized by specific syn-
ometries are more complicated (notably affected by post-rift tectonic sedimentary geometries (Fig. 7d) (Wilson et al., 2001;
Cenozoic reactivation), the large-scale crustal architecture can be Manatschal et al., 2001; Whitmarsh et al., 2001). Manatschal and
summarized as series of tilted crustal blocks bounded by high- Bernoulli (1999) and Péron-Pinvidic et al. (2007) showed that the
angle normal faults (Figs. 4 and 7b). The associated graben reach basins become younger oceanward, and that the fault geometry
depths of more than 5 km and are filled with syn- to post-rift changes from upward to downward concave, resulting in complex
sediments that range in age from the Triassic to the Neogene basin geometries and basin-fill architectures. Their results suggest
(Alves et al., 2006). The continental crust is interpreted to be a migration of the deformation oceanwards during final rifting.
>25 km thick at the border to the necking zone (Dean et al., 2000). Despite the available data, the nature of the basement in the
At the Galicia margin, the architecture is further complicated by distal domain remains controversial. In the past, three hypotheses
the presence of a continental ribbon (the Galicia Bank), which have been discussed: ultra-slow spreading oceanic crust (Sawyer,
isolates the Galicia Interior Basin from the deep margin (Fig. 4). 1994; Whitmarsh and Sawyer, 1996), thinned, disrupted and
Following the discovery of diapiric structures on some seismic intruded continental crust (Whitmarsh et al., 1990; Whitmarsh and
profiles, the Galicia Interior Basin has been interpreted as the Miles, 1995; Whitmarsh and Sawyer, 1996; Russell and Whitmarsh,
northward offshore prolongation of the Lusitanian Basin where 2003) and exhumed serpentinized peridotites (Beslier et al., 1996;
such structures are observed (Boillot et al., 1979; Montenat et al., Pickup et al., 1996; Discovery 215 Working Group, 1998; Chian et al.,
1988; Wilson et al., 1990). However, more recent geophysical 1999; Dean et al., 2000). This last hypothesis arises from the
datasets prove that the Galicia Interior Basin has been further analysis of seismic velocity models (Chian et al., 1999; Dean et al.,
deformed and thinned compared to the Lusitanian Basin as the 2000) and from drilling results (Legs 103, 149, 173; Boillot et al.,
crustal thickness is interpreted to be about 6e8 km in the most 1987; Sawyer et al., 1994; Whitmarsh et al., 1998). Five ODP holes
highly extended parts (Perez-Gussinye et al., 2003). By definition sampled serpentinized peridotites at the crest of basement highs
(see above), this reduced crustal thickness shows that the Galicia (1068, 899, 897, 1070, 637; Fig. 4d). Additionally, the distal Iberia
Interior Basin is a more evolved structure that became abandoned margin presents particular seismic velocity patterns with Vp gra-
during rifting, as further extension became localized in the more dients different from those of classical continental or oceanic crusts
distal margin (Fig. 4) (Sutra and Manatschal, 2012). (Chian et al., 1999). The seismic velocities of the upper part of the
The Grand Banks corresponds to the Canadian counterpart of basement (Vp 4.5e7 km/s) are lower than those of the adjacent
the IberiaeNewfoundland proximal domain. It is characterized by a continental crust whereas those of the lower part (Vp > 7.6 km/s)
broad (>500 km wide) and shallow platform with graben and half- are too high to represent either oceanic layer 3 or underplated
graben basins such as the Jeanne d’Arc, Whale, Carson, Salar- mafic continental crust (Dean et al., 2000), and the observed
28 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

gradual transition into velocities of Vp  8 km/s are well explained normal seafloor spreading basalts. However, based on seismic
by the downward decreasing serpentinization of mantle peridotites reflection and refraction data, Whitmarsh et al. (1996) associated
(Minshull, 2009). Whitmarsh et al. (2001) introduced the term this domain with a very thin crust (w3 km) and interpreted it
‘Zone of Exhumed Continental Mantle’ (ZECM) to describe the most rather as exhumed mantle. They proposed that the ‘normal’ oceanic
likely nature of the Iberia distal domain. However, for the conjugate crust was located w20 km further westward, where the crust
Newfoundland margin the composition of the basement in the reaches thicknesses approaching 7 km.
transition zone is still debated (Hopper et al., 2004; Shillington
et al., 2006; Lau et al., 2006a,b). Van Avendonk et al. (2006, 2009) 2.2. The mid-Norwegianecentral East Greenland system
argue that the Screech 2 refraction profile presents a Moho
reflection indicating a less gradational boundary between crust/ The mid-Norwegian margin is subdivided into three major
serpentinized mantle and non-serpentinized mantle below, segments commonly referred to as the Lofoten, Vøring and Møre
possibly precluding the ZECM assumption. margins (Fig. 5). These are limited by regional transfer zones often
At the Newfoundland margin, much of the distal domain is associated with oceanic fracture zones, although some of them
overlain by the U reflector (Tucholke et al., 1989; Peron-Pinvidic have been recently revised (Olesen et al., 2007). Their individuali-
et al., 2010). Drilling at ODP Site 1276 (Leg 210; Tucholke et al., zation is probably to be linked to the structural heritage of the
2004) sampled two post-rift sills with ages of 105 and 98 m.y. region, which may have influenced rift development and evolution
(Hart and Blusztajn, 2006) which locally account for the observed (Dore et al., 1997; Osmundsen et al., 2002).
bright U reflector (Shillington et al., 2008). The amplitudes and The plate tectonic evolution of this area is complex. It involves
geometries of these reflections away from Site 1276 suggest that various specific structural entities with complex spatial and tem-
such sills may be widespread around the Newfoundland basin, but poral evolutions that remain controversial: the strongly segmented
confined to the distal domain (Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2010). The mid-Norwegian and central East Greenland rifted margins, the Jan
origin of this post-rift magmatism off Newfoundland remains un- Mayen microcontinent (JMMC), three active oceanic spreading axes
certain but may have been caused either by a passing plume or by (Reykjanes, Kolbeinsey and Mohn), one abandoned ridge (Aegir)
off-axis tectono-magmatic processes during the long-lasting tran- and one large-scale thermal/magmatic anomaly (Iceland) (Fig. 5).
sition to stable spreading (Duncan, 1984; Karner and Shillington, Several kinematic studies have been published (Pitman and
2005; Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2010). Talwani, 1972; Unternehr, 1982; Myhre et al., 1984; Srivastava and
Tapscott, 1986; Mosar et al., 2002; Gaina et al., 2009). At a large
2.1.5. The outer and oceanic domains scale, it is generally accepted that the East Jan Mayen margin rep-
At the oceanward limit of the Iberia and Newfoundland distal resents the conjugate of the Møre margin and the West Jan Mayen
domains, ODP drill holes sampled structures that have been inter- margin the conjugate of the central East Greenland margin (be-
preted as marginal/outer highs (ODP Sites 1070 and 1277, Legs 173 tween w68 N and 72 N).
and 210; Whitmarsh et al., 1998; Tucholke et al., 2004) (Figs. 4 and For the purpose of this study, we describe the Norwegiane
7e). The recovered basement is composed of exhumed mantle with Greenland Sea system based on profiles that image the Møre ba-
intrusive and extrusive mafic material. It presents specific charac- sin, the JMMC central crustal body (the JMMC segment B of Peron-
teristics on seismic refraction and reflection data (Shillington et al., Pinvidic et al., 2012a,b) and the East Greenland margin at the level
2006; Van Avendonk et al., 2006) and is associated with a low of the Scoresby Sund, at the southern extent of the Liverpool Land
amplitude magnetic pattern (Sibuet et al., 2007). Additionally, on block (Fig. 5). The composite conjugate section corresponds to the
wide-angle seismic models, the outer domain corresponds to a combination of three published profiles: the geoseismic section ‘9’
thicker crust (Fig. 7e; Van Avendonk et al., 2009). Although the of Osmundsen et al. (2002) from the Møre Basin (Fig. 5e), that
possibility cannot be excluded that this thickening may be related corresponds to the interpretation of the seismic reflection line
to serpentinization, Peron-Pinvidic and Manatschal (2010) favored GMNR 94e103; an interpretation of the seismic reflection line
the hypothesis that it is the result of a major magmatic event, which InSeis01 (Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2012a) associated with the refrac-
led to a pervasive intrusion and/or underplating of previously tion line ‘4e95’ of Kodaira et al. (1998) on the JMMC (Fig. 5d); and
exhumed and serpentinized subcontinental mantle. This magmatic an interpretation of the seismic refraction profile ‘1e3’ of Weigel
event may be associated with the emplacement of magmatic veins et al. (1995) on the East Greenland side (Fig. 5c).
drilled at Site 1277 and dated at 113 Ma (Jagoutz et al., 2007), which
corresponds to the age of continental breakup and onset of seafloor 2.2.1. Time evolution
spreading (112 Ma, Péron-Pinvidic et al., 2007; Tucholke and Sibuet, The tectonic history experienced by the NorwegianeGreenland
2007). Sea rift system includes several periods of deformation from the
The outer domain off Newfoundland is, as well as its conjugate SilurianeDevonian Caledonian orogeny and subsequent orogenic
on the Iberia side, associated with the first identifiable magnetic collapse, to rifted margins development from the Late Paleozoic
anomalies in the deep margins (M3 to M0, and J for Iberia). These through Mesozoic time and ridges establishment in the Cenozoic
magnetic anomalies are, however, ill-defined and of low amplitude, (Fig. 5).
and hence do not correspond to classical oceanic spreading Both the mid-Norwegian and central-East Greenland margins
anomalies. Whitmarsh and Miles (1995) were unable to model contain structures inherited from events that took place in Ordovician
these as seafloor-spreading anomalies and Sibuet et al. (2007) and Silurian times, notably the Caledonian orogeny (Gee et al., 1985;
preferred to interpret them as generated by the serpentinization Roberts, 2003). During Devonian time, an extensional phase accom-
process. Similarly, Bronner et al. (2011) proposed that the J anomaly panied the gravitational collapse of the Caledonides (Andersen and
did not form during seafloor spreading, but instead represents a Jamtveit, 1990) leading to extensional reactivation of contractional
pulse of magmatism that triggered final breakup (Jagoutz et al., structures, and to the formation of extensional detachments that
2007). incised the Caledonian nappe pile and controlled deposition of
At the Deep Galicia Margin, the identification of unequivocal Devonian sediments in supradetachment basins (e.g. Norton, 1986;
oceanic crust is not straightforward. Immediately west of the Séranne and Séguret, 1987; Osmundsen and Andersen, 1994; Hartz
peridotite ridge, Sibuet et al. (1995) modeled oceanic crust with and Andresen, 1995; Osmundsen et al., 1998; Braathen et al., 2002;
high amplitude magnetization (5 A/m) that could be interpreted as Steltenpohl et al., 2011). Structures inherited from post-orogenic
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
Figure 5. Synthesis figure summarizing the major characteristics of the mid-Norwegian, Jan Mayen and mid-East Greenland conjugate system. a: Topography of the Atlantic ocean with location of the discussed areas. 5b: Paleozoice
Cenozoic timescale listing the major phases of deformation and tectonic events of the NorwegianeGreenland Sea rifted margins. cee: Schematic (composite) sections across the Møre, Jan Mayen and mid-East Greenland margins
illustrating the domains and main structural features that characterize the architectures of the margins (after Weigel et al., 1995; Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2012a; Osmundsen et al., 2002). feh: Bathymetric maps (contours every 500 m) of
the mid-Norwegian, Jan Mayen and mid-East Greenland margins with location of the domains, main structural features and illustrated profiles (the white segments refer to profiles displayed in other figures when the black ones locate
the sections presented above in cee).

29
30 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

extension have been proposed to exist under the inner parts of the the Jameson Land basin can be considered as part of the proximal
present-day rifted margins (Skogseid et al., 1992; Osmundsen et al., domain).
2002; Skilbrei et al., 2002). At the mid-Norwegian margin, the proximal domain corre-
From the Late Paleozoic onwards, several deformation episodes sponds to the Trøndelag Platform (Blystad et al., 1995; Brekke,
can be identified that testify to a polyphase rift evolution that lasted 2000; Osmundsen et al., 2002) and parts of the associated ter-
until breakup in Early Eocene time. The first episodes of rifting most races (Figs. 5e, h and 8b), although these have been incorporated in
likely took place during Carboniferous, Permian and Middle Triassic subsequent rifting phases. Among the numerous refraction models
times, shaping the early rift basins recognized in East Greenland available from the mid-Norwegian margins (e.g. Mjelde et al., 1992,
and in the Trøndelag Platform (Ziegler, 1988; Jongepier et al., 1996; 1996, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2005; Raum et al., 2002; Breivik et al.,
Brekke, 2000; Bugge et al., 2002). A renewed extensional event in 2006), the composite transects A and B of Mjelde et al. (2009)
the Late JurassiceEarly Cretaceous formed the Vøring and Møre through the Trøndelag Platform provide an exceptional image of
deep basins (Buckovics et al., 1984; Doré et al., 1999; Gabrielsen the crustal structure of a proximal margin domain. They inter-
et al., 1999; Brekke, 2000; Skogseid et al., 2000; Færseth and preted a Moho at w28 km depth below the platform domain east of
Lien, 2002). In the Late Cretaceous, another rifting episode, well the Halten Terrace with two distinct upper and lower crustal layers
documented in the outer Møre and Vøring basins, defined the pre- that reach a total thickness of w20e30 km altogether, illustrating a
breakup rift setting with the construction of the complex outer progressive crustal stretching from east to west. Breivik et al. (2011)
ridges and sub-basin system (Ren et al., 2003; Gernigon et al., recently presented additional refraction transects over the
2003). The continental breakup occurred in Early Eocene time (at Trøndelag Platform and Froan Basin and showed that the total
magnetic chron C24, w54 Ma; Talwani and Eldholm, 1977). This crustal thickness reaches >34 km inboard.
tectonic event was accompanied by significant volcanic activity In the platform area, deep horsts and half grabens were prob-
associated with the formation of the North Atlantic Igneous Prov- ably initiated by Permian time and are bounded by major normal
ince (Skogseid and Eldholm, 1987; Eldholm and Grue, 1994; Meyer faults that were active into the Triassic time (Brekke, 2000; Muller
et al., 2007). The birth of the Aegir and Mohn ridges and the sub- et al., 2005). The Froan Basin is one of the best defined pre- to Early
sequent oceanic spreading along them led to the complete sepa- Mesozoic basins observed on the platform (Fig. 8b). It is an exten-
ration of the Greenland (North American) and European plates. In a sional half-graben bound in the northwest by the southeast-facing
subsequent stage, during oceanic accretion, an extensional phase Vingleia Fault Complex (Blystad et al., 1995; Brekke, 2000). A
affected the Greenland margin (from the Geikie Plateau up to number of other pre-Jurassic half-graben basins under the platform
Trail Ø) and the proto-Jan Mayen microcontinent during Cenozoic are also eastwards-facing (e.g. Muller et al., 2005). Other pre-
times (Gudlaugsson et al., 1988; Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2012a,b). A Jurassic basins appear to be floored by a subhorizontal detach-
second phase of breakup occurred in Late Oligocene (at magnetic ment overlain by rotated fault-blocks, possibly inherited from the
chron 6B, w24e25 Ma ago) and led to the formation of a new Devonian configuration of post-orogenic detachments and basins
spreading axis and to the final isolation of the JMMC (Gaina et al., documented onshore (Osmundsen et al., 2002; Skilbrei et al., 2002).
2009). Breivik et al. (2011) argued for the presence of a northwest-dipping
Devonian detachment in the area, with a geometry somewhat
2.2.1.1. The Jan Mayen Microcontinent (JMMC). The JMMC extends different from the ones suggested by the above authors. All these
over 500 km in a northesouth direction from the Jan Mayen island, interpretations do, however, support a strong influence of Paleozoic
and separates two oceanic basins: the Norway Basin, to the east, inherited structures under the Trøndelag Platform. Blystad et al.
generated during the early spreading activity along the Aegir Ridge, (1995), Brekke (2000) and Bugge et al. (2002) reported the pres-
and the Iceland Plateau, to the west, formed during later oceanic ence at depth of Permian rocks in the Helgeland Basin. The major
accretion along the Kolbeinsey Ridge (Fig. 5). Contrary to the Jan tectonic activity of the platform is thus constrained to pre-Mesozoic
Mayen Island and nearby surroundings, which show oceanic af- and Triassic time, based on exploration wells that penetrate syn-
finities (Svellingen and Pedersen, 2003), the Jan Mayen Ridge has tectonic Triassic strata as well as Late Permian strata in fault-
early been interpreted as a microcontinent (Vogt et al., 1970; bounded half graben (op. cit.). During the later JurassiceCreta-
Talwani and Eldholm, 1977). The continental nature of the JMMC is ceous tectonic episode, the Trøndelag Platform was only subject to
not yet strictly proven (e.g. by well calibration), but was suggested minor faulting, including reactivation of older faults in the Vingleia
based on previous interpretations of seismic reflection and refrac- Fault Complex or along the flanks of the Helgeland Basin. In the Late
tion data (Myhre et al., 1984; Gudlaugsson et al., 1988; Johansen Jurassic, the main rift-related tectonic activity migrated further
et al., 1988; Kuvaas and Kodaira, 1997) and on early potential field westward, to the areas of the adjacent Halten and Dønna Terraces
studies (Grønlie and Talwani, 1982). To the north, the JMMC cor- (Fig. 5) (see Section 2.2.3).
responds to a single structure whereas southward it splits in mul-
tiple smaller scale ridges (Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2012b). Its southern 2.2.3. The necking domain
limit is difficult to identify in the vicinity of the Icelandic volcanic The refraction profiles reported by Mjelde et al. (2009), Raum
province that has overprinted the bathymetric signal of the dis- et al. (2002), Breivik et al. (2011) and Kvarven et al. (2012) show
located ridges. that the crustal basement is strongly thinned in the necking
domain, from a more than 30 km thick continental crust to the
2.2.2. The proximal domain (south)east to less than 5 km thickness under the distal basin.
The proximal domains of the NorwegianeGreenland Sea system Adjacent to the south Vøring Basin, the proximal domain is flanked
are not well constrained at the East Greenland and Jan Mayen by the Permo? TriassiceJurassic Halten Terrace. The most dramatic
microntinent margins. In the latter case it is mainly because the reduction in crustal thickness is distributed largely between the
structures related to the first increments of rifting have been largely BremsteineVingleia Fault Complex (BVFC) and the Klakk Fault
overprinted by subsequent phases of deformation, and hence are complex (KFC) that outline the Halten Terrace in the east and west,
not properly identifiable today. In the first case, the East Greenland respectively. The importance of each of the faults for the crustal
proximal domain is not covered by open domain seismic data, so no thinning appears to vary along strike (e.g. Osmundsen et al., 2002).
geometries can be drawn. However, some proximal structures The BVFC is associated with a major detachment system of Late
probably partly outcrop onshore (e.g. the Liverpool Land block and JurassiceEarly Cretaceous age and an extensional culmination or
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 31

core complex that defines a rampeflat geometry for the southern interpreted the distal part of the Vøring Basin as strongly attenu-
parts of the BVFC (e.g. Ehrlich and Gabrielsen, 2005). A model ated crust and suggested that at some points, sedimentary rocks
involving large-magnitude normal faults and an associated core rest directly upon strongly reflective lower crust, across a relatively
complex was suggested also for the Slørebotn Subbasin area of the flat-lying reflector interpreted as a major low-angle detachment
Møre margin southwest of the Frøya High (Osmundsen and Ebbing, fault. This is in accordance with refraction results which image a 2e
2008), where fault blocks in the subbasin rotated up to 50 on an 5 km thick basement in the area (Raum et al., 2002). Structurally,
underlying, subhorizontal detachment fault in Late Jurassic time the major detachments are capped by extensional allochthons of
(Jongepier et al., 1996) (Figs. 5e and 8d). The exhumed domes were various sizes (the Vigra High is imaged with >10 km crustal
subsequently incised by younger normal faults, giving rise to a thickness in the Møre Basin).
complex, polyphase geometry. Osmundsen et al. (2002) suggested Additionally, at lower crustal depths, seismic refraction studies
that extensional detachment faults acted successively to construct report the presence of bodies with Vp values > 7 km/s e the so-
the necking domain, permitting the upwelling of the lower crust called LCB (Lower Crustal Bodies) or HVLC (High Velocity Lower
and its partial denudation in some locations. Crust). These have generally been interpreted as ‘underplated’
The width of the necking domain varies from south to north igneous crust (Eldholm and Grue, 1994; Mjelde et al., 2008; Skogseid
along the margin, being narrow (<50 km) in the southwest et al., 1992). However, at the scale of the North-East Atlantic, alter-
(Slørebotn Subbasin area) and relatively broad inboard of the native hypotheses have been proposed, including igneous transi-
Vøring Basin, where the crustal thinning occurs over a distance of tional crust or thick oceanic crust (Weigel et al.,1995; Holbrook et al.,
w150e200 km. Northward, at the LofoteneVesterålen margin, the 2001), granulite/eclogitic material (Gernigon et al., 2004; Mjelde
necking domain becomes once again relatively narrow (w50 km), et al., 2012), pervasively intruded continental crust (White et al.,
where the extension is distributed over 3e4 large normal faults of 2008), or serpentinized mantle (Reynisson et al., 2010). Reynisson
pre-Cretaceous and Early Cretaceous age (Tsikalas et al., 2005; et al. (2010), followed by Lundin and Dore (2011), proposed to
Bergh et al., 2007; Hansen et al., 2012). Thus along the margin, distinguish an inner (continental) and an outer (transitional-
there is a close relationship between the width of the necking zone oceanic) category of LCB. In such a scenario, the inner Møre and
and the crustal thinning gradient or taper (Osmundsen and Vøring LCB would image a combination of lower crustal (mafic/fel-
Redfield, 2011). sic?) lithologies and serpentinized mantle, rather than pure
At the East Greenland margin, the necking domain is interpreted magmatic material.
to correspond to the large-scale detachment fault that borders the Similarly to the proximal domain, the distal domains of the East
Liverpool Land block (Fig. 5), described by Larsen (1990). A second Greenland margin and the Jan Mayen microcontinent are not well
necking domain can be considered slightly more inboard, at the constrained. Seismic refraction (Weigel et al., 1995; Kodaira et al.,
flank of the Jameson Land basin and farther north, the Danmark- 1998) and potential field modeling (Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2012b)
shavn basin appears to occupy a similar structural position (see indicate that they correspond to deep sag-type basins, floored by
Hamann et al., 2005). However, the tectonic structures that board old (Paleozoic?eearly Mesozoic?) condensed sedimentary strata.
these basins appear to have initiated at earlier times than the ones However, detailed geometries cannot be resolved.
responsible for the later MeoszoiceCenozoic margin formation.
At the Jan Mayen microcontinent, the geometries related to the 2.2.5. The outer and oceanic domains
necking domain are not well imaged due to the presence of The mid-Norwegian margin has been described as the type
widespread magmatic material. Peron-Pinvidic et al. (2012b) pro- example of a volcanic rifted margin (Skogseid et al., 1992, 2000;
posed to consider the flanks of the Main Ridge as the location of Planke et al., 2000). In the southern segments, the outer domain
major crustal thinning (Fig. 5), coherently with the refraction re- corresponds to the Møre and Vøring Marginal Highs (Planke et al.,
sults presented by Kodaira et al. (1998). These flanks would then 2005) and associated outer ridge complexes (Ren et al., 2003;
correspond to the necking domains, as defined in this contribution. Gernigon et al., 2003) (Figs. 5h and 8e). On the Vøring Marginal
However, the detailed geometry cannot be determined based on High, various magmatic sequences have been interpreted as related
the datasets available to the present study. to Early Tertiary lithospheric breakup (Eldholm et al., 1989;
Skogseid et al., 1992; Planke et al., 2000, 2005; Berndt et al., 2001).
2.2.4. The distal domain Planke et al. (2000) proposed a five stage emplacement model that
The distal domain of the mid-Norwegian margin corresponds to distinguishes: 1) initial explosive volcanism in an aquatic or wet
the deep Cretaceous Møre and Vøring sag basins (Fig. 5). The Møre sediment environment; 2) effusive subaerial volcanism, respon-
Basin is filled by a sedimentary succession >10 km (probably up to sible for the formation of the inner flows, lava deltas and landward
w15e16 km) thick and is w200 km wide (Olafsson et al., 1992; flows; 3) a continuing effusive subaerial volcanism that fills the
Brekke, 2000; Skilbrei et al., 2002; Reynisson, 2010) (Fig. 8c) while subsiding rift basins along the breakup axis, and forms the so-called
the Vøring Basin reaches w12 km in sedimentary thickness and inner SDRs (Seaward Dipping Reflectors); 4) an explosive shallow
w250 km in width (Brekke, 2000; Raum et al., 2002; Mjelde et al., marine volcanism responsible for the formation of the outer high
2009). The available geophysical constraints all point to a hyper- s.s.; and 5) a voluminous effusive deep marine volcanism forming
extended domain (Mjelde et al., 2009). The nature of the basement the outer SDRs. Abundant breakup-related intrusive complexes
at depth is still debated. According to Osmundsen and Ebbing affected the sedimentary sequences of the adjacent sag basins
(2008), Reynisson (2010) and Lundin and Dore (2011), the Møre (Planke et al., 2000, 2005; Berndt et al., 2001).
Basin is floored by highly thinned continental crust and possibly The composition of the basement underlying the mid-
exhumed and serpentinized mantle. Northward, the Vøring distal Norwegian outer domain remains unresolved. Reynisson et al.
basin structure outboard of the Klakk Fault Complex is dominated (2009, 2010) interpreted the Møre Marginal High as a c. 15 km
by series of rotated blocks, bordered by moderately dipping to low- thick continental crustal body structurally comparable to a conti-
angle normal faults (Brekke, 2000; Osmundsen et al., 2002). This nental ribbon (in the nomenclature of Peron-Pinvidic and
fault-block array is interpreted as bordered in the west by a low- Manatschal, 2010). Recent refraction studies favor an alternative
angle normal fault that appears to flatten at great depth, and that scenario with deeper and thicker Mesozoic sediments and thinner
is overlain by subhorizontal Late Jurassic and/or Cretaceous strata. basement (Kvarven et al., 2012). An LCB is also regularly modeled,
Similarly to the Møre Basin, Osmundsen and Ebbing (2008) with or without proved continuity with the inner LCB described
32 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

above (Section 2.2.4). Similarly to the inner LCB, the outer LCB has architectures (Karner et al., 2003; Contrucci et al., 2004; Moulin
regularly been interpreted as magmatic underplating (Eldholm and et al., 2005, 2010). A first phase of rifting is identified by the
Grue, 1994; Mjelde et al., 2008; Skogseid et al., 1992). Alternatively, end of Jurassic time (w150e140 Ma) while the rift phase that
it has also been proposed that this outer LCB could be related to the structured the deep margin lasted w30 myrs extending from
pervasive intrusion of the basement by magmatic material, rather Berriasian (w140 Ma) to early Albian (w110 Ma) (Davison, 1999).
than 100% underplated magmatic material. The basement in From Berriasian to mid-Barremian (w144e127 Ma), normal fault
question could be composed of either hyper-extended continental activity generated tilted blocks and associated half-graben basins,
crust or mantle, serpentinized to various degrees, associated with which were rapidly filled by an influx of significant amounts of
some remnants of continental crust as slivers or as allochthons. sediment. These basins locally present syn-tectonic stratal ge-
Relics of Cretaceous and pre-Cretaceous basins are probable. ometries. From the mid-Barremian to the upper Aptian (w127e
Further oceanward, the oceanic crust is well identified, notably 117 Ma), another phase corresponds stratigraphically to unfaul-
in the Norway Basin where recent aeromagnetic surveys are ted sedimentary sequences that are associated with the devel-
available (Gernigon et al., 2012). Based on seismic refraction data, opment of the so-called ‘pre-salt sag basin’ (Karner et al., 2003).
Breivik et al. (2006) showed that the oceanic accretion in the Then, a late syn-rift phase was associated with shallow water
Norway Basin was slow (15e32 mm/yr) to ultraslow (6e8 mm/yr), evaporite/salt deposits (Mohriak et al., 2008). Debates remain
with a drastic thinning of the igneous crust with time, from 10 to over the age of deposition. Some authors propose that salt
11 km thick adjacent to the margin to w6 km over a distance of deposition pre-dated breakup (Duval et al., 1992; Karner et al.,
90 km. 2003) while others argue for post-breakup deposition (Guiraud
and Maurin, 1992; Jackson et al., 2000). This salt layer was later
2.3. The AngolaeEsperito Santo system covered by a carbonate platform deposited by lower Albian time
and underwent subsequent gravitational deformation from the
From south to north, four major segments are defined along the end of the lower Albian, associated with the drowning of the
AngolaeGabon margin: a northern segment (1) at the level of the carbonate platform. Breakup has been regularly interpreted to
CongoeGabon basin; a central segment (2) offshore the mouth of occur around the AptianeAlbian boundary (Guiraud and Maurin,
the Congo (Zaire) River, and two southern segments, at the levels of 1992; Davison, 1999; Torsvik et al., 2009; Moulin et al., 2010),
the pre-salt sag basin (3) and its southward termination in the although no detailed age constraints exist (e.g no drill hole data or
Kwanza region (4) (Fig. 6f). These segments are identified in seismic magnetic anomaly). The post-rift Albian to Eocene marine sedi-
as well as potential field data. The Brazilian conjugate margin is also mentation was controlled by aggradation of the post-rift systems
segmented along strike, including major e and distinct e sedi- on the evaporitic interval and the carbonate platform (Seranne
mentary basins such as the Santos Basin with the Sao Paulo Plateau, et al., 1992). An uplift phase affected the sedimentary sequence
the Campos, Esperito Santo and Camamu basins (Fig. 6e). The by Eocene time and a new prograding system, related to the
segment conjugated to the AngolaeGabon margin considered in development of the Tertiary Congo/Zaire depocentre, was
this contribution extends approximately from the Campose emplaced by Miocene time (Anka and Seranne, 2004). It is
Esperito Santo basins to the Camamu Basin (Fig. 6e), according to worthwhile noting that, in the light of new discoveries and recent
the plate reconstructions of Torsvik et al. (2009), Aslanian et al. (proprietary) high-resolution datasets, some of these ages are
(2009) and Moulin et al. (2010). presently strongly debated, and should be handled with care.
We present our description of the South Atlantic rifted system
based on recently published interpretations of ION-GXT seismic 2.3.2. The proximal domain
reflection data, including a profile offshore Angola interpreted by The proximal domain at the AngolaeGabon margin is defined
Unternehr et al. (2010) (Fig. 6d), and a line in the Esperito Santo from the coastline to the necking zone, although parts of it extend
basin, offshore Brazil interpreted by Zalán et al. (2011) (Fig. 6c). The onshore. Onshore, the Kwanza Basin (Guiraud et al., 2010), together
latter has been further constrained by means of detailed potential with the onshore parts of the Lower Congo Basin (Karner and
field modeling (Zalán et al., 2011). Driscoll, 1999) and the Gabon basin (Karner et al., 1997) were
interpreted as genetic components of the AngolaeGabon margin
2.3.1. Time evolution evolution. Offshore, on seismic reflection profiles, the continental
The AngolaeGabon and CamposeCamamu margins developed crust presents variable seismic facies and architecture along strike.
from rifting and breakup processes that operated mainly in Early Because of the overlying salt filter, the top of basement is difficult to
Cretaceous times between the South American and the African define precisely (Moulin et al., 2005). However, based on a recently
plates, within the Gondwana mega-continent (Rabinowitz and available high resolution dataset, Unternehr et al. (2010) proposed
LaBrecque, 1979; Austin and Uchupi, 1982; Nürnberg and Müller, that it is characterized by high-angle normal faults delimiting half
1991; for a review see Moulin et al., 2010). The opening of the graben basins (Fig. 9), similar to those observed on the conjugate
South Atlantic started in the southern regions and propagated margin (Blaich et al., 2010, 2011; Zalán et al., 2011). Some of the
northwards, resulting in a marked compartmentalization of the half-grabens present stratal geometries that indicate syn-tectonic
South Atlantic Ocean into the distinct South, Central and Equatorial deposition. The base of the crust is characterized by a discontin-
Segments (the age of breakup along the different segments is still uous, medium to high amplitude reflection, that plunges to a depth
debated). As for the mid-Norwegian and central East Greenland of w25 km eastward under the continental platform whereas
setting, structural inheritance played a major role in the rift evo- oceanwards, it gently joins top basement in the distal margin
lution (e.g. Guiraud et al., 2010). (Fig. 9) (Section 2.3.4). According to the refraction results of
The African central segment is characterized by the presence Contrucci et al. (2004), the proximal continental crust is charac-
of a massive Aptian salt sequence over most of the distal margin terized by velocity values ranging from 5.6 to 6.8 km/s. It overlies a
(Karner and Gambôa, 2007; Mohriak et al., 2008). Due to prob- layer with velocities from 7.2 to 7.8 km/s described as an ‘anoma-
lems with seismic imaging below the salt, this prevents any lous velocity layer’ and is interpreted as part of the lower crust or as
detailed investigation of the deep structures and hence the rifting serpentinized mantle by Contrucci et al. (2004). These authors
evolution of the margin is still debated. However, several tectonic excluded the underplated magmatic body hypothesis because of
phases have been identified based on the tectono-sedimentary the non-volcanic characteristics of the Angola margin.
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
Figure 6. Synthesis figure summarizing the major characteristics of the AngolaeGaboneCampos conjugate system. a: Topography of the Atlantic Ocean with location of the discussed areas. b: PaleozoiceCenozoic timescale listing the
major phases of deformation and tectonic events of the AngolaeBrazil rifted margins. c and d: Schematic (composite) sections across the Esperito Santo and Angola margins illustrating the domains and main structural features that
characterize the architectures of the margins (after Zalán et al., 2011; Unternehr et al., 2010). e and f: Bathymetric maps (contours every 500 m) of the AngolaeGabon and CamposeCamamu margins with location of the domains, main
structural features and illustrated profiles (the white segments refer to profiles displayed in other figures when the black ones locate the sections presented above in c and d).

33
34 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

2.3.3. The necking domain mix of mafic and ultramafic underplated material (Contrucci et al.,
Within the AngolaeGabon margin segments 3 and 4, the con- 2004).
tinental crust is characterized by a pronounced necking domain At the Brazilian conjugate, the distal domain is characterized by
that localizes crustal thinning from a >25 km to a 3e7 km thick rotated fault blocks and syn-tectonic sedimentary sequences at the
crust over w100 km (Figs. 6 and 9). The high amplitude reflectors base of a wide sag-type basin (Zalán et al., 2011). The basement has
observed at depth in seismic reflection data are interpreted as been interpreted as igneous crust (Mohriak et al., 2008); however,
Moho, consistent with the interpretation of seismic refraction data in the absence of well identified SDRs and of major extrusive ba-
presented by Contrucci et al. (2004). The upper basement corre- salts, this interpretation is debated and alternative scenarios such
sponds to half-graben basins that widen oceanwards (Unternehr as hyperextended crust (Blaich et al., 2011) or exhumed deeper
et al., 2010), similarly to observations reported at the conjugate material are possible. Zalán et al. (2011) proposed that the Brazilian
Brazilian margin (Blaich et al., 2010, 2011; Zalán et al., 2011). distal domain is composed of exhumed mantle that can be mapped
Northward, the necking domain of margin segment 2 is char- continuously from Santos to Espirito Santo, sometimes attaining
acterized by the presence of an isolated basement block which is significant widths. Additionally, they used gravimetric modeling to
defined by a specific Moho geometry: from the continental slope, show that serpentinization probably occurs down to a depth of 6e
the crust thins strongly westward from >25 km thickness to w7e 8 km.
8 km over w60 km; then, in the necking domain, contrary to the
other margin segments, the Moho deepens from w15 to w19 km 2.3.5. The outer and oceanic domains
depth over c. 20 km horizontal distance, and only joins the top The marginal highs of the AngolaeGabon and Esperito Santoe
basement farther westwards. The seismic facies of the resulting Camamu margins are not easy to characterize as they are regu-
crustal block is transparent and a series of tilted blocks are larly overlain by allochthonous salt, which masks the underlying
observed at its crest. Its width varies from w60 km to more than basement impeaching rigorous distinction of the crustal or sedi-
100 km and its length is about 250 km. If its northern limit is well mentary architecture at depth (Torsvik et al., 2009; Unternehr et al.,
defined by a sharp, high-angle fault array, its southern limit is more 2010; Blaich et al., 2011) (Fig. 9).
gradual. Similarly, the first increments of oceanic crust along the African
At the Camamu Basin, the necking zone is sharp with the crust margin are not well constrained. This is because of the salt blan-
thinning from w30 km to w4 km over a short distance of about keting effect but also because the breakup occurred in Cretaceous
80 km (Blaich et al., 2010) Further south, at the Esperito Santo time during the magnetically quiet superchron. However, w20 km
margin, the necking zone marks a crustal thinning from >30 km to further oceanward, the oceanic crust is well identified on the
<10 km over a distance of about 100 km (Mohriak et al., 2008; recently available high-resolution seismic reflection profiles, and
Blaich et al., 2011; Zalán et al., 2011). Clearly imaged listric faults are more detailed geometries can be mapped (Unternehr et al., 2010).
reported to be associated with the crustal thinning (Blaich et al., Similarly to the refraction results of Contrucci et al. (2004), two
2011). At the edge of the necking zone, Zalán et al. (2011) types of oceanic crusts have been identified along the Angolae
described intra-crustal shear zones, probably composed of mylon- Gabon margin (Fig. 6f): type I corresponds to a ‘normale
ites and ultramylonites, against which the inboard normal faults magmatic’ Penrose crust with a well defined, three layers type ar-
tend to terminate, when at the necking domain the detachment chitecture and a mean crustal thickness of 6e7 km (OC I in Fig. 6f);
faults rather merge directly into this discontinuity, sometimes type II corresponds to a ‘slow spreading e magma-poor’ crust with
cutting and displacing it. pronounced topography and no clear internal geometries (OC II in
Fig. 6f).
2.3.4. The distal domain At the Esperito Santo margin, Zalán et al. (2011) showed that the
At the AngolaeGabon margin segment 3, the distal sag basin is oceanic crust is 7e9 km thick and gradually thins to the east. As at
w150 km wide and up to w7 km thick below the salt sequence its African conjugate, it displays the characteristic tripartite seismic
(Fig. 9), and characterized by velocities that range from 4.7 to division that refer to lower stratified cumulate gabbros, mid-crust
5.8 km/s (Contrucci et al., 2004). This indicates the presence of sheeted dykes and upper pillow basalts.
compacted sedimentary strata at depth. Although the base of the
basin is not always well imaged, rotated fault blocks are observed 3. Comparison of the rift domains
locally, probably associated with a detachment surface (Unternehr
et al., 2010; Blaich et al., 2011). However, the structure related to The observations reported above show that the structural do-
these faults (tilted blocks versus allochthons) is not yet well mains present stratigraphic and crustal geometries that vary from
resolved. According to the refraction results of Contrucci et al. one margin to the other, and from one margin segment to the other
(2004) the distal domain is characterized by a thin crustal layer, within one and the same margin system. However, the domains
3e7 km thick, underlying the sag basin, with velocities increasing also share some common, systematic and fundamental character-
from 5.8 km/s at the top to 6.8 km/s at the bottom. This layer istics. We review these below.
thins to 3e4 km westwards from the necking domain ocean-
wards and presents lower velocity values. As with the Iberian and 3.1. The proximal domain
Norwegian margins, the nature of this basement is still discussed
and various scenarios have been proposed. It has previously been The proximal domains of the three key margins are character-
defined as proto-oceanic crust (Wilson et al., 2003), exhumed ized by similar crustal geometries and thicknesses. Although the
lower/middle continental crust (Aslanian et al., 2009; Moulin et al., exact extent of the proximal domains is not properly identified, as
2005), hyper-extended continental crust (Blaich et al., 2011) or a parts can outcrop onland (Wilson et al., 1990; Guiraud et al., 2010;
combination of hyper-extended continental crust and exhumed Redfield and Osmundsen, 2013), the offshore parts all present only
and serpentinized subcontinental mantle (Unternehr et al., 2010). moderately reduced crustal thicknesses with values exceeding
Additionally, Contrucci et al. (2004) identified a crustal body pre- 25 km. The top basement geometries can always be summarized as
senting high Vp values (7.2e7.8 km/s) within the lower crust of the series of major tilted blocks, bordered by high-angle normal fault
necking domain. This LCB has been interpreted as corresponding arrays, although larger and deeper detachment faults are not
either to serpentinized mantle material, metamorphic rocks or a excluded (e.g. the Murre fault that roots the Jeanne d’Arc basin;
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 35

Welsink and Tankard, 2012). The majority of the main faults are to drastic crustal thinning from >25 km crustal thickness down to
interpreted to root in the brittleeductile transition at mid-crustal <10 km. However, the crustal thinning gradients are very different
levels. They account for minor or moderate amounts of extension, from one margin to the other (Faleide et al., 2008; Osmundsen and
but can be characterized by significant basement relief (e.g. the Redfield, 2011). The width of the necking domains varies from
Peniche or Lusitanian basins, Alves et al., 2006; the Froan or Hel- w50 km at the Møre to more than 150 km at the Vøring, and from
geland basins, Brekke, 2000; the Jeanne d’Arc basin, Welsink and w60 km at the western limit of the Deep Galicia Margin to
Tankard, 2012). w150 km at the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain, which is comparable
The proximal domains are also characterized by a comparable to the w100 km width observed at the southern AngolaeGabon
time-evolution. The development of the mid-Norwegian platform margin. The difference in the width of the Iberian necking
is dated from Early Triassic time (Blystad et al., 1995; Brekke, 2000) domain between the western Deep Galicia Margin and the South-
while the Iberian proximal domain is estimated to have developed ern Iberia Abyssal Plain can be accounted for by the presence of an
in the Triassic and Jurassic (Pinheiro et al., 1996), and the Angolae additional major structural element in the northern segment. The
Gabon in Late Jurassic time (Teisserenc and Villemin, 1990). How- Galicia Bank represents a continental ribbon, which increases the
ever, all three proximal domains attest to a tectonic evolution that complexity of the structure of the northern margin while south-
was limited in time, with a marked migration of the rifting activity ward, in the abyssal plain, no such body is observed. However, at
toward the deep margins subsequent to the construction of the the Norwegian margin, the width strongly changes also from the
proximal grabens. The later rifting evolution of the proximal basins Møre to the Vøring segment. The two margins are described as
is generally more quiet, as the platform areas were abandoned structurally comparable with no continental ribbon. So, the di-
when extensional faulting became localized in the necking zone. mensions and characteristics of a necking zone may be structur-
Some possible deepening and re-activation did occur, but no major ally complicated and must be the result of the interaction of
new graben appear to have formed (that can be compared to the multiple parameters. Structural inheritance likely plays a role
ones formed in the first phase of rifting). Uplift and magmatic ac- (Dore et al., 1997; Osmundsen et al., 2002) together with exten-
tivity are, however, regularly reported. sion rate and the local lithospheric rheological pattern. Sutra and
Manatschal (2012) summarized that the initial thermal state,
3.2. The necking domain inherited composition and accessibility of fluids during the final
stages of rifting are other key factors to be considered (see also
The necking domains cannot be imaged with the same confidence Mohn et al., 2012). Osmundsen and Redfield (2011) identified a
at all margin segments considered here. At the African margin and at scaling relationship that correlates the onshore escarpment height
the Jan Mayen microcontinent, sub-salt and sub-volcanics imagery with the distance to the taper break, attesting that the necking
issues prevent a detailed structural analysis at depth (Contrucci et al., zone is a key structural element of rifted margins architecture.
2004; Moulin et al., 2005; Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2012a,b). At the They argue that the lateral arrangement of large-magnitude
central East Greenland margin, no seismic reflection profile is today normal faults is crucial for the width and thinning gradient of
in the public domain and available to discuss the architecture of the the necking zone.
necking domain. Only offshore wide angle measurements (Weigel
et al., 1995) and onshore geological observations (Larsen, 1990) can 3.3. The distal domain
be reported. On the other hand, the Iberia, Newfoundland, Angola,
Brazil and mid-Norwegian necking domains are well imaged by a Some of the differences in the characterization and interpreta-
wide range of datasets. They share some fundamental characteristics tion of distal domains could be related to the fact that the datasets
(decrease in crustal thickness, increase in accommodation space, available at the margins are different and hence strict comparisons
convergence of top basement with the mid crustal brittleeductile are not straightforward. The presence of thick sedimentary layers,
transition and the base of the crust toward the coupling point). of intrusions and/or of salt may also affect the interpretation.
Based on the Møre margin, Osmundsen and Ebbing (2008) showed Structurally, the distal domains present comparable basement
that large-magnitude normal faults play an important role in the and sedimentary geometries that fit into a sag-type basin pattern
formation of the necking domain, suggesting also that the hyper- with deeply buried hyper-extended basement and sub-horizontal,
extension style of deformation is not exclusive to so-called magma- sub-parallel sedimentary infill. The overall architecture is similar,
poor margins, but can be observed along magmatic margin segments with a pre-structuration expressed by half-graben type basins
as well. Indeed, the overall structural geometries of the Iberian and and a secondary overall architecture expressed by large-scale sag-
Norwegian necking domains are comparable and resemble core type basins floored by detachment structures which exhumed
complexes flanked by detachment faults that exhumed rocks from either crustal or mantle material, or a combination of the two.
the middle crust (Figs. 7c and 8c,d). The large-scale detachment Many of the observations reported for the distal mid-Norwegian
structures root at mid- to lower crustal or mantle levels and margin are comparable to the ones obtained at other rifted
accommodate displacement values in the order of 20e30 km margins. The reported Norwegian detachment faults (Osmundsen
(Osmundsen et al., 2002; Osmundsen and Ebbing, 2008). At the et al., 2002) may represent structural analogues to the H reflector
Angola margin, recent interpretations suggest the presence of com- observed at the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain (Manatschal et al.,
parable structural features (Unternehr et al., 2010), and major listric 2001), to the S reflector at the Deep Galicia Margin (Montadert
faults associated with a large-scale extensional detachment was re- et al., 1979; Reston et al., 1996; Reston, 2009), to the M reflector
ported from the necking domain of the Brazilian conjugate margin by at the Brazilian margin (Blaich et al., 2011) or to the P reflector
Blaich et al. (2010, 2011). Zalán et al. (2011) showed that at the Santos observed in the Porcupine Basin (Reston et al., 2001). Funda-
and Campos basins, major rift faults merge directly into the Conrad mental structural similarities appear between these various distal
discontinuity (Zalán et al., 2011) at the edge of the hyper-extended rifted settings.
distal domain, which corresponds well to the definition of a A consensus appears to have been reached on the fact that the
necking zone where the thinning of ductile layers plays a major role basement in the distal domain is highly thinned (usually <5 km).
(Mohn et al., 2012). However, the interpretations of its nature span a large range of
The amount of crustal thinning accommodated at the necking options from hyper-extended continental crust (with a combina-
domains is similar from one setting to the other as they all proceed tion of upper, middle and/or lower crust), to serpentinized
36 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 37

exhumed mantle, or oceanic crust (then, very often described as Manatschal (2010) and Bronner et al. (2011) proposed that the
slow-spreading and magma-poor). Magmatic intrusions are also IberiaeNewfoundland outer domain actually corresponds to
often considered. Actually, the dataset available at the Iberiae underplating and intrusion of a wide area, similarly to the mid-
Newfoundland system casted doubt on the lithological interpreta- Norwegian margin (Lundin and Dore, 2011). These results cast
tion usually made from refraction data for these deep settings. In doubt on the traditional subdivision of margins into magmatic and
the distal domains of rifted margins, Vp values of 5e7 km/s are very amagmatic ones. The differences appear to be more subtle than the
often interpreted in terms of extended (hyperextended) continen- end-member scenarios proposed in earlier studies.
tal crust (for a review see Minshull, 2009). Whereas this interpre-
tation may be correct for many settings worldwide, the ODP drilling
3.5. The oceanic domain
results from the Iberia margin proved that there, these velocities
correspond to variably serpentinized exhumed subcontinental
The definition of a ‘normal’ oceanic crust is still discussed.
mantle (Discovery 215 Working Group, 1998; Chian et al., 1999;
Depending on the magma-starved or magma-rich pattern of the
Dean et al., 2000; Whitmarsh et al., 2001). Indeed, in hyper-
accretion, the geophysical patterns change significantly. The ar-
extended areas such as the distal domains of rifted margins, the
chitecture of the oceanic crust observed on seismic varies from a
physical properties of rocks within the uppermost w5 km of
well-defined three-layer reflective pattern (e.g. Angola) to trans-
basement are so strongly modified by intense tectonic (and/or
parent unstructured areas (e.g. Iberia, Newfoundland). Similarly, if
magmatic, and/or chemical) activity that we probably cannot use
the Cenozoic Norway Basin has the advantage to present well-
geophysical methods in the same way as we do for crustal domains
defined magnetic anomalies permitting detailed potential field
in more proximal or oceanic settings. It is highly probable that the
and kinematic studies (Gaina et al., 2009; Gernigon et al., 2012), the
petrophysical properties of such rocks have not been preserved.
IberiaeNewfoundland and the South Atlantic first oceanic corridors
Prudence should thus prevail when making a lithological inter-
were formed during the Cretaceous magnetic quiet superchron, so
pretation based on low-resolution geophysical datasets in such
no clearly defined magnetic anomaly is available to help mapping
settings.
the onset of oceanic accretion. Broad zones of chaotic magnetic
patterns are observed and their origin and significance still dis-
3.4. The outer domain
cussed (Sibuet et al., 2007). Additionally, at the mid-Norwegian
margin, the emplacement of oceanic crust is associated with a
Contrary to the features described previously, the geophysical
major magmatic activity (although decreasing drastically with
and geological characteristics of the outer domain differ strongly
time; Mutter et al., 1982; Hinz et al., 1987; Breivik et al., 2006) while
from one margin to the other. Thus, the outer domain is the entity
at the Iberia margin, the emplacement of oceanic crust is inter-
that may serve to distinguish the rifted systems from each other. At
preted as a gradual process with a gradual evolution of the
the outer domain of the mid-Norwegian margin, the breakup-
magmatic input accompanying mantle exhumation in the distal
related magmatic sequences are well identified, even if underly-
domain (Péron-Pinvidic et al., 2007).
ing lithologies as well as geometries are still poorly constrained at
depth. The volume of magma and the wide range of volcanic ex-
pressions attest to very significant magmatic activity (Berndt et al., 4. The life cycle of rifted margins
2001). On the contrary, at the IberiaeNewfoundland conjugates,
the outer domain does not present any significant extrusive The three conjugate pairs of rifted margins reviewed here share
volcanics. numerous first-order similarities, such as the systematic ocean-
The origin and composition of the basement of the outer domain ward succession of key structural elements (e.g. series of grabens
is often unconstrained. Again, except from the IberiaeNewfound- and tilted crustal blocks, hyperextended domains, deep sag basins)
land case, it has never been drilled, so samples exist only for the e (see Section 3). This similar pronounced spatial, temporal and
so-called e ‘magma-poor’ scenario. At the NorwegianeGreenland structural partition is most likely related to the activity of similar
Sea and South Atlantic outer domains, scenarios of composition rift tectonic processes. If the local parameters (e.g. thermal and
span a wide range of possibilities from thick, thinned or hyper- rheological state of the lithosphere before and during rifting, in-
extended continental crust, to variously serpentinized mantle or heritance) influence basement and sedimentary geometries
oceanic crust. Concerning the mid-Norwegian case, most authors together with the timing of each phase of deformation, the intrinsic
agree that, whatever the composition is, the outer basement has physical conditions and processes are probably more similar for the
been pervasively intruded during a final stage or rifting. different margins than previously suggested. In the following sec-
Interestingly, recent alternative interpretations tend to reduce tion, we use the observations reported above (Section 2) and the
the differences between the two magma-poor and magma-rich related comparison (Section 3) to further define the modes of
end-members. At the mid-Norwegian margin, the origin of the deformation of extending rift systems. We develop the discussion
magmatic material has been questioned (Van Wijk et al., 2001) and to a more generic model of evolution in the framework of a ‘rifted
estimates of its volume significantly lowered (Ebbing et al., 2006; margin life cycle’ (Fig. 10). Each stage in this life cycle is represented
Gernigon et al., 2006, 2004; Wangen et al., 2011). At the by a structural domain that forms through the processes that
Newfoundland margin, Peron-Pinvidic et al. (2010) showed that the dominate that stage and that becomes left behind as deformation
volume of (post-breakup) magma is far more important than pre- migrates. Thus, if a number of margins share a fundamental ar-
viously thought, comparable to the sill complexes described at the chitecture, they also share the parts of the life cycle represented by
Møre margin (Planke et al., 2005), and Peron-Pinvidic and the preserved domains.

Figure 7. Key data examples of the major domains of the IberiaeNewfoundland conjugate system. a: Bathymetric maps of the Iberia and Newfoundland margins with location of
the presented sections. b: Detail of a seismic section illustrating the classical basement (tilted blocks) and sedimentary (wedge shape) geometries observed at the Iberia proximal
domain (after Alves et al., 2006). c: Detail of a seismic section illustrating the architecture of the necking domain observed at the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain (after Sutra and
Manatschal, 2012). d: Detail of a seismic section illustrating the basement and sedimentary architecture of the distal domain at the Southern Iberia Abyssal Plain (after Peron-
Pinvidic and Manatschal, 2009). e: Detail of a seismic section illustrating the basement and sedimentary architecture of the outer domain observed at the Newfoundland
margin (after Bronner et al., 2011).
38 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 39

Figure 9. a: Bathymetric map of the AngolaeGabon margin with location of the presented section. b: Seismic reflection profile (courtesy of ion-GXT) and interpretation illustrating
the main structural characteristics of the AngolaeGabon margin (segment 3) (after Unternehr et al., 2010).

4.1. Inheritance structures clearly influenced the geometry of the Permiane

Mesozoic basins. A region affected by rifting will almost always
Similarly to the margins presented here (Capdevilla and have undergone previous tectono-magmatic events. As a result, the
Mougenot, 1988; Wilson et al., 1990; Dore et al., 1997; Osmundsen continental lithosphere submitted to extension is not homoge-
et al., 2002; Guiraud et al., 2010), various studies have proved the neous. Various inherited structures can characterize the pre-rift
influence of pre-rift structuration on margin evolution. In the East conditions in terms of pre-existing local or regional faults and ba-
African Rift system, Corti et al. (2007) showed that pre-rift crustal sins, compositional heterogeneities and thermal anomalies as well
fabrics control the architecture of extension-related faults; and in as mountain belts and associated suture zones inherited from pre-
the North Sea, Færseth (1996) showed that the inherited basement vious accretionary events. Some studies have demonstrated that

Figure 8. Key data examples of the major domains of the mid-Norwegian margin. a: Bathymetric map of the Vøring/Møre margin with location of the presented sections. b: Detail
of a seismic section illustrating the classical basement (tilted blocks) and sedimentary (wedge shape) geometries observed at the Trøndelag platform (Froan Basin), proximal domain
of the Vøring margin (after Muller et al., 2005). c: Geoseismic section illustrating the basement and sedimentary architecture of the distal domain observed at the Møre margin
(after Osmundsen et al., 2002). d: Detail of a seismic section illustrating the basement architecture characteristic of the necking domain at the Møre margin (after Osmundsen and
Ebbing, 2008). e: Interpreted composite section illustrating the architecture of the outer domain observed at the Vøring Marginal High (after Gernigon et al., 2004).
 40
G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47
Figure 10. Table figure summarizing the deformation modes interpreted to structure rifted margins, with their main characteristics, a schematic representation (based on the case example of the NorwegianeGreenland Sea) and key
data examples. See Section 4 for further details.
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 41

initial crustal weaknesses could play a major role in the develop- Among the margins discussed here, necking domains are well
ment and evolution of a rift (Dunbar and Sawyer, 1989; Bassi, 1991; imaged at the Iberian and mid-Norwegian margins, where their
Ziegler and Cloetingh, 2004; Dyksterhuis et al., 2007). The state of relations to the proximal as well as distal domains can be studied in
the lithosphere can be complex with different thermal, rheological, some detail (see above). In both locations, truncation of reflective
compositional, crustal and/or mantle states from one margin to the crustal levels in the middle or lower crust is associated with large-
other, or from one segment to the other in a same margin system. All magnitude normal faults that occur within, or border the necking
these differences can strongly influence rifting, from its location to domain. Thus, in the necking domain, extensional deformation is
its evolution (Bassi, 1995). Müntener and Manatschal (2006) transferred to successively lower levels in the crust and eventually
showed that the ZECM of the IberiaeNewfoundland system pre- to the upper mantle in a process of coupling and migration (Sutra
sents different mantle compositions across the margins. They pro- and Manatschal, 2012). Numerical models (Lavier and Manatschal,
posed that the spatial variability of mantle composition can be due 2006; Rosenbaum et al., 2010; Huismans and Beaumont, 2011)
to the residues of a subduction-related magmatic arc related to the further constrained this phase. In each model, it corresponds to the
Caledonian orogeny. Their results show that, similarly to the crust, deformation mode (e.g. the thinning mode) that permits the most
the pre-rift lithospheric mantle can show profound heterogeneities, drastic crustal thinning, from w30 km to <10 km thickness. Struc-
which can subsequently influence the localization and/or evolution turally, it contains large-scale, conjugate detachment structures e
of rifting, as well as the first increments of seafloor spreading. the ‘thinning’ faults e which affect the upper crust and the lower
crust/upper mantle, decoupled at the level of a shear zone in the
weak middle crust (Fig. 10). These detachment structures permit the
4.2. The stretching phase
exhumation of upper to mid curstal levels at the seafloor that can
potentially be overlain by crustal allochthons. Drastic crustal thin-
Rifting is a localization process, and as a consequence, initial rift
ning at the level of the evolving necking domains is linked with
structures have a tendency to be preserved in the marginal parts of
raised of the underlying mantle underneath the thinning domain
the more extended domains. Thus, it is not surprising to find the
(Weinberg et al., 2007). A crustal block similar to a keystone, forms
older and less extended parts of the rifted margins preserved in the
in between the two sets of conjugated detachment faults (e.g. H-
proximal domains. The associated geometries of faults and basins
block (Hanging wall block) of Lavier and Manatschal, 2006; Peron-
are interpreted to fit a classical pure shear deformation environ-
Pinvidic and Manatschal, 2010) (Fig. 10). The thinning phase thus
ment (McKenzie, 1978), or stretching phase according to the Lavier
becomes responsible for formation of the necking domain, which
and Manatschal (2006) nomenclature. The border faults are usu-
marks the transition from the proximal stretched domain (where
ally high-angle planar to listric normal, delimiting distinct base-
lithospheric deformation is decoupled) to the distal thinned and
ment blocks (Fig. 10). The syn-tectonic sedimentary layers present
exhumed domain (where lithospheric deformation is coupled).
wedge-shape geometries with thickening toward the footwall
In a more advanced rifting stage, when the crust is more
block and thinning toward the hanging-wall block. Another simi-
attenuated and ductile layers tend to become brittle, the detach-
larity between each rift system is that the proximal domains all
ment faults can cut through the crust and penetrate the underlying
attest to a tectonic evolution that was limited in time, with a
mantle. This is the coupling phase (Fig. 10). From that point and that
marked migration of the main tectonic activity toward the deep
time, deformation is coupled through the lithosphere. The related
margin subsequent to the outbuilding of the platforms (Fig. 10).
faults e the ‘hyperextension and exhumation’ faults e basically
Numerical models (Lavier and Manatschal, 2006; Weinberg
resemble the large-scale detachments inferred by Lister et al.
et al., 2007; Rosenbaum et al., 2010; Baur et al., 2010) propose
(1986) to partition rifted margins into ‘upper plate’ and ‘lower
that deformation is decoupled at depth. They confirm that normal
plate’ units. The change from ‘thinning’ to ‘hyperextension’ (and
faults that affect the upper brittle continental crust tend to root in
possibly ‘exhumation’) occurs when the crust becomes completely
ductile mid-crustal levels, which is consistent with the observa-
brittle. When and where this happens and at what crustal thickness
tions reported at the South Atlantic margins (Zalán et al., 2011). The
that this coupling may occur is likely to depend on various pa-
models also propose that additional deformation has to be
rameters such as composition, thermal gradient, magma input and/
considered at the base of the crust, conjugated e but decoupled e
or the presence or absence of fluids. Pérez-Gussinyé et al. (2001)
from the upper brittle crust (Weinberg et al., 2007; Rosenbaum
showed that in the IberiaeNewfoundland rift system it occurred
et al., 2010). Shear zones are supposed to accommodate one part
when the crust was thinned down to less than 10 km. Therefore, as
of the deformation at the middle crust and lower crust/upper
defined here, the necking domain denotes an area of coupling and
mantle. Another important characteristic of the stretching phase is
migration where the crust becomes primed for complete embrit-
that it accommodates only low to moderate amounts of extension
tlement, and thus for the onset of the processes that form the distal
(e.g. the southern part of the Jeanne d’Arc Basin; Baur et al., 2010).
margin.
The stretching phase is not responsible for major thinning of the
crust or lithosphere and cannot account for the drastic oceanwards
4.4. The hyperextension and exhumation phase(s)
reduction in crustal thickness observed at the three margins (see
below). Rather, it is responsible for the formation of moderately
The processes related to the formation of the distal domains are
stretched platform areas that constitute the proximal domain.
debated. In the Iberian example, most authors agree that mantle
became exhumed to the seafloor through the tectonic removal of
4.3. The thinning phase the entire continental crust (Whitmarsh et al., 2001). How this was
achieved is, however, still discussed, in particular in terms of what
As summarized in this contribution, recently available, high res- processes of faulting may facilitate complete crustal excision.
olution geophysical datasets have permitted the identification of a Ranero and Perez-Gussinye (2010) proposed that final crustal
fundamental structural element e the necking domain e which was thinning is operated by sequential brittle faulting that migrate
not properly described in, or explained by, previous models (Section oceanwards. Reston (2005) showed that the deformation could also
3.2; Fig. 10). The necking domain records the migration, localization be explained by polyphase faulting, although the earliest genera-
and depth partitioning of deformation that followed the formation of tions of related structures may not be seismically resolvable. Earlier,
proximal basins. Whitmarsh et al. (2001) proposed that the process could be
42 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47

articulated at downward concave detachment faults (the HD and 4.6. Post breakup evolution
HHD reflectors; Manatschal et al., 2001).
Regularly, seismic reflection datasets attest to the presence of Various studies showed that rifted margins can still present
high-amplitude reflectors in the distal domains. These represent important tectonic and magmatic activity long after breakup. For
detachments with complex geometries that run at shallow crustal instance, as many margins worldwide, the Iberian and Norwegian
levels (e.g. the Deep Galicia Margin S reflector, Montadert et al., margins have been submitted to post-rift compressional events
1979; Reston et al., 1996; Reston, 2009; the Porcupine Basin P that led to the development of inversion structures (Masson et al.,
reflector, Reston et al., 2001; the Brazilian M reflector, Blaich et al., 1994; Brekke, 2000). It has been proposed that the large exposure
2011), or at top basement (e.g. the HHD reflector, Manatschal et al., of mantle at the seafloor is responsible for the localization of post-
2001), and on which overlying fault blocks can ride. In the Southern rift deformation structures at the centre of the Iberia ZECM (Peron-
Iberia Abyssal Plain, Péron-Pinvidic et al. (2007) showed that such Pinvidic et al., 2008). The exhumed serpentinites would correspond
structures are associated with a westward decrease in size of the to a weak basement region more prone to re-activation than the
overlying crustal blocks and that the syn-tectonic sedimentary adjacent continental or oceanic crusts (op cit. and Lundin and Dore,
geometries attest to an oceanward migration of tectonic activity. 2011). This proposition challenges previous scenarios, which
Labeled ‘hyperextension’ and ‘exhumation’ faults, these large-scale assumed that the most extended portions of a rift would be the
detachments have been interpreted to permit the upwelling e strongest after thermal re-equilibration.
and potentially the exposure at the seafloor e of originally deep- Concerning the magmatic activity, at the Newfoundland margin
seated material, either crust or mantle. Mantle exhumation is not seismic observations and ODP drilling suggest that significant
a requisite but, based on the three key examples presented here, we magmatic activity prevailed for at least 10e15 m.y. after litho-
consider it as probable. On the other hand, crustal hyperextension spheric breakup (Peron-Pinvidic et al., 2010). This is in agreement
is mandatory and a genetic fundament of the rifting process. This is with observations made at other rifted margins, like in the Gulf of
the reason why we propose to distinguish the hyperextension phase Aden. Lucazeau et al. (2009) showed, based on heat flow mea-
from the exhumation phase in order not to misunderstand the final surements, that very high temperatures persist below the northern
stages of the rifting evolution. Conceptually, the hyperextension rifted margin for >15 Ma following breakup and that active vol-
phase should predate the exhumation phase, and the latter is not canoes were constructed.
mandatory in rifted margin evolution. We use the term ‘exhuma- Additionally, an important part of the post-breakup evolution of
tion’ only for continuous surfaces of exhumed material made up of many passive margins appears to be uplift of the rift flanks (e.g.
mantle rocks. Weissel and Karner, 1989). In Greenland, Palaeogene marine sedi-
It is also worthwhile noting that it has been shown, notably at ments and volcanics are exposed onshore at high altitudes, giving
the Iberia margin (Peron-Pinvidic and Manatschal, 2009), that evidence for kilometer-scale Cenozoic uplift (e.g. Japsen et al.,
rifting deformation phases are not strictly successive in a margin 2006). The mechanisms behind, and the temporal evolution of
system but can be partly contemporaneous. They can overlap in such uplifts is strongly debated (e.g. Nielsen et al., 2009, 2010;
time but also in space. The rift structures developed at a rift phase Gabrielsen et al., 2010), but recent work indicates that uplift is
(e.g. the thinning faults) can actually be re-used by subsequent rift controlled by the crustal thinning gradient inherited from (hyper)
phases (e.g. the hyperextension and exhumation faults), which can extension, although not necessarily driven by it (Osmundsen and
give rise to highly complex basement and sedimentary geometries. Redfield, 2011). If this is the case, the rifting phases described
above exert an important and long-lasting control also in the
onshore domain.
4.5. The magmatic phase: breakup and oceanization
5. Conclusions
The geological models propose that once the asthenosphere is
sufficiently shallow (w20 km) to concentrate thermal and me- In this contribution, we have reviewed three key Atlantic rifted
chanical constraints, the margin can enter a magmatic phase and margin systems regularly referred to as ‘end-members’ or ‘arche-
the first segments of oceanic crust can be formed (Cannat et al., types’ of either magma-poor, magma-rich or sediment-rich mar-
2009). The magmatic phase is expressed differently in magma- gins. In detail, these margins are characterized by different
poor and magma-rich environments (e.g. the Vøring/Møre Mar- magmatic histories, basin geometries and sedimentary records.
ginal Highs versus the Newfoundland outer domain, see Section However, the margins also share numerous first order similarities,
3.4), however, in each case, it is a pulse in the magmatic activity and in particular, the systematic oceanwards succession of key
that is supposed to have triggered the final lithospheric breakup distinct entities. Major structural features, such as abrupt crustal
and the proper establishment of seafloor spreading (Jagoutz et al., thinning, the partitioning into a proximal and a distal domain, or
2007; Cannat et al., 2009; Bronner et al., 2011). Peron-Pinvidic the presence of hyperextended domains with material exhumed
and Manatschal (2010) and Lundin and Dore (2011) proposed from deep structural levels are present at all three margins. The key
that the Iberian and Norwegian outer domains are similar struc- domains occur in roughly the same order, and present sedimentary
tures corresponding to the pervasive intrusion and underplating of geometries, basement geometries and relative time evolutions that
a wide area of previously hyperextended and/or exhumed crustal are comparable between the margins. Similar observations are also
and/or mantle material, the difference being in the amount of reported from many other margins worldwide such as the Armor-
magma involved. In the framework of the rifted margin evolution, ican margin (Thinon et al., 2003), the Nova Scotia margin (Funck
this magmatic phase is firmly distinguished from the previous et al., 2004), the South China Sea (Franke et al., 2011), the Gulf of
tectonically-driven deformation phases which formed the original Aden (Autin et al., 2010), the Great Australian Bight margin (Direen
basement. It looks as if hyper-extension and breakup are in some et al., 2007), the Argentina margin (Blaich et al., 2009), and onshore
places not directly related. Actually, the breakup axes do not show analogues (Manatschal, 2004; Mohn et al., 2010). Thus, despite
systematic direct relationship with the previous rifting extensional local variations in a number of parameters, rifted margins tend to
phases, as attested by the establishment of spreading ridges in the evolve toward architectures that resemble each other. This shows,
North Atlantic that cross-cut some abandoned hyper-extended rift in our view, that rifted margins respond in similar ways to the
zones (e.g. the Porcupine Basin, Rockall Trough, Orphan Basin). fundamental constraints imposed by extension. The question that
 G. Peron-Pinvidic et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 43 (2013) 21e47 43

arises is whether the observed structural differences are issued rifted shelf as shown by offshoreeonshore brittle fault-fracture analysis. Nor-
wegian Journal of Geology 87, 29e58.
from different tectonic processes or if they are related to different
Berndt, C., Planke, S., Alvestad, E., Tsikalas, F., Rasmussen, T., 2001. Seismic volca-
local temporal and spatial evolution of the same processes. nostratigraphy of the Norwegian margin: constraints on tectonomagmatic
Correspondingly, we interpret each margin to correspond to the break-up processes. Journal of the Geological Society 158, 413e426.
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deformation with: 1) the stretching phase, 2) the thinning phase, 3) Blaich, O.A., Faleide, J.I., Tsikalas, F., Franke, D., Leon, E., 2009. Crustal-scale archi-
the hyperextension and exhumation phase(s), 4) the magmatic tecture and segmentation of the Argentine margin and its conjugate off South
phase, and 5) the oceanization. As rifting represents a localization Africa. Geophysical Journal International 178, 85e105.
Blaich, O.A., Faleide, J.I., Tsikalas, F., Lilletveit, R., Chiossi, D., Brockbank, P., Cobbold, P.,
of geological processes, these phases affect the margin successively, 2010. Structural architecture and nature of the continentocean transitional
migrating and concentrating oceanwards. However, the relation- domain at the Camamu and Almada Basins (northeastern Brazil) within a con-
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each other, notably re-using former structural weaknesses to Structural elements of the Norwegian continental shelf, Part II. The Norwegian
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benefitted from numerous discussions the authors have had with structure beneath the Trøndelag platform and adjacent areas of the mid-
Norwegian margin, as derived from wide-angle seismic and potential field
many colleagues at meetings, conferences or workshops these last
data. Norwegian Journal of Geology 90, 141e161.
years. Among many others, we would like to thank (alphabetical Breivik, A.J., Mjelde, R., Faleide, J.I., Murai, Y., 2006. Rates of continental breakup
order): P. Ball, A. Blischke, S. Buiter, M. Cannat, J. Ebbing, T. Funck, C. magmatism and seafloor spreading in the Norway BasineIceland plume
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Brekke, H., 2000. The tectonic evolution of the Norwegian Sea continental margin
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T. Reston, D. Shillington, E. Sutra, B. Tucholke, P. Unternehr, S. of the Norwegian Margin. Geological Society, Special Publications, London,
Wienecke. We are also grateful to T. Horscroft and the Marine and pp. 327e378.
Bronner, A., Sauter, D., Manatschal, G., Peron-Pinvidic, G., Munschy, M., 2011.
Petroleum Geology publication team who invited us to write this Magmatic breakup as an explanation for magnetic anomalies at magma-poor
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