FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

FIRST SEMESTER

School Year 2022-2023

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

DEFINITION of SURVEYING

 “Surveying is the art of

determining the positions
of points on or near the
earth’s surface by means
of measurements in the
three elements of space;
namely, distance,
direction, and elevation.” –
Rayner and Schmidt.

 “Surveying is the art of

measuring horizontal and
vertical distances between
objects, of measuring
angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by
predetermined angular and linear measurements.” – Davis, Foote, Anderson, and
Mikhail.

 “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points on
the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial features may
be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships.” – Clarke

 “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining
area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines,
the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on paper.” – Webster.

 “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to

determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth,
or to establish such points.” –Breed, Hosmer, and Bone.

 Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” – Binker and Wolf.

General Classification of Surveying.

1. Plane Surveying- is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat
surface, and where the distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the
exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic Surveying- are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of
high precision, and related calculations involve the solving spherical trigonometry,
calculus, and some applications of the theory of the least squares.

TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and
rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and
 boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries
of municipalities, towns, and provincial jurisdictions.
2. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and preparing maps
3. Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are undertaken at a construction
site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration, and the location and elevation of structures which are of concern to
engineers, architects, and builders.
4. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest management
and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
5. Hydrographic Surveys – refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and
other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas
underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They are general
importance in connection with navigation, development of water supply and
resources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydroelectric power, subaqueous
constructions, and recreation.
6. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, layout
and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where very
accurate dimensional layouts are required.
7. Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of
mining claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and
establish lines and grades for other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of photographs taken
with specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in conjunction
with limited ground surveys
9. Route Surveys – involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork
quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning,
design, and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines,
and other linear projects.
10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the shape of the
ground, and the location and elevation of natural
and artificial features upon it. The features
shown include such natural objects as hills,
mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground
surface, etc; and works of man, such as roads,
buildings, ports, towns, municipalities, and
bridges.

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
1. Telescope – The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to
Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for
astronomical observations. However, it was only when cross hairs for fixing
the line of sight were introduced, that the telescope was used in early
telescope was used in early surveying instruments.

2. Transit and Theodolite. These tools are used to measure both horizontal and
vertical angles. Both tools have a minimum accuracy of one minute of angle,
though the theodolite is generally recognized as the more accurate of the
two, measuring angles to an accuracy
of one-tenth of a second angle..
3. Plane Table – used in field
mapping. It consists of a board
attached to a tripod in such a way
that it can be leveled or rotated to
any desired direction
4. Vernier – a short auxiliary scale placed
alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument, by means of which
refractional parts of the smallest or
least division of the main scale can be
determined precisely without having to
interpolate. It was invented 1631 by a
Frenchman name Pierre Vernier.
Surveying instrument employ either a
direct or retrograde vernier.
5. Compass – The magnetic compass
came into wide use during the 13th
century for determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles
between lines. It was first introduced for use in navigation. The compass
consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the center of a
6. graduated circle. The needle continues to point toward magnetic north and
gives a reading which is dependent upon the position of the graduated circle.
7. Chains and Tape. Taking accurate measurements is one of the most
important tasks a land surveyor must complete. There is a variety of tools that
can be used to take measurements including tapes, rulers, chains, and laser
devices. Pocket tapes are ideal for small-scale measurements
while measuring wheels, nylon coated steel tapes (Nyclad tapes),
and fiberglass tape measures can be used for larger distances.
8. Levels. A level can be used to read an elevation and determine differences in
elevation between two points. These tools can be handheld, optical or digital,
and are typically used in conjunction with level rods or tripods.
9. Safety Gear. Land surveyors work in all kinds of conditions and climates, but
safety is always the primary concern. High-visibility gear and safety
headwear are a must for all outdoor work crews.
10. Prism systems are used to secure control points at a comfortable and
accessible height for pinpoint accuracy. These devices can be mounted on
 surveying poles and used in conjunction with electronic distance measuring
(EDM) instruments for improved accuracy.
11. Poles, Tripods and Mounts. Even the most precise of surveying instruments can
be thrown off by an unstable mount. Poles, tripods, and other mounting
accessories are essential for surveyors to ensure solid, stable readings. These
mounts can be used for all kinds of surveying equipment, including prisms,
lasers, and levels.
1.5 SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
 Direct Measurement
Distances are actually measured in the surface of the earth using Chain
or Tape Measurement or Ranging.
 Indirect Measurement
 Measurement by Optical Means
-observations are taken through a telescope and distances
are determined by calculation as in tachometer and
triangulation.
 Electronic Methods
-Distances are measured with instrument that rely on
propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either
radio or light waves.

ANGULAR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

 Sexagesimal Units- units of angular measurement are the degree, minute, and
second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree which is defined as
1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute equals to 60
seconds.
 Centesimal Units- many countries in Europe and the Middle East use the
centesimal system where grad is the angular unit. The grad is divided into 100
centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute is subdivided into 100
centesimal seconds or 0 degree 00 minute 32.4 seconds.

THE CONCEPTS OF MISTAKES, ERRORS, AND MAGNITUDES OF ERRORS.

 MISTAKES. Are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a
surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgment, and improper execution? Mistakes are also caused by misunderstanding of
the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is referred to
as a blunder
 ERRORS. An error is defined as the difference between the true value and a measured
value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true value
and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Systematic Errors
This type of error is one which will always have the same sign and magnitude as long as
field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For changing field conditions there is a
corresponding change in magnitude of error, however, the sign remains constant. A systematic
error will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will
accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a cumulative error.

2. Accidental Errors
These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence of such errors are
matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative, and may tend in part to
compensate or average out according to laws of probability. There is no absolute way of
determining or eliminating them since the error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to be
the same as for a second observation.

Magnitude of Errors

1. DISCREPANCY – the difference between two measured values of the same quantity.
2. ACCURACY. Indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value
of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and
their expectations. The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its
actual value represents the total error in the measurement. As the measured value
approaches the actual value, the magnitude of the error becomes smaller and smaller;
and as the magnitude of the total error is decreased, the accuracy of the measurement
increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed less accurate if it deviates by a
significant amount from its expected value, and it is more accurate if the deviation is
relatively small.
3. PRECISION. Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which
any physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a
set of repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of observations is closely
clustered together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high precision.
Since precision relates to the expertness of manipulation on the part of the observer or
to the capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise instruments
under ideal conditions employing the best techniques.

THEORY of PROBABILITY.
Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the
range of possible occurrences. The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of
results only in so far as they are affected by accidental errors. It does not, however, in any way
determine the magnitude of systematic errors which may also be present.

A. MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv)

The most probable value (mvp) of a group of repeated measurements made under
similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. It refers to a quantity which, based on
available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.

mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

 Examples
1. Engr. Michael Liling sent out six groups of students to measure a distance between
two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the following six

different values: 380.50, 380.25, 379.95, 381.03, 380.35 and 381.23 meters.

Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result from accidental
errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.

Solutions:
mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

mpv= (380.50, 380.25, 379.95, 381.03, 380.35 and 381.23)/6

mpv= 380.55 m (the most probable value of the distance measured)

2. The three angles are observed at point O have the following observed values.
Observation 1 = 110°25’10”,
Observation 2 = 132°27’40”
Observation 3 = 117 °7’ 40”.
Find the most probable value of each angle.

Solutions:
a) Determining the correction to be applied.
Sum= θ1+θ2+ θ3= 110°25’10”+ 132°27’40”+ 117°07’40”
= 360°00’30’’ (sum of the angles observed about point O)
Disc = 360- 360°00’30’’
= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)
b) Determining the most probable values.
Correction = Discrepancy/ n
= -30”/3
= -10”
corrected θ1 = 110°25’10” + (-10”)
= 110°25’00’’
corrected θ2 = 132°27’40” + (-10”)
= 132°27’30’’
corrected θ3 = 117°07’40” + (-10”)
= 117°07’30”

c) Solution Check.
110°25’00’’+132°27’30’’+ 117°07’30”= 360°
B. RESIDUAL (v)
Sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any
measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or
 v=x−x
Where:
v=¿is the residual in any measurement,
x=¿ is a measurement made of a particular quantity, and
x=¿ is the most probable value of the quantity measured.

C. PROBABLE ERROR (PE)

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value of
the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus sets.

PE s =+¿ 0.6745
√
∑2
n−1
v
¿

Where:
PE m=+ ¿ 0.6745
√ ∑2
v

n ( n−1 )
¿

PE s =probable error of ony single measurement of series

PE m= probable error ofthe mean
n = number of observation

D. RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (RP)

Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of the measured quantity in the
denominator. The relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/300.00 or 1/3,000, also
written as 1:3,000

E. WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
It is usually based upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements
taken for a particular quantity, and by assuming that the weights are inversely proportional to
the square of the probable errors.

F. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
In some instances, it is required to determine how the final results is affected when
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental error. Two commonly applied
principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product of errors.
F.1. Summation of Errors
PE s =± √ PE 1 + PE 2 +...+ PE n
2 2 2

where:
PE s is the probable error of the sum
2 2 2
PE 1 + PE 2 + . . . + PE n are the probable error of each measurement.
F.2. Product of Errors
PE p=± √ ¿ ¿

where:
PE p isthe probable error of the product ,Q1 ∧¿
Q2 are the measured quantities ,∧PE 1∧PE 2 are
the probable error corresponding ¿ each quantity measuasured

Sample Problems.
A. Probable Error. The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 100.38, 100.40, 100.58, 100.48, 100.40, and 100.46 meters. Determining the
following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length.
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean’
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement

Solution:
a) n= 6 (number of observations)
∑ x =x1 + x 2+ x3 + x 4 + x 5 + x 6
= 100.38 + 100.40 + 100.58 + 100.48 + 100.40 + 100.46
= 602.70 m

Mpv or x = ∑ x / ¿ n ¿
= 602.70 / 6
= 100.45 (most probable value of the measured length)

b.) v1 =( x 1−x )=100.38−100.45=−0.07

v 2=( x 2−x )=100.40−100.45=−0.05
v3 =( x 3−x )=100.58−100.45=+ 0.13
v 4=( x 4 −x )=100.48−100.45=+ 0.03
v5 =( x 5−x )=100.40−100.45=−0.05
v 6=( x 6−x ) =100.46−100.45=+0.01

2
v1 =¿
2
v 2 =¿
2
v3 =¿
2
v 4 =¿
 2
v5 =¿
v 62=¿

∑ V 2=v 12 +v 22 +v 32 + v 42 +v 52 + v62
= 0.0049 + 0.0025 + 0.0169 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001
= 0.0278

PE s =+¿ 0.6745
√ v
n−1
∑2
¿

= +¿ 0.6745

= +¿ 0.05 m ¿
√
0.0278
6−1
¿

(probable error of a single measurement)

PE m=+ ¿ 0.6745
√ ∑2
v

n ( n−1 )
¿

¿ +¿ 0.6745

¿ +¿ 0.02 m¿
√ 0.0278
6 ( 6−1 )
¿

(probable error of the mean)

c.) Therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as 100.45 +¿ ¿ 0.02
m. This means that there is a 50 percent chance that the true distance
measured probably fails between 100.43 and 100.47 m, and that its
most probable value is 100.45 m. There is also, however; a 50 percent
chance that
the true distance lies outside this range.

PE s
d.) RP s=
MPV
0.05
¿
100.45
= 1/2, 000 (the relative precision of a single measurement)
PE m
RP m=
MPV
0.02
¿
100.45
= 1/5, 000 (the relative precision of a the mean)
B. SUMMATION OF ERRORS. The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given
by the following measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54+¿ 0. ¿03
m, b = 234.26 +¿ ¿ 0.05 m, and c = 195.70 +¿ ¿ 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of
the sum and the most probable value of the perimeter.
Perimeter = a + b + c
= 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70
= 592.50 m

PE s =± √ PE 12+ PE 22 +...+ PE n2
¿ ± √(0.03) +(0.05) +(0.04 )
2 2 2

¿ ± 0.07 m

Note : Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as 592.50 ± 0.07 m. This

means that the true length of the perimeter probably falls between
592.43 m and 592.57 m.

C.) PRODUCT OF ERRORS. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with a
certain estimated probable errors as follows: W = 253.36± 0.06 m and
L=624.15±0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable area in the
resulting calculation.

Area = L x W
= 624.15 (253.36)
= 158134.64 sq m
PE p=± √ ¿ ¿
¿ ± √¿ ¿
¿ ± 42.58 sq m
Note: Therefore, the area of the land would be expressed as 158,134.64 ± 42.58
sq m. This means that the true area of the lot probably falls between 158092.06 sq m
and 158,177.22 sq m.

D.) Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 254.18, 254.19, 254.22, and

254.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2 and 4, respectively. Determine the

weighted mean.

MEASURED LENGTH (X) ASSIGNED WEIGHT (W) P = X(W)

 254.18 m 1 254.18

254.19 m 2 508.38

254.22 m 3 762.66

254.20 m 4 1,016

SUMS ∑W = 10 ∑P= 2, 841.99

Weighted mean = ∑P / ∑W
= 2542.02/10
= 254.202 (most probable value of the distance measured)
Name: __________________________________________ Rating: _____

ACTIVITY NO. 1

Discuss the importance of surveying in chosen course.

Name: __________________________________________ Rating: _____

ACTIVITY NO. 2

Direction: Show all pertinent solution and box your final answer.

1. Measurement of three horizontal angles (see accompanying figure) about a point P are:
APB = 120 31’ 50”, BPC = 370 29’ 20” and CPD = 470 36’ 30”.If the measurement of the
single angle APD is 970 37’ 00”, determine the most probable values of the angles.

D C

P A

2. The length of line AB was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and
probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:
1st measurements = 2111.450± 0.04 m
2nd measurements= 2111.500± 0.05 m
3rd measurements = 2111.620± 0.02 m
Solve the weighted mean of the three measurements conducted.
 3. It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has been measured
at different times by different observers with equal care. The values observed were as
follows: 74039’45” (in two measurements), 74039’27” (in four measurements, and
74039’35” (in six measurements).

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

Electronic Distance Measurement.

The development of electronic distance measurement has provided a significant

advance in surveying instrumentation and techniques. These electronic instruments allow a
rapid and accurate determination of linear distances, horizontal and vertical angles suitable
even for large extent surveys requiring higher orders of precision.

Linear measurements determined by EDM instruments are based on the basic principle
that the time required for a radio or light wave to travel from one end of a line to the other is a
function of the length measured. An EDM method requires a very careful measurement in
determining the interval of time between emission and reception of the transmitted wave. The
product of the velocity of the transmitted wave and the elapsed time defines the length of the
line measured.

Classifiaction of EDM
1. Electro-Optical Instruments
2. Microwave Instruments

Advantages of EDM
1. spees and accuracy in measurement
2. lightweight and portable
3. low power requirement
4. easy to operate
5. ease in measurement over inaccessible terrain

6. applicable to the measurement of short and long lengths

7. automatically measures displays and records: slope range, azimuth, vertical angle,
horizontal distance, etc.
8. slope measurements are internally reduced to horizontal and vertical components by
built-in computers thereby eliminating the need to calculate these values.
9. automatically accumulates and averages reading for slope range, horizontal and
vertical angles.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

 DISTANCE BY PACING
Pacing consists of counting the
number of steps or paces in a required
distance. A pace is defined as the
length of a step in walking. It may be
measured from heel to heel or from
toe to toe. In surveying, pacing means
moving with measured steps; and if
the steps are counted, distances can
be determined if the length of a step is known. Counting strides instead of paces is sometimes
preferred by surveyors. A stride is equivalent to two paces or a double step.

Pace Factor (PF) = Length of a line/ Mean number of paces

DISTANCE BY TAPING
Taping consists of stretching a
calibrated tape between two points and reading
the distance indicated on the tape. It is a form of
a direct measurement which is widely used in
the construction of buildings, dams, bridges,
canals, and many other engineering as well as
non-engineering activities.

DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY

Tachymetry or tacheometry is another procedure of obtaining horizontal distances.

• Stadia Method. It was introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland and was at
that time referred to as micrometer for measuring distances.

D = Ks + C
D = Horizontal distance
K = Stadia interval factor of the instrument.

s = Stadia interval or the difference between the upper stadia hair reading and
the lower stadia hair reading.
C = stadia constant or the distance from the center of the instrument to the
principal focus.

DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL

METHODS
Unknown distances may be determined through their
relationship with known distances geometrically. Determining
distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs could
also provide sufficiently accurate results.

DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES

 1. Odometer. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to a wheel for
purposes of roughly measuring surface distances.
2. Measuring Wheel. A measuring wheel is very similar in operation to an odometer except
that it is a more portable and self-contained measuring device. It basically consists of a
small wheel which is attached to a rod and handle, and can be pushed by an operator.
As the wheel of the device is rolled along a line to be measured, a built-in calibrated
recorder automatically gives a distance readout in meters and decimals of a meter. It is
suitable for measuring distances along irregular or curved lines and boundaries.

CORRECTIONS IN MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE BY TAPING

CORRECTION IN TAPING.
Taping operations could either be of the following: taping to determine an unknown length, or
taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length. Regardless of which of these
two categories is involved, there are some corrections which are applied to the original
measurements to determine the correct and more accurate length.
1st RULE: When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are applied to
the observed length by adding.
2nd RULE: When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.
3rd RULE: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the corrections
are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.
“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the reverse when laying
out.”
SLOPE TAPING.
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the ground is of uniform
inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few meters. This very practical
method is generally preferred since measurements could be made quickly and more accurately
than horizontal measurements.

A. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr) is determined from the
difference between the true or actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape
(NL)
 Corr = TL – NL
where :
TL = actual length of tape
NL = nominal length of tape

L
C l=Corr ( )
NL

Where:
CL=ML ±C l
𝐶𝑙 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out.

CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out

ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape

B. CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance may
correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
2
C h=h (s+ d)
Where:
s = measured slope distance between points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
𝐶ℎ = slope correction or the difference between the slope length and the
horizontal distance, C h=s−d .

For gentle slopes (less than 20%) it is safe to assume that the slope distance (s) is
approximately equal to the horizontal distance (d) or
2
C h=h / 2 s
h
Slope=( )(100 % )
d
For steep slopes, 20% to 30% range.

h2 h4
C h= +
2 s 8 s3
For very steep slopes are involved such as those greater than 30%.
h
sinθ= , d=cosθ, and C h=s−d
s
 Therefore:
C h=s−scosθ

or

C h=s( s−cosθ)
C. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE
“The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls”

C t=α ( T −T s ) L

Where:

𝐶𝑡 = Correction due to temperature

α = Coefficient of linear expansion
T = is the observed temperature of the tape at the time of measurement
𝑇𝑠 = is the temperature at which the tape was standardized
L = Length of tape was standardized

D. CORRECTION DUE TO PULL (TENSION)

( Pm−P s ) L
C p=
AE

Where:
Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the correction due to incorrect
pull applied on the tape.
Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated
L = measured length of line
A = cross sectional area of the tape
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material

E. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by the tape
and the subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed to be a
parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula.
2 3
w L
C s= 2
24 P
Since W = wL or W2 = w2L2 , and substituting this to equation 1, we obtain
 2
w L
C s= 2
24 P
Where:
C s = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m)
w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)

L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)

P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

F. CORRECTION DUE TO WIND

A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the middle and
unsupported portion of the tape to one side of the line measured. This introduces an
error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less.
To avoid this this type of error, it is preferable no to undertake any taping work during
windy days. If it cannot be avoided and the measurement has to be done on windy days,
efforts should be taken to support the tape from being affected by the blowing of wind.

G. CORRECTION DUE TO NORMAL TENSION

The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points coincide with
the marked points on the pavement.
0.204 W √ AE
P N=
√ P N−P s
Where:
PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 )
E = modulus of elasticity of tape material ( kg cm2 )
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)

COMBINED CORRECTIONS.
The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature, tension, slope,
and sag may be combined as a single net correction per tape length. Each correction is
computed separately and it is important to identify which correction tends to make the tape too
long or too short. Since the sign of each correction can be determined during computation, it is
then a matter of adding these quantities algebraically to arrive at a single and overall correction
to lengths which are measured or laid out. Combined corrections are usually determined on the

basis of the nominal tape length since each correction is relatively small and do not appreciably
affect each other. The resulting net correction per tape length may be used as long as
conditions remain constant during taping. Variation in conditions may be due to changes in
temperature during the day, non-uniformity of pull exerted on the ends of the tape, the ground
may be such that it becomes necessary to support the tape at various intervals, and some other
factors which may affect the taping operation.

Sample Problems:
 1. A 50 – m course, RN, on a level ground was placed by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are shown in the
accompanying tabulation.

a.) Determine his pace factor.

b.) If the surveyor then took 565, 572, 575, 570,573, and 571 paces in walking an
unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c.) Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 512.5 m, determine the relative precision
of the measurement performed.

TRIAL LINE TAPED NO. OF PACES MEAN

DISTANCE
1 RN 58
2 NR 56
3 RN 50.00 54
4 NR 56
5 RN 55
6 NR 56

SOLUTIONS:
a. Determining Pace Factor (PF)
L=50 m
M=( 58+56+54+56+55+56)/6
M=55.83 paces
PF= 50m/55.83paces
PF= 0.896 m/pace

b. Determining Unknown Distance

Sum= (565 + 572 + 575 + 570 + 573 + 571)
Sum= 3,426 paces
M= 3,426/6
M= 571paces
PD= M(PF)
= 571 paces x 0.896 m/paces
PD= 511.62 m

c. Determining the Relative Precision

TD= 512.5 (taped distance)
PD=511.62 (paced distance)
RP= (TD- PD)/ TD
 RP= (512.5-511.62)/512.5
RP= 1/582
or
say 1/600

2. Engr. Malou W. Ang was determined a line to be 2,255.280 m when measured with a
30-m steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean
temperature of 32ᵒC. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of
standard length at 20ᵒC under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03
cm2 , its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116 /ᵒC , and the modulus of elasticity of
steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2.

SOLUTIONS:
C t=αL(T −T s )
= 0.0000116(2,255.280)(32-20)
C t = +0.314m (correction for the measured length due
to temperature. The positive sign
indicates that tape is too long)

( Pm−P s ) L
C p=
AE
= (4-5)(2,255.28)/[0.03(2.0x106)]
C p= -0.038m (the negative sign indicates that the tape is
too short)

Correct Length= 2,255.28+ 0.314 - 0.038

Correct Length= 2,255.556 m

3. A 50- m steel tape weighs 0.035 kg/m and is supported at its end points and at the 8- m
and 25- m marks. If a pull of 5 kg is applied, determine the following:
a.) correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8- m marks, 8-m and 25-m marks, and
the 25- m and 50- m marks.
b.) correction due to sag for one tape length
c.) correct distance between the ends of the tape.

Solutions:
a. determining correction due to sag for each span

2 3
ω L
C S 1= 2
24 P
2
C S 1=(0.035) ¿ ¿
= 0.0010m (correction due to sag between 0 m and 8 m marks)

ω2 L3
C S 2=
24 P2
2
C S 2=(0.035) ¿ ¿
= 0.01 m (correction due to sag between 8 m and 25 m marks)

2 3
ω L
C S 2= 2
24 P
2
C S 1=(0.035) ¿ ¿

= 0.0319 m (correction due to sag between 25 m and 50 m marks)

b. total sag correction
Cs= 0.0010+ 0.0100+ 0.0319
Cs= 0.0429 m

c. correct distance
L’= 50- 0.0429
L’= 49. 9571m
Name: _____________________________________ Rating: _____
Activity No.03
1. A 100- m steel tape is used to measure the distance XY of the line and found to be 2, 593.82
m long. During measurement, the tape is supported the ends under a pull of 8 kg and the
observed mean temperature is 320C. The tape is of standard temperature of 200C and a
tension of 12 kg. The cross sectional area of the tape is 0.04 sq. cm. The coefficient of linear
expansion is 0.0000116/0C and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/ sq. cm. The
tape weighs 1,500g.
a) Find the total correction for temperature.
b) Calculate the total correction due to sag.
c) Determine the correct length of the line?

2. A line was measured using a 50 m tape and was recorded as 746.22 m. when the average
temperature during measurement was 160C. If the tape is of standard length at 200C and a
coefficient of thermal expansion of 0.0000116m/0C. Compute the correct length of the
measured line.

3. A 50 m tape weighing 0.03kg/m is used to measure distance AB. The tape is supported at
both end points and at its midspan and then applied tension is 6 kg. Determine the total sag
correction if the measured distance is 1, 320.50m.

4. A building 38m X 45m is to be laid out with a 50m long metallic tape. If during standardization
the tape is found to be only 49.950m, determine the following:
 a.) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the building shall have the
desired dimensions.
b.) Using the same tape what should the diagonal reads.

5. In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level ground, a pacer for a survey party
counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5 and 51.5 strides respectively. He then started walking an
unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88, and 87
strides. Determine the following:
a.) Pace factor of the pacer
b.) Length of line XY
c.) Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY is 150.5
meters.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

MERIDIANS Defined.
The direction of a line is usually
defined by the horizontal angle it makes
with a fixed reference line or direction.
In surveying, this is done with reference
to a meridian which lies in a vertical
plane passing through a fixed point of
reference and through the observer’s
position

TYPES OF MERIDIANS

1. True Meridian – sometimes known as astronomic or geographic meridian. This line

passes through the geographic north and south poles of the earth and the observer’s
position and usually used for marking the boundaries of land.
2. Magnetic Meridian – a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic lines
of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a
 3. compass held at the observer’s position. Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the true
meridians since they converge at a magnetic pole which is located some distance away
from the true geographic poles.
4. Grid Meridian – a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of
plane rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides with a true
meridian, is usually selected and all other meridians are made parallel to this meridian.
The use of grid meridians is applicable only to plane surveys of limited extent. In such
types of survey it is assumed that all measurements are all projected to a horizontal
plane and that all meridians are parallel straight lines.
5. Assumed Meridians – an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for
convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining
station or some well-defined and permanent point. It is used only on plane surveys of
limited extent since they are difficult or may be impossible to reestablish if the original
reference points are lost or obliterated.

Expedient Methods of Establishing Meridians

1. Establishing magnetic meridian by compass.

2. Determining true north by aid of sun and a plumb line.
3. Determining true north by the rising and setting of the sun.
4. Determining true north by Polaris.
5. Determining true south by the Southern Cross.
6. Determining direction of true north (or south) by wrist watch.

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS.

1. The Degree – The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is
divided into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as the angle which
requires 1/360 of the rotation needed to obtain one complete revolution. The direction of
a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes with a fixed reference line or
direction revolution. The basic unit is the degree, which is further subdivided into 60
minutes, and the minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. The ᵒ, ‘ and ‘’ are used to denote
degrees, minutes and seconds, respectively.
2. The Grad – The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system the
circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is subdivided
into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further subdivided into seconds.
The symbol g, c and cc are used to denote grads, centesimal minutes, and centesimal
seconds, respectively. It will be noted that 200 grads is equal to 180 degrees.
3. The Mil – The circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils, or 1600 mils is equal
to 90 degrees. It is commonly used in military operations as in fire direction of artillery
units.
4. The Radian – The radian is another measure of angle used frequently for a host of
calculations. One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an
 arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle. One radian equals 180 𝑝𝑖 or
approximately 57.2958 degrees and, one degree equals 𝑝𝑖 180 or approximately
0.0174533 radians. The radian is sometimes referred to as the natural unit of angle
because there is no arbitrary number in its definition. It is used in computations such as
determining the length of circular arcs and where high speed electronic digital computers
are used.

DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS.

1. True North – north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed in the
direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole and is always shown
along a vertical line. It is symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the letter TN.
2. Magnetic North – a north point that is established by means of a magnetized compass
needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. At any point on the earth’s surface
its direction is indicated by the direction of the magnetic lines of force passing through
the point at a particular time. Magnetic north may be located either east or west of true
north. The point is usually symbolized by a half arrowhead or the letter MN.
3. Grid North – a north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel to a
selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed towards true north. Grid
north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letter GN or Y
4. Assumed North – is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point. It
may be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letter AN.

DIRECTION OF LINES.
The direction of line is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes with an established
line of reference.
KINDS OF ANGLES
1. Interior Angles – The angle between adjacent lines in a closed polygon. These angle
may be measured clockwise and counterclockwise.
Sum of Interior angle for closed polygon = (n – 2) 180°
where;
n = number of sides
 2. Deflection Angles – The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line.
It may turn to the right (clockwise) or to the left (counterclockwise) and it is necessary to
append the letters R or L to the numerical value to define the direction in which the angle
has been turned. Right deflections (positive) are considered to have signs opposite to
left deflections (negative).
3. Angles to the Right – Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the preceding line
to the succeeding line.
4. Bearings – The bearing of the line is the acute horizontal angle between the reference
meridian and the line. A quadrantal system is used to specify bearings such that a line
may fall under one of the following quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and SW.
5. Forward and Back Bearing – Using the quadrantal system any line in the surface of the
earth may be defined by two directions which differ from each other by exactly 180
degrees. When the bearing of a line is observed in the direction in which the survey
progresses, it is referred to as a forward bearing, if the bearing of the same line is
observed in an opposite direction it is called the back bearing.
6. Azimuths – The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the
meridian and the line measured in clockwise direction from south branch of the meridian.
7. Forward and Back Azimuth
Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 deg., subtract 180 deg. to

obtain the back azimuth.

Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 deg., add 180 deg. to

determine the back azimuth.

BEARING AZIMUTH

MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
The magnetic poles are not points but oval areas located about 2,000 km away from the
actual location of the geographic poles of the earth. The horizontal angle and direction by which
the needle of a compass deflects from the true meridian at any particular locality is called the
magnetic declination. Deflection of the needle may be eastward or westward of the true
meridian. At any location on the earth’s surface magnetic bearings (or azimuths) may easily be
converted to true bearings (or azimuths) and vice-versa, if the declination is known.
An east declination occurs if the north end of the needle is east of true north. It is a west
declination if the north end of the needle is west of true north.

TN MN MN TN

East Declination west declination

W E W E

magnetic meridian true meridian

true meridian magnetic meridian

MS TS TS MS

EXAMPLES
1. Compute the angles GOH, whose bearing OG N 750
15’ W and OH, S 520 05’ W.

Solution:
0
Let: θ1=bearing angleof OG∨70 15 '
0
θ2=bearing angle of OH ∨52 05 '
∝=angle GOH
0
∴ ∝=180 −¿
= 1800 – (700 15’ + 520 05’)
= 570 40’

2. Determine the equivalent azimuth of line EF.

Solution:
Let ∝=Bearing angle of EF∨S 660 30' E
γ 1=azimuthof EF

γ 1=360−∝
 0
γ 1=360−66 30 '
0
γ 1=293 30 '
3. Convert azimuth 1350 to bearing.

Solution:

Let: γ=azimuth of 1350

β=bearing of EF
0
∴ β=180 −γ
¿ 1800−135 0
0
¿ 45
¿ N 450 00' W

4. In a survey made when the

declination was 2°10’ W the
magnetic bearing of the given line
was N 38°20’E. The declination in
the same locality is now 3°07’E.
Determine the true bearing and the
present magnetic bearing.

Magnetic Bearing (past) N38°20’E

Declination (past) -2°10’
True Bearing= 38°20’-2°10’
True Bearing= N36°10’E
Declination (present)= -3°07’

Therefore, Magnetic Bearing (present)= 36°10’-3°07’= N33°03’E

Name: ________________________________________________ Rating: ________

Activity No. 04

Show all pertinent solution and box your final answer.

1. Compute the angles AOB, COD, and EOF from the following set of lines whose
magnetic bearings are given:
a.) OA, N 390 25’ E and OB, N 750 50’ E
b.) OC, N 340 14’ E and OD, N 530 22’ W
c.) OE, S 150 04’ E and OF, S 360 00’ W

2. Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths.

a) AB, N 250 25’ W
b) BC, Due East
c) CD, S 500 10’ E
d) DE, S 450 50’ W

3. Converting azimuths to bearings.

a) Azimuth line AB = 2300 30’
b) Azimuth line BC = 1120 46’
c) Azimuth line CD = 2700 00’
d) Azimuth line DE = 2280 15’

4. Given the true north is 0037’E of Grid north. The magnetic declination in June 2009 was
100 27’W. If the annual variation was 10’ per annum towards North and the grid bearing
of line AB was N 820 32’ E, what will be the magnetic bearing of line AB in January
2020?
REFERENCE/S:

 Anderson, J. M. and Mikhail, E. M. (2002). Surveying: Theory and Practice.

7th Edition
 Ghilani, Charles D. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics.
14th edition, Global edition
 La Putt, J. P. (2013 Reprint). Elementary Surveying. 3rd Edition
 La Putt, J. P. (2013 Reprint). Higher Surveying. Second Edition. 1990
 Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying with construction applications. 8th edition.