CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

LEARNERS
AND LEARNING
THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLE
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1: Learner Centered Psychological Principles
• Learner - center of instruction
• Put together by the American Psychological Association
• Aspects of the 14 principles
[ ] Internal
[ ] Deal holistically with learners - organized set of principles
[ ] Divided into 4 categories
• Cognitive/metacognitive
• Motivational and affective
• Developmental and social
• Individual difference factors
[ ] Apply to all learners
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
• Nature of the Learning process
- Learning is an intentional process
- Successful learners: active, goal-directed, self - regulating, assume personal responsibility
• Goals of the learning process
- Learners with time and guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge
- Students must pursue personally relevant goals
• Construction of knowledge
- Link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways
- nature of links: adding to, modifying, reorganizing existing knowledge or skills
• Strategic thinking
- learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals
• Thinking about thinking
- higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and
critical thinking
- metacognition
• Context of learning
- Learning is influenced by environmental factors such as culture, technology, and instructional
practices
- learning does not occur in vacuum
- culture or group influences affects motivation, orientation, and ways of thinking
- technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learner's level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities and thinking strategies
Motivational and Affective Factors
• Motivational and emotional influences on learning
- motivation affects how much is learned. Motivation is affected by the emotional states, beliefs,
interests, goals and habits of thinking.
- positive emotions (curiosity, mild anxiety) can enhance learning
- intense negative emotions ( anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) interfere with learning.
• Intrinsic motivation to learn
- intrinsic motivation stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty
- creativity, higher order thinking and natural curiosity contribute to motivation to learn
- major indicators of intrinsic motivation:
> curiosity
> flexible and insightful thinking
> creativity
- intrinsic motivation can be facilitated by tasks that are:
> personally relevant and meaningful

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> appropriate in complexity
> comparable to real - world situations
• Effects of motivation on effort
- Without learners motivation to learn, the willingness to exert effort is unlikely without coercion
- effort -> indicator of motivation
Developmental and Social Factors
• Developmental influences on learning
- Learning is most effective when differential dev't within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social domains is taken into account
- material must be appropriate to the developmental level
- we must not only focus in one domain of learning hence the danger of overemphasis on one
type of developmental readiness
• Social influences on learning
- learning is influence by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with
others
Individual differences Factors
• Individual differences in learning
- learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity
• Learning and diversity
- learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural and social
backgrounds are taken into account
Standards and Assessment
• Set appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress - including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment - are integral parts of the learning
process.
- ongoing assessment -> provide valuable feedback about progress towards the learning goals
- Standardized assessment -> provide one type of information about achievement levels
- Performance assessment -> provide other sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcomes
- Self - assessments -> improve students' self appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self -
directed learning

Summary of the 14 Principles (Alexander and Murphy )

1. The knowledge base - foundation of all future learning
2. Strategic processing and control - develop skill to reflect and regulate thoughts
3. Motivation and Affect
4. Development and individual differences
5. Situation and Context

UNIT 2: Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

MODULE 1: Human Development: Meaning, concepts, and approaches
Two approaches to human development
• Traditional
• Life - span
Characteristics of human development (life - span approach) [Paul Baltes]
1. Development is lifelong
2. Development is plastic -> plasticity is the potential for change
- development is possible throughout the life span
3. Development is multidimensional - products of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional process
> biological process - change in physical nature
▪︎development is relatively orderly
○ proximodistal and cephalocaudal pattern
▪︎development takes place gradually

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> cognitive process - changes in individual's thoughts, intelligence and language
> socioemotional process - changes in the individual's relationships with other people, changes
in emotions, and changes in personality
4. Development is contextual
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation

MODULE 2: The stages of Development and Developmental tasks

Concept of developmental tasks
Developmental tasks (Robert Havighurst)
- tasks that must be achieved to lead to happiness and success, while failure leads to
unhappiness
8 Developmental Stages (Santrock)
1. Pre- natal period (conception to birth)
○ tremendous growth - from a single cell to an organism
2. Infancy ( birth to 18 to 24 months)
○ time of extreme dependence on adults
3. Early childhood ( end of infancy to 5-6 years (grade1))
○ pre-school years
○ self - sufficient and can care for themselves
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years)
○ elementary school years
○ reading, writing, arithmetic
○ achievement is a central theme and self - control increases
5. Adolescence ( 10 - 12 up to 18 - 22 years)
○ rapid physical changes
○ pursuit of independence and identity is prominent
○ thought is logical, abstract and idealistic
6. Early adulthood (late teens or early 20s to 30s)
○ establish personal and economic independence, career development, starting a family and
rearing children
7. Middle adulthood ( 40 to 60)
○ expanding personal and social involvement
○ assisting the next generation
○ maintaining and reaching satisfaction in a career
8. Late adulthood ( 60 and above)
○ adjustment for decreasing strength, life review, and retirement

6 Developmental stages (Havighurst)

1. Infancy and early childhood (0 - 5 yrs)
2. Middle childhood (6 - 12 yrs)
3. Adolescence ( 13 - 18 yrs)
4. Early adulthood (19 - 29 yrs)
5. Middle Adulthood ( 30 - 60 yrs)
6. Later maturity ( 61 +)

MODULE 3: Issues on Human Development

1. Nature versus Nurture
> Nature - biological inheritance
> Nurture - environmental experiences
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
> Continuity - gradual, cumulative change
> Discontinuity - distinct changes
3. Stability vs. Change
☆ the key to development is the interaction of these aspects

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MODULE 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development
○ Teachers as the Consumers/End Users of Research
○ Teachers as Researchers

○ The Scientific Method

1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Experimental research - determine cause of an effect or phenomenon
Descriptive research - describing data and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon. No need to
perform experiment.

○ Research Designs
1. Case study
• In- depth look at an individual
2. Correlational study
• Determines associations
3. Experimental
• determines cause and effect relationship
• involves manipulating variables
• relies on controlled method, random assignments and manipulation of variable
• weakness: Hawthorne effect
4. Naturalistic observation
• focuses on children's experiences in naturalistic setting
5. Longitudinal
• designs studies and follows through a single group over a period of time
• records developmental trends
6. Cross - sectional
• individuals of different ages are compared at one another
• record and monitor developmental trends
7. Sequential
• combined cross - sectional and longitudinal approaches to learn about life - span development
8. Action research
• reflective process of progressive problem - solving led by individuals working with other teams
or as part of a "community of practice"
• stem from the questions of a teacher about their everyday classroom practice
Data - gathering techniques
1. Observation
2. Physiological measures - heart rate, hormonal levels, bone growth, body weight, and brain activity
3. Standardized
4. Interviews and questionnaire
5. Life - history records

Ethical Principles (see Ethical Principles)

Key points from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
1. Research procedures must never harm children physically or psychologically.
2. Participants have the right to full information about the research. Their decision must be based on
"informed consent"
3. Questions must be answered in a truthful manner and understood.
4. Respect for privacy . Information gathered must be confidential.
The Data Privacy Act of 2012 ( R.A 10173)

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Impact of Teachers' Research Involvement on teachers
1. Become more reflective, critical and analytical
2. Become more deliberate in their decision - making and actions
3. Develops professional disposition of lifelon learning, reflective and mindful learning, and self -
transformation
4. Lead to rethinking and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher
5. Teaches that learning to teach is inherehtly connected to learning to inquire

☆ teacher research is something done by the teachers and not something done to teachers

UNIT 3: Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories

MODULE 5: Freud's Psychoanalytic and Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud - studied the development of personality

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Erogenous zones - specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure needs
Fixation - results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage

○ Oral Stage (birth to 18 mos)

Erogenous zone: mouth
Activity: sucking
Fixation: Oral receptive and oral aggressive
Oral receptive - stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat
Oral aggressive - tendency to bite nails, use curse words, gossip
○ Anal Stage (18 mos to 3 years)
Erogenous zone: anus
Activity: eliminating and retaining feces, toilet training
Fixation: anal retentive and anal expulsive
Anal retentive - obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control
Anal expulsive - the person may be messy and disorganized
○ Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Erogenous zone: genitals
Activity: fondling their genitals
Oedipus complex and electra complex
○ Latency stage ( 6 to puberty)
Activity: sexual urges are repressed. Focus in physical and academic skills
○ Genital stage (puberty onwards)
Activity: sexual urges are awakened

Freud's Personality Components

• The Id
- operates in the pleasure principle
- focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of needs
• The Ego
- operates using the reality principle
- it is practical since it knows that being impulsive or selfish can reult to negative consequences
• The Superego
- embodies the person's moral aspect
- likened to conscience

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MODULE 6: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Genetic epistemology - theoretical framework of Piaget
Basic Cognitive Concepts
Schema - cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment.
Assimilation - process of fitting new experiences into an existing or previously created schema
Accommodation - creating a new schema based on another experience related to ten previous one
Equilibration - achieving proper balance between assimilation and accomodation
Cognitive disequilibrium - discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood
Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to infancy) ( 1 - 2 )
- prominence of the senses and muscle movement
• object permanence - ability of a child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight
Stage 2. Pre- operational stage ( 2- 7) [pre- school years]
- intelligence is intuitive in nature
- child can now make mental representations. Closer to using symbols.
• Symbolic function - ability to represent objects and events
• Egocentrism - tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to asusme that everyone
also has his same point of view
• Centration - tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude
other aspects
• Irreversibility - inability to reverse their thinking
• Animism - attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects
• Transductive reasoning - type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Reasoning is from particular to particular
Stage 3. Concrete - operational stage (8 - 11) [elementary years]
- ability of the child to think logically but in terms of concrete objects
• Decentering - ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations
• Reversibility - follow that certain operations can be done in reverse
• Conservation - ability to know that certain properties of objects do notmchange even if there
is a change in appearance
• Seriation - ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as
weight, volume or size
Stage 4. Formal operational stage (12 - 15)
- can solve abstract problems and van hypothesize
• Hypothetical reasoning - ability to come up with different hypothesis and gather data to make
a decision
• Analogical reasoning - ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possinle answers
• Deductive reasoning - ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation

MODULE 7: Erikson's Psycho- Social Theory of Development

Introduction to the 8 stages
- Erikson was influenced by Freud's theory
- also known as biopsychosocial theory
- The epigenetic principle states that earlier stages serves as the foundation for the later stages
- "syntonic" -> positive disposition
- "dystonic" -> negative disposition
- Virtue -> achieved when a stage is managed well. The two forces must be balanced.
- Malignancy - too little positive, too much negative task.
- Maladaptation - too much positive, too little negative
- Mutuality - reflects on the effect of generations on each other (parents to children, etc)
- Generativity - reflects the significant relationship between adults and best interest of children (stage 7)

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Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (1 to 1.5 years)
Goal: develop trust without completely eliminating mistrust
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: sensory maladjustment
Malignant tendency: withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, psychosis
Virtue: hope
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (18 mos to 3 or 4 yrs old)
Goal: achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt
- parents must be "firm but tolerant"
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: Impulsiveness
Malignant tendency: compulsiveness
Virtue: willpower or determination
3. Initiative vs. Guilt ( 3 or 4 to 5 or 6) ( 3 to 5)
Goal: learn initiative without too much guilt
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: ruthlessness
Malignant tendency: inhibition
Virtue: courage
4. Competence vs. Inferiority (6 - 12 ) or Industry vs. Inferiority
Goal: develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: narrow virtuosity
Malignant tendency: inertia
Virtue: competency
5. Ego identity vs. Role confusion ( adolescence to 18 or 20 yrs old)
Goal: achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion
- Ego identity -> knowing who you are and how you fit in the society
- psychosocial moratorium -> taking a "time out"
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: fanaticism
Malignant tendency: repudiation
Virtue: fidelity
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation ( 18 to 30) (young adulthood)
Goal: The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: promiscuity
Malignant tendency: exclusion
Virtue: Love
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation ( 20s to 50s) ( middle adulthood)
Goal: cultivate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation
Generativity - extension of love
Stagnation - self -absorption, caring for no one
- "midlife crisis"
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: overextension
Malignant tendency: rejectivity
Virtue: caring
8. Ego integrity vs. Despair (60s) (late adulthood)
Goal: develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair
Ego integrity - coming to terms with your life and thereby coming to terms with the end of life
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Maladaptive tendency: presumption
Malignant tendency: disdain Virtue: wisdom

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MODULE 8: Kolhberg's Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg - interested in the development of moral reasoning. Based on Piaget.
- moral dilemmas
Six Stages of Moral Development
A. Preconventional level
Moral reasoning is based on the consequence/result of the act, not on whether the act itself is good or bad.
1. Punishment/Obedience
- motivated by fear of punishment. Action is done to avoid punishment
2. Mutual Benefit
- motivated to act by the benefit obtained later
B. Conventional
Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or "norms" of society.
3. Social Approval
- motivated by what others expect in behavior - good boy/good girl
- motivated by what others will say
4. Law and order
- motivated to act in order to uphold law and order.
C. Post - conventional
Moral reasoning is based on endurance or consistent principles. Recognizes the principles behind the law.
5. Social contract
- acts based on social justice and the common good.
- laws that are wrong can be changed
6. Universal principles
- development of one's conscience
- having set of standards to possess moral responsibility and societal changes regardless of the
consequences.

MODULE 9: Vygotsky's Socio - cultural Theory of Development

Key theme: social interaction plays an important role in cognitive development
Scaffolding - appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task
• Factors of Cognitive Development (Vygotsky)
(1) Social interaction, (2) cultural factors, (3) language
Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of actual development- what the child can perform alone
Zone of proximal development - difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she
can accomplish with the guidance of another
Scaffold and fade - away technique
Four levels of Scaffolding
1. I do, you watch
2. I do, you help
3. You do, I help
4. You do, I watch
☆ Learning depends on the (1) skill of the MKO, (2) learners readiness and ability, and difficulty of the skill
being learned

MODULE 10: Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

• The Microsystem
- layer nearest the child
- covers the most basic relationships and interactions that a child has in his environment
- two directions of effect: away and towards the child (bi-directional influences)
• The Mesosytem
- connection between the structure of the child's microsystem
• The Exosystem
- bigger social system that the child does not function directly

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• The Macrosystem
- the outermost part
- includes cultural values, customs, and laws
• The Chronosystem
- element of time as it relates to a child's environments
- patterns of stability and change

PART 2: DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES

MODULE 11: Pre - natal Period
- pre - natal a.k.a antenatal development

Stages of Pre - natal Development

(1.) Germinal, (2.) Embryonic, (3.) Fetal

1. Germinal period ( 2 weeks after conception)

a. Creation of the zygote
b. Continued cell division
c. Attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall
• blastocyst - inner layer of cell ; trophoblast - outer layer of cell
2. Embryonic period (2 - 8 weeks after conception)
Zygote -> embryo
a. Cell differentiation intensifies
b. Life - support systems for the embryo develop, and;
c. Organs appear
Layers of cells formed:
○ endoderm (inner layer) - digestive and respiratory system
○ mesoderm (middle layer) - circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory, and reproductive
systems
○ ectoderm (outermost layer) - nervous system, sensory receptors, skin
Organogenesis - process of organ formation
Life support systems:
○ placenta - disk shaped group of tissues
○ umbilical cord - connects the baby to the placenta
○ amnion - bag ckntaining fluids where the embryo floats
3. Fetal period ( 2 - 7 mos after conception)
3 months - size: 3 in., weight: 1 oz., genitals are formed - can determine the gender
4 months - size: 4 in., weight: 4- 7 oz., mom feels legs and arms move
5 months - size: 12 in., weight: ~1 lb, finger and toe nails are formed
6 months - size: 14 in., weight: 1 and 1/2 lbs.,
7 months - size: 16 in., weight: 3 lbs
8 - 9 months: weight: ~ 4 lbs
Teratology and hazards to pre - natal development
Teratology - field that investigates the causes of congenital defects
1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs
- antibiotic, diet pills, aspirin, coffee, thalidomide, cocaine
2. Psychoactive drugs
- nicotine, caffeine, illegal drugs ( marijuana, cocaine, heroin), alcohol, cigarettes
3. Environmental hazards
- radiation, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, exposure to heat
4. Other maternal factors
- rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, anxiety, stress, age
5. Paternal factors

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MODULE 12: Infancy and Toddlerhood ( first 2 years of life)
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
A. Cephalocaudal trend ( conception to 5 months)
- head grows more than the body
- use upper limbs before their lower limbs
B. Proximodistal trend ( pre- natal from 5 months to birth)
- fetus grows from inside the body outwards
Motor Development (Reflexes)
1. Sucking reflex
2. Rooting reflex - stroking the cheeks
3 Gripping reflex
4. Curling reflex
5. Startle/ Moro reflex - responds to sudden sounds or movements
6. Gallant reflex - stroking the middle and lower back
7. Tonic Neck reflex - abdomens

MODULE 13: Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers

Cognitive development – how the baby thinks. Includes language, communication and exploration skills.

Sensorimotor Stage
- Infants construct understanding of the world through the senses with physical, motoric actions.
Six Sub-Stages of Sensorimotor stage
1. Simple reflexes
- Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors
- ex. Sucking of objects, following moving objects using the eyes, palmar grasp
2. First habits and primary circular reactions phase
- Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits and primary circular reactions.
- Primary reaction – action is focused on the infant’s body
- Circular reaction – repetition of an action that occurred by chance
3. Secondary circular reactions phase
- Development of habits
- Development of coordination of vision and prehension
- Secondary circular reactions – repetition of an action involving an external object. Action focused on
an object outside the body of an infant.
4. Coordination of reactions stage secondary circular
- Coordination of vision and touch - hand – eye coordination; of schemes and intentionality
- “first proper intelligence”
5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
- The child experiments with new behaviour
- Discovery of new means to meet goals
- “young scientist”
6. Internalization of Schemes (Invention of new means through mental combination)
- Develop the ability to use primitive symbols and enduring mental representations
 Cognitive development of Infants/ Toddlers
Before After
Egocentric Object/ world – oriented
Action - based Mentally - based
Does not involve coordination of schemes Involves intentionality, novelty and
curiosity
Sensorimotor thinking Symbolic thinking
“Out of Sight, out of mind” Object permanence
Infantile amnesia – inability to recall events that happened when we were very young
Stages of Language Development
1. Cooing – vowel sounds
2. Babbling – consonant and vowel sounds

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3. One – word utterances (holophrases)
4. Two – utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure
 Overextension error – overextends the meaning of a word in his/her existing lexicon to cover
things and ideas for which a new word is lacking
 Telegraphic speech - 2 or 3 word utterance with rudimentary syntax without prepositions and
articles
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – metaphorical organ responsible for language learning

MODULE 14: Socio – emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

Elements of wholesome Socio-emotional Development
o Attachment
 John Bowly – father of attachment theory
 Responsivene interaction is the key to a good social development
o Temperament
Nine categories of Temperament (Thomas, Chess and Birch)
1. Activity level
2. The mood
3. Threshold for Distress
4. Rhythmicity of children – unpredictability of the baby
5. Intensity of response
6. Approach – Withdrawal (Approach to new situations)
7. Distractibility
8. Adaptability
9. Child’s attention span (persistence)
Three Basic Types of temperaments
1. Easy child
2. Difficult child
3. Slow-to-warm-up child
The Development of Emotions
o Early Infancy (0 – 6 mos)
 6 to 10 weeks – emergence of social smile
 3 to 4 months – laughter is developed
o Later Infancy (7 -12 mos)
 Fear, disgust, anger
 Fears: unfamiliar situations or objects and separation anxiety
 Social referencing – recognizing the emotion of others and use this to react to novel
situations
o Toddlerhood years (1 – 2)
 Shame, embarrassment, pride

UNIT 3: Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

MODULE 15: Preschoolers’ Physical Development
Key Themes: Gross and Fine motor skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition and sleep, role of caregivers
Significant changes in Physical Growth
 Toddler’s Center of Gravity – higher level (Chest level)
 Preschooler’s Center of Gravity – lower level (near the belly button)
 Best time to teach balance (e. g. riding a bike)
 Instill habits of good dental hygiene since permanent teeth will appear in this age
Gross and Fine Motor skills
 Gross Motor
 Locomotor skills – going from one place to another
 Non – locomotor – child stays in place
 Manipulative skills – involve projecting and receiving objects

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Fine Motor Development
 Handedness (4 yrs) – preference of the use of one hand over the other

Preschoolers’ Artistic Development

Stages of Drawing (Viktor Lowenfeld)
o Scribbling stage – large zig- zag lines which becomes circular markings
o Preschematic stage – include early representations. Adults recognize the drawings. Children
tend to give the same name to their drawings.
o Schematic stage – elaborate scenes are depicted. Children draw from experience and
exposure.
Repetition – hallmark of early drawing

Role of Caregivers
 For all Preschoolers
1. Engage them in simple games
2. Provide toys for catching and throwing
3. Have balancing activities
4. Allow rough and tumble play
5. Ensure that they get enough rest and sleep
6. Model good eating habits
 For three – year olds
1. Develop eye – hand coordination
2. Play ball
3. Show children different movements
4. Encourage free expression
5. Provide a variety of art experiences
 For four – year olds
1. Encourage physical development
2. Set up an obstacle course indoors
3. Encourage walking with a beanbag
 For Five – years old
1. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance
2. Teach sack – walking and twist – em and etc.
3. Play games that teach right and left directions
4. Helps children use a pair of scissors

MODULE 16: Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers

o Symbolic stage – children are able to draw objects that are not present, by the dramatic increase in
their language and make – believe play.
o Intuitive stage – children use primitive reasoning and ask many questions
 The cognitive development of the Preschoolers follow the pre-operational stage.
o Fast mapping – process by which children absorb the meaning of a new word after hearing it once
or twice in a conversation
o Lower limit of ZPD – level of development of the preschool child independently
o Upper Limit of ZPD – level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an
able instructor
o Short – term Memory – can retain information up to 15 to 30 seconds without rehearsal
o Long – term Memory – formed between ages 2 and 5
o Scripts – involves storing information about the sequence of events during familiar situations
o Rehearsal and organizing information – aid to improve the processing of information
o Theory of Mind – refers to the individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes work
o Social experience includes (1) communication, (2) imitation, (3) make – believe play, (4) language,
(5) social interaction

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MODULE 17: Socio – Emotional Development of the Preschooler
 The socio – emotional development of pre-schoolers follows the initiative vs. guilt stage
 Big ideas on Preschoolers’ socio – emotional development
1. The development of initiative is crucial
2. Healthy self – concept is needed
3. Environmental factors influence gender identity
4. Social development Is shown through the stages of play
5. Caregiving styles of parents and teachers affect the development
6. Preschoolers are interested in making friendship
o Judicious permissiveness – setting realistic boundaries that keep pre-schoolers safe and respectful
of self and others
o Self – concept – refers to the way one sees himself. Mainly focuses on observable characteristics.
 Self – esteem – refers to one’s judgments about one’s worth
o Gender typing – process of forming gender roles, gender – based preferences and behaviors
accepted by society
o Gender identity – view of being masculine or feminine
 Parten’s Stages of Play
1. Unoccupied – child appears to not play but direct attention to things that interest him
2. Onlooker – child spends time watching others play
3. Solitary Play – child starts to play on his own
4. Parallel Play – child plays with toys similar to those near him. Only plays beside but not with them
5. Associative Play –child plays with others. There is interaction but no task assignment, rules and
organization (Play, no rules)
6. Cooperative – child play with others bound by some agreed upon rules and roles (Play with rules)
 Caregiving Styles
Responsiveness – pertain to expression of affection and communication
Demandingness – refers to the level of control and expectations. Involves discipline and confrontational
strategies
o Baumrind’s caregiving styles
 Authoritative – high demandingess, high responsiveness
 Authoritarian – high demandingness, low responsiveness
 Permissive – low demandingness, high responsiveness
 Negligent – low demandingness, low responsiveness

UNIT 4: Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler)

MODULE 18: Physical Development of Primary Schoolers (Grades 1 – 3 )
Physical growth in this stage involves:
1. Good muscle control and coordination
2. Developing eye – hand coordination
3. Good personal hygiene
4. Good safety habits
Height and Weight
Height: Increases by 2 inches a year
Weight: Increases 6.5 lbs a year
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years – peak bone-producing years
Teachers must teach students good dietary and exercise habits
Large muscle control are at play. Do not force students to write since it may only frustrate them
Motor Development
 Children move a lot
 Have a good sense of balance
 Unimanual and bimanual activities are easier
 Can print name and copy simple designs

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 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
LEARNERS
AND LEARNING

o Different Motor skills

1. Coordination – series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way
2. Balance – ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions
Static Balance and Dynamic Balance
3. Speed – ability to cover a great distance in the shortest time possible
4. Agility – ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body
5. Power – ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period
Milestones of Primary School- age children
Fine Motor skills Gross Motor Skills
Zip zippers and lace shoes Hop, skip, jump
Learn piano and violin Walk on balance beam
Control pencil Throwing, catching and kicking
Write and draw with more Participate in organized games
control
Some Issues Affecting Physical Development
1. Obesity
2. Childhood Nutrition
3. Sleep

MODULE 19: Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers

 The cognitive development of Primary Schoolers follow the Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 yrs)
Features of the Concrete Operational Stage
1. Logic – children uses inductive logic (specific experiences to general principles). Have difficulty using
deductive logic (general principle to specific events)
2. Reversibility – awareness that actions can be reversed
Cognitive Milestones
 Leave behind egocentric thinking (Decentration)
 Skills learned are in sequential manner
 Reasoning is still immature
 Can tell left from right
 Use the words and language they learn from school
 Understand time and days of the week
 Enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes

MODULE 20: Socio – Emotional Development of Primary Schoolers

 The socio – emotional development of primary schoolers follows the Industry vs. Inferiority stage
 Industry – child’s involvement in situations where long, patient work is demanded
 Inferiority – feeling created when child gets a feeling of failure when they cannot finish of master
their school work
 Primary schoolers are now aware of others desires and needs
 Fairness and equality becomes important to primary schoolers
 Peer groups – characterized by children who belongs approximately to the same age group. Prefer
to be in groups with their same gender
 Primary schoolers like receiving positive feedback

UNIT 5: Late Childhood (The intermediate Schooler)

MODULE 21: Physical Development of the Intermediate Schooler
 Puberty begins. Puberty is the period in which the body undergoes physical changes and becomes
capable of sexual reproduction
 Girls are 2 years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity
 Weight: 2.3 to 3.2 kg. per year
 Height: 2 ½ inches

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 CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
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AND LEARNING
 Children may experience growth spurts
 Bodily structures such as liver, muscles and skeletons follow a normal curve of development
 Physical appearance is a concerning element

MODULE 22: Cognitive Development of Intermediate Schoolers

 Cognitive development still follows the concrete operational stage
 Become interested about the future and potential careers
 Capable of understanding concepts without having hands- on experiences
 Wide application of “word attack”
 Older children can focus more for long periods of hours especially if they are interested
 Television – one of the first technological advancement in schools

MODULE 23: Socio – Emotional Development of Intermediate Schoolers

 Majority of the time of the students is spent outside their homes, either with friends or alone but not with
adults
 Development of the feelings of self – competence
 Employ more social comparison
 Increase in perspective taking
 Development of emotional intelligence. EQ is the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others to
guide and motivate behaviour
 Four main areas of EQ:
 Developing emotional self – awareness
 Managing emotions (self- control)
 Reading emotions (perspective taking)
 Handling emotions (resolves problems)
 5 types of peer status:
 Popular
 Average
 Neglected
 Rejected
 Controversial

UNIT 6: Adolescence ( The High School Learner)

MODULE 24: Physical Development of High School Learners
 Adolescence – period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive, and socio – emotional changes
 Hormone flooding causes acceleration in growth spurts
 Process of sexual maturation:
 Secretion of gonadotropic hormones
 Gonads are stimulated by gonadotropic hormones
 The stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone and estrogen
 Spermache – enlargement of the testis glands. Signals the first sign and sexual maturity for boys
 Menarche – first menstruation
 Secular trend – phenomenon of more rapid physical maturation during this century.
 Sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests and style of behaviour
 Sexual orientation – person’s tendency to be attracted to people of the same sex, opposite sex, or both
sex

MODULE 25: Cognitive Development of High School Learners

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