1.

Geological characteristics
of hydrocarbon reservoirs

1.3.1 Reservoir rocks Aspects studied during exploration include the

reservoir’s shape, size, gas and oil contents, and its
Hydrocarbons accumulate below the Earth’s surface in physical parameters such as temperature, pressure and
deposits known as reservoirs. All accessible and solubility of the gas in the oil. The porosity and
commercially viable reservoirs feature two essential permeability of the hydrocarbon-bearing rocks, their
elements: reservoir rock and a hydrocarbon trap. vertical and lateral variations, and, finally, the amount
The reservoir rock, which is porous and of fluids to be extracted in the times deemed suitable
permeable, contains the hydrocarbons; determining for full development of the reservoir, are also studied.
the nature of this rock and its geometry is the goal of The reservoir’s size and shape depend on its
hydrocarbon exploration. The boundaries of the rock sedimentary origin and, above all, on the sedimentary
may coincide with the actual accumulation of environment in which it originated. Generally,
hydrocarbons, although the latter are usually reservoirs are not homogeneous: variations in the
concentrated in a well-defined portion of a more rock’s characteristics are normally due to primary
extensive formation. Reservoir rocks must have pores depositional processes.
(empty spaces): the percentage of empty space in the A reservoir’s sedimentary environment is
total volume of the rock is known as porosity. The characterized by physical, chemical and biological
pores must be communicating, and of a dimension processes that are different from those of adjacent
which allows the hydrocarbons to move around. depositional areas, and are the result of climate, flora
Permeability is the measure of fluid’s capacity to and fauna, lithology, geomorphology, tectonic context
move around within the rock. and, in marine environments, water depth,
The hydrocarbon trap is a particular distribution of temperature, and chemism. In general, continental
rocks in the subsurface that keeps the hydrocarbons (subaerial) environments are more exposed to erosion,
inside the reservoir rock until they have been reached while marine environments are mostly depositional
by the drilling and can therefore be extracted. The top areas.
of the trap consists of impervious rock (sealing rock) Determining the environment in which the rock
which prevents the hydrocarbons, generally lighter has deposited is essential in reconstructing the
than the fluids they are mixed with, from migrating reservoir’s geometry and other characteristics. The
towards the surface. The bottom limit of the reservoir environment determines the sediment facies, defined
is the generally flat and horizontal surface that as the lithological (lithofacies) and biological
separates it from the underlying fluid, normally salt (biofacies) characteristics of a stratigraphic unit,
water, which accompanies hydrocarbons in their linked to the sedimentary process forming it. A
marine origin. Less commonly, when the water is in facies does not indicate an environment but one or
motion, the separating surface may be inclined; more processes through which the sediment was
depending on the type of hydrocarbons present, this deposited (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972). In order
surface is called either oil-water contact or gas-water to define the sedimentation environment, it is
contact, or more simply water level. The bottom of the essential to consider the association of various facies
reservoir is often also bounded by impervious rock or, in other words, how the facies are vertically and
which the hydrocarbons are unable to penetrate. laterally positioned.

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Facies analysis takes into consideration the • Possibility of evaluating, even on the basis of a
following sedimentary aspects (Zimmerle, 1995): a) single test well, a stratigraphic sequence of some
inorganic sedimentary structures such as cross- thousands of metres and, therefore, a picture of the
bedding, graded beds, sole marks, palaeocurrents, etc.; sedimentary vertical evolution.
b) the presence of flora and fauna and their habitat, • A picture, through correlation of data obtained
along with the organic sedimentary structures (fossil from various wells, of the lateral variations of
moulds); c) granulometric distribution and individual stratigraphic units; data correlation
sedimentary textures; d) mineralogical composition; provides a perfect view of the way in which single
e) geochemical composition (trace elements and stable formations or sequences of formations develop
isotopes); f ) stratigraphic relations (morphology of the even over great distances.
environment, unconformities, magnetic polarity). • Precise stratimetric evaluation of formations,
A sedimentary sequence shows the vertical sequences, megasequences and, in general, of units
development and environmental evolution over time, of all ranges, bearing in mind that logs are
and can be studied using sequential stratigraphy registered on various scales. Knowing the dip of
methods. Lateral facies variations highlight the formations allows corrections of thickness.
environment’s distribution in space according to the • Determination of important physical parameters
principle, expressed by Johannes Walther in 1894 such as porosity, permeability, and resistivity,
(Ricci Lucchi, 1978), that: “only facies that deposit in which are of great importance when exploring for
contiguous environments can overlie in sedimentary oil.
continuum”. This concept was successfully applied • Information about the fluids contained in the
also to interpret the complex stratigraphic sequences reservoir rock.
of the Alpine formations, where different overlying • Speed in using diagrams, if a full set of logs is
and heteropic units can be identified. available, when exploration is at an advanced stage
Analysis of the sedimentary environment, or completed.
indispensable in stratigraphical analyses applied to oil The most important reservoir rocks are
exploration, requires in-depth knowledge of sedimentary rocks of clastic origin and those of
sedimentary processes and is based on the concept that chemical origin, especially carbonate rocks. Both
current sedimentary environments provide the key to types, when subject to deformations, can fracture and
the past; that is, we can interpret ancient environments give rise to a third type of reservoir rock. In the
by applying the principle of actualism. Along with the description that follows, in accordance with a
study of lithofacies and biofacies, performed in the distinction that is commonly drawn in the literature on
field through direct observation by field geologists, petroleum, the sedimentary environments of clastic
subsurface geologists exploring for oil may also carry rocks and of rocks of chemical origin are dealt with
out studies based on deep exploration (Ori et al., 1993). separately, even though some sedimentary
This involves the analysis of electrical properties environments can give rise to both types of rock.
(electrofacies) and radioactive characteristics obtained
from electrical and radioactive well logging, and from Clastic rock reservoirs
seismic surveying (seismofacies).
Analysis of electrical and seismic diagrams must Most hydrocarbons accumulate in clastic rocks
naturally be accompanied by observation of the same which also contain most of the reserves in the largest
formations in the field. However, the structures known reservoirs. Reservoirs are located mostly in
involved in oil exploration are mostly buried and only sands that have undergone varying degrees of
in extremely favourable cases do they offer cementation; cemented sands are called sandstone.
comparable outcrops. The two study methods (surface Less frequently, reservoirs may be found in deposits of
observations and the study of electrical, radioactive, coarser clastic rocks, such as gravel and
and seismic diagrams) are complementary because conglomerates. The nature of the particles forming a
interpretation of subsurface data allows for physical clastic rock is prevalently siliceous, though clastic
analysis of quantitative parameters that cannot sediments of carbonate or, more rarely, gypsum
normally be applied to outcrops. composition are also widespread.
In particular, analysis of electrical and radioactive A typical characteristic of silicoclastic reservoirs is
well logs offers the following advantages, some of the hydrocarbons’ migration velocity, from 1 to 1,000
which are obviously the result of three-dimensional km per million years, decidedly greater than in
study that only a subsurface analysis can provide: carbonate rocks. Most reservoirs are contained in
• Absolute objectivity of data, being obtained structural traps. Until 1970 it was believed that only
exclusively with the use of instruments. 10% of the reservoirs discovered were contained in

86 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

stratigraphic traps, but as stratigraphic- resulting from marine transgression, which provide
sedimentological know-how improved, especially as a good cap; in this case, stratigraphic traps
regards the interpretation of sedimentation originate as a result of unconformity.
environments, the estimated percentage rose • Wadi deposits, named after the watercourses that
considerably. cross the deserts, and which flood during sporadic
We will describe the typical continental and marine storms; in these deposits the transport mechanism
environments of silicoclastic rock deposition (Ricci is fluvial.
Lucchi, 1978; Reineck e Singh, 1980; Selley, 1988; • Löss deposits, originating from extremely fine
Zimmerle, 1995), and set them in relation to the sands removed from desert areas, kept in
originating transport agent. suspension for long periods of time and deposited
at great distances over vast areas.
Reservoirs in fluvial deposits Reservoirs in desert environments are widespread
(alluvial environments) in Palaeozoic rocks, as in the Permian (Rothliegende)
These are contained either in braided or in of the North Sea, in the Pennsylvanian of Wyoming
meander deposits, which result from the wandering of (USA) and in the eolian sands of the North-American
river beds. The former are coarser, especially at the Jurassic (Navajo, Nugget Sandstone).
low end of the sedimentary sequence, and become
finer towards the top, with truncations caused by Reservoirs in lacustrine deposits
erosion of successive, laterally-migrating channels. In These are less widespread than the types described
river deposits with meandering morphology, sand above and are linked to deposition of turbidite
deposits have lateral accretion. sediments at the margins of lakes, especially in deltas
Fluvial deposits are often texturally immature, and deeper areas, and therefore have marked turbidite
especially close to the source where they may be depositional characteristics. Reservoirs of this type are
connected with alluvial fans and therefore do not have found in Utah (Uinta Basin) and in China.
high porosity levels. This is not the case, however, in
channel deposits that constitute the best reservoirs and Reservoirs in delta deposits
also have more favourable conditions for the formation These are typical of the transition between a
of stratigraphic traps. Excellent reservoirs of this type continental environment (delta plain) and a marine
are to be found in the Nubian Cretaceous sandstones environment (delta front). In the delta plain, sediments
that extend from Algeria to Egypt, and are amply are the same as those of the alluvial type in their
exploited in Libya, and in the Muribeca sandstones of upstream portion, while in the downstream part they
Brazil, also Cretaceous. are often influenced by tidal motion. Delta
morphology is often characterized by lobes or
Reservoirs in eolian deposits (desert environments) digitations, each of which behaves like a single delta-
These consist primarily of medium or fine sands like apparatus, with its system of channels separated
that sedimented after being carried by the wind, an by fine interlobe deposits. The coarser sediments
exogenous agent mainly acting in zones with a desert deposit on the prograding part of the delta (Fig. 1)
climate, whether tropical (Sahara, Kalahari, Australian which, if affected by the destructive action of the
deserts) or in the mid-latitudes (Gobi), as well as in waves and tides, may assume a classical delta-type
coastal areas (Atacama, in northern Chile). They configuration (e.g. the Nile). If the constructive
consist of: deposition action prevails, as along the coasts of
• Hamada deposits, belonging to rocky terrain inland seas or gulfs where the erosive efficiency of
characterized by large blocks or angular-edged waves is low, the body advances with marine
pebbles, often deposited directly on the basement. regression and the formation of lobed (Po) or bird’s
• Serir deposits, with pebbles of various sizes foot (Mississippi) deltas. Lobes may be abandoned,
irregularly scattered on sandy terrain as a result of with avulsion of the corresponding channel, while the
the action of the wind that has removed the finer river builds a new one either to the side or above. In
elements. this way, sand deposits with a highly articulated
• Wind-carried dunes, which constitute classic sand horizontal and vertical distribution are created (16
seas. They are easily recognizable by the high- partly overlapping digitations have been counted in the
angle cross-bedding, and have good level of Mississippi delta). This can represent an ideal
porosity due to the absence of argillaceous matrix condition for the presence of reservoirs in sand or
and the high degree of sorting (grains of the same gravel deposits with the transition to finer prodelta
size). The vastness of these sediments can give rise deposits. Caps are represented by successive marine
to large reservoirs, often sealed by black shales transgressions with clay deposits. Other reservoirs

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GEOSCIENCES

1 2

AA BB

3
0
m

25

CC DD

50
major sand facies:
fluvial sand delta front:
channel mouth bars distal bar sheet sands and tidal sand bars
shoreface
fine grain facies:

delta plain prodelta and shelf tidal flats bird’s foot

Fig. 1. Deposition of deltaic sediments. A and C, deltas affected by the destructive action of waves or tides;
B and D, constructive deltas with lobed or bird-foot deposits prograding into the sea; 1-2, electric logs;
3, lithological column of bar and deltaic-plain sand deposits. The broken lines indicate marine or swamp clays;
sands are indicated by dotted lines (Magoon and Dow, 1994).

may form, due to the instability of the prodelta, interrupted only by river mouths or tide channels, and
accompanied by landslides, slips and flow of detrital can be of a considerable thickness as a result of
material. Also syndepositional deformations, such as variations in the sea level (Fig. 2). Also in this
the grow-faults common to the Gulf of Mexico, environment, the low stand favours the accumulation
represent opportunities for the formation of traps. A of sediments, while storm waves determine their shape
delta’s progradation is favoured by a lowering of the and granulometric variations.
sea level, producing what is also known as ‘low stand’ Deposits with this origin are characterized by
according to terminology based on studies of good porosity but their volumes are not comparable
sequential stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977), which to delta deposits. The largest are located in western
determines an increase in volume with significant Siberia and in the central-Asiatic countries
implications for the interpretation of the sedimentation (Tajikistan), as well as in the North Sea, in Upper
environment of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks.
These types of reservoirs are of considerable
volume, such as the Triassic ones of Prudhoe Bay in Reservoirs in deep-sea deposits
Alaska, the Jurassic ones in the North Sea, the Jurassic- These consist of sediments with considerable lateral
Cretaceous ones of western Siberia, the Cretaceous ones and vertical extension that are largely the result of the
in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and those in the present sedimentation of turbidity currents generated through
deltas of the Niger and Mississippi rivers. the action of subsea currents of clay and sand mud,
which slide along the slopes of continental margins.
Reservoirs in coastline and shallow-sea deposits The mechanism that gives rise to the turbidity current
These are formed by the action of the waves and depends on the sediment’s angle of repose: when that
tides, can extend for hundreds of kilometres angle is exceeded as a result of the progressive

88 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

accumulation of material on the slope, the material along with an intermediate and an external part in
slides down, giving rise to a high-density current. The which the turbidite beds have uniform and continuous
current is often triggered by a seismic shock and it is development over great distances. The largest fans,
for this reason that turbidity currents are typical of such as the one in the Gulf of Bengal fed by the delta
tectonically unstable basins, especially foredeep ones. of the Ganges, cover millions of square km.
The motion occurs as a result of gravity since the Each turbidite event gives rise to a sedimentary
material in suspension is denser than the surrounding sequence: the faster settling of coarse material
waters. The currents gain speed as they descend along (normally sand) determines a major concentration of
the slope, then disperse and lose transport efficiency in coarser material at the lower part of the sequence;
the open sea, giving rise through settling to the grain size decreases vertically and the finer, clay part
corresponding clastic deposits known as turbidites. is deposited in the upper portion (graded sequence). A
The same depositional mechanism repeats itself, turbidite succession will therefore have hydrocarbon
giving rise to a series of sedimentary bodies consisting accumulations concentrated in the coarser, porous-
of individual overlying turbidite bodies which form permeable portions of each sequence, while the finer
hundreds or thousands of layers. The sedimentary portions may represent individual caps. Porosity is
bodies settle at the bottom and, above all, at the base never very high because of the presence of an
of the continental slope, giving rise to a fan that argillaceous matrix in the sands, but volumes can be
widens with an ever-decreasing dip towards the open remarkable as a result of the extensions of the fans and
sea (Fig. 3), of a shape similar to that of deltas but with the presence of numerous superposed pools separated
broader geometry. The continuous superposition of by beds of clay.
sedimentary bodies and their development towards the When turbidity currents are deposited in
open sea result in the progradation of the fan (Mutti relatively restricted sections (foredeep basins), they
and Ricci Lucchi, 1972). Within this, on the basis of form deposits that are laterally confined and
the facies associations, it is possible to identify an longitudinally highly developed. In these contexts,
internal part towards the fan apex, comprising the the currents may cover an entire basin, no longer
channeled bodies that contribute to the fan accretion, giving rise to fan-type progradation, but to a vertical

progradation
SP resistivity
beach-dune beach-dune
alluvial lagoon washover fan ridges
sandstone, beach sea level
mudstone,
coal upper shoreface
marsh-lagoonal shoreface
prograding lower shoreface
nearshore older deposits
marine offshore
sandstone
shoreface erosion

marine shale B
and siltstone
50'

flood tidal
A delta offshore bar

marsh ebb tidal delta

barrier
lagoon beach

back shore

marsh
fare shore
dunes
lagoon

lagoonal
beach

pond shoreface

lagoon beach transition zone shelf

sand,
C peat silt clay sand sand, silt, clay silty clay

Fig. 2. Shallow-sea sediments. A, electric log of shelf deposits moving upwards to coastal and alluvial ones following
a regression; B, section representing the vertical and lateral distribution of regressive coastal-beach dune deposits;
C, distribution of shallow-sea deposits (Magoon and Dow, 1994).

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DIAGNOSTICAL TRAITS OF MAIN ASSOCIATIONS OF TURBIDITIC FACIES

D
upper slope
Cp

Cp C3
D
100 m
C2
Vs lower slope
C
Abv
C1
Aiv C
Vm

indicative scale
C

Vs A

Abv B2
B1
Cp
D

D
0
A: shelf zone C2: middle fan zone Vm: main valleys
B1: upper slope zone C3: outer fan zone Vs: secondary valleys
B2: lower slope zone D: submarine plain Cp: peripheral channels
C1: inner fan zone C: canyon Abv: between valleys areas

slump scars

slump accumulations

inner fan

facies facies
A and B C
middle fan
submarine facies facies
plain D E

facies facies
F G

pelitic inclusions outer fan

thickening-upward

thinning-upward

stratigraphic unconformities
linked to slump scars

Fig. 3. Turbidite deposition environments: the reservoirs with the largest volumes occur in the channels of the lower slope,
in the internal and intermediate fan and in the sands of the external fan. The latter, which have a great lateral extension,
contains good reservoirs in foredeep basins, where the compression phases accompanying and following sedimentation create
anticlinal structures with their corresponding traps (Mutti and Ricci Lucchi, 1972).

90 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

accretion of marked thickness. This is the case of the stromatoporoidea and rudists. Many of these
Adriatic Foredeep, the site of the largest gas organisms have an inorganic calcite part, but some,
reservoirs in the Mediterranean area. Other large such as Codiaceaen algae (for example, Halimeda)
turbidite reservoirs have been discovered in the North and numerous molluscs, also contain aragonite. The
Sea, California, along the Brazilian continental dissolution of aragonite produces precipitation of
margin etc., predominantly located in Tertiary calcite with low magnesium content, until the latter
deposits which originated in the disintegration of partially dissolves, with a resulting increase in
mountain chains. porosity. The thinnest, ramified corals are broken by
the waves, especially during storms, and form
Carbonate reservoirs a highly porous coralligenous breccia all around
the reef.
Carbonate rocks too, can contain large The morphology of these sediments can vary
hydrocarbon reservoirs, especially those that have greatly: some reef systems run parallel to the coast,
undergone dolomitization, which determines a notable like the Australian Great Barrier Reef, others surround
increase in porosity and permeability. islands (atolls) as in the Maldives, often encircling
The sedimentation environments of rocks of volcanic systems as is the case in Polynesia; in these
chemical origin are mainly marine and the result of contexts, the disintegration caused by storm waves
evaporation processes, since decreases in the carbon generates a broad ring around the island. This
dioxide content of water favour the precipitation of variability influences the shape of deposits associated
calcium carbonate; the presence of organisms that with back reefs, which in atolls cover their entire
have fixed calcium carbonate in their shell gives rise internal circumference, and in volcanic islands take
to rocks of biochemical origin. The most favourable the shape of a circular crown. The growth of reefs
sedimentary environment for the precipitation of (Bosellini, 1991) in the external zone, where they
carbonates is the continental shelf and its reefs. represent a barrier to the waves, can give rise to a
The internal shelf, connected to coastal deposits, fringing reef that encircles the land, emerging from the
includes tidal and sub-tidal environments resulting water when the shelf is narrow and the reef grows
from the action of the tides, with sand bars and coastal attached to the coast. If the shelf is relatively wide, the
lagoons. Lateral variability causes a mosaic of sands reef forming at the margin and separated from the
(consisting of carbonate minerals if due to the coast by water (lagoon) is referred to as a barrier reef.
disintegration of reefs) and calcareous muds (algal The tides create channels in the reef, which thus tends
plains with stromatolites). These formations can have to form numerous independent islands.
marked lateral development on shelves with low seabed The vertical shape is determined by the
gradients, or encircle islands, especially atolls. The relationship between the subsidence of the sea bed and
intermediate and external shelves host finer deposits the vertical accretion caused by bioconstructing
(grainstones and mudstones; Bosellini, 1991) which, organisms that find an optimal habitat a few metres
in zones subject to the effects of strong tides, are below the surface. If subsidence is rapid, the
reworked by the marine currents. organisms must grow vertically to offset the
In hot climates, the formation of reef mounds also progressive deepening of the water; if it is slow, the
known as bioherms, with highly porous and permeable organisms develop slowly, allowing for the
deposits (a characteristic that becomes even more progradation of the reef, while the sides are the seat of
pronounced as a result of subsequent dolomitization detrital sediments resulting from the partial
phenomena), is important in the formation of disintegration of the reef itself. If, finally, subsidence
reservoirs. The development of shelf and reef deposits either slows down or comes to a halt, the organisms
is associated with marked subsidence phenomena tend to develop at their ideal depth, widening the
(Fig. 4) and with the corresponding marine bioconstruction until it assumes a mushroom-shaped
transgressions that allow for the vertical grading of the appearance. Dolomite reefs, for example, can be of
sedimentation and its lateral progradation (highstand notable thickness, as is the case in the Ladinian and
in sequence stratigraphy). Carnian outcrops in the Trentino-Alto Adige region,
These deposits have highly variable facies, from which are around 1,000 m high.
the bioconstructed body of the reef to the back-reef, The sediments of the carbonate shelf, which are
where shallow water aggrading calcareous formations also often dolomitized, have a greater lateral
with algae and molluscs dominate, to the fore-reef, development than that of reefs, and a similar thickness.
where waves break more intensely. In the eastern Dolomites, the ‘Dolomia Principale’
At present, the main reef-building organisms are (main dolomite) deposits outcrops extensively; the fact
algae and corals, whereas in fossil reefs we find that the northern edge of the Gondwana

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supercontinent, the site of Triassic carbonate Reservoirs in Devonian shelf and reef deposits
sedimentation, developed uninterruptedly all the way are widespread in Alberta (Canada), with spectacular
from Europe to northern India, gives us an idea of the outcrops in the Rocky Mountains. All of North
size of this shelf. America is rich in carbonate reservoirs, in internal-
Shelf deposits develop vertically to compensate shelf facies (tidal plains) and Ordovician to Permian
for the effects of subsidence. The reservoirs are reefs. Large reservoirs are also present in the
larger than those in reefs and the cap can be Jurassic calcareous sand bars of Saudi Arabia and
represented by the development of terrigenous Cretaceous ones of Iraq. Carbonate reservoirs from
shelves with a high percentage of clay, or by the Tertiary are to be found in the Persian Gulf and
compacted limestones. in California.

reef complex
back-reef fore-reef

inner slope

outer slope

transition
reef s.s.
coast lagoon

basin

progradation

basin deepening upward aggradation

B

back-reef lagoon reef slope ponding basin

detritical
plain

front

reef breccias
iperhalitic deposits detritus of talus

800
m
400
Carlsbad Group
0
Capitan Limestone Bell Canyon
0 1 2 3 km

Carlsbad facies: Capitan reef facies: Delaware facies:

C dolomites dolomites and limestones gray sandstones

Fig. 4. A, reef complex with its associated depositional systems; B, stratigraphic evolution of the Ladinian shelves
in the Dolomites in a subsidence regime; C, stratigraphic section of the Permian Reef Complex
in Texas-New Mexico (Bosellini, 1991).

92 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

Fractured-rock reservoirs substratum and is concentrated along the crests of

anticlines, which are subject to local tension.
Almost all rocks, including sedimentary ones, with • Forces orthogonal to bedding (bending folding),
the exception of evaporites, are fragile enough to resulting from an extension that gives rise to
fracture during deformational processes. The force differential subsidence and the consequent
needed to fracture rock is much greater in a formation of horst and graben structures. The
compressed regime than in an extension one; therefore fractures propagate upwards at the sides of each
fractured-rock reservoirs are usually present in the block and also affect the folded part that drapes the
latter context. The fracturing of a rock body does not faults.
necessarily imply a regionally extensional regime and • Extension faults with associated fracturing that
can also take place in a localized extent. increases logarithmically as it approaches the fault
Fracturing takes place in compact rocks. In surface (these can be formed also in a regime of
sandstones, fracturing normally affects the cement, as compression when faults and folds are
it is rare for fractures to cross granules except in the interconnected).
case of siliceous cemented rocks such as quartzites, • Pressure of fluids, associated with a solution
which are, however, poor reservoirs. In carbonate (pressure solution) in carbonates. In a
rocks, fractures develop throughout the entire compressional regime, discontinuities (stylolites),
sedimentary body. Porosity and permeability are both together with microfractures (tension gashes) that
strongly affected, but above all the latter, since the run perpendicular to them, are formed.
migration of fluids tends to concentrate along the • Differential lithostatic pressure due to uplift and
fracture surfaces. erosion.
In originally impervious rocks such as highly- Other factors that cause fracturing are dehydration,
cemented or matrix rich clastic formations and washouts (especially in erosion surfaces that underlie
compact limestone, fractures determine secondary unconformities), and the cooling of igneous rocks that
porosity and, above all, effective permeability. In a may serve as a reservoir.
context characterized by frequent and open
fracturing, the latter parameter may be practically Examples of reservoirs in fractured rocks
infinite. In carbonate rocks, moreover, fractures can The best-known and studied example of a reservoir
be migration channels for solutions that are rich in in fractured carbonates is located in the Iranian Asmari
carbon dioxide and therefore have strong dissolving Limestone (Oligo-Miocene). The reservoir, situated in
effects which tend to widen open fractures limestone structures more than 300 m thick, was
considerably. deformed in a wide-radius fold with a net of laterally
The effects of fracturing, on the other hand, depend and vertically connected fractures that favour a high
on the depth at which the phenomenon takes place. rate of production. Mexico owes its oil production
Indeed, below a certain depth - depending on tectonic mainly to reservoirs in fractured Mesozoic limestone
stress, the type of rock and type and quantity of fluid - (Tamaulipas Limestone): the fracturing is of the
fractures do not remain open, and are cemented again second generation type and took place during folding
by chemical precipitation from solutions flowing that occurred as a result of the structures being raised
underground. When the phenomenon precedes during the Tertiary. In Venezuela (Maracaibo Basin),
hydrocarbon migration, a new deformation stage is the reservoir is situated in cretaceous limestone
required to re-establish a network of fractures: if the structures, in anticlines that were formed between the
cement can be dated, it is possible to reconstruct the Cretaceous and the Miocene. Permeability has been
deformational history of the reservoir rock. amplified by the flow of solutions along the fractures,
some of which were later reduced as a result of the
Causes of fracturing precipitation of calcite. Other examples are to be
The areas where this phenomenon is most found in the Cambro-Ordovician of Texas, the Permo-
frequently observed are those close to major faults, Triassic of China, and in the Mississippian of western
followed by those close to zones where folding occurs Canada, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains.
and, finally, by those in regions characterized by Large reservoirs situated in fractured siliceous
homoclinal dip. The most common causes of rocks are found in diatomite deposits in California (the
fracturing are the following (North, 1985): Monterey Formation of the Miocene). Oil is also
• Forces that run parallel to bedding (buckle folding), produced by the dolomite interbedded with diatomite,
which mostly affect massive rocks or ones with and by the fractured rocks of the basement.
thick bedding and little tendency towards plasticity. Fractured black shales also make excellent
Fracturing is facilitated by the presence of a plastic reservoirs, such as the Devonian in the Appalachians;

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the shales there are the source rock, the reservoir rock, In this case, the force of gravity causes the gas to
and the cap rock, but production requires artificial concentrate towards the summit (gas cap). If the
fracturing on a vast scale. percentage of dissolved gas is lower, the gas remains in
Examples of deposits in fractured sandstone solution until a decrease in pressure, resulting from the
reservoirs are found in the Oriskany Sandstone, one of exploitation process, frees a certain amount of it, which
the first reservoirs to be exploited in the Appalachians. then accompanies the oil that has been produced or fills
A more important reservoir is located in Texas (the the spaces in the reservoir that have been evacuated by
Spraberry Formation of the Lower Permian); there, the extracted oil and gas. The overpressure that
however, the fractures function more as flow channels characterizes gas cap hydrocarbons facilitates the
than as reservoirs. extraction of oil which rises towards the surface as a
Igneous rocks and basement rocks, if they are result of the push effect when the gas expands (gas drive).
intensely fractured, can also be exploitable reservoirs,
as is the case in Argentina (Mendoza Basin, in Triassic Porosity
tuffs), in Arizona (fractured syenite veins of the Porosity is determined by the ensemble of empty
Paradox Basin), and in Russia (metamorphic rocks of spaces (i.e. the volumes that are filled with fluid)
the Hercynian basement in the Don depression). present in the reservoir rock, which are normally
represented by the rock’s own pores, but also by empty
Physical parameters of a reservoir rock spaces, interstices or fractures, that intersect the rock.
Porosity is measured in terms of the ratio of the volume
Various physical parameters characterize a of the empty spaces to the total volume of the rock. In
reservoir. In addition to porosity and permeability (see practice, in order for a reservoir to be producible,
below), also temperature, pressure, density, and the porosity must normally be greater than 5%, but at great
phase that characterizes individual fluids, i.e. gaseous, depths with accompanying high pressures it is possible
liquid, or solid, come into play. The above-mentioned to work even at lower porosity levels.
factors interact with one another: for example, a A distinction is made between total porosity and
change in temperature or pressure can determine a effective porosity: the former is defined above, even if
change of phase. Reservoir rocks are usually full of it must be taken into consideration that many pores in a
water at the time of deposition and, subsequently, after reservoir may not be interconnected, that hydrocarbons
their migration, the hydrocarbons fill up the pores and will therefore be unable to migrate through them, and
replace the water. that others are partly reduced because the rock
Temperature varies directly with depth. The fragments that surround them contain interstitial water
geothermic gradient (on average, 1°C every 30 m of that cannot be displaced. This is the case of clays that
depth) is influenced by geographic location and other have overall porosities of more than 50% but which are
local factors such as the possible presence of volcanic to a great extent filled with interstitial water. Effective
activity or the flow of underground waters. Reference (or efficient) porosity is therefore represented by the
temperatures are often obtained during drilling or volume of the pores in which the fluid is also
production, and they are largely influenced by those effectively able to flow. Pumice, for example, which
operations. In these conditions, the temperature of the has a total porosity of more than 50%, has no effective
sediment and of the fluid it contains are not in porosity; the pores it contains are not interconnected
equilibrium, and the measured gradient is lower than and fluids are therefore unable to infiltrate and
the real one. penetrate it. This is why it floats on water.
The minimum pressure of a reservoir is the Porosity can vary considerably inside a reservoir
hydrostatic one or, in other words, that of the water rock, both vertically and laterally, as a function of
column, which is equal to 1 atm for every 10 m of variations in the nature of the rock itself. Porosity is in
depth. That value is hardly ever reached in practice as fact influenced by the sedimentation environment both
a result of the presence of the lithostatic (or geostatic) in space (lateral variation) and over time (vertical
load of the superposed sediments, which influences variation). Porosity can be primary, when formed
the bottomhole pressures and always produces higher during the deposition of the sedimentary rock, or
gradient values, usually of about 1.5 atm and, in secondary, when formed in the wake of processes that
exceptional cases, up to 2 atm. have affected the subsequent transformations or
Another important physical characteristic of deformations of the rock itself.
reservoirs is gas saturation. The oil in the subsurface
always contains a certain percentage of dissolved gas, and Primary porosity
this percentage may be greater than the amount of gas This is characteristic of clastic rocks; fragments
soluble in oil at the existing temperature and pressure. deposited by settling leave open spaces that are

94 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

sometimes filled with particles of smaller dimensions, the sediment is poorly sorted (highly assorted
often of a clayey nature (the matrix). The spaces that granulometrically), and porosity is limited.
remain empty constitute the porosity, which is Finer sediments normally have higher porosities
influenced by the sediment texture. The parametres of because they consist of grains of similar sizes, even if
sediment texture are: size and shape of the fragments; the latter are often not interconnected. For example,
their arrangement in space; diagenesis, essentially in clays will contain spaces occupied by interstitial water,
the form of compaction, both during and after which cannot be removed under static conditions, and
deposition, and in the form of cementation. if they have not been compacted they can reach
The dimensions of the fragments play an important porosities of around 50-80%. Sands, too, offer good
role regarding porosity, not so much as a function of degrees of porosity (20-40% if they are not cemented),
their size as of their granulometric distribution. In fact, whereas coarser clastic rocks (conglomerates, gravels,
if they are of similar size, porosity may be quite high; etc.) have statistically lower porosities since the sizes
in this case, we speak in terms of a well-sorted of their elements are highly heterogeneous and the
sediment. If the sizes of the particles differ smaller clasts fill up the spaces between the larger-
considerably, the opposite occurs; the smaller-sized sized ones.
fragments fill up the spaces left open by the larger- Porosity is also affected by the fragment shape: the
sized ones and, as a result, the porosity diminishes highest degrees of porosity are reached with fragments
(poorly-sorted sediment). with an almost spherical shape (or a high coefficient of
Oil companies quantify the degree of sorting by sphericity), which are found in sediments that have
carrying out laboratory analyses on the distribution of undergone a long rolling process during transport. The
the fragment sizes (granulometry). A clastic spatial arrangement of grains also affects the degree of
sediment’s granulometry is represented graphically by porosity: a cubic distribution (joining the centre of
a diagram showing the dimensional classes of the each sphere, a cube is obtained) can reach 47.6%, an
grains in a logarithmic scale on the x-coordinate, and orthorhomboidal one 39.5%, and a rhombohedral one
their percentages on the y-coordinate. In the graph, a 26.0% (Fig. 5). These are always theoretical maximums
well-sorted sediment will show a characteristic ‘acute’ that can be reached with uncemented spherical grains
maximum, corresponding to the most highly of equal size. In practice, the grain distribution varies
represented class (also known as mode) of fragments. over time as a result of the lithostatic load that causes
In this case, porosity will be high. However, if the the grains to compact more, and the porosity to
graph is flat, and all classes are uniformly represented, decrease.
The highest porosities (which can theoretically
reach a level of just less than 48%) therefore
Fig. 5. Three types of
correspond to loose fragments that are of equal size,
spatial disposition
of spherical grains of spherical, and with a cubic spatial distribution.
equal size with their The sedimentation environment affects primary
respective empty spaces porosity. The most porous clastic rocks are the sands
(North, 1985). of desert and beach origin, which are highly sorted,
case 1
especially if they have been affected by the wind.
Sands from terrigenous shelves or deltaic sands, being
affected by the presence of a clay matrix, are fairly
porous. Turbidites are far less porous, since their mass
transport in subsea environments does not separate the
sand from the clay. Compaction, cementation and, in
general, all diagenetic processes are important factors
case 2 that have a negative effect on the degree of porosity.
Diagenesis determines a change in the
mineralogical composition, and is of great interest to
the petroleum geologist since it modifies porosity,
permeability, entry pressure, and saturation in
irreducible water. Deep-set sandstone deposits are
subject to pressure as a result of the lithostatic load,
and therefore experience a decrease in porosity. This
case 3 condition may reverse locally below the
unconformities, where dismantling and washout can
lead to dissolution, especially in carbonate cements,

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with a resulting increase in porosity and permeability. especially the larger ones, lose much of their volume.
Furthermore, carbonate cements can dissolve during The sediment’s density progressively increases from
subsequent burial, as a result of the presence of carbon values of just more than 1 kg/dm3, typical of mud, to a
dioxide, while the decarboxylation of organic matter in level of about 2 kg/dm3: a clayey sedimentary
adjacent source rock is underway (Taylor, 1977). sequence may therefore be reduced to a thickness that
The lithostatic load due to the weight of sediments is close to half of its original one. Compacted clays are
which deposit over time on top of the reservoir rock best defined as shales. Deformations tend to reduce
favours its compaction, affecting clastic rocks in porosity even further; for example, as of result of the
particular. Sands and coarse sediments are only slightly rock’s plasticity, a fold in shale beds will have limbs
affected by this phenomenon (2% reduction in porosity that are thinner and therefore less porous than the zone
per 1,000 m load of sediment): this factor can have an of its crest.
appreciable effect only after very long periods of time. A considerable lithostatic load, accompanied by
Clays, however, can be reduced in volume by as high temperatures, can transform clays into slates or
much as 50%; their behaviour whilst subject to load is phyllites. These are true metamorphic rocks; they have
very different from that of sands, first of all because of no porosity and their density is the same as clay
the high water content that accompanies their minerals, i.e. up to 2.6-2.7 kg/ dm3. In foredeep
sedimentation. This is the case of clay mud, in which sedimentation, consistent sedimentary accumulations
solid particles represent less than half of the total of turbidite, resulting from the disintegration of
volume. During the compaction process, water is mountain chains, deposit on top of clay sediments
squeezed out of the pores, which then progressively often interbedded with sands. Here, the geostatic load
diminish in volume. Clay minerals are phyllosilicates, may reach many thousands of metres of thickness and
with a planar reticulate, and they do not assume a cause the sediments to sink. Lithostatic load increases
parallel arrangement in the mud. Moreover, these with depth, and so does temperature, which becomes
minerals contain reticular water that must be added to yet another factor contributing to compaction. A high
the water present in the pores. During compaction, the geothermic gradient favours compaction at great
water is expelled, the mineral reticulates change, depths and will produce an accentuated diminution in
become smaller, and align themselves with an porosity (Fig. 6).
orientation in parallel planes. Furthermore, the pores, Carbonate rocks, too, are subject to compaction
processes. At first, the carbonate sedimentation gives
0 rise, in a basin-type environment, to a water-rich
calcareous sludge. The percentage of water is less in
26° C/km sediments that are rich in organisms, especially in
35° C/km reefs, which are a largely bioconstructed type of rock.
Compaction determines a pressure solution that
accompanies the diagenesis of carbonate rocks, with
the formation of particular irregular seams known as
1
stylolites.
Cementation, too, has the effect of reducing porosity
depth (km)

in clastic rocks. Immediately after its deposition through

settling, the sediment is crossed by circulating solutions
that precipitate substances which either partially or
totally occlude the pores, lithifying the sediment and
2 transforming it into a compact rock: sand, for example,
will thus be turned into sandstone. The cement can be
made of calcite, silica, or, more rarely, gypsum. Its
composition will depend on the nature of the grains of
the rock: a quartz and feldspar-based sand (arkose) will
usually be cemented by silica (silicon arenite), a
calcareous sand by calcite (calcarenite). Solutions,
3
0 10 20 30 40 however, especially those that contain soluble
porosity (%) components which are widespread in rocks such as
Fig. 6. Relations between porosity and depth calcium carbonate, may originate from adjacent rocks,
as a function of two different thermal gradients so that sandstone with quartz and feldspar-based grains
(measurements carried out in sandstones that are cemented by calcite is also quite common.
of the Pacific Northeastern Arc) (North, 1985). Many minerals can play the part of cement, but only a

96 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

small number of them exist in sufficient quantities to be Secondary porosity resulting from chemical
of interest to petroleum geologists. These include quartz processes, however, is characteristic of carbonate rocks.
and the carbonates calcite, dolomite, to a lesser extent The dissolving process that takes place along
siderite, and, under particular circumstances, anhydrite, preferential paths, such as fractures for example, tends
barite, fluorite, halite, iron oxides, and pyrite, all of to make the fractures wider and thus favour the increase
which make up common cement. Secondary feldspar in porosity and permeability. The end result is the onset
often accompanies secondary quartz. Clay minerals of a karstic morphology. These events are favoured by
such as kaolinite, illite, chlorite and smectite grow as phases of regression that expose the limestones to the
authigenic compounds. The cementation process action of meteoric water, which is rich in carbon
generally concerns only permeable rocks; that is, ones dioxide; subsequent transgression invades the washed-
through which these solutions are able to flow. In out and dissolved zones, creating an unconformity
impervious rocks such as clays, only compaction, and which, if characterized by the deposition of impervious
not cementation, processes are observed. rocks, can provide an excellent cap for a possible
Carbonate rocks present a primary porosity when porous and permeable reservoir.
they undergo a clastic-type sedimentation process The most important chemical process is
(clastic carbonate rocks). Primary porosity may also dolomitization; i.e. chemical transformation caused by
be due to the instability of some minerals that have calcium/magnesium exchange (metasomatism) with
precipitated or have been fixed by calcareous recrystallization of the rock. Many of the largest
organisms. Aragonite, for example, is an unstable carbonate rock reservoirs are located in dolomitic rock
element that soon turns into calcite with high reservoirs. This phenomenon is observable in 80% of
magnesium content. Because of their high solubility in North-American Palaeozoic hydrocarbon reserves,
carbon-dioxide-rich water, limestones that have just where the process has had more time to take place and
been deposited are often immediately dissolved by been favoured also by the presence of organisms with
meteoric water, with a resulting increase in porosity shells, which are more suited to transformation.
that, since it is almost simultaneous with However, the phenomenon can be witnessed only in
sedimentation, can still be defined as primary. 20% of the reserves in the Persian Gulf, where
Deposited grains differ from those of the silicoclastic carbonate reservoirs are made up of more recent
rocks due to their greater roughness and irregularity. formations.
The polyconcave pores are larger in grainstones such The process takes place after sedimentation of
as calcarenites, especially if they have deposited in carbonate, at any stage of diagenesis and over
back reefs. In ooliths, in which the elements have a considerably long periods of time: the possibility of
subspherical shape, high porosities are evidenced. synthesizing dolomite at low temperatures has not
Reduced porosities are characteristic of packstones, been verified in the laboratory, so the existence of
wackestones and mudstones, and their porosity is primary dolomites is doubtful. Current carbonates
further decreased during diagenesis. Even with only a comprise metastable minerals such as aragonite and
few hundred metres of load, compaction reduces the Mg-calcite, whereas ancient carbonate rocks are made
volume by 25-30%, and thus decreases the porosity, up of calcite and dolomite. It is possible to distinguish
especially if the carbonate is still in a dissolved, early dolomitization, as observed in tidal
uncemented state. Cementation in carbonate rock environments, from a late metasomatic one that erases
occurs through precipitation of spar-calcite from the rock’s original textures and produces crystalline
dissolved carbonate originating from the limestone dolomites which are usually rather coarse, with large
due to pressure solution. automorphic crystals and saccharoidal textures
(Bosellini, 1991).
Secondary porosity The conversion of aragonite and Mg-calcite into
This is the result either of chemical processes, calcite is a mineralogical stabilization process that
which can dissolve soluble fragments or cement and involves the reduction of only a small quantity of
generate empty spaces, or of physical ones, resulting magnesium. The conversion of calcite and aragonite
from deformations that crush the lithified rock which into dolomite, on the other hand, requires a
is no longer capable of being deformed plastically, and fundamental chemical and mineralogical
thereby produce fractures. In clastic rocks, secondary transformation. The replacement of calcite with
porosity develops as a result of the circulation of dolomite entails an increase in porosity of around
solutions with a high carbon dioxide content and 12%. Since the dolomitization process may be only
consequent high dissolving power; for example, some partial, the increase in porosity will only take place in
sandstone is cemented with calcite, which is partially part of the carbonate rock, and it is in that part that
dissolved, generating empty spaces. most of the hydrocarbons will be stored.

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Dolomitization occurs in various phases: in the using subsurface methods, above all by means of a
initial phase, rhomboids of linear dimensions ranging sonic log and radioactive well logging (neutron log
from 20 to 100 mm are formed, of the same size in and formation density).
each layer. After this, the spaces between the Porosity levels (in percentage) may thus be
rhomboids are created, with the formation of a classified as follows: a) 0-5, minimum, typical of well-
saccharoidal texture. In addition to absolute porosity, cemented sandstones and compacted limestone; b) 5-10,
effective porosity is also increased in the process, poor, in partially-cemented sandstones and calcarenites,
since rhombohedrons of dolomite are characterized by scarcely fractured or fissured limestones; c) 10-15 fair,
planar surfaces. Moreover, a dolomite reservoir is in poorly-cemented sandstones, conglomerates, highly
more resistant to compaction compared to a limestone fractured and fissured detritic limestone, dolomites;
one, and the highest porosities among carbonate rocks d) 15-20, good, in deposits of sands with a low level of
are therefore found in dolomites. cohesion, gravel, fractured dolomites; e) above 20,
Dolomitization is particularly intense in reef excellent, in loose and well-sorted sand and vuggy,
limestone and especially in back-reef environments, highly fractured and fissured dolomites.
where there is more evaporation. These limestones are
bioconstructed and the process is therefore favoured Permeability
by the abundance and nature of fossils. This is the property that allows fluids to pass through
Dolomitization affects fossils selectively, insofar as rock without moving its constituent particles or causing
aragonite, which forms a part of corals and of structural modifications. Whereas porosity affects
gasteropods and cephalopods, has a crystal lattice that hydrocarbons under static conditions, permeability is a
is volumetrically similar to dolomite and, therefore, dynamic function which enables rocks to release fluids
the process is faster in these fossils. More time is and not only to contain them. Fluids pass through a rock
required for the transformation of calcite with a high by filtration through pores (permeability by porosity) or
content of magnesium derived from the shells of by direct transmission through discontinuities
brachiopods (organisms that are very widespread in (permeability by fracturing or fissuring).
Palaeozoic reefs), and also of echinoderms, bryozoa, Permeability is quantified by determining the
pelecypods (including rudists, the organisms that amount of fluid that passes through a rock surface
bioconstructed the Cretaceous) and ostracods. under stable, differential pressure conditions. In order
As regards plants, calcareous algae undergo a rapid for a fluid, and in particular for an oil or gas, to cross
dolomitization process since some are aragonitic and or flow through a rock, there must be a difference
others are formed from calcite with a high magnesium (gradient) in pressure. Over very long periods all rocks
content. Furthermore, they themselves reduce the will present a certain degree of permeability, but in
sulphate that slows down the process. The high practice a reservoir’s commercial potential depends on
frequency of Palaeozoic dolomites, therefore, is due to there being a significant level of permeability in very
the development of algae in that era. brief periods of time.
The great volume of the sediments involved in Darcy’s law (1856) links the velocity of the
dolomitization (in the region of the Dolomites, their filtering fluid to permeability according to the
thickness is greater than 1,000 m and they cover equation: q(k/m)(dp/dx), where q is the velocity of
extremely vast areas) requires a mechanism and the fluid (in cm/s), k is the permeability in darcys, m is
driving force which maintain enormous quantities of the viscosity (dynamic) in centipoises and dp/dx is the
dolomitizing fluid in motion over long periods of difference in pressure (p) in the direction of flow (x) or
time. Various circulation systems capable of pressure gradient. Viscosity expresses the fluid’s
transporting the necessary magnesium have been internal resistance; i.e., the resistance encountered by
hypothesized (Bosellini, 1991). the fluid’s particles moving at different rates. Once
viscosity is known, the rock’s permeability can be
Porosity measurements measured. The practical unit of measurement of
Quantitative evaluations of porosity levels permeability is the darcy (equivalent to 9.871013 SI
performed in the laboratory on field and core samples units). According to the definition of the API
are carried out using an instrument designed ad hoc, (American Petroleum Institute), a darcy is the
the porosimeter. This measures the total rock volume, permeability of a porous medium in which a single
i.e. that of the liquid displaced by immersing the fluid phase with a viscosity of 1 centipoise, which
sample, whose external surface has been previously entirely fills up the medium’s empty spaces, flows
sealed with a plastic material, and the total volume of through the medium under laminar regime conditions
the pores (the volume of liquid required to completely at a flow rate of 1 cm/s per cm2 of cross-sectional area,
saturate the sample). Porosity can also be measured under a pressure of 1 atmosphere per cm. Since the

98 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

darcy is too large a unit to be used in practice, permeability can vary greatly as it decreases with the
the petroleum industry tends to express permeability roughness of the fragments and the length (tortuosity)
in millidarcys. of the path. Clearly, it will also depend on pore
geometry and size. The relation therefore depends on
Absolute permeability the nature of the rock. Clays, for example, especially if
Absolute permeability does not depend on the they are poorly consolidated, are very porous but
nature of the fluid but entirely on the rock’s entirely impervious because the pores are very small
characteristics. It can be calculated as kNl2 where N and often filled with interstitial water through
is a dimensionless number (constant for each rock) capillarity, preventing the passage of fluids; in fact,
that sums up the rock’s characteristics, such as its they are excellent rock caps. Gravels are highly
shape and the arrangement of its fragments, and l is permeable; the fluid’s path follows large-radius curves
the length of the pore structure. The relevant factors (reduced tortuosity), although they are less porous than
are thus pore size and the tortuosity of the fluid’s path sands as a result of their low degree of sorting, and
– in other words, the size, sorting and compaction of therefore the smaller grains fill the spaces between the
the clasts (North, 1985). pebbles. As a result, a sand reservoir will usually
Darcy’s law is based on the assumption that only contain more hydrocarbons than a gravel one of the
one fluid is present in the rock. When the reservoir same size, even though the former is less permeable.
contains gas, oil and water, absolute permeability In rocks of chemical origin, high porosities may be
values are less indicative; in fact, the fluids interfere associated with high levels of permeability. This occurs
with each other and effective permeability must be especially in carbonate rocks when both parameters are
calculated for each fluid in the presence of the others. a result of fracturing, fissuring, recrystallization or
dissolution, and assume unidirectional characteristics.
Relative permeability Dolomites are particularly hard but brittle, when
Relative permeability is the ratio between effective subject to deformations, so dislocations cause them to
permeability at a given fluid saturation, and absolute shatter and to crumble; higher levels of permeability
permeability at 100% saturation of that specific fluid; are measured in these cases, often exceeding 1,000
saturation means the volume of fluid expressed as a millidarcys.
fraction of the total volume of the pores. In practice,
relative permeability levels are calculated until the Permeability measurements
rock is 100% saturated with a single fluid. Absolute permeability can be measured in the
Most reservoirs contained water before the laboratory using a permeameter. This instrument
migration of hydrocarbons. When hydrocarbons consists of a cylindrical core-sample holder, a pump
penetrate they occupy the larger pores and force the that forces fluid through the core sample, pressure
water into the smaller ones, where it is already present gauges upstream and downstream of the sample to
as a result of capillarity. Oil mixed with water may be measure the drop in pressure, and a flow meter to
extracted during the production stage. measure the rate of flow of the fluid in the core sample.
When saturation in hydrocarbons increases, the Measurements are standardized so that statistically
relative permeability to water gradually decreases and comparable data can be obtained: core samples are
may reach zero values when the saturation in water is cylindrical, of a diameter of 2 cm and a length of 3 cm.
around 45%, depending on the nature of the reservoir Relative permeability measurements, usually
rock and the fluids’ physical properties. The reservoir referring to two fluids, require more complex apparatus
may then produce hydrocarbons that are water-free in which the sample is exposed to the flow of the two
because the hydrocarbons have displaced all of the fluids in varying percentages. Permeability is calculated
water except the amount withheld by way of capillarity on surface samples but more often on subsurface core
in pores that are too small for the hydrocarbons to samples, from which the rock plugs to be tested are
penetrate (irreducible saturation in water which can extracted. In order to calculate effective permeability
reach values of up to 30% in fine-grained rocks). If levels under reservoir conditions, formation tests have
both oil and gas are present, production will depend on to be carried out by analyzing pressure buildup curves,
the percentages of the two different hydrocarbons: i.e. the pressure trend over time from the moment in
mixed production can occur, or only gas may be which production is interrupted.
produced when permeability to oil is zero as a result of Certain peculiarities of permeability must be
the high level of gas saturation. considered when preparing core samples for the test:
Statistically, high porosities correspond to high in fact, a horizontal (or lateral) permeability exists due
levels of permeability: a theoretical relation exists to the fluid’s motion along the bedding plane. This is
between the two parametres but, at a given porosity, calculated by testing core samples collected parallel to

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the bedding plane. Vertical permeability, across the barrels of oil; that is more than 700 million tonnes or
bedding planes, is usually smaller, and is affected by more than 850 billion cubic metres of gas), and giants
the beds’ planar arrangement and lithological (between 500 million and 5 billion barrels or between
discontinuities along the vertical axis. This holds true 85 and 850 billion cubic metres of gas).
for vertical wells that cross horizontal formations,
otherwise the relative dips have to be evaluated. Europe
High vertical permeability can occur in dislocated In Europe, the largest reservoirs are located in the
beds: a fault can be a surface with greater permeability North Sea and Russia. In the North Sea and
due to the rock’s fracturing, especially in the case of Netherlands offshore, oil and gas are produced from
hard rocks such as cemented limestone and sandstone. Permian to Palaeocene reservoir rocks. Gröningen, in
In other cases, when the fault fracture is filled with the north of the Netherlands, is the largest European
soluble cement (such as carbonate rock and calcite- gas field; the reservoir rock is Permian Rothliegende
cemented sandstone reservoirs), dissolution planes that (upper red sandstones) and the cap is Zechstein with
favour permeability may be present along its surface. frequent saline rocks. In the North Sea, the Brent and
In non-vertical but dipping faults or fractures, the Piper oil reservoirs are in Jurassic sands, while the oil
presence of discontinuities is a decisive factor for high at Ekofisk is in Cretaceous-Palaeocene (Danian)
permeability values (directional permeability), limestones capped with Tertiary clays. In the Forties,
because it is along these surfaces that movement takes reservoir oil is contained in Palaeocene sands.
place, and not through the pores. Fissure-related In European Russia, the largest reservoirs are
permeability, especially through fractures that have located in the belt from the Urals to the Caspian Sea
widened as a result of dissolution, can be hundreds of (Volga Basin). The reservoir rocks are mostly
times greater than porosity-related permeability. Palaeozoic and consist of arenaceous deltaic Devonian
The permeability of rocks, expressed in rocks (oil) and fractured dolomitic Permian limestones
millidarcys, is classified as follows: a) up to 15, weak; (gas). In the Ukraine, reservoirs are located in rocks
b) 15-50, moderate; c) 50-250, good; d ) 250-1,000, from the Devonian to the Permian, in Romania, in the
very good; e) above 1,000, excellent. Pliocene sandstones of the Moreni-Guna Ocnitei field
It is impossible to evaluate rock types belonging to in the Carpatian Basin.
the various categories because permeability is In Italy, gas reservoirs are found in clastic rocks of
dependent on fractures and fissures. According to data the Tertiary Apennine foredeep (Mattavelli and
obtained from 1,000 tests, 80% of all sedimentary Novelli, 1988), from the Po river valley to the Adriatic
rocks have practically zero permeability (up to 103 offshore, to the Bradano Trough (Casnedi, 1991). Oil
md); for example clays or shales, which are the most reservoirs are found in Mesozoic carbonate rocks
common cap rocks, followed by evaporites. 13% of (Milano and Novara Provinces, the Adriatic offshore,
sedimentary rocks have permeability values of up to 1 Basilicata and Sicily).
md, 5% from 1 to 1,000 md, while only 2% have Smaller reservoirs, which are nonetheless important
excellent permeability. due to the industrial context in which they are located,
can be found in Carboniferous sandstones in northern
Main reservoirs Great Britain, and in the Permian Zechstein formations
in southern Great Britain, northern France and
As described above, reservoir rock is generally Germany. There is another oil field in Germany, in the
formed of porous and permeable sedimentary rock. Hanover Basin, in Mesozoic sandstone.
The main reservoirs are thus contained either in clastic Other small reservoirs are located in the Rhine
rocks, principally sands or sandstones, or in rocks of trench and in the Anglo-Parisian basin. Many Jurassic
chemical origin, usually carbonate rocks such as and Cretaceous formations take their name from
limestones and dolomites. Many deposits contain locations of this basin. There are also further reservoirs
reservoirs of both clastic and carbonate rocks surrounding the Pyrenees; the French ones are in the
interbedded in vertical stratigraphic succession. Aquitaine Basin, in Triassic and Jurassic limestone and
More than 60% of the world’s oil reserves are dolomites with evaporites (Lacq gas field), and are
located in the Middle East, above all in Saudi Arabia, more limited on the Spanish side. The most important
the country with the greatest oil reserves, while Russia Spanish reservoirs are in the Tarragona Basin, in
has the greatest gas reserves. Jurassic dolomitic limestones.
An overview of the world’s main reservoirs by
geographical area (North, 1985; Barnaba, 1998) is Asia
given below, along with a brief description of those The world’s largest reserves are in the Middle East
called supergiants (containing more than 5 billion (Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and other countries of the

100 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

Arabian Peninsula). The stratigraphic succession has probably the largest in the North American continent,
many productive levels, from the Ordovician to the has various pay levels, the deepest of which is the
Tertiary, in various groups of formations: the Khuff Permian-Triassic limestone. In the same area oil is
Group, where the reservoir rock is Permian dolomitic also found in Cretaceous rocks, while gas-bearing
limestone and Permian and Lower Triassic sandstone; levels are found in Tertiary reservoirs.
the Arab-Zone Group, with Upper Jurassic limestone In western Canada (Alberta) there are large
and dolomite reservoirs; the Cretaceous Group, with reservoirs in the Devonian limestone reefs that outcrop
limestone, sandstone and sand reservoirs; and the extensively throughout the Rocky Mountains. On the
Asmari Group, whose reservoir rock is very permeable eastern side of the Rockies, between Edmonton and
as a result of the fracturing and fissuring of Oligo- Calgary, limestone deposits are capped by impervious
Miocene detritic and organogenic limestone, into evaporite formations. The extension of the Devonian
which hydrocarbons migrated from Cretaceous rocks. reefs in that area was favoured by palaeoclimatic
Other important Asiatic reservoirs are located in factors: indeed, in that period the area was crossed by
Siberia, mainly in Upper Jurassic to Cenomanian sands, the equator. The Upper Palaeozoic carbonates of
mostly containing gas. From western Siberia to the northern Alberta contain significant heavy oil
Barents Sea offshore, oil and gas reservoirs are located reservoirs. In the same area there is also a giant
in Permian-Triassic clastic rocks. Very ancient deposit of Cretaceous bituminous oil sands (tar sands).
reservoirs (Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian clastic In the Appalachian Basin there are reservoirs
rocks and carbonates) are located between the Lena and which were discovered back in 1859 (Edwin Drake
Tunguska rivers, and other giant hydrocarbon deposits drilled the first well, with the geological and chemical
have recently been discovered in Kazakhstan, north of consultancy of Benjamin Silliman, in western
the Caspian, in Palaeozoic carbonate reservoirs. Pennsylvania). Many are Palaeozoic levels: from the
Further large reservoirs worthy of mention are the Ordovician carbonate rocks to the Silurian sandstones,
Chinese ones in Tarim (Xinjiang-Uigur), in Lower and the shallow sea Devonian clastic rocks covered
Palaeozoic limestones and dolomites, carboniferous with black clays, rich in organic matter, which
limestones and Miocene deltaic sands. There are other constitute the source rock and also reservoirs through
productive basins in eastern China and Manchuria fracturing. There are also the shallow-sea sandstone
where continental sediments prevail. deposits, and shelf and reef limestone and dolomites
formed during the Carboniferous and Permian. These
Africa have good production levels, especially of gas.
The sedimentary basins in and around Africa have West of the Rocky Mountains, in California, the
excellent hydrocarbon potential. In the Algerian largest reservoirs are in the Cretaceous to Quaternary
Sahara there is the Hassi Messaoud field with a sandstones of the Los Angeles, Ventura, San Joaquin
Cambrian sandstone reservoir and other smaller and Sacramento basins. The largest reservoir is
Ordovician to Lower Carboniferous sandstone Wilmington, in Upper Miocene and Upper Pliocene
reservoirs. Cretaceous-Eocene sandstone and sands deformed into a wide anticline. A vast oil-
organogenic limestone reservoirs have been discovered bearing region extends from east of the Rocky
in the Sidra Basin in Libya, and in Tunisia there is the Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico (the Mid-Continent).
el-Borma field (oil) in Lower Triassic sandstones. In Many reservoirs are located there, especially in the
Egypt, there are reservoirs in the Nile delta (gas) and Upper Palaeozoic carbonate rocks and sands. The
in the western Red Sea-Sinai Peninsula (oil). The reservoirs in Texas and Louisiana, which are often
Niger delta basin in central Africa, Nigeria and the related to saline structures, are lithologically highly
Gulf of Biafra contains large reservoirs. The oil diversified (mainly sands), and are located in rocks
formations there (Akata, Agbada and Benin) are dating from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary.
Tertiary deltaic sands. Other important reservoirs are Another important oil-bearing region is the Gulf
located in Gabon, Congo and Angola. Coast, in Texas and Louisiana, with one third of the
entire production of the United States. Sedimentation
North America starts in the Triassic (the area emerged during the
North America has enormous oil-producing Palaeozoic) with evaporites, followed by a thick
potential and is the continent that has been most sequence of clastic and carbonate rocks in a basin with
carefully studied in geological terms, with reservoirs a high rate of subsidence: the reservoirs are located in
discovered back in the Nineteenth century. In the traps formed by faults cutting a Cretaceous-Miocene
north, Alaska has large reservoirs but climatic homocline south-dipping with numerous salt domes.
conditions make exploration and development very In Mexico, the most productive area is the south-
costly. The Prudhoe Bay field in the Arctic Sea, east of the country, on the coast of the Gulf of

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GEOSCIENCES

Mexico, with reservoirs in Upper Jurassic fractured reservoir rock until they reach an impervious barrier
dolomitic limestones, in reef and shelf facies, and in that blocks their vertical migration (Fig. 7). This
calcareous sands that deposited on the sides of the impervious rock is usually concave in shape if
structures. observed from below and so it also prevents lateral
migration of the hydrocarbons, thereby constituting
South America the reservoir rock cap.
In South America the largest reservoirs are in Oil geologists often prefer to call the cap rock roof
Venezuela, mainly in Cretaceous, and above all, rock, using the term cap rock only for impervious rock
Eocene to Miocene sands; the most important of these that seals salt domes. Another widely-used term is seal
are in the eastern part of the Gulf of Maracaibo. In rock. If bedding favours the hydrocarbons’ lateral
eastern Venezuela, to the north of the Orinoco, there is movement, the cap rock can represent a lateral barrier
a vast outcropping belt (30,000 km2) with an to their migration (wall rock).
enormous volume of Cretaceous to Eocene and
Oligocene bituminous sands (Orinoco oil or tar belt). Characteristics of cap rocks
The relatively low viscosity, poor compaction of the
sands, high geothermic gradient and warm climate There is no such thing as a perfectly impervious
allow traditional steam injection wells to be used. sedimentary rock, but if a rock’s permeability is less
Other important reservoirs are located in than 104 darcys then it may be assumed to be an
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and above all in effective cap; by nature it must be compact or have
Brazil and Argentina. In Brazil, the Reconcavo Basin pores that are either not interconnected or too small to
reservoirs (which extend to the Baia de Todos os allow the passage of fluids. The efficiency of a cap
Santos near Salvador in the offshore Atlantic) are rock, measured by the width of the column of oil or
located in Jurassic to Cretaceous sediments; in gas that it can seal, is a function of its integrity (lack
Argentina, the Comodoro Rivadavia field is located in of open fractures), its continuity, thickness and the size
Jurassic to Palaeocene sand lenses. of its pores. Another decisive factor for a cap rock’s
efficiency is its pressure gradient: extremely high
Australia gradients can affect the rock’s seal.
Australia has small reservoirs in the Cambrian- The quality of a cap is affected by the physical
Ordovician fractured sandstones of the Amadeus Basin state of the hydrocarbons: if they are in liquid state,
(central Australia) and in the Devonian rocks of the the cap efficiency is greater; if they are in gaseous
Canning Basin (western Australia). state, and the cap in question is only slightly porous-
permeable, with pores filled with water, the gas will be
able to gradually displace the water and spread
1.3.2 Cap rocks through the cap. In this case, even if the cap is very
thick, the gas will be able to cross it over long periods
These are impervious rocks that prevent the upward of time. Caps able to maintain their integrity over time
migration of the hydrocarbons. Since oil and gas are can provide a reservoir with an effective seal for
lighter than water, they tend to rise through the hundreds of millions of years.

Fig. 7. Various
typologies of deposits
with impervious cap rocks
and reservoirs in porous
rocks (Source: Eni).

porous beds impervious beds hydrocarbon reservoirs fault

102 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

If a rock is saturated with water, its capacity to Evaporites are ideal cap rocks. Halite, gypsum or
prevent the passage of hydrocarbons within a given anhydrite usually come at the end of an evaporitic
time-frame depends on the minimum amount of cycle, often formed at the base by carbonate rocks
pressure required to remove the connate water from the which can be good hydrocarbon reservoirs with an
seal’s pores or microfractures, thus enabling filtration. impervious and plastic evaporite cap. In the Permian-
This pressure, known as capillary entry pressure, is a Triassic, evaporite sequences with carbonate
function of the water-hydrocarbon interfacial tension sedimentary successions that have been sealed by
(oil and gas have different interfacial tension), inversely evaporites are common and form innumerable giant
proportional to the maximum radius of the hydrocarbon reservoirs.
interconnected pores, and able to confine the A one-metre-thick bed of cap rock is sufficient to
hydrocarbons within the reservoir. The hydrocarbons’ seal a reservoir hundreds of metres thick. For example,
upward drive, which is due to their low density, is a clay whose pores are less than one-tenth of a
quantifiable as the height of the hydrocarbon-bearing millimetre in size can have a theoretical capillary entry
column by the difference in density between them and pressure that can seal an oil column of 1,000 m. It is
water (Downey, 1994). This drive must be unlikely, however, that such a thin bed would be
counterbalanced by the capillary pressure of the cap characterized by sufficient lateral continuity without
rock; otherwise, when the drive is greater than the lithological variations or fractures to allow it to act as
capillary pressure, the hydrocarbons will cross the rock. a cap for an economically exploitable reservoir.
These parametres can also be measured in the Lateral permeability variations are fairly common
laboratory but it is difficult to extrapolate the behaviour in clastic rocks; for example, a sand bed can become
of an entire cap rock and its reservoir from a sample. laterally more clayey to the point of losing its
The cap rocks that offer the best seal against permeability characteristics. If the bed is inclined, the
hydrocarbon migration have vast lateral continuity, are hydrocarbons migrate through the sand until they are
lithologically uniform, have a good level of ductility, blocked by the increased percentage of clay, which
and represent a significant part of a basin’s filling. therefore forms a permeability barrier. The same effect
Ductility is the property of rock that favours can be seen as a result of a lateral increase in the
plasticity to deformations, and which increases with cementation of a sandstone bed, with a consequent
the organic content (kerogen), pressure and decrease in permeability.
temperature. Clays and evaporites are the most ductile In exceptional circumstances permafrost can act as
rocks and react to stress by deforming plastically a cap rock, as seen in the Siberian taiga, where the
without fracturing. Arenaceous and carbonate rocks, gas-bearing reservoir rock is Cretaceous sandstone.
on the other hand, are harder and, when subject to Cap rocks can form as a result of diagenetic
deformation, they are more likely to shatter, creating processes that render a previously permeable rock
open spaces into which the hydrocarbons can migrate. impervious, such as: cementation through
precipitation of salts dissolved from carbonate,
Lithology of cap rocks siliceous or evaporitic rocks; recrystallisation;
compaction due to lithostatic load; and redistribution
The most common cap rock is clay, which seals of ductile minerals. The degradation of oil can result in
over half of the clastic rock reservoirs, whether it is the formation of asphalt or impermeable tar, and in the
interbedded with them (as in the case of sand or reservoir rock being saturated with insoluble products:
sandstone and clay interbeddings that form turbidite if these are concentrated at the top of the reservoir,
sequence), or represents the end of a sedimentary they can act as caps.
cycle due to the deepening of a basin. Clay beds, Opposite processes can cause an impervious rock
which are common in turbidite sequences as a result of to lose its efficiency as a cap. The most common is
their continuity and lateral uniformity over great fracturing as a result of dislocations, but
distances, provide excellent caps that lie on top of one dolomitization can render a compact limestone cap
another in innumerable layers. Moreover, turbidite permeable and enable hydrocarbons to leak through it.
sequences are usually deposited in a geodynamic In addition to the common vertical type of cap, or
context that favours the accumulation of very thick top seal, there are also lateral seals that prevent
sediments (several thousands of metres). This thick hydrocarbons from migrating laterally and which are
accumulation results in the compaction of the rock also considered cap rocks. These phenomena are the
(especially clay), which renders it entirely impervious. result of facies variations, from a porous-permeable
Marl (clay with variable quantities of calcium rock to an impervious rock with greater capillary
carbonate) behaves in a similar way to clay and can pressure or differential diagenesis. Lateral seals
therefore also represent a good cap rock. formed by the displacement of rocks from different

VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT 103

GEOSCIENCES

environments, such as those deposited in an towards the surface. In this case the fault behaves like
impervious rock after an erosion cycle, are also very an open fracture. When the fault crops out, the
common. In these cases, the shape of the seal plays an hydrocarbons are dispersed in the atmosphere; the
important role; there is always a vertical component to majority of surface shows are found along these
every migration process that the cap rock must seal. fracture lines. The effects of migration over time
should not be underestimated, as permeability along
Identification of cap rocks the fault surface can annul the sealing capacity of the
adjacent rock. The origin of the fault is usually decisive
Reservoir rocks sealed by potential cap rocks can be when evaluating its effect on the cap: a tensional
identified through regional studies aimed at pinpointing (normal) fault will produce an open fracture far more
the areas where impervious cap rocks overlie porous- readily than a compressional (reverse or thrust) fault.
permeable formations. Lithofacies cartography is A fault’s effects on lateral hydrocarbon migration
essential in these studies: lithofacies, porosity and must also be taken into account. A fault rarely impedes
permeability properties must be established for each migration when it brings two porous-permeable
stratigraphic unit. The superposition in stratigraphic formations into contact; for example, it cannot act as a
order of the maps obtained will identify the areas where seal between two displaced beds of sand on either limb
an impervious unit overlies a porous-permeable one, an of the fault. Exceptions to this rule may arise when a
indispensable requirement for the presence of very plastic rock (clay, evaporite), sometimes set in
reservoirs. More detailed maps of the regional motion by high temperatures, has infiltrated along the
distribution and stratigraphic-structural characteristics fault plane and sealed it, and when the relative motion
of cap rocks, along with identification of underlying of the two limbs of the fault induces diagenetic or
source rocks, are used to interpret an oil system. Field recrystallisation phenomena, blocking the rock pores
studies carried out with the aim of identifying seepages along the fault plane.
may also allow identification of the possible lack or To sum up, study of the petrophysical nature, areal
poor quality of a cap. distribution and stratigraphic-structural configuration
Regional study of an area’s potential starts with a of the cap rock is essential for the identification of a
stratigraphic study to determine: the presence and hydrocarbon reservoir. Evaluation of individual caps is
distribution of source rock; the existence and spatial often far more complex than that of the regional cap,
configuration of the cap rock; favourable conditions especially in zones affected by fault systems, and
for the presence of traps above or close to the source requires detailed analysis, supplemented with
rocks. Of course, hydrocarbons can migrate across a cartographic representations and cross-section plans
rock which was believed to be a cap and encounter produced with the aid of seismic surveys to obtain a
another cap above it. three-dimensional picture of the cap.

Deformation of cap rocks

1.3.3 Hydrocarbon traps
Most structural traps are the result of folds or
faults that cause deformations in the cap rock which, if As stated above, the essential factors for the presence
ductile, will react plastically to the tension and deform of hydrocarbons are a porous and permeable reservoir
without fracturing or creating spaces that would allow rock and a trap in which they can accumulate. This is
the hydrocarbons to leak through them. defined as the geometric configuration of the rocks in
Anticline deformations can affect a sequence in the subsurface able to preserve their accumulation. In
which porous-permeable rocks alternate with brief, any subsurface structure able to receive
impervious ones which provide a series of caps, hydrocarbons and preserve them over time, until they
forming reservoirs in vertical succession. If an are extracted, can be called a trap.
impervious level is not an effective cap, there may be The presence of hydrocarbons, although
an effective one at a higher level. fundamental for the development of reservoirs in
A fault-induced dislocation can be an excellent trap economic terms, is not taken into consideration in the
if the uplifted wall forms an effective seal. For description of the various types of traps. In other
example, if the dislocation of dipping formations words, traps may contain potential reservoirs, but
displaces a permeable sand bed under an impervious certain elements, primarily the source rock in which
clay, the latter will act as a cap rock. In other cases a the hydrocarbons must form in order to migrate into
fault surface may represent a slight discontinuity where the trap, may be missing. As a result, the
the capillary properties, nature of the fluids and bed dip accumulation of hydrocarbons will not take place. A
allow the hydrocarbons to filter through and migrate geological structure can, therefore, be a trap even if it

104 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

does not contain hydrocarbons (Magoon and Dow, tectonic or sedimentary event does not prevent their
1994). movement and cause them to accumulate.
The main goal of oil exploration, therefore, is to Traps are classified on the basis of their
identify traps in the subsurface. The term ‘trap’ was characteristics, although some traps are very particular
coined in 1934 by R.A. McCollough, who extended and do not fit into any particular scheme. Some
the concept of anticline used until then to a variety of authors consider the trap’s geometry, some the
geological conditions in the subsurface favourable for mechanism that led to its formation, and others the
the accumulation of hydrocarbons. The anticlinal nature of the reservoir and cap rock. The simplest
theory originated from a statistic which indicated that classification, accepted by the majority of authors, is
hydrocarbons accumulated along the axes of anticlines the one proposed by Levorsen (1956), which divides
in culminations. In this context, White (1885) traps into three types: structural, stratigraphic, and
published the anticlinal rule according to which mixed, the latter being a combination of the first
“hydrocarbons move upwards as long as an anticlinal two types.
structural deformation does not block their ascent”. As
exploration technologies advanced, reservoirs were Structural traps
discovered in areas not necessarily linked to the
presence of anticlines. The more general concept of a These are the result of deformations occurring at
‘hydrocarbon trap’, which can refer to situations that the same time or, more often, after the reservoir rock
are not only structural but also stratigraphic, was deposited (Fig. 8) and are the easiest to identify
introduced: hydrocarbons move upwards as long as a because in some cases they are visible on the ground,

wrench fault
Fig. 8. The most common
arches, domes
types of structural traps.
A, dislocation towards
the viewer; T, dislocation
in the direction opposite
to that of the viewer; BC
BC
BC, basement A T
BC
(North, 1985).

compressive block
extensional block

BC
BC
BC
BC

thrust-fold belt

BC

detached normal fault salt

VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT 105

GEOSCIENCES

ust b elt N 0 80 km
thr

cated be oil field

Lurestan ri lt
b
im

inn
er
sim
ply Yasuj
MOUNT fo l d
ZA AIN ed b
GR F RO elt
OS F NT
OOTHIL
ou LS

K
ter

az
sim
ply

er
fo l d

un Q a t a r L i n
e d oi l
f ie
Khuzestan l d b elt Kazerun
G a c h sa r a n

Ahvaz
Hakimeh
Bibi

e
IRAN

Bushehr
Abadan
PERSIAN GULF

Fig. 9. On the right, an outcropping anticline

on the Zagros mountains in Iran:
the porous-permeable limestone deposits
of the Asmari Formation are visible along its hinge,
at the axial culmination, and on the sides,
the impervious evaporites of the Gachsaran Formation,
with their badland morphology. On the map
above, the oil reservoirs of the Asmari Formation,
in the hills facing the Zagros mountains,
are indicated in black (McQuillan, 1985).

when the structure crops out (Fig. 9). Even if they are reservoir to be reached at the minimum depth. The
buried, they can be identified using geophysical spill point is the highest point from which
methods (Fig. 10). They were thus the first to be hydrocarbons can escape from the trap. The trap
exploited. closure is the space between the top and spill point
Structural traps are the result of folds, faults, a (Fig. 11): if the entire interval is hydrocarbon-bearing
combination of the two (as is often the case), or it is called pay, otherwise the term is used to refer only
regional dipping of bedding. However, when they are to hydrocarbon-bearing stratigraphic intervals.
sealed by an unconformity, it is considered preferable
to classify them as stratigraphic traps, even if Traps caused by folding
deformations occurring after the unconformity can Although generally used to indicate the result of
make their classification ambiguous. tectonic deformation, the term fold is purely a
In a structural trap there is a top and spill point. geometric description and refers to a curving or
The top is the trap’s highest point, i.e. the point of the non-planar arrangement of geological surfaces,

106 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

Agip-Varignana 1
T. D. 2,637 m projected 2.5 km SE Agip-Budrio 1 Agip-Selva 2
outcrops T. D. 3,185 m T. D. 1,801 m
0.0
Early Pliocene

Quaternary
Liguridi unit G5
1.0
G4
TWT (s)

Top of Miocene G3 Middle Late Pliocene

sequence G2
2.0

G1 Early Pliocene
Early
3.0
Pliocene Top of Miocene
sequence
Top of Miocene sequence
4.0

Fig. 10. Anticlinal traps faulted in a compressive regime, identified using seismic methods
(Agip division in the Po River Plain) (Ricci Lucchi, 1986).
Casnedi_f10

usually beds. The genesis of a fold need not be a gas cap, with the oil below it. The structure may be
deformation, and it may be sindepositional, as is the filled with hydrocarbons up to its spill point: below
case of folds due to differential compaction or those that point, identified by the first open isobath on
due to slumping. structural maps, the oil and gas spill out sideways
The most common and important traps caused by towards an adjacent structure. If the quantity of
folding are convex traps, which often imply the folding hydrocarbons present in the reservoir is not sufficient
of a thick stratigraphic sequence usually characterized to reach the spill point, water (usually salt water)
by various overlying reservoir rocks. Convex traps, collects beneath them.
which vary in nature, geometry and genesis (although The forces that can cause a reservoir rock to fold
the typical convex trap is an anticline, many fault traps are widely discussed in geology and may be summed
and salt domes also belong to this category), contain up as the result of tangential compressions acting on
most of the hydrocarbon reservoirs. plastic rocks. Faults are created when their plasticity
Under static conditions, oil occupies the upper limit is exceeded; in the majority of reservoirs, folds
part of the reservoir, unless the quantity of gas are associated with faults.
exceeds the amount required to saturate the oil at Exploitation is easiest when the anticline
reservoir temperature and pressure; in this case, the represents the deformation of a continuous
excess gas rises to the top of the reservoir and forms stratigraphic series. It may contain various overlying

Fig. 11. Reservoir

with closure and spill
point (Source: Eni).

Gas-Oil gas
Contact
(GOC) closure
Oil-Water oil
Contact
(OWC) water

spill
point

VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT 107

GEOSCIENCES

reservoirs, with their impermeable caps. Drilling can Of course, there are many types of convex traps
cross the reservoirs one after the other and make them and the shape, width and general morphology of the
all economically exploitable. fold may change with depth. In these cases, the
When an anticline extends to the surface, the interpretation of the results of the preliminary
structure can be identified above ground level: if there geophysical study must be reviewed in the light of data
are reservoirs in the subsurface, the hydrocarbons are obtained during exploration drilling. Convex traps can
produced from wells positioned along the axis of the be classified on a genetic basis:
anticline. In the area north of the Persian Gulf, for • Tangential compression, which can take place
example, outcrops of the deformed stratigraphic without the basement necessarily being affected
sequence have led to the identification of several (buckle and thrust fold traps). These traps are said
potential hydrocarbon reservoirs, along with their to be ‘suspended’ because they end or are cut off at
thickness, lithological characteristics, porosity and the bottom.
permeability levels, and presence of cap rocks. In most • Vertical movements, which do not necessarily
cases, however, the structure can not be identified on imply a shortening of the crust (bending fold
the surface because it is covered by other discordant traps), and usually involve the basement.
sequences or alluvial deposits: it is therefore referred • Traps whose convexity is the result of geological
to as a buried structure and can be identified using events preceding the overlying sequence.
geophysical methods. Convexity may result from the covering of a
The axial culminations or depressions of an residual relief (buried hills) or an existing
anticline can be identified by analyzing its geometry, sedimentary body (principally a reef). In both
the best area to explore being the zone of axial cases, the beds cover the reliefs, draping over them
culmination, where the reservoir expands, increasing on account of their convexity (drape folding), and
in volume (Fig. 12). When a culmination is particularly thinning gradually towards the top.
extensive and raised, it is called a structural dome It is important to determine an anticline’s axial
whose bedding does not dip symmetrically to the plane: if the plane is vertical, wells remain aligned
limbs of the anticline but radially from the top; in this along the axial plane even at a depth. Overlying
case development wells will be positioned reservoirs, on the other hand, will be reached by wells
concentrically. at increasing depths, but always at their culmination,

A
1,000 m B

m
800

0 m water
60
oil
4
00 subsurface pr
o
200
surface em jection
ergen o
ce of f the line of upthrust
A B the line f upt
o hrust
A
7,820 m

B
A A Srm3 B
sea level Srm1
Srm2
Krg Krg
Srm1 Srm2
Krg Srm1 Tsch
Tsch "
"
series
Tsch "series Krg
"
"series Mkp Mkp
top of the ies
Tsch
" " ser
Mkp the "
B C

Fig. 12. Traps in a faulted anticline, illustrated with a structural map (A) and sections (B, C). Grozny reservoir,
Chechen (Russia). The abbreviations refer to the formations crossed (Levorsen, 1956).

108 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

anticline). This type of trap is only rarely exploitable

NW SE because the presence of intense dislocations makes
0 structural interpretation more difficult.
m
Drag folds, caused by friction in the brittle layers
200 during folding or by the slip of allocthonous units, are
known as minor folds, and influence the formation of
400 traps to a lesser extent.
A
The most spectacular example of anticlinal traps is
600 the folded structure situated in Iranian and Iraqi
territory close to the Zagros mountains (see again
800 Fig. 9); the 300-metre-thick Asmari Limestone
B (Oligo-Miocene) has been deformed in folds with a
1,000 wavelength of between 10 and 20 km, and an
amplitude of 2 to 5 km. The overlying sediments
1,200 C contain evaporites that have reacted plastically to
D compression and have slid down the anticline crests.
1,400 E Other traps of great importance in oil exploration
0 400 m are salt domes, traps whose structural genesis is
connected to particular stratigraphic conditions, and
are therefore normally classified as mixed traps (see
Fig. 13. Anticline in Adriatic foredeep rocks below).
(Cellino field, Abruzzo), with numerous Homoclinal dips are common and economically
reservoirs superposed in the hinge.
Since the axis is not vertical, the reservoirs
exploitable structures. They may correspond to a fold
are out of alignment, with structural highs limb, even if its dip is slight. The trap is formed when
in the direction of dip of the axial plain porous-permeable beds in the homoclinal succession
(Casnedi et al., 1977). are sealed in their upraised side either by faults (see
below) or by sharp decreases in porosity or
permeability (permeability barrier). The latter case
and exploitation will therefore be easier and more may occur also when the beds crop out: the formation
cost-effective. of asphalt or bitumen in their outcropping portion can
If the axial plane is inclined, drilling will reach the create an impervious plug that prevents the
culmination at points that shift gradually in the hydrocarbons from migrating upwards and dispersing
direction of the axial plane’s dip (Fig. 13). In this case, in the air. The transformation occurs as a result of
development is less economical since a greater number oxidation of the oil, which is favoured by the presence
of vertical wells, or directional wells parallel to the of surface water. This type of trap may be classified as
axial surface, will be required to reach the pools. stratigraphic or mixed.
The anticline may be asymmetrical: in this case, the Understanding a reservoir’s geometry and, in
reservoir rock will be more developed towards the lesser particular, the configuration of its top part is of
dipping of the fold’s two limbs. If there is convergence, fundamental importance for its exploitation. This
i.e. a thinning of the beds in one direction, the position configuration is commonly represented on maps by
of the structural high may vary considerably, and the isobaths that indicate the depth of the reservoir top,
volume of the reservoir rock can change accordingly. often with the highest point marked with the  plus
The radius of the fold may also change vertically, as sign (structural or contour map). In an anticline, the
is the case when a deformation tends to progressively curves are subparallel and are spaced out in
reduce in intensity over time. The fold will therefore be culmination zones, whereas they tend to be concentric
more pronounced in the older beds, which as a result in the case of domes.
may contain reservoirs that are thicker but aereally The structural closure is the vertical distance
smaller than the younger ones. between the highest point of the hydrocarbon-bearing
Overturned folds, with an axial surface close to fold and the structure’s deepest isobath; in this context
horizontal (recumbent folds), are often peculiar gas, oil and water are bedded, and hydrocarbons can
structures. The reservoir may be located either in the partially or totally occupy the interval above the lowest
fold’s upper portion or underneath, in the overturned closure contour line. If the surfaces separating gas, oil,
part of the fold itself. In the second case, the reservoir and water, known also as gas-oil contact and oil-water
will be part of a succession of overturned beds which, contact (either gas or oil may be missing) are
in turn, may be located at the structural high (false horizontal as in many reservoirs, they are graphically

VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT 109

GEOSCIENCES

represented as isobaths enclosing the productive area. bow-shaped) dip, interrupted by a fault contact with
The producing wells are placed within this area. impervious formations or beds.
Normal faults are usually associated with the
Traps caused by faulting formation of sedimentary basins. They are mostly
These are common, but statistics show that they syndepositional and dip towards the subsiding part of
tend to create smaller reservoirs than those generated the basin; their dip thus conforms with the regional dip
by folds, with which they are often associated, along (synthetic faults or grow faults). They begin to form by
with other structural modifications such as flexuring when the basin flexes as a result of the
homoclines, bending of beds or stratigraphic lithostatic load of the sediments, and then develop with
variations. Traps due to faults are formed when a throws of increasing size in the direction of the basin,
porous-permeable level is displaced below an while sedimentation becomes notably thicker on the
impermeable one, which acts as a seal. lowered sides. A classic example is the coast of the
In certain cases, the fault crops out: when it is Gulf of Mexico, where the faults are still active and
associated with hydrocarbon reservoirs, and does not affect populated areas facing the sea.
act as a seal because the fracture is open, surface oil Other associations of normal faults cut the
shows or gas leakages may be observable on the homoclinal series with an opposite dip to the regional
ground. In order for a trap to be formed, the fault plane dip (antithetic faults); they do not grow over time and
must be impervious. This happens in evaporite are only the result of the compensation of an
formations if they contain porous levels, and in clastic extensional process.
sequences with clays which, as a result of their The most common normal fault traps are related to
plasticity, seal the fault surface. In carbonate rocks, the antithetic faults. In these cases the reservoirs are
seal is sometimes the result of calcite precipitation located in the upper part of the uplifted side, when the
along the fault plane. dislocation places these reservoir rocks in contact with
Fault traps may be classified, depending on the impervious beds on the lowered side. Naturally,
nature of the fault, as follows: those caused by normal, hydrocarbon accumulation occurs after fault
or gravity, faulting (extensional origin), and those caused displacement. Numerous traps are also often found in
by reverse, or thrust faulting (compressional origin). combination with grow faults on the fault’s lowered
The simplest normal fault trap interrupts a side; only a few of them, however, have a seal on the
homoclinal dip which usually corresponds to the limb fault plane. An additional factor is required, such as an
of a fold; the most important reservoirs of this type intersection of faults or a thinning of formations
are associated with successions characterized (pinch out, with reference to stratigraphic traps), in
by a regional, homoclinal (or, as is often the case, order for a trap to be created.

Cormorant Statfjord
Hutton
W E
0
depth (km)

Shetland
platform Horda platform
(Bergen High)
8
0 50 100 150
distance (km)
Oligocene- Upper Cretaceous Jurassic basement
Pleistocene
Palaeocene- Lower Cretaceous Triassic
Eocene

Fig. 14. Traps in the Viking Graben, in the North Sea. The faults generating the traps do not extend
into the cap, which is slightly bent (North, 1985).

110 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

SW NE
1,500

st
thru
est
sea outw
elevation (m)

level
ust
y thr
alle
n er V
Tur
1,500

n
onia Mississippian Limestone
Dev 0 2,000 m
3,000

Fig. 15. Structures created as a result of compression (anticlines and reverse faults) generate traps
with reservoirs in the Carboniferous (Mississippian Limestone, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains
in Alberta) (North, 1985).

A factor favourable to the accumulation of Genesis by compression, which characterizes

hydrocarbons is the association of normal faults which reverse faults, is also the cause of intense fracturing of
determines the formation of a tectonic horst. The most the rock when the moving limbs consist of hard and
uplifted zone is often the site of a reservoir, sealed by brittle rocks (especially carbonates). The entire
the faults that border it; the zone can also host a series fractured zone, in the presence of adequate cap rock,
of reservoirs, each of which is sealed by one of the may constitute an excellent reservoir. As already
faults that make up the association itself. Reservoirs in described, reverse faults tend to have sealed surfaces
tectonic troughs (grabens), located on the uppermost more frequently than normal faults because of their
sides of the structure, are rarer (Fig. 14). In this context compressional genesis. In normal faults, the fracture
there are well-known traps (Red Sea, North Sea) that can stay open more easily and fail to seal the reservoir.
have formed only on one side of the trough, when it
has dropped just on one side (half-graben). Stratigraphic traps
Reverse faults form structural traps that are mainly
associated with folding, which also occurs as a result Stratigraphic traps are caused by a lateral variation
of compressional regimes. Their dip is usually less in the lithology of the reservoir rock or by an
than that of normal faults (even less than 45°). When interruption of the stratigraphic succession (Fig. 16).
compression is greater the fault plane dip tends to Lateral variations may be connected to a lithological
approach the horizontal: in these cases, the term change, with consequent variation of petrophysical
overthrust is preferred. characteristics such as porosity and permeability, or to
The most common traps due to reverse faults have an interruption in the sedimentation against a
a reservoir in folded formations associated with the structural high (for example, by an onlap). In these
fault, and a seal at the lowered side, over which the
hydrocarbon-bearing side has slipped. Another pool of
sea level after continued subsidence
the same reservoir may be located on the lowered side, 7
5 6
corresponding to the fold’s limb, and sealed by the sea level (early stage)
3
fault itself.
The presence of overthrusts can give rise to traps, 1 4
formity
especially when they originate in a fold: the upper part uncon 2
of the fold may constitute the reservoir, which may be
sealed by the thrust-faulted lowered side. At the same
time, the latter may also contain another reservoir that
Fig. 16. Typology of stratigraphic traps:
is capped and sealed by the overthrust side (Fig. 15).
1 and 2, real stratigraphic traps;
Faults with movement along the direction of the 3 and 4, traps that are positioned, respectively,
fault plane (strike-slip faults) can also trap above and below an unconformity;
hydrocarbons if permeable rocks have displaced below 5 to 7, paleogeomorphic traps in buried hills
impermeable ones. (North, 1985).

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cases, to have a real trap, the seal must be along the by the permeability barrier that the more clayey,
direction of the beds. lateral part can provide (Fig. 17). These sand lenses are
A vertical stratigraphic interruption may entail the often vertically repeated and have an irregular lateral
presence of an unconformity with an impervious cap diffusion, giving rise to reservoirs that are small in size
rock which seals the trap. Statistically, stratigraphic but very numerous, and difficult to locate using
traps have smaller volumes and are harder to identify geophysical methods (e.g. the complex of channels in
using geophysical methods than structural ones. bird’s-foot deltas).
Although their existence has been ascertained since Channelled currents may overflow from the
the Nineteenth century, they have only been explored channel axis, covering non-eroded surrounding
in more recent times, not least because they imply a deposits. In this case, extremely thin layers of sands
thorough and detailed knowledge of the stratigraphic whose grain size is much finer than that of sands
succession. deposited in the channels, but with a particularly broad
Purely stratigraphic traps are found in reef lateral extension (overbank deposits), may be found.
formations or in lens or channelled deposits. However, The tightly-packed interbedding of thin layers of sands
a structural component such as porous-permeable and clays, which are known as shoestrings because of
dipping beds discordantly capped by impervious rock, their ample, ribbon-shaped lateral development, may
is generally also present. For this reason, it is be the result, not only of the above-mentioned
preferable to describe traps that are characterized by overflowing phenomena, but also of coastal
both components separately, as belonging to the sedimentation in longshore bars.
category of mixed traps. Of great importance are the reservoirs contained in
Classification of stratigraphic traps will distinguish deposits of chemical-organogenic origin, mainly in
the primary ones – which depend on the geometry of carbonate rocks – especially in those that have
the reservoir that, in turn, is the direct consequence of undergone dolomitization with a notable increase in
the characteristics of its sedimentation – from the porosity and permeability. Although this process is of
secondary ones, formed after sedimentation. secondary origin, traps of this type may be classified
as primary stratigraphic ones because they are tied in
Primary stratigraphic traps with the sedimentation environment.
The different sedimentation processes existing The presence of hydrocarbons in reef formations is
between rocks with clastic origin and those with a favoured by the fact that the rock that contains them
chemical-organogenic one give rise to traps with may have been the source rock; they migrate to the
different geometries. Clastic genesis forms traps of upper part of the formation, into a trap with a cap rock
lens deposits – often sands and sandstones deposited of clay sediments that deposited when the reef ceased
in particular sedimentation environments within to develop. The lateral seal is often made up of the
impervious clay rocks. In some cases they may be
resedimented deposits of breccias of igneous or
A B
metamorphic rocks. They will usually be alluvial or
impermeable impermeable
marine deposits that are the product of currents with a
high transport capacity along their main axis that porous and permeable
gradually decreases on the sides. For this reason, permeable
X X X X
coarse deposits pass laterally to fine ones, and this
lithological passage determines either a gradual or
sharp decrease in permeability.
In delta or turbidite deposits, the sand bodies are
mainly located in the upper, internal part of the fans
plan plan
and derive from the filling of the channels dew to the
flow of the currents. The lateral passage between these X oil X X oil X
lens deposits and the rock that contains them may be
sharp, as is the case of channels that have been
previously eroded and filled with coarse clastic section water section water
materials only slightly more recent than the
Fig. 17. Primary stratigraphic traps:
surrounding rock.
A, porous-permeable lens in an impermeable
The hydrocarbons may fill up the coarse body rock; B, lens in a homoclinal regional dip
entirely or only occupy its upper portion. If the beds with trap caused by the passage
have a homoclinal dip, the hydrocarbons will be to an impermeable rock
concentrated in the upper part of the bed and trapped (Levorsen, 1956).

112 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

impermeable basin sediments deposited in heteropy for the underlying portion. By migrating along the
during the growth of the reef. porous-permeable formations, the hydrocarbons may
Carbonate shelf sediments, which are also often accumulate in one or more reservoirs at the porous-
dolomitized, are widespread as well; they have a much permeable intervals, which are separated from one
more ample lateral development than reef sediments, another by the impervious layers of the succession.
and are of a similar thickness, given that they too Other traps may be located just below the
develop vertically to compensate subsidence. unconformity in the part that was eroded, exposed to
Reservoirs located in the above-mentioned sediments atmospheric agents, and, therefore, altered and porous.
are more ample than those found in reef formations, Finally, sands or gravel contained in the palaeochannels
and their cap may take the form of terrigenous of rivers or coastal deposits overlying the
platforms with a considerable clayey matrix on top, or unconformity may give rise to good reservoirs.
limestones that have not undergone dolomitization and The erosion profile presents buried hills or
have therefore maintained their impervious properties. landforms that constitute palaeogeomorphologic traps.
A stratigraphic succession may contain various
Stratigraphic traps associated with unconformities unconformities (in some cases, an upper one may cut
(or of the secondary type) through a lower one), and each of these may give rise
A stratigraphic unconformity occurs as a result of to overlying traps representing the result of the
an interruption in the sedimentation process (a migration and accumulation processes below each
sedimentary hiatus). The surface distinguishing an unconformity. In particular, the uplift of an anticline
interruption is erosive if the most recent part of the may occur in various phases that are progressively
succession has been dismantled or carried away by attenuated, each separated from the older one by an
erosion agents, in particular when an uplift has unconformity.
moved the rock into a subaerial environment. In this
case, the surface may be irregular and highly Mixed (stratigraphic-structural) traps
articulated, with fluvial incisions, reliefs and
depressions. After a transgression, the marine These are traps in which both structural
sedimentation resumes and covers the unconformity deformations and stratigraphic variations occur. The
with a new cycle which, as a result, constitute a cap most important of these are related to the existence of
rock. Stratigraphic studies and basin analysis are the salt domes, which result from the uplift of relatively
first steps in recognizing unconformity traps within light rocks, usually halite and gypsum of evaporitic
the basin itself. origin. Halite has a density of about 2.2 and gypsum of
Usually, the part that was uplifted will also have about 2.4. Experiments conducted in the Gulf of
been dislocated, and bedding is deformed in different Mexico have shown that, as a result of the geostatic
ways with folds and faults; a new undeformed load, the density of sediments associated with salt
succession is deposited on top of it (angular increases progressively with depth and that, at a depth
unconformity). The truncation of beds folded below of 700 m, it is already greater than that of salt, which
the unconformity, which is followed by the deposition is incompressible and therefore always maintains the
of impermeable layers, generates a typical same density.
stratigraphic trap. In other cases, erosion may act on In the presence of water and at high temperatures,
an area that has been uplifted at the regional level, salt and gypsum become extremely plastic. Therefore
even without deformation (disconformity). a slight deformation, such as an anticline, and even
Finally, an interruption of the sedimentation one with a wide radius, may cause an uplift in the salt
process, especially if the succession remains in a layers known as a diapir, starting from the fold’s hinge.
marine environment, may be followed by a new The salt formations, because of their plasticity,
sedimentation cycle without the succession suffering literally pierce the overlying rocks with an upward
either erosion or deformation as a result hydrostatic thrust, as described by Archimedes’
(paraconformity). In this case it is recognized only by principle which establishes the tendency towards
the absence of a chronological interval, which may be equilibrium of lighter and heavier masses: a salt dome
palaeontologically identified. At the transition between is thus created. Its structuring, and above all the speed
old and new sedimentations only incrustations formed at which the light salts rise, are proportional to the
during the non-deposition interval or, if the surface has volume of the masses involved in the process.
been exposed to atmospheric agents, a hardened As a result of their increased density the sediments
palaeosol (hard-ground), may be observed. contouring the salt structure begin to exert a lateral
If the succession on top of the unconformity has an pressure that affects the shape of the dome, often
impervious base, the latter will constitute a cap rock causing it to become narrower at the bottom. In other

VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT 113

GEOSCIENCES

upper part, diameters of around one kilometre and

heights of up to several thousand metres.
Hydrocarbons are produced from wells positioned
around the dome and, in part, on the cap rock on the
dome itself.
cap rock
The formation of a salt dome may cause a number
of normal faults to be associated with the blocks that
the dome has uplifted; in this case, the traps are not
sealed by the salt walls but by the impermeable
formations that are interbedded with the porous-
permeable ones of the succession.
Much has been written about salt domes owing to
salt plug the frequency with which they occur on the coast of
the Gulf of Mexico, in Louisiana and in Texas. The salt
domes in this area are known as salt plugs, and are
formed by halite associated with anhydrite; because of
its high density, however, anhydrite does not give rise
to diapirs. Free sulphur derived from the anhydrite,
and potassium salt are also often present. The
Fig. 18. Idealised section of a salt dome formations that cover the salt domes are marked by
in the Gulf of Mexico. In black, the oil numerous faults that radiate out from the centre of the
contained in traps of various types dome, with vertical dislocations of several hundreds of
(by fault in the cap rock; by unconformity
at the dome’s sides). The seals may consist
metres. These highly dipping faults lead to the
of salt or impermeable rocks interbedded formation of reservoirs in separate blocks, some of
in the sedimentary succession which are true tectonic troughs (grabens) mostly
(Levorsen, 1956). localized above the domes. In these cap rocks,
excellent reservoirs are formed in interbedded sands
(for example, the Frio Formation in Texas).
words, the dome may have a wider diameter at the top, The upward-thrust phenomenon gives rise to some
where it is less influenced by lateral pressure, than at extremely complicated structures, in which the faults
greater depths. are associated with squeezing and truncation of the
The rise of the salt is favoured in corrugated zones sand formations that contour the dome; these structures
where the diapiric salt masses have varied shapes may contain ten or more pools. Exploration is therefore
because the overlying rocks, which have suffered very complicated, and the drilling stage may be
folding and fracturing, offer different amounts of problematic due to the overpressure of the clays.
resistance to the upward thrust of the salt, depending In addition to the Gulf of Mexico, there are many
on the direction of the discontinuity. Favoured by its other production areas related to salt domes: the
own plasticity, the salt tends to proceed along the Hanover zone (Germany), the region to the north of
easiest paths, intruding into the weakened zones and the Caspian Sea, and various areas in the Middle East,
acquiring irregular shapes. especially in Iran.
Salt rocks are impervious and the formations that Other typical mixed traps occur when the
contour the dome may be the site of important dislocation takes place during the sedimentation
reservoirs, sealed by the salt itself (Fig. 18). The process (syntectonic sedimentation). This can occur in
upward motion of the salt provokes an uplift of the basins that are only partially affected by deformations:
surrounding beds which, as a result, are generally while one part rises, forming a structural high, the rest
more inclined. In the case of porous-permeable rocks, is subject to sedimentation. The basin’s sands onlap the
these beds give rise to reservoirs with a limited lateral upraised part, and change lithofacies, becoming
extension but a pronounced vertical development, and thinner, more clayey and less permeable. The end
are marked by an anomalous pressure, greater than acquires a characteristic lens or pinch-out shape.
that considered normal at those depths. It should be Bearing in mind that this, too, may have been lifted,
noted that the salt domes, which only rarely reach the the sand layer may end by arching upwards and
surface, are, as a result of their low density, easily becoming a reservoir blocked by the passage to the
identified in the subsurface by means of gravimetric clayey facies or by the flank of the structural high. In
surveys. Their shape is that of a truncated cone or practice, the structural high is contoured by these
irregular cylinder, often with a mushroom-shaped pinched-out lens sands that can lie on top of each

114 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS

other, separated by layers of clay, and give rise to shapes and sizes, depending on the characteristics of
several overlying reservoirs. the porous-permeable rock in which the reservoir is
The structural high may be represented by a salt located, may thus be generated (Fig. 19).
dome that has risen after the sedimentation of the Other mixed traps are associated with anticlines
surrounding basin (in which case it may form a trap of formed, not as a result of tectonic actions, but
the kind already described), or during it, in which case of the buried hills mentioned above: the beds,
it may form mixed traps with pinched-out sand dipping radically over the hills, forms reservoirs
terminations. along their borders, often where there are
Other mixed traps may occur when a fault plane accumulations of coarse products produced by the
produces a slope along which the sediments previously disintegration of the hills.
deposited on the uplifted flank either slump down or In other cases, the trap originates as a
landslide (megabreccias). consequence of differential compaction under
If the water in a reservoir rock is in motion, the oil- lithostatic load, as clays are more compressible than
water contact assumes the same dip as that of the other rocks, such as sand. In a covering succession
water’s movement. Hydrodynamic traps of various with high clay content, the sequence is more compact
where the thickness is greatest. As a result, there will
be a culmination on the buried hill, where the cover is
oil gas water less thick, while the clays, which are more abundant
on the borders, will be more compact, thereby
simulating an anticline.
The buried hill may also not be erosive in nature:
for example, a reef covered by a thin bed of clay
(which may have determined the extinction of the reef
itself) will usually be flanked by basin deposits of a
clayey nature that are subject to compaction; they too
simulate an anticline that may be the site of reservoirs
separated from the reef.
A A The variety and complexity of the geological
conditions related to the presence of hydrocarbon
reservoirs and their relative caps, together with the
existence of traps, are the basis of oil exploration.
Once an oil region has been identified, exploration
usually involves the following steps:
• Identification and drilling of structural traps, which
are easier to identify by means of geophysical
surveys. At this point, subsurface exploration will
have provided useful stratigraphic information for
the next step.
B B
• Search for and drilling of mixed traps.
• Exploration of stratigraphic traps, carried out on
the basis of an accurate stratigraphic study based
on data collected during the first two steps.

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C C Bosellini A. (1991) Introduzione allo studio delle rocce
carbonatiche, Ferrara, Bovolenta.
Fig. 19. Types of hydrodynamic traps
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