FLUVIAL MORPHODYNAMICS
PRESENTED BY JUTHIKA DEY
• Laminar flows are smooth and streamlined, whereas
turbulent flows are irregular and chaotic.
• A low Reynolds number indicates laminar flow while a high
Reynolds number indicates turbulent flow. The flow
behavior drastically changes if it is laminar vs. turbulent.
• Whenever the Reynolds number is less than about 2,000,
flow in a pipe is generally laminar, whereas, at values greater
than 2,000, flow is usually turbulent.
turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the
fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast
to laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in smooth paths or
layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is
continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and
direction. The flow of wind and rivers is generally turbulent in
this sense, even if the currents are gentle. The air or water
swirls and eddies while its overall bulk moves along a specific
direction.
In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is characterized by fluid
particles following smooth paths in layers, with each layer
moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no
mixing.[1] At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without
lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another
like playing cards. There are no cross-currents perpendicular
to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids.[2] In
laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very
orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in
straight lines parallel to that surface.
Subcritical Flow: Depths of flow greater than critical depths,
resulting from relatively flat slopes. Froude number is less
than one. Flow of this type is most common in flat streams.
Supercritical Flow: Depths of flow less than critical depths
resulting from relatively steep slopes. Froude number is
greater than one. Flow of this type is most common is steep
streams.
Hydraulic Jump: Hydraulic jumps occur at abrupt transitions
from supercritical to subcritical flow in the flow direction.
There are significant changes in the depth and velocity in the
jump, and energy is dissipated. For this reason, the hydraulic
jump is often employed to dissipate energy and control
erosion at stormwater management structures.
A hydraulic jump is a fluid shockwave created at the transition
between laminar and turbulent flow. One common example of
a hydraulic jump can be seen in the water radiating outward
when the stream of tap water strikes the horizontal surface of
a sink. The water initially flows in a smooth sheet with
consistent current patterns. In this region, the speed of the
water exceeds the local wave speed. Friction against the sink
surface slows the flow until an abrupt change occurs. At this
point, the depth increases as water piles up in the transition
region and flow becomes turbulent [1]. The motion of
individual water molecules becomes erratic and unpredictable.
The interruption of flow patterns also reduces the kinetic
energy of the water. In addition to the kitchen sink example,
hydraulic jumps are also typical features of river rapids where
the water swirls and foams around rocks and logs.
A hydraulic drop is a term used to describe a quick change
that occurs in the depth of a channel of water. When a drop of
this type takes place, the depth goes from a relatively high
stage to one that is noticeable lower. The change may be due
to shifts in the slope of the channel itself or may be artificially
created by the use of construction that seeks to control the
flow of water through a channel.
The idea of a hydraulic drop is the opposite of what is known
as a hydraulic jump. A jump occurs when the depth of the
water in the channel goes from a relatively low point or stage
to one that is noticeably higher. As with the drop, the jump
may be due to a natural change in the slope of the channel, or
have to do with manual attempts to impact the water level
within the channel.
Valley confinement describes the degree to which bounding
topographic features (such as hillslopes, alluvial fans, glacial
moraines, and river terraces) limit the lateral extent of the
valley floor and the floodplain along a river. Valleys can be
broadly classified as confined or unconfined, with
corresponding differences in their appearance, vegetation,
ground water exchange rates, topographic gradient, and
stream characteristics. Unconfined valleys are generally less
extensive than confined valleys in montane environments, but
host a diverse array of terrestrial and aquatic organisms and
provide disproportionately important ecosystem functions
(e.g., hyporheic exchange, pool-riffle channel morphology,
suitable grain sizes for spawning, enhanced riparian habitat).
Consequently, identifying the location and abundance of each
valley type is increasingly recognized as an important aspect
of ecosystem management.
The bankfull discharge is that flow at which the channel is
completely filled. Wide variations are seen in the frequency
with which the bankfull discharge occurs, although it
generally has a return period of one to two years for many
stable alluvial rivers. The geomorphological work carried out
by a given flow depends not only on its size but also on its
frequency of occurrence over a given period of time. The
flow in river channels exerts hydraulic forces on the boundary
(bed and banks). An important balance exists between the
erosive force of the flow (driving force) and the resistance of
the boundary to erosion (resisting force). This determines the
ability of a river to adjust and modify the morphology of its
channel. One of the main factors influencing the erosive power
of a given flow is its discharge: the volume of flow passing
through a given cross-section in a given time. Discharge varies
both spatially and temporally in natural river channels,
changing in a downstream direction and fluctuating over time
in response to inputs of precipitation. Characteristics of the
flow regime of a river include seasonal variations in discharge,
the size and frequency of floods and frequency and duration
of droughts. The characteristics of the flow regime are
determined not only by the climate but also by the physical
and land use characteristics of the drainage basin.
Valley setting Channel processes are driven by flow and
sediment supply, although the range of channel adjustments
that are possible are often restricted by the valley setting. The
influence of channel substrate and vegetation on bank erosion
and channel migration have already been mentioned. The
valley slope is also significant, affecting the steepness of the
channel, which, together with discharge, determines stream
power. Channels that flow over very gentle gradients can
sometimes be extremely restricted in the adjustments they
can make because so little energy is available. Another control
on channel adjustment is the degree of valley confinement.
While some channels are able to migrate freely across a wide
floodplain, others are confined to a greater or lesser extent by
the valley walls.
Riparian zones, or areas, are lands that occur along the edges
of rivers, streams, lakes, and other water bodies. Examples
include streambanks, riverbanks, and flood plains. They’re
different from the surrounding uplands because their soils and
vegetation are shaped by the presence of water. Riparian
zones in the southwestern United States make up less than
two percent of the land area, but they support the highest
density and abundance of plants and animals of any habitat
type there.
Riparian zones provide many important functions and
benefits, including:
• Providing habitat (including migration routes and habitat
connectors) for a diversity of wildlife,
• Helping to maintain water quality, because riparian
vegetation can remove excess nutrients and sediment
from surface runoff,
• Stabilizing stream banks and reducing floodwater
velocity (thanks to riparian vegetation), and
• Providing recreation opportunities and scenic beauty.
Also, in addition to riparian plants providing habitat and
stabilizing stream banks, overhanging vegetation shades
streams, which reduces water temperatures for fish.
“Bankfull depth” means the average vertical distance between
the channel bed and the estimated water surface elevation
required to completely fill the channel to a point above which
water would enter the floodplain or intersect a terrace or
hillslope. In cases where multiple channels exist, the bankfull
depth is the average depth of all channels along the cross
section.
“Bankfull width” means: • For streams - the measurement of
the lateral extent of the water surface elevation perpendicular
to the channel at bankfull depth. In cases where multiple
channels exist, bankfull width is the sum of the individual
channel widths along the cross section. • For lakes, ponds, and
impoundments – line of mean high water. • For tidal water –
line of mean high tide. • For periodically inundated areas of
associated wetlands – line of periodic inundation, which will
be found by examining the edge of inundation to ascertain
where the presence and action of waters are so common and
usual, and so long continued in all ordinary years, as to mark
upon the soil a character distinct from that of the abutting
upland.
Hydraulic Radius
The concept of a hydraulic radius R allows Manning’s equation
to be valid for any channel shape. The most common channel
shape is trapezoidal, or its special case, triangular. Channels
can be rectangular or partially filled circular pipes. In fact,
Manning’s equation is so powerful that it can also be used to
design full-flowing storm water piping systems, discussed
later.
The hydraulic radius R is defined as the cross-sectional
area A of the flow, divided by the wetted perimeter P, as
follows:
R/AP
where
R=hydraulic radius (ft)
A=cross-sectional area of the flow (ft2)
P=wetted perimeter of the flow (ft)
While the area A and the wetted perimeter P might be first
determined in units of inches squared and inches,
respectively, the value for the hydraulic radius R must be in
feet when entered into Manning’s equation.
The hydraulic radius is the term used to describe the shape of
a channel. It is the ratio between the length of the wetted
perimeter and the cross-section area.
