FACEBOOK: IT’S IMPACT TOWARDS SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE

S.Y 2022-2023

Research paper presented to the Faculty of Senior High School of East Villaflores Maayon Capiz

In partial Requirement for Research Daily Life 2 Subject in Senior High School

Crystal D. Alonzo

Riza F. Resol

Milyn B. Diva

Jaya C. Albina

Jessa D. Duran

Riel Mark Rabor

Cherry D. Bansagan

Earl Lawrence D. Ondillo

 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

In the Digital Age, technology has become part of our daily life, it has brought the human

being beyond the magic of ancient fairytale stories and has entered into new era of the online

social network sites (OSNs) such as Facebook, Instagram, Tiktok, twitter and YouTube etc. This

era has brought the new innovation in the field of online social media which has change the

traditional way of messaging into modern way news posting or message posting. An online

service or site to facilitate social interaction to help individuals find others of a common interest,

establish a forum for discussion, and exchange information

(https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/constructing-community-higher-education-regardless/

21064 ). On February 4, 2004, a Harvard sophomore named Mark Zuckerberg launches The

Facebook, a social media website he had built in order to connect Harvard students with one

another. By the next day, over a thousand people had registered, and that was only the beginning.

Now known simply as Facebook, the site quickly ballooned into one of the most significant

social media companies in history. Today, Facebook is one of the most valuable companies in

the world, with over 2 billion monthly active users.Facebook has 2.91 billion monthly active

users (https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/facebook-launches-mark-zuckerberg). That’s

a 6.2% jump from 2021’s 2.74 billion users, which was already a year-over-year growth of 12%

from 2019. Facebook is the most used social platform worldwide

(https://blog.hootsuite.com/facebook-statistics/ ). People use Facebook to stay connected with

friends and family, to be informed and entertained within their social circle, and to share and

express what matters to them (Facebook facts, 2013). For young people, who have grown up

with technology, Facebook was once the most popular website. Teenagers love Facebook
because they can personalize their profile. In much the same way that other generations may

have plastered their bedroom walls with posters of their favorite bands or soccer teams, young

people now take part in personalizing their own space online with pictures, music, videos, and

comments. The site has made communicating much easier too. Rather than picking up the

telephone to ring your friend’s house, teens can instantly and directly communicate with their

friends on Facebook. Even email, another relatively new technology, is of secondary importance

to teens who use Facebook to do the majority of their communicating

(https://www.webwise.ie/parents/explained-what-is-facebook-2/ ).

Though this social network earns billions of dollars for the creator and allows users to connect

relatives separated for long periods of time in fractions of seconds, it has an influence on users in

general and on kids' academic performance in particular. As a result, this study examines the

influence of Facebook usage on Grade 7 students' academic performance.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

This study aims to identify the impact of Facebook towards Grade 7 students.

Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:

1. Does Facebook usage have impact on students’ academic performance?

2. On average how much time do students spend on this site collectively per day?

3. To what extent student are addicted to Facebook usage?

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The overall objective of this study is to assess the impact of Facebook usage on Students’

Academic Performance. The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

- To identify the special motives that drive students to use Facebook.

- To find out an average time students spend on this site collectively per day.

- To ascertain the extent of students addiction to Facebook usage.

1.4 Research Questions

Does the use of facebook have any impact on student’s academic performance?

What are the benefits they derive from using facebook?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The significance point of this study is to explore the relationships between Facebook use and

academic performance of Grade 7. This study investigate the specific ways in which Facebook

use could affect students’ performance in their social lives by asking participants about factors

including: extra curriculum activities, study habits, student’s perceptions towards studies and

Facebook use, procrastination and distraction occurred by Facebook engagement. The research

has been conducted on the Grade 7 students. The unique point of this research is considering the

social variables (extra curriculum activities and student’s attitude towards studies) and their

effect on academic performance.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to determine the impact of Facebook usage on Senior High

School learners academic achievement at East Villaflores National High School. This study is

limited to students who have a Facebook account and the influence it has on their academic

achievement. As a result, a study that allows for the analysis of this issue should be included in
future research. This grade level is selected as a site of the current study due with the large

number of students and no study has been conducted on this topic so far.

1.7 Definition of Terms

For better understanding of the study, the following terms are defined operationally:

Digital Age: This is otherwise referred to as the Information Age, a historic period in the 21st

century characterized by the rapid shift from traditional industry that the Industrial Revolution

brought through industrialization, to an economy based on information technology.

Facebook: simply Facebook is a most popular free social networking website that allows users

to create profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep in touch with friends, family

and colleagues.

Social media: refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create, share,

and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks.

Social Networking: the use of internet to make information about yourself available to other

people especially people you share an interest with to send messages to them.

Technology: It is the application of scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or,

as it is sometimes phrased, to the change and manipulation of the human environment.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literatures

2.1 Definition of Social Networks

A social network is a website that allows people with similar interests to come together and share

information, photos and videos. People engaged in social networking may be doing so as a

personal or a business endeavor. Those who engage on social network sites as a personal

endeavor interact by using various forms of media to discuss their lives and interests. The most

popular social networks for this type of familiar interaction include Facebook, Google+ and

Twitter. Although these and other social networks may be used for business purposes --

especially marketing -- social networks exist specifically for enterprise social networking.

Popular enterprise social network platforms include Socialcast and Yammer. Ideally, employees

who are tasked with participating on social networks are provided with a social media policy so

there is no ambiguity about what management considers to be acceptable use. The term social

networking refers to the use of internet-based social media sites to stay connected with friends,

family, colleagues, or customers. Social networking can have a social purpose, a business

purpose, or both, through sites like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Pinterest. (https://www-

techtarget-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.techtarget.com/searchcio/definition/social-network?

amp=1&amp_gsa=1&amp_js_v=a9&usqp=mq331AQKKAFQArABIIACAw%3D

%3D#amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&aoh=16695333434349&referrer=https%3A%2F

%2Fwww.google.com&ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fblue-sea-697d.quartiers047.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.techtarget.com%2Fsearchcio

%2Fdefinition%2Fsocial-network )

2.2 An Overview of Facebook

Facebook is the latest in a long line of what we now know as “social networking” websites. But

what sets it apart from the competitors, is its popularity. At last check, Facebook boasts over 2.23

billion active users. Established in 2004, from the college dorm room of Mark Zuckerberg, a

Harvard student, the website is now worth billions of dollars and is one of the world’s most
recognisable brands. It’s even had the Hollywood treatment, with The Social Network, a film

exploring the site’s conception, released to wide acclaim in 2011. But, if you’re not quite on top

of technology or are new to the internet, as a parent, or a teacher, you probably have a few

questions. Facebook is a website which allows users, who sign-up for free profiles, to connect

with friends, work colleagues or people they don’t know, online. It allows users to share pictures,

music, videos, and articles, as well as their own thoughts and opinions with however many

people they like. Users send “friend requests” to people who they may – or may not – know.

Facebook has over 1 billion users. Once accepted, the two profiles are connected with both users

able to see whatever the other person posts. “Facebookers” can post almost anything to their

“timeline”, a snapshot of what is happening in their social circle at any given time, and can also

enter private chat with other friends who are online. People with profiles list information about

themselves. Whether it be what they work at, where they are studying, ages, or other personal

details, many users post lots of information which is easily accessible to their friends and others.

On top of this, users can “like” other pages which interest them. For example, a Liverpool FC

supporter can follow the club by linking up with its Facebook page. There, the user can post

comments and receive club updates, pictures etc.( https://www.webwise.ie/parents/explained-

what-is-facebook-2/#:~:text=Facebook%20is%20a%20website%20which,however%20many

%20people%20they%20like.n )

2.3 Facebook Usage

Facebook is the largest social media platform online, both the time on the platform and its daily

active user base has grown year-over-year since its humble beginnings in a Harvard dorm room.

Being the largest of all the social networks, Facebook has a constant evolution of the

demographics, algorithms, tools, and usage trends, it’s essential to stay on top of the statistics!
Here are the killer Facebook stats from this roundup:

Key Facebook Statistics

DAUs – Facebook daily active users: Right now, 1.9 billion daily users access Facebook’s

platform, a 6.89% increase year-over-year

MAUs – Facebook monthly active users: Right now, 2.9 billion monthly users access

Facebook’s platform, a 7.18% increase year-over-year

Facebook reported that it removed 1.7 billion fake accounts in Q2 2021 alone

India has the most Facebook users with over 260 million, followed by the US (180 million),

Indonesia (130 million), Brazil (120 million), and Mexico (84 million). Facebook is the largest

social media platform globally at 2.85 billion monthly active users worldwide, followed by

YouTube (2.3 billion), and WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, WeChat, Instagram, all bringing in

over a billion users. Highest traffic time on Facebook is Wednesday at 9 am and 1 pm, posting

then will typically get the most engagement 60.42% of the world’s active internet users access

Facebook monthly, and 73.13% access ‘Family’ owned services (FB, Messenger, Instagram, and

WhatsApp) every month. DAPs – Facebook ‘Family’ daily active people: Right now, 2.76

billion daily people access Facebook-owned services (FB, Messenger, Instagram, WhatsApp), an

11.74% increase year-over-year. MAPs – Facebook ‘Family’ monthly active people: Right now,

3.51 billion people access Facebook-owned services (FB, Messenger, Instagram, WhatsApp) on

a monthly basis, a 11.78% increase year-over-year. Facebook’s family product’s user base is

equal to the current population of Africa, Europe, North, and South America combined.

Facebook currently has 63,404 full-time employees, a 30.4% increase year-over-year, hugely up

from its founder Mark in his Harvard dorm in 2003 (https://backlinko.com/facebook-users )

 2.4 Students’ Perceptions of Facebook

Recent literature by Martinez Aleman and Wartman (2009) sought to better understand the

campus culture of Facebook through the lens of college students. The researchers examined

college students ‘thoughts and perceptions of Facebook use through an ethnographic study,

where they found students use Facebook for a myriad of reasons (Martinez Aleman &Wartman,

2009). The authors devised four consistent themes to portray their findings of college student

Facebook use: (1) use-consciousness, (2) campus culture, (3) identity factors, and (4) voyeurism

and impression management (Martinez Aleman & Wartman, 2009). The authors captured four

students ‘voices using the aforementioned themes. The four diverse students shared multitudes of

information regarding their experiences with Facebook. (

https://www.grin.com/document/277559 )

2.5 Academic Performance

Academic performance is among the several components of academic success. Many factors,

including socioeconomic status, student temperament and motivation, peer, and parental support

influence academic performance. Our study aims to investigate the determinants of academic

performance with emphasis on the role of parental styles in adolescent students in Peshawar,

Pakistan. A total of 456 students from 4 public and 4 private schools were interviewed.

Academic performance was assessed based on self-reported grades in the latest internal

examinations. Parenting styles were assessed through the administration of the Parental Bonding

Instrument (PBI). Regression analysis was conducted to assess the influence of socio-

demographic factors and parenting styles on academic performance. Factors associated with and

differences between “care” and “overprotection” scores of fathers and mothers were analyzed.

Higher socio-economic status, father’s education level, and higher care scores were
independently associated with better academic performance in adolescent students. Affectionless

control was the most common parenting style for fathers and mothers. When adapted by the

father, it was also the only parenting style independently improving academic performance.

Overall, mean “care” scores were higher for mothers and mean “overprotection” scores were

higher for fathers. Parenting workshops and school activities emphasizing the involvement of

mothers and fathers in the parenting of adolescent students might have a positive influence on

their academic performance. Affectionless control may be associated with improved academics

but the emotional and psychosocial effects of this style of parenting need to be investigated

before recommendations are made.

(https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02497/full )

2.6 Facebook and Academic Performance

There is much talk of a change in modern youth – often referred to as digital natives or Homo

Zappiens – with respect to their ability to simultaneously process multiple channels of

information. In other words, kids today can multitask. Unfortunately for proponents of this

position, there is much empirical documentation concerning the negative effects of attempting to

simultaneously process different streams of information showing that such behavior leads to both

increased study time to achieve learning parity and an increase in mistakes while processing

information than those who are sequentially or serially processing that same information. This

article presents the preliminary results of a descriptive and exploratory survey study involving

Facebook use, often carried out simultaneously with other study activities, and its relation to

academic performance as measured by self-reported Grade Point Average (GPA) and hours spent

studying per week. Results show that Facebook users reported having lower GPAs and spend
fewer hours per week studying than nonusers. (

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563210000646 )

2.7 Theoritical Review

Revised on November 15, 2022 by Tegan George. A theoretical framework is a foundational

review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in

your own work. Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections,

and make predictions. (https://uscupstate.libguides.com/c.php?g=627058&p=6601225 )

2.8 Flow Theory (FT)

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi introduced flow theory in the 1970s based on research examining

people who did activities for pleasure, even when they were not rewarded with money or fame.

He considered artists, writers, athletes, chess masters, and surgeons – individuals who were

involved in activities they preferred. He was surprised to discover that enjoyment did not result

from relaxing or living without stress, but during these intense activities, in which their attention

was fully absorbed. He called this state flow, because during his research, people illustrated their

intense experiences using the metaphor of being carried by a current like a river flows.

Participants were motivated by the quality of the experience they had while they were engaged in

the activity. The flow experience came when the activity was difficult and involved risk. It

usually stretched the person's capacity and provided a challenge to his/her skills. The concept of

flow became the key element for the theory of optimal experience, since it provided the best user

experience. Flow refers to a state of mind which brings together cognitive, physiological and
affective aspects. Flow experience corresponds to an optimal psychophysical state: participants

said it is like being in the zone, being on the ball, being in the groove. Flow also inspires peak

performances so some use expressions such as ‘everything clicks’ and ‘experiencing a magic

moment’. Csikszentmihalyi reported that flow occurred more often during work than free time. It

was easier to achieve the flow state in activities such as performing music, dance and writing

since they had rules and required the learning of skills. In these activities people were deeply

involved and motivated because they were participating in an enjoyable experience. While

almost any active involvement can potentially lead to flow, activities which are passive, such as

watching television, do not normally lead to flow. However in 2007 Steven Pritzker proposed

that audience flow can occur if a television show is relevant to the viewers' life. Flow is an

interdisciplinary field of research, addressed by psychologists working in the fields of positive

psychology, cognitive psychology, arts, sports, science, sociologists and by anthropologists

interested in altered states of consciousness, spiritual experiences, and rituals in different

cultures. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/flow-theory )

2.8 Distraction Effect

Social media distraction refers to the process by which social media cues draw individuals'

attention away from a task that they originally pursued (e.g., working). Due to especially mobile

access to social media, distractions by social media can occur frequently.

(https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.711416/full )

2.9 Impacts of Facebook Usage

Given the high-volume usage of SNS, an obvious and popular concern among faculty,

administrators, and parents is the widespread notion that students spend far too much time on
nonacademic activities related to the Internet and social media. Countless articles in popular

newspapers, periodicals, and blogs have raised these very same concerns (Bart, 2009; Ingram,

2011; Ojalvo, 2011; Schulten, 2009). The most salient concern among scholars, educators, and

the public however is related to the effects of social networking sites such as Facebook on the

time dedicated to studying and offline activities. Hence, Facebook usage has been associated

with both positive and negative impacts to different aspects of people’s lives, including positive

impacts, such as improving relationships between friends and family and negative impacts such

as low academic performance; health, personal relationships problems; and social problems.

These are discussed below.

2.10.1 Positive Impacts

The Social Networking in general and Facebook in particular offers significant advantages for its

users, for example, sharing and collecting information, searching for jobs, communication, and

entertainment. Vast quantities of information of different types are stored on the Internet.

Usually, the information on the Internet is free of cost and is available 24 hours a day. In

addition, the Facebook provides its users with the latest news of the world and most of the

newspapers are available on the Internet, which are periodically or immediately updated with the

latest news (Rice, 2006). Thus, Facebook users can almost instantaneously learn about news

events, read news articles or opinions about world events, and share this information and their

own thoughts with others like themselves. People around the world can now quickly

communicate with each other through the use of Facebook using a range of applications:

chatting, Wall post, and helps to download some books. The Facebook also provides different

types of entertainment. For instance, users can play games with other people in any part of the
world, watch movies and listen to music. Above all it helps users to form new relationships on

this site (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Whitty& McLaughlin, 2007).

2.10.2. Negative impacts

Beside the benefits of Facebook use, negative impacts of its use have also been identified,

including: impaired academic performance, health problems, personal relationship problems and

social dysfunction. For example, a number of studies have reported the ways in which Facebook

usage impairs students‟ lives. Scherer (1997) found that 13% of his respondents reported

difficulties in their academic work and professional performance due to their Facebook use.

Nalwa and Anand (2003) found that Facebook addictive users used for long sessions, resulting in

personal behavioural problems and neglect of important work responsibilities. Chou and Hsiao

(2000) explored Facebook Addiction among college that result in more negative consequences in

their studies than non-addicts. This conclusion parallels a study by Young (1996), who found

that Internet addicts experienced personal, family, occupational problems, and academic

difficulties, causing poor grades and eventually expulsion from universities.

2.10.3 Students Behavior

Many years ago emails, instant messaging and blogging all these are the communication

applications of internet are rapidly increased in the youth’s life and this made the internet a

significant social context for development of youth especially students. However there are some

behaviors that can take place due to frequent use of social networking sites especially students

who are using frequently using social networking sites, results in reduction of time for other

activities that are related academic, physical and social hobbies that requires face to face meeting

(McKenna and Bargh, 2000). Planned behavior theory provided the foundation for the behavioral
factor of frequently engaging in social networking sites. It is stated that probability of involving

in the behavior for using social networking sites increases when individual has strong intention

of acting upon certain behaviors. Group norms and self-esteem are two main factors of planned

behavior theory in the context of engaging in social networking sites. Group norms for the

colleagues and friends significantly enhanced the likelihood of intentions of students of

universities to involve in the specific work activity and those students who identify the use of

social networking sites as normative among friends have the strong intention of using social

networking sites frequently. There is another significant factor that is the behavioral consequence

related to communication technology based behavior and this is self-esteem. Young individuals

having lower self-esteem have the high level of usage of instant messaging than those who have

high level of self-esteem (Nalwa and Anand, 2003). Positive feedback improves the self-esteem

and negative feedback leads to lower the level of self-esteem and that is reason that being

socialized young people uses internet’s communication applications because it provides more

positive interaction with others (DeBell and Chapman, 2006). Ogedebe et al. (2012) conducted a

research on usage of Facebook and its effect on academic performance of students.

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter provides a fully detailed account of the research methodology, the reasons that the

various research strategies were selected and the rationale for the sample selection process. It

also deals with the issues of why the particular survey instrument was selected as being

appropriate for the current study. To start with, the study site were introduced, followed by a

presentation of research design, the sample selection, and data collection process, the data

collection tool and further more a description of how the data will be analyzed.

3.1. Description of the Study Area

East Villaflores National High School is one of the public higher educational institutions

established at East Villaflores Maayon Capiz. Consequently, it is selected as a site of the current

study that providing education for large number of students and no study has been conducted on

the impact of Facebook usage on student’s academic Performance in the college under the study.

3.2. Research Design

As it has been indicated earlier, the main purpose of this research is to assess the impact of

Facebook usage on students’ academic performance. So, to attain the intended objectives, mixed

approach were chosen as the research questions contain both qualitative and quantitative natures.

On top of this, it is believed that mixed methods provide better information to understand a

particular phenomenon under investigation than a single method, as the failure of one method

could be compensated by the other (Ary et al., 2010).

Since the present study is intended to respond to research questions of quantitative and

qualitative natures, data collection and analysis techniques from both methodologies were

implemented. Hence, descriptive research design is chosen as it enables the researcher to

describe the current situation of the study area.

3.3. Population and Sampling

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample is the

specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always less than the total

size of the population. In research, a population doesn't always refer to people.

3.3.1 Target population

The target population for this study were Senior High School students enrolled at East Villaflores

National High school who specifically fulfil the following inclusion criteria: A day time (regular)

undergraduate students and have Facebook accounts. These criteria were used to differentiate a

day time (regular) undergraduate students from other students attending their education in the

extension, summer and graduate program and other students in the school who do not have

Facebook account. Hence, students attending their education in the non-regular program and

graduate program were not included in the study for the following major reasons: The first one is

to make the study more specific and manageable (from the perspectives of tight budget and

time). The second reason is that students attending their education in the non-regular program

were not included in the study because they are different from most regular students as they have

frequent contact with the outside community, are usually old, relatively stable in life and are

often employed.

3.3.2 Sample size and sampling technique

Sample size, the number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various

factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design. There are

different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve with

statistical analysis.
Probability sampling methods Probability sampling means that every member of the population

has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce

results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the

most valid choice.

3.3.2.1 Sample size

The exact number of participants required for quantitative usability testing can vary. Apparently

contradictory recommendations (ranging from 20 to 30 to 40 or more) often confuse new

quantitative UX researchers. (In fact, we’ve recommended different numbers over the years.)

Where do these recommendations come from and how many participants do you really need?

This is an important question. If you test with too few, your results may not be statistically

reliable. If you test with too many, you’re essentially throwing your money away. We want to

strike the perfect balance — collecting enough data points to be confident in our results, but not

so many that we’re wasting precious research funding. In most cases, we recommend 40

participants for quantitative studies. If you don’t really care about the reasoning behind that

number, you can stop reading here. Read on if you do want to know where that number comes

from, when to use a different number, and why you may have seen different recommendations.

Since this is a common confusion, let’s clarify: there are two kinds of studies, qualitative and

Qual aims at insights, not numbers, so statistical significance doesn’t come into play. In

contrast, quant does focus on collecting UX metrics, so we need to ensure that these numbers are

correct. And the key point: this article is about quant, not qual. (Qualitative studies only need a

small number of users, but that’s not what we’re discussing here.)

3.3.2.2. Sampling technique

Facebook sampling techniques can be distinguished in two groups:

(1). techniques aimed at sampling the whole Facebook population

(2).techniques aimed at sampling known groups (Facebook subpopulation). If the research

project aims at surveying attitudes and opinions of Facebook users, the techniques belonging to

the first group can be applied (e.g., an explorative survey about the time spent reading e-zines).

The techniques belonging to the second group can be used in exploring specific groups of people

showing a common interest (e.g.: a survey concerning online role play gamers). These people

can be identified looking at their subscription to Facebook fan pages or groups. When the

research is focused on the whole population, a random walk sampling technique on Facebook

profiles can be used, providing an unbiased random sample [Gjoka et al, 2010]. One of the

techniques proposed by Gjoka et al. (2010) consists in modeling the Facebook social graph as an

undirected graph G = (V,E), where V is a set of nodes (users) and E is a set of edges (mutual

friendship relationships). They suggest some methods based on random walk. These consist,

basically, in choosing an user to start from and then randomly select a friend of him/her. The

friend enters the sample and he/she becomes the starting point for the next step. The procedure

ends when the needed quantity of subjects is reached. Instead, when the research is focused on

subgroups, groups and fanpages belonging to the research field (not forgetting to translate

searches in the main languages) should be identified. Once the sampling technique has been

chosen according to the population of interest, another problem lies in trying to maximize the

response rate by urging users to answer the survey.

3.4 Source of Data and Instruments of Data Collection

This chapter sets out various methods for gathering important data on the language uses of

participants in a research project. These methods imply interaction between students, teachers

and researchers. They are used in the design of research projects based on action research,

ethnography or conversational analysis, this being the case with the studies presented in the first

section of this handbook. Gathering research data following these methodologies often implies

preparing situations, tasks or activities that engage participants to interact around a specific

theme or to mobilize certain communication skills.

The methods used to gather data, as explained in other chapters, are determined to a large extent

by the research questions and objectives, although in qualitative research it should be borne in

mind that these will change during the process. Generally speaking, data collection in the field of

language education is done in situations that try to reproduce real-life communication scenarios

in which the participants make oral or written contributions that are useful for research purposes

and, at the same time, beneficial for their learning process. As we shall see in the following

pages, there is a broad spectrum of methods, including more traditional ones such as surveys,

questionnaires and interviews, through to more innovative ones such as projects, tasks and other

classroom based activities or focus groups about a particular topic. As explained by Nussbaum

(this volume), it is advisable that the researcher also takes on an active role as a committed

participant in the learning and teaching processes, and includes educational innovation when

planning his or her research.

3.4.1 Reliability and Validity of Research Instruments

Reliability and validity are important aspects of selecting a survey instrument. Reliability refers

to the extent that the instrument yields the same results over multiple trials. Validity refers to the

extent that the instrument measures what it was designed to measure. In research, there are three
ways to approach validity and they include content validity, construct validity, and criterion-

related validity.

Content validity measures the extent to which the items that comprise the scale accurately

represent or measure the information that is being assessed. Are the questions that are asked

representative of the possible questions that could be asked?

Construct validity measures what the calculated scores mean and if they can be generalized.

Construct validity uses statistical analyses, such as correlations, to verify the relevance of the

questions. Questions from an existing, similar instrument, that has been found reliable, can be

correlated with questions from the instrument under examination to determine if construct

validity is present. If the scores are highly correlated it is called convergent validity. If

convergent validity exists, construct validity is supported. Criterion-related validity has to do

with how well the scores from the instrument predict a known outcome they are expected to

predict. Statistical analyses, such as correlations, are used to determine if criterion-related

validity exists. Scores from the instrument in question should be correlated with an item they are

known to predict. If a correlation of > .60 exists, criterion related validity exists as well.

Reliability can be assessed with the test-retest method, alternative form method, internal

consistency method, the split-halves method, and inter-rater

reliability.https://www.statisticssolutions.com/reliability-and-validity/

3.4.1.1 Reliability of Research Instruments

Social scientists increasingly use Facebook’s advertising platform for research, either in the form

of conducting digital censuses of the general population, or for recruiting participants for survey

research. Both approaches depend on the reliability of the data that Facebook provides about its
users, but little is known about how reliable these data are. We address this gap in a large-scale,

cross-national online survey (N = 137,224), in which we compare self-reported and Facebook-

classified demographic information (sex, age, and region of residence). Our results suggest that

Facebook’s advertising platform can be fruitfully used for conducing social science research if

additional steps are taken to assess the reliability of the characteristics under consideration. The

feasibility of using Facebook for conducting digital censuses and generating samples of specific

subpopulations depends on the reliability of the data that underlies its advertising platform.

Systematic misclassification of individual traits like gender and age could significantly bias

scholarly research. However, Facebook does not offer much information on how reliable the

information about its user base is, or how it determines characteristics and interests that are

partially or completely inferred from user behavior on the network. In this paper, we address this

issue by comparing individuals’ self-reported information in an online survey, where respondents

are recruited using the Facebook advertising platform, with the way Facebook classified the

same people for the purposes of targeted advertising. While information collected via surveys

has its own limitations, our study sheds light on the extent to which data from Facebook’s

advertising platform, often considered a ‘black box’ (Araujo et al., 2017), can be trusted for

research, as well as the extent to which the targeting features can be leveraged.

3.4.1.2 Validity of Research instruments

Questionnaire is one of the most widely used tools to collect data in especially social science

research. The main objective of questionnaire in research is to obtain relevant information in

most reliable and valid manner. Thus the accuracy and consistency of survey/questionnaire

forms a significant aspect of research methodology which are known as validity and reliability.

Often new researchers are confused with selection and conducting of proper validity type to test
their research instrument. Validity explains how well the collected data covers the actual area of

investigation. Validity basically means “measure what is intended to be measured”.

(questionnaire/survey. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/2051 )

3.5 Procedures of Data Collection

Tracking cookies: Facebook tracks its users across the web by using tracking cookies. If a user is

logged into Facebook and simultaneously browses other websites, Facebook can track the sites

they are visiting.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis and Presentation

Data presentation is a process of comparing two or more data sets with visual aids, such as

graphs. Using a graph, you can represent how the information relates to other data. This process

follows data analysis and helps organize information by visualizing and putting it into a more

readable format.

There're 5 solid and reliable data presentation methods: textual, statistical data presentation,

measures of dispersion, tabular, and graphical data representation. Besides, some of the tested

and proven charts for data presentation include: Double Bar Graph. Slope Chart.

Data analysis is essential for understanding results from surveys, administrative sources and pilot

studies; for providing information on data gaps; for designing and redesigning surveys; for

planning new statistical activities; and for formulating quality objectives.

3.7 Ethical Consideration

There are significant ethical implications in the adoption of technologies and the production and

use of the resulting data for evidence generation. The potential benefits and opportunities need to
be understood in conjunction with the potential risks and challenges. When using social media to

directly engage children and their communities, or when establishing partnerships /*with these

organizations for data collection and analysis, adoption of these technologies and their resultant

data should not be exclusively driven by short-term necessity but also by the long-term needs of

our younger partners. When engaging with social media and indeed most technology,

thoughtfulness, reflection and ongoing interrogation is required. This paper examines the

benefits, risks and ethical considerations when undertaking evidence generation: (a) using social

media platforms and (b) using third-party data collected and analysed by social media services. It

is supplemented by practical tools to support reflection on the ethical use of social media

platforms and social media data.

However, the use of social media data raises several crucial ethical issues around the areas of

informed consent, anonymity and profiling of individuals, which are particularly sensitive when

looking at a population such as migrants, which is often considered as

(vulnerable'.https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/17470161221087542#:~:text=Howevr

%2C%20the%20use%20of%20social,often&20considered%20as%20'vulnerable )++