DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition By

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French)

COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 2: HEREDITY, PRENATAL

DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIFESPAN
DEVELOPMENT ● It is stated in the Embryonic Stage of Physical
Development, is the stage where the brain begins
Cognitive Theory to develop.
● It focus on how our mental processes or cognitions ● The human brain is intricately designed to execute
change over time. cognitive functions, such as perception, attention,
action, memory, and learning.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
● One of the most influential cognitive theorists in CHAPTER 3: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
development.
● He was inspired to explore children’s ability to Piaget and the Sensorimotor Stage
think and reason by watching his own children’s ● Cognitive Equilibrium
development. - Cognitive equilibrium is a balanced state
● He believed that children's intellectual skills of events, and equilibration is the act of
change over time and that maturation, rather than reaching it.
training, brings about that change.
● Cognitive Processes
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Schema (Cognitive Structure)
● Sensorimotor (birth to about 2 years) - An organized pattern of thought or
- Children experience the world through action that one constructs to
their fundamental senses of seeing, interpret some aspect of one’s
hearing, touching, and tasting. experience.
- Object permanence - Cognition develops through the
● Preoperational (2 to 7 years) refinement and transformation of
- Children acquire the ability to internally mental structures. It means by
represent the world through language and which children interpret and
mental imagery. They also start to see the organize experience.
world from other people’s perspectives. - Piaget believed that all schemes,
- Theory of mind; rapid increase in all forms of understanding, are
language ability. created through the workings of
● Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years) two inborn intellectual processes:
- Children become able to think logically. organization and adaptation.
They can increasingly perform operations
on objects that are real. 2. Assimilation
- Conservation. - which is fitting the new
● Formal operational (11 years to adulthood) information into an existing
- Adolescents can think systematically, can schema.
reason about abstract concepts, and can - The process by which children try
understand ethics and scientific reasoning. to interpret new experiences in
- Abstract logic. terms of their existing models of
the world, the schemes they
already possess.

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 3. Accommodation - The infant combines these basic reflexes
- which is expanding the framework and simple behaviors and uses planning
of knowledge to accommodate the and coordination to achieve a specific
new situation. goal.
- Because of continued maturation of the
● According to the Piagetian perspective, infants prefrontal cortex, the infant become
learn about the world primarily through their capable of having a thought and carrying
senses and motor abilities (Harris, 2005). out a planned, goal-directed activity.
- For example, an infant sees a toy car under
Infant Ages for the Six Substages of the Sensorimotor the kitchen table and then crawls, reaches,
Stage and grabs the toy. The infant is
coordinating both internal and external
● Substage 1: Reflexes (0 to 1 month) activities to achieve a planned goal.
- Newborns learn about their world through
the use of their reflexes, such as when ● Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to
sucking, reaching, and grasping. 18 months)
- Eventually the use of these reflexes - The toddler is considered a “little
becomes more deliberate and purposeful. scientist” and begins exploring the world
in a trial-and-error manner, using both
● Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 motor skills and planning abilities.
months) - For example, the child might throw her
- The infant begins to actively involve his or ball down the stairs to see what happens.
her own body in some form of repeated - The toddler’s active engagement in
activity. experimentation helps them learn about
- An infant may accidentally engage in a their world.
behavior and find it interesting such as
making a vocalization. This interest ● Substage 6: Beginning of Representational
motivates trying to do it again and helps Thought (18 to 24 months)
the infant learn a new behavior that - The toddler now has a basic understanding
originally occurred by chance. that objects can be used as symbols.
- The behavior is identified as circular - Additionally, the child is able to solve
because of the repetition, and as primary problems using mental strategies, to
because it centers on the infant's own remember something heard days before
body. and repeat it, and to engage in pretend
play.
● Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to
8 months) Development of Object Permanence
- The infant begins to interact with objects ● The understanding that even if something is out of
in the environment. At first the infant sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &
interacts with objects (e.g., a crib mobile) Schilling, 2000).
accidentally, but then these contacts with ● According to Piaget, young infants do not
the objects are deliberate and become a remember an object after it has been removed from
repeated activity. sight.
- The infant becomes more and more ● Piaget studied infants’ reactions when a toy was
actively engaged in the outside world and first shown to them and then hidden under a
takes delight in being able to make things blanket. Infants who had already developed object
happen. permanence would reach for the hidden toy,
indicating that they knew it still existed, where as
● Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary infants who had not developed object permanence
Circular Reactions (8 to 12 months) would appear confused.

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 ● Once toddlers have mastered object permanence, - is marked by greater dependence on
they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they intuitive thinking rather than just
realize that when someone leaves the room they perception (Thomas, 1979).
will come back. Toddlers also point to pictures in
books and look in appropriate places when you ask ● This implies that children think automatically
them to find objects. without using evidence. At this stage, children ask
many questions as they attempt to understand the
Stranger Anxiety world around them using immature reasoning.

● In Piaget’s view, around the same time children Piaget’s assertions about children’s cognitive abilities
develop object permanence, they also begin to ● Pretend Play
exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of - Pretending is a favorite activity at this
unfamiliar people (Crain, 2005). time. A toy has qualities beyond the way it
● Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning was designed to function and can now be
away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, used to stand for a character or object
or by attempting to reach their arms toward unlike anything originally intended.
familiar faces, such as parents. - Piaget believed that children’s pretend
● Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to play helped children solidify new
assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; schemata they were developing
therefore, she cannot predict what her experience cognitively.
with that stranger will be like, which results in a - This play, then, reflected changes in their
fear response. conceptions or thoughts. However,
children also learn as they pretend and
CHAPTER 4: EARLY CHILDHOOD experiment.
- Their play does not simply represent what
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage they have learned (Berk, 2007).
● This stage occurs from the age of 2 to 7 years. - A teddy bear, for example, can be a baby
● Children use symbols to represent words, images, or the queen of a faraway land.
and ideas, which is why children in this stage
engage in pretend play. ● Egocentrism
● Children also begin to use language in the - In early childhood, it refers to the
preoperational stage, but they cannot understand tendency of young children not to be able
adult logic or mentally manipulate information. to take the perspective of others, and
● The term operational refers to logical manipulation instead the child thinks that everyone sees,
of information, so children at this stage are thinks, and feels just as they do.
considered pre-operational. - Egocentric children are not able to infer
● Children’s logic is based on their own personal the perspective of other people and instead
knowledge of the world so far, rather than on attribute their own perspective to
conventional knowledge. situations.
- For example, ten-year-old Keiko’s
2 Stages of Preoperational Stage birthday is coming up, so her mom takes
3-year-old Kenny to the toy store to
1. Symbolic function substage (2 to 4 years) choose a present for his sister. He selects
- is characterized by the child being able to an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking
mentally represent an object that is not that if he likes the toy, his sister will too.
present and a dependence on perception in
problem solving. ● Conservation Errors
- refers to the ability to recognize that
2. Intuitive thought substage (4 to 7 years) moving or rearranging matter does not
change the quantity.

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 - Using Kenny and Keiko again, dad gave a CHAPTER 5: MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and
another slice to 3-year-old Kenny. Piaget’s Concrete Operational Thought
Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five ● This involves mastering the use of logic in
pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got concrete ways.
more pizza than she did. Kenny did not ● The word concrete refers to that which is tangible;
understand that cutting the pizza into that which can be seen, touched, or experienced
smaller pieces did not increase the overall directly.
amount ● The concrete operational child is able to make use
- Kenny exhibited centration or focused on of logical principles in solving problems involving
only one characteristic of an object to the the physical world.
exclusion of others. Kenny focused on the ● For example, the child can understand principles
five pieces of pizza to his sister’s one of cause and effect, size, and distance.
piece even though the total amount was ● The child can use logic to solve problems tied to
the same. Keiko was able to consider their own direct experience, but has trouble
several characteristics of an object than solving hypothetical problems or considering more
just one. Because children have not abstract problems.
developed this understanding of ● The child uses inductive reasoning, which is a
conservation, they cannot perform mental logical process in which multiple premises
operations. believed to be true are combined to obtain a
specific conclusion.
● Classification Errors ● For example, a child has one friend who is rude,
- Preoperational children have difficulty another friend who is also rude, and the same is
understanding that an object can be true for a third friend. The child may conclude that
classified in more than one way. friends are rude. We will see that this way of
- For example, if shown three white buttons thinking tends to change during adolescence
and four black buttons and asked whether ● being replaced with deductive reasoning.
there are more black buttons or buttons,
the child is likely to respond that there are Major Abilities that the Concrete Child Exhibits
more black buttons. They do not consider ● Classification
the general class of buttons. - As children's experiences and vocabularies
- Because young children lack these general grow, they build schemata and are able to
classes, their reasoning is typically organize objects in many different ways.
transductive, that is, making faulty - They also understand classification
inferences from one specific example to hierarchies and can arrange objects into a
another. variety of classes and subclasses.

● Animism ● Identity
- refers to attributing life-like qualities to - One feature of concrete operational
objects. thought is the understanding that objects
- cartoons frequently show objects that have qualities that do not change even if
appear alive and take on lifelike qualities. the object is altered in some way.
- Young children do seem to think that - For instance, mass of an object does not
objects that move may be alive, but after change by rearranging it. A piece of chalk
age three, they seldom refer to objects as is still chalk even when the piece is broken
being alive (Berk, 2007). in two.
- For example, the cup is alive, the chair
that falls down and hits the child’s ankle is ● Reversibility
mean, and the toys need to stay home - The child learns that some things that have
because they are tired. been changed can be returned to their
original state.
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 - For example, Water can be frozen and morality. The adolescent is no longer
then thawed to become liquid again, but limited by what can be directly seen or
eggs cannot be unscrambled. heard.
- Many of these cognitive skills are ● Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
incorporated into the school's curriculum - While younger children solve problems
through mathematical problems and in through trial and error, adolescents
worksheets about which situations are demonstrate hypothetical-deductive
reversible or irreversible. reasoning, which is developing
● Conservation hypotheses based on what might logically
- Concrete operational children can occur.
understand the concept of conservation - They are able to think about all the
which means that changing one quality (in possibilities in a situation beforehand, and
this example, height or water level) can be then test them systematically. Now they
compensated for by changes in another are able to engage in true scientific
quality (width). thinking.
● Transitivity
● Decentration - Formal operational thinking also involves
- Concrete operational children no longer accepting hypothetical situations.
focus on only one dimension of any object Adolescents understand the concept of
(such as the height of the glass) and transitivity, which means that a
instead consider the changes in other relationship between two elements is
dimensions too (such as the width of the carried over to other elements logically
glass). related to the first two, such as if A<B
and B<C, then 226 A<C.
● Seriation - For example: when asked: If Maria is
- Arranging items along a quantitative shorter than Alicia and Alicia is shorter
dimension, such as length or weight, in a than Caitlyn, who is the shortest?
methodical way is now demonstrated by Adolescents are able to answer the
the concrete operational child. question correctly as they understand the
transitivity involved.
Does everyone reach formal operations?
● These new cognitive skills increase the child's - According to Piaget, most people attain
understanding of the physical world, however some degree of formal operational
according to Piaget, they still cannot think in thinking, but use formal operations
abstract ways. Additionally, they do not think in primarily in the areas of their strongest
systematic scientific ways. interest. A possible explanation is that an
individual’s thinking has not been
sufficiently challenged to demonstrate
CHAPTER 6: ADOLESCENCE formal operational thought in all areas.
● Adolescent Egocentrism
● Cognitive changes include improvements in - Once adolescents can understand abstract
complex and abstract thought. thoughts, they enter a world of
hypothetical possibilities and demonstrate
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage egocentrism or a heightened self-focus.
● Abstract principles - The egocentricity comes from attributing
- During the formal operational stage, unlimited power to their own thoughts.
adolescents are able to understand abstract Piaget believed it was not until adolescents
principles which have no physical took on adult roles that they would be able
reference. to learn the limits to their own thoughts.
- They can now contemplate such abstract - David Elkind (1967) expanded on the concept of
constructs as beauty, love, freedom, and Piaget’s adolescent egocentricity. Elkind theorized that the
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physiological changes that occur during adolescence result identified egocentricity in late
in adolescents being primarily concerned with themselves. adolescence.
- Since adolescents fail to differentiate between what Consequences of Formal Operational Thought
others are thinking and their own thoughts, they believe - As adolescents are now able to think
that others are just as fascinated with their behavior and abstractly and hypothetically, they exhibit
appearance. This belief results in the adolescent many new ways of reflecting on
anticipating the reactions of others, and consequently information.
constructing an imaginary audience. ● Introspection
● Imaginary Audience - They demonstrate greater introspection or
- “The imaginary audience is the thinking about one’s thoughts and
adolescent’s belief that those around them feelings.
are as concerned and focused on their ● Idealistic
appearance as they themselves are” - They begin to imagine how the world
- Elkind thought that the imaginary could be which leads them to become
audience contributed to the self- idealistic or insisting upon high
consciousness that occurs during early standards of behavior. Because of their
adolescence. idealism, they may become critical of
- The desire for privacy and reluctance to others, especially adults in their life.
share personal information may be a ● Hypocrisy
further reaction to feeling under constant - Adolescents can demonstrate hypocrisy,
observation by others. or pretend to be what they are not. Since
- Alternatively, recent research has they are able to recognize what others
indicated that the imaginary audience is expect of them, they will conform to those
not imaginary. Specifically, adolescents expectations for their emotions and
and adults feel that they are often under behavior seemingly hypocritical to
scrutiny by others, especially if they are themselves.
active on social media. ● Pseudostupidity
● Personal fable - This is when they approach problems at a
- Personal fable or belief that one is unique, level that is too complex, and they fail
special, and invulnerable to harm. because the tasks are too simple. Their
- Elkind (1967) explains that because new ability to consider alternatives is not
adolescents feel so important to others completely under control and they appear
(imaginary audience) they regard “stupid” when they are in fact bright, just
themselves and their feelings as being not experienced.
special and unique. Information Processing
- Adolescents believe that only they have ● Cognitive Control
experienced strong and diverse emotions, - Studies have found that executive function
and therefore others could never is very competent in adolescence.
understand how they feel. This However, self-regulation, or the ability to
uniqueness in one’s emotional experiences control impulses, may still fail. A failure
reinforces the adolescent’s belief of in self regulation is especially true when
invulnerability, especially to death. there is high stress or high demand on
- Adolescents will engage in risky mental functions.
behaviors, such as drinking and driving or ● Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
unprotected sex, and feel they will not 1. Inductive reasoning
suffer any negative consequences. Elkind - Inductive reasoning emerges in
believed that adolescent egocentricity childhood and occurs when
emerged in early adolescence and specific observations, or specific
declined in middle adolescence, comments from those in
however, recent research has also authority, may be used to draw
general conclusions.
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 - This is sometimes referred to as difficult for many students, both academically and
“bottom-up-processing”. socially.
However, in inductive reasoning ● Peers
the veracity of the information - Certainly, the beliefs and expectations
that created the general conclusion about academic success supported by an
does not guarantee the accuracy of adolescent’s family play a significant role
that conclusion. For instance, a in the student’s achievement and school
child who has only observed engagement.
thunder on summer days may ● Gender
conclude that it only thunders in - Crosnoe and Benner (2015) found that
the summer. female students earn better grades, try
2. Deductive reasoning harder, and are more intrinsically
- Deductive reasoning emerges in motivated than male students. Further,
adolescence and refers to Duchesne, Larose, and Feng (2019)
reasoning that starts with some described how female students were more
overarching principle and based oriented toward skill mastery, used a
on this proposes specific variety of learning strategies, and
conclusions. persevered more than males.
- This is sometimes referred to as ● Life of a high school student
“top-down-processing”. - On average, high school teens spend
Deductive reasoning guarantees a approximately 7 hours each weekday and
truthful conclusion if the premises 1.1 hours each day on the weekend on
on which it is based are accurate. educational activities. This includes
● Intuitive versus Analytic Thinking attending classes, participating in
- Cognitive psychologists often refer to extracurricular activities (excluding
intuitive and analytic thought as the Dual- sports), and doing homework.
Process Model; the notion that humans ● High school males
have two distinct networks for processing - On average, high school males spend
information. about one more hour per day on media and
1. Intuitive thought communications activities than females on
- Intuitive thought is automatic, both weekdays (2.9 vs. 1.8 hours) and
unconscious, and fast and it is weekend days (4.8 vs. 3.8 hours). They
more experiential and emotional. also spend more time playing sports on
- Intuitive thought is easier and both weekdays (0.9 vs. 0.5 hours) and
more commonly used in everyday weekend days (1.2 vs. 0.5 hours). On
life. It is also more commonly weekdays, high school males get an hour
used by children and teens than by more of sleep than females (9.2 vs. 8.2
adults. hours, on average).
- The quickness of adolescent ● High school females
thought, along with the maturation - On an average weekday, high school
of the limbic system, may make females spend more time than boys on
teens more prone to emotional both leisure activities (1.7 vs. 1.1 hours)
intuitive thinking than adults. and religious activities (0.1 vs. 0.0 hours).
2. Analytic Thinking High school females also spend more time
- Analytic thought is deliberate, on grooming on both weekdays and
conscious, and rational. While weekend days (1.1 vs. 0.7 hours, on
these systems interact, they are average for both weekdays and weekend
distinct. days).
EDUCATION ● School Based Preparatory Experiences
- In early adolescence, the transition from - According to the U. S. Department of
elementary school to middle school can be Labor (2019), to perform at optimal levels
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 in all education settings, all youth need to others think. This advanced type of thinking is
participate in educational programs referred to as Postformal Thought.
grounded in standards, clear performance ● Dialectical Thought
expectations and graduation exit options - Thinking in early adulthood may also
based upon meaningful, accurate, and become more flexible and balanced. With
relevant indicators of student learning and experience, the adult comes to recognize
skills. These should include: that there is some right and some wrong in
➢ Academic programs that are based on each position, some good or some bad in a
clear state standards policy or approach, some truth and some
➢ Career and technical education programs falsity in a particular idea.
that are based on professional and industry - This ability to bring together salient
standards aspects of two opposing viewpoints or
➢ Curricular and program options based on positions is referred to as dialectical
universal design of school, work and thought and is considered one of the most
communitybased learning experiences advanced aspects of postformal thinking.
➢ Learning environments that are small and - Such thinking is more realistic because
safe, including extra supports such as very few positions, ideas, situations, or
tutoring, as necessary people are completely right or wrong.
➢ Supports from and by highly qualified So, for example, parents who were
staff; considered angels or devils by the
➢ Access to an assessment system that adolescent eventually become just people
includes multiple measures, and with strengths and weaknesses, endearing
➢ Graduation standards that include options. qualities, and faults to the adult.
● Teenagers and Working Does everyone reach postformal or even formal
- Many adolescents work either summer operational thought?
jobs, or during the school year. Holding a - Formal operational thought, able to think
job may offer teenagers extra funds, the abstractly does not apply to all situations or all
opportunity to learn new skills, ideas adults.
about future careers, and perhaps the true - Some adults lead lives in which they are not
value of money. However, there are challenged to think abstractly about their
numerous concerns about teenagers world.
working, especially during the school - Many adults do not receive any formal
year. A long-standing concern is that that education and are not taught to think abstractly
it “engenders precocious maturity of more about situations they have never experienced.
adult-like roles and problem behaviors” - They are also not exposed to conceptual tools
● Teenage Drivers used to formally analyze hypothetical situations.
- Driving gives teens a sense of freedom - For example, psychology majors may be able to
and independence from their parents. It think abstractly about psychology but be unable to
can also free up time for parents as they use abstract reasoning in physics or chemistry.
are not shuttling teens to and from school, Abstract reasoning in a particular field requires a
activities, or work. knowledge base we might not have in all areas.
Consequently, our ability to think abstractly often
CHAPTER 7: EMERGING AND EARLY ADULTHOOD depends on our experiences.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought: Postformal EDUCATION

Thought
- The adult has gained experience and understands ● Career Development and Employment
why possibilities do not always become realities. - Work plays a significant role in the lives
They learn to base decisions on what is realistic of people, and emerging and early
and practical, not idealistic, and can make adaptive adulthood is the time when most of us
choices. Adults are also not as influenced by what make choices that will establish our
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 careers. Career development has a number rising to higher positions regardless of
of stages: their qualifications.
➢ Stage One: As children we may select careers ● Glass cliff
based on what appears glamorous or exciting to us. - Glass cliff, and it refers to women and
There is little regard in this stage for whether we minorities being placed in leadership
are suited for our occupational choices. positions when the risk of failure is high.
➢ Stage Two: In the second stage, teens include their
abilities and limitations, in addition to the glamour CHAPTER 8: MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
of the occupation when narrowing their choices.
➢ Stage Three: Older teens and emerging adults Crystalized versus Fluid Intelligence
narrow their choices further and begin to weigh - Intelligence is influenced by heredity, culture,
more objectively the requirements, rewards, and social contexts, personal choices, and certainly
downsides to careers, along with comparing age.
possible careers with their own interests, values, - One distinction in specific intelligences noted in
and future goals. However, some young people in adulthood, is between fluid intelligence, which
this stage “fall-into” careers simply because these refers to the capacity to learn new ways of
were what were available at the time, because of solving problems and performing activities
family pressures to pursue particular paths, or quickly and abstractly, and crystallized
because these were high paying jobs, rather than intelligence, which refers to the accumulated
from an intrinsic interest in that career path. knowledge of the world we have acquired
➢ Stage Four: Super (1980) suggests that by our mid throughout our lives.
to late thirties, many adults settle in their careers. - These intelligences are distinct, and crystallized
Even though they might change companies or intelligence increases with age, while fluid
move up in their position, there is a sense of intelligence tends to decrease with age.
continuity and forward motion in their career. - Research demonstrates that older adults have
However, some people at this point in their more crystallized intelligence as reflected in
working life may feel trapped, especially if there is semantic knowledge, vocabulary, and language.
little opportunity for advancement in a more dead- As a result, adults generally outperform younger
end job. people on measures of history, geography, and
● Neet even on crossword puzzles, where this
- NEETs, neither employed nor in education information is useful.
or training. - The differential changes in crystallized versus
● Sexism fluid intelligence help explain why older adults do
- Sexism or gender discrimination is not necessarily show poorer performance on tasks
prejudice or discrimination based on a that also require experience , although they show
person's sex or gender. poorer memory overall.
● Occupational sexism ● Seattle Longitudinal Study
- Occupational sexism involves - The Seattle Longitudinal Study has
discriminatory practices, statements, or tracked the cognitive abilities of adults
actions, based on a person's sex, that since 1956.
occur in the workplace. One form of - Current results demonstrate that middle-
occupational sexism is wage aged adults perform better on four out
discrimination. of six cognitive tasks than those same
● Sticky floors individuals did when they were young
- Sticky floors, which keep low-wage adults. Verbal memory, spatial skills,
workers, who are more likely to be women inductive reasoning g (generalizing from
and minorities, from being promoted particular examples), and vocabulary
contribute to lower wages. increase with age until one’s 70s.
● Glass ceiling ● Flow
- The glass ceiling is the invisible barrier
that keeps women and minorities from
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 - Flow is the mental state of being - Feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion
completely present and fully absorbed in - Increased mental distance from one’s job,
a task. or feelings of job negativism or cynicism
- When in a state of flow, the individual is - Reduced professional efficacy.
able to block outside distractions and the
mind is fully open to producing.
- The person is achieving great joy or CHAPTER 9: LATE ADULTHOOD
intellectual satisfaction from the activity
and accomplishing a goal. Further, when How Does Aging Affect Information Processing?
in a state of flow, the individual is not - Memory comes in many types, such as working,
concerned with extrinsic rewards. episodic, semantic, implicit, and prospective.
- Csikszentmihalyi (1996), he believed that There are also many processes involved in
the tortured creative person was a myth memory, thus it should not be a surprise that there
and that creative people were very happy are declines in some types of memory and
with their lives. According to Nakamura memory processes, while other areas of memory
and Csikszentmihalyi (2002) people are maintained or even show some improvement
describe flow as the height of enjoyment. with age.
The more they experience it, the more they Memory
judge their lives to be gratifying. The ● Changes in Working Memory
qualities that allow for flow are well- - Working memory is the more active,
developed in middle adulthood. effortful part of our memory system.
● Tacit Knowledge Working memory is composed of three
- Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is major systems: The phonological loop
pragmatic or practical and learned that maintains information about
through experience rather than explicitly auditory stimuli, the visuospatial
taught, and it also increases with age. sketchpad, that maintains information
- Tacit knowledge might be thought of as about visual stimuli, and the central
"know-how" or "professional instinct." executive, that oversees working
It is referred to as tacit because it memory, allocating resources where
cannot be codified or written down. It needed and monitoring whether cognitive
does not involve academic knowledge, strategies are being effective.
rather it involves being able to use skills ● Changes in Long-term Memory
and to problem-solve in practical ways. - Long-term memory is divided into
- Tacit knowledge can be understood in the semantic (knowledge of facts), episodic
workplace and used by blue collar (events), and implicit (procedural skills,
workers, such as carpenters, chefs, and classical conditioning and priming)
hair dressers. memories.
EDUCATION 1. Semantic and episodic memory
Gaining Expertise: The Novice and the Expert - are part of the explicit
● Expertise memory system, which
- Expertise refers to specialized skills and requires conscious effort
knowledge that pertain to a particular to create and retrieve.
topic or activity. ➢ Tip-of the-
- Expert thought is often characterized as tongue (TOT)
intuitive, automatic, strategic, and flexible. - Older adults do find that
● Novice they experience more
- Novice is someone who has limited “blocks” at retrieving
experiences with a particular task. information that they
● Burnout know. In other words,
- Burnout, defined as unsuccessfully they experience more tip-
managed work place stress. of the-tongue (TOT)
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 events than do younger deficits in comparison to younger adults.
adults. While the effect is initially not that large,
2. Implicit Memory starting at age 40 adults begin to show
- Implicit memory requires declines in recall memory compared to
little conscious effort and younger adults.
often involves skills or ● The Age Advantage
more habitual patterns - Fewer age differences are observed when
of behavior. This type of memory cues are available, such as for
memory shows few recognition memory tasks, or when
declines with age. Many individuals can draw upon acquired
studies assessing implicit knowledge or experience.
memory measure the - Accrued knowledge of everyday tasks,
effects of priming. such as grocery prices, can help older
➢ Priming adults to make better decisions than
- Priming refers to changes young adults.
in behavior as a result of Attention and Problem Solving
frequent or recent ● Changes in Attention in Late Adulthood
experiences. - Changes in sensory functioning and speed
➢ Prospective Memory of processing information in late
- Prospective memory refers to adulthood often translates into changes in
remembering things we need to do in attention.
the future, such as remembering a - Older adults are less able to selectively
doctor’s appointment next week, or to take focus on information while ignoring
medication before bedtime. It has been distractors.
described as “the flip-side of episodic - Older adults have greater difficulty
memory”. shifting their attention between objects or
- Episodic memories are the recall of locations.
events in our past, while the focus of - Older workers may develop more efficient
prospective memories is of events in our strategies and rely on expertise to
future. In general, humans are fairly good compensate for cognitive decline.
at prospective memory if they have little - Older workers may develop more efficient
else to do in the meantime. However, strategies and rely on expertise to
when there are competing tasks that are compensate for cognitive decline.
also demanding our attention, this type of ● Problem Solving
memory rapidly declines, working - Problem solving tasks that require
memory is absorbed in other tasks, our processing non-meaningful information
ability to remember to do something else quickly (a kind of task that might be part
in the future is more likely to slip out of of a laboratory experiment on mental
memory. processes) declines with age.
- Prospective memories are often divided - Older adults resolve everyday problems by
into time-based prospective memories, relying on input from others, such as
such as having to remember to do family and friends. They are also less
something at a future time, or event- likely than younger adults to delay making
based prospective memories, such as decisions on important matters, such as
having to remember to do something medical care.
when a certain event occurs. What might explain these deficits as we age?
● Recall versus Recognition ● Processing speed theory
- Older adults show roughly equivalent - proposed by Salthouse (1996, 2004),
memory to young adults when assessed suggests that as the nervous system slows
with a recognition task. With recall with advanced age our ability to process
measures, older adults show memory information declines. This slowing of
11
 processing speed may explain age - Age combined with a certain types of
differences on many different cognitive experience and/or personality brings
tasks. wisdom.
● Inhibition theory
- Inhibition theory argues that older adults
have difficulty with inhibitory functioning, Neurocognitive Disorders
or the ability to focus on certain ● Dementia
information while suppressing attention to - Dementia was used to refer to an
less pertinent information tasks. individual experiencing difficulties with
● Directed forgetting memory, language, abstract thinking,
- Directed forgetting people are asked to reasoning, decision making, and problem-
forget or ignore some information, but not solving.
other information. ● Major neurocognitive disorder
● Cognitive losses exaggerated - A major neurocognitive disorder is
- While there are information processing diagnosed as a significant cognitive
losses in late adulthood, overall loss has decline from a previous level of
been exaggerated. performance in one or more cognitive
- One explanation is that the type of tasks domains and interferes with independent
that people are tested on tend to be functioning.
meaningless. ● Minor neurocognitive disorder
- Loss may be due to a lack of opportunity - Minor neurocognitive disorder is
in using various skills. diagnosed as a modest cognitive decline
from a previous level of performance in
Intelligence and Wisdom one of more cognitive domains and does
- Baltes (1993) introduced two additional not interfere with independent functioning.
types of intelligence to reflect cognitive
changes in aging. WORK
● Pragmatics of intelligence ● Encore careers
- Pragmatics of intelligence are cultural - Encore careers, or work in a different field
exposure to facts and procedures that are from the one in which they retired.
maintained as one ages and are similar to ● Retirement Stages: Atchley (1994) identified
crystalized intelligence. several phases that individuals ago through when
● Mechanics of intelligence they retire:
- Mechanics of intelligence are dependent - Remote pre-retirement phase includes
on brain functioning and decline with fantasizing about what one wants to do in
age, similar to fluid intelligence. retirement
● Wisdom - Immediate pre-retirement phase when
- Wisdom is the ability to use the concrete plans are established
accumulated knowledge about practical - Actual retirement
matters that allows for sound judgment - Honeymoon phase when retirees travel
and decision making. and participate in activities they could not
- A wise person is insightful and has do while working
knowledge that can be used to overcome - Disenchantment phase when retirees
obstacles in living. experience an emotional let-down
- Occupations and experiences that - Reorientation phase when the retirees
emphasize others rather than self, along attempt to adjust to retirement by making
with personality characteristics, such as less hectic plans and getting into a regular
openness to experience and generativity, routine
are more likely to provide the building
blocks of wisdom.

12
 and a bottle of milk from which the baby
monkey could drink. The second mother
was a foam-rubber form wrapped in a
heated terry-cloth blanket. The infant
monkeys went to the wire mother for food,
but they overwhelmingly preferred and
spent significantly more time with the
warm terry-cloth mother. The warm terry-
ATTACHMENT AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP cloth mother provided no food but did
provide comfort (Harlow, 1958).
CHAPTER 3: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD - The infant's need for physical closeness
and touching is referred to as contact
Forming Attachments comfort.
- Contact comfort is believed to be the
● Attachment foundation for attachment.
- is the close bond with a caregiver from - The Harlows’ studies confirmed that
which the infant derives a sense of babies have social as well as physical
security. needs.
- Additionally, attachments form the basis - Both monkeys and human babies need a
for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, secure base that allows them to feel safe.
and as important influences on self From this base, they can gain the
concept. confidence they need to venture out and
explore their worlds.
● Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
- According to Freud (1938) infants are oral ● Bowlby’s Theory
creatures who obtain pleasure from - John Bowlby developed the concept of
sucking and mouthing objects. Freud attachment theory.
believed the infant will become attached to - He defined attachment as the affectional
a person or object that provides this bond or tie that an infant forms with the
pleasure. mother (Bowlby, 1969).
- Consequently, infants were believed to - An infant must form this bond with a
become attached to their mother because primary caregiver in order to have normal
she was the one who satisfied their oral social and emotional development.
needs and provided pleasure. - He used the concept of secure base to
- Freud further believed that the infants will define a healthy attachment between
become attached to their mothers “if the parent and child (Bowlby, 1982). A secure
mother is relaxed and generous in her base is a parental presence that gives the
feeding practices, thereby allowing the child a sense of safety as the child
child a lot of oral pleasure”. explores the surroundings.

● Harlow’s Research ● 2 Things are Needed for a Healthy Attachment:

- In one classic study showing if nursing (Bowlby)
was the most important factor to
attachment, Wisconsin University 1. The caregiver must be responsive to the
psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow child’s physical, social, and emotional
investigated the responses of young needs.
monkeys. The infants were separated from 2. The caregiver and child must engage in
their biological mothers, and two surrogate mutually enjoyable interactions.
mothers were introduced to their cages.
One, the wire mother, consisted of a round - Bowlby observed that infants would go to
wooden head, a mesh of cold metal wires, extraordinary lengths to prevent separation
13
 from their parents, such as crying, refusing
to be comforted, and waiting for the Parten’s Classification of Types of Play in Preschool
caregiver to return. Children

1. Unoccupied Play
- Children’s behavior seems more random
and without a specific goal.
- This is the least common form of play.
CHAPTER 4: EARLY CHILDHOOD 2. Solitary Play
- Children play by themselves, do not
Sibling Relationships interact with others, nor are they engaging
● Siblings play an important role in the in similar activities as the children around
development of social skills. them.
● Siblings spend a considerable amount of 3. Onlooker Play
time with each other and offer a unique - Children are observing other children
relationship that is not found with same- playing. They may comment on the
age peers or with adults. activities and even make suggestions but
● Cooperative and pretend play interactions will not directly join the play.
between younger and older siblings can 4. Parallel Play
teach empathy, sharing, and cooperation - Children play alongside each other, using
(Pike, Coldwell, & Dunn, 2005), as well similar toys, but do not directly act with
as, negotiation and conflict resolution each other.
(Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013). 5. Associative Play
● However, the quality of sibling - Children will interact with each other and
relationships is often mediated by the share toys but are not working toward a
quality of the parent-child relationship and common goal.
the psychological adjustment of the child 6. Cooperative Play
(Pike et al., 2005). - Children are interacting to achieve a
● Children who have emotional and common goal. Children may take on
behavioral problems are also more likely different tasks to reach that goal.
to have negative interactions with their
siblings.
● Dunn and Munn (1987) revealed that over CHAPTER 5: MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
half of all sibling conflicts in early
childhood were disputes about property Friends and Peers
rights. ● As toddlers, children may begin to show a
● By middle childhood this starts shifting preference for certain playmates (Ross & Lollis,
toward control over social situation, such 1989). However, peer interactions at this age often
as what games to play, disagreements involve more parallel play rather than
about facts or opinions, or rude behavior intentional social interactions (Pettit, Clawson,
(Howe, Rinaldi, Jennings, & Petrakos, Dodge, & Bates, 1996).
2002). ● By age four, many children use the word “friend”
when referring to certain children and do so with a
Play fair degree of stability (Hartup, 1983).
● Freud saw play as a means for children to ● Among young children “friendship” is often
release pent-up emotions and to deal based on proximity, such as they live next door,
with emotionally distressing situations attend the same school, or it refers to whomever
in a more secure environment. they just happen to be playing with at the time
● Vygotsky and Piaget saw play as a way of (Rubin, 1980).
children developing their intellectual
abilities (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). Friendships
14
 ● Friendships take on new importance as judges of 3. Fair-weather cooperation
one's worth, competence, and attractiveness in - children are very concerned with fairness
middle and late childhood. and reciprocity, and thus, a friend is
● Friendships provide the opportunity for learning someone returns a favor.
social skills, such as how to communicate with - In this stage, if a child does something
others and how to negotiate differences. nice for a friend there is an expectation
● Children get ideas from one another about how to that the friend will do something nice for
perform certain tasks, how to gain popularity, what them at the first available opportunity.
to wear or say, and how to act. This society of When this fails to happen, a child may
children marks a transition from a life focused on break off the friendship.
the family to a life concerned with peers. 4. Intimate and mutual sharing
- a friend is someone who you can tell them
3 Stages to Children’s Conceptualization of Friendship things you would tell no one else.
(Bigelow and La Gaipa) - Children and teens in this stage no longer
“keep score” and do things for a friend
1. Reward-cost because they genuinely care for the
- friendship focuses on mutual activities. person.
- Children in early, middle, and late - If a friendship dissolves in the stage it is
childhood all emphasize similar interests usually due to a violation of trust.
as the main characteristics of a good - However, children in this stage do expect
friend. their friend to share similar interests and
2. Normative expectation viewpoints and may take it as a betrayal if
- focuses on conventional morality; that is, a friend likes someone that they do not.
the emphasis is on a friend as someone 5. Autonomous interdependence
who is kind and shares with you. - a friend is someone who accepts you and
3. Empathy and understanding that you accept as they are.
- friends are people who are loyal, - In this stage children, teens, and adults
committed to the relationship, and share accept and even appreciate differences
intimate information. between themselves and their friends.
- They are also not as possessive, so they
5 Stages of Friendship from Early Childhood through are less likely to feel threatened if their
to Adulthood (Selman) friends have other relationships or
interests.
1. Momentary physical interaction
- a friend is someone who you are playing Peer Relationships
with at this point in time. ● Sociometric assessment
- Selman notes that this is typical of ● Measures attraction between members of a
children between the ages of three and six. group, such as a classroom of students.
These early friendships are based more on ● In sociometric research children are
circumstances (e.g., a neighbor) than on asked to mention the three children they
genuine similarities. like to play with the most, and those they
2. One-way assistance do not like to play with. The number of
- a friend is someone who does nice things times a child is nominated for each of the
for you, such as saving you a seat on the two categories (like, do not like) is
school bus or sharing a toy. tabulated.
- However, children in this stage, do not
always think about what they are Categories of Social Status (Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli,
contributing to the relationships. 1982)
Nonetheless, having a friend is important ● Popular children receive many votes in
and children will sometimes put up with a the “like” category, and very few in the
not so nice friend, just to have a friend. “do not like” category.
15
 ● In contrast, rejected children receive Bullying
more unfavorable votes, and few favorable ● Bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive
ones. behavior among school aged children that involves
● Controversial children are mentioned a real or perceived power imbalance.
frequently in each category, with several ● Further, the aggressive behavior happens more
children liking them and several children than once or has the potential to be repeated
placing them in the do not like category.
● Neglected children are rarely mentioned Different Types of Bullying
in either category. ● Verbal bullying
● Average child has a few positive votes - which is saying or writing mean things,
with very few negative ones. teasing, name calling, taunting,
threatening, or making inappropriate
Most children want to be liked and accepted by their sexual comments.
friends. Some popular children are nice and have good ● Social bullying
social skills. - also referred to as relational bullying,
● Popular-prosocial children tend to do well in involves spreading rumors, purposefully
school and are cooperative and friendly. excluding someone from a group, or
● Popular-antisocial children may gain popularity embarrassing someone on purpose.
by acting tough or spreading rumors about others ● Physical Bullying
(Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004). - involves hurting a person’s body or
● Rejected-withdrawn, these children are shy and possessions.
withdrawn and are easy targets for bullies because ● Cyberbullying
they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled - which involves electronic technology.
(Boulton, 1999). - examples of cyberbullying include sending
● Rejected-aggressive and are ostracized because mean text messages or emails, creating
they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational.The fake profiles, and posting embarrassing
rejected-aggressive children may be acting out of a pictures, videos or rumors on social
feeling of insecurity. networking sites.
Children who are not accepted are more likely to
experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble Those at risk for bullying
adjusting (Klima & Repetti, 2008; Schwartz, Lansford, ● Bullying can happen to anyone, but some students
Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 2014). are at an increased risk for being bullied including
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered (LGBT)
Long-Term Consequences of Popularity youth, those with disabilities, and those who are
● Childhood popularity researcher Mitch Prinstein socially isolated.
has found that likability in childhood leads to ● Additionally, those who are perceived as
positive outcomes throughout one’s life. different, weak, less popular, overweight, or
● Adults who were accepted in childhood have having low self-esteem, have a higher likelihood
stronger marriages and work relationships, of being bullied.
earn more money, and have better health
outcomes than those who were unpopular. Those who are more likely to bully
● Further, those who were unpopular as children, ● Bullies are often thought of as having low self-
experienced greater anxiety, depression, esteem, and then bully others to feel better about
substance use, obesity, physical health problems themselves. Although this can occur, many bullies
and suicide. in fact have high levels of selfesteem.
● The significant consequence of unpopularity was ● They possess considerable popularity and social
that children were denied opportunities to build power and have well-connected peer relationships.
their social skills and negotiate complex ● They do not lack self-esteem, and instead lack
interactions, thus contributing to their empathy for others. They like to dominate or be in
continued unpopularity. charge of others.

16
Bullied children often do not ask for help: less likely to engage in drug abuse and other
● Unfortunately, most children do not let adults criminal behaviors, and have more positive peer
know that they are being bullied. Some fear relationships.
retaliation from the bully, while others are too
embarrassed to ask for help.
● Those who are socially isolated may not know ● Peers
who to ask for help or believe that no one would - As children become adolescents, they
care or assist them if they did ask for assistance. usually begin spending more time with
● It is important for parents and teacher to know the their peers and less time with their
warning signs that may indicate a child is being families, and these peer interactions are
bullied. These include: unexplainable injuries, lost increasingly unsupervised by adults.
or destroyed possessions, changes in eating or - Children’s notions of friendship often
sleeping patterns, declining school grades, not focus on shared activities, whereas
wanting to go to school, loss of friends, decreased adolescents’ notions of friendship
selfesteem and/or self-destructive behaviors. increasingly focus on intimate exchanges
of thoughts and feelings.
CHAPTER 6: ADOLESCENCE - During adolescence, peer groups evolve
from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex.
Parents and Teens: Autonomy and Attachment ● Homophily
- While most adolescents get along with their - Homophily, that is, adolescents who are
parents, they do spend less time with them . similar to one another choose to spend
- This decrease in the time spent with families may time together in a “birds of a feather
be a reflection of a teenager’s greater desire for flock together” way. Adolescents who
independence or autonomy. spend time together also shape each
- It can be difficult for many parents to deal with other’s behavior and attitudes.
this desire for autonomy. However, it is likely - Peers can serve both positive and
adaptive for teenagers to increasingly distance negative functions during adolescence.
themselves and establish relationships outside of Negative peer pressure can lead
their families in preparation for adulthood. This adolescents to make riskier decisions or
means that both parents and teenagers need to engage in more problematic behavior than
strike a balance between autonomy, while still they would alone or in the presence of
maintaining close and supportive familial their family.
relationships. ● Deviant peer contagion
- As teens are demanding greater control in - One of the most widely studied aspects of
decisions that affect their daily lives. This can adolescent peer influence is known as
increase conflict between parents and their deviant peer contagion, which is the
teenagers. For many adolescents this conflict process by which peers reinforce problem
centers on chores, homework, curfew, dating, behavior by laughing or showing other
and personal appearance. These are all things signs of approval that then increase the
many teens believe they should manage that likelihood of future problem behavior.
parents previously had considerable control over. ● Cliques
- Teens report more conflict with their mothers, as - Cliques, which refer to groups of
many mothers believe they should still have some individuals who interact frequently.
control over many of these areas, yet often report ● Crowds
their mothers to be more encouraging and - Crowds are characterized more by
supportive. shared reputations or images than actual
- Having supportive, less conflict ridden interactions.
relationships with parents also benefits - These crowds reflect different prototypic
teenagers. Research on attachment in adolescence identities, such as jocks or brains, and are
find that teens who are still securely attached to often linked with adolescents’ social status
their parents have less emotional problems, , are
17
 and peers’ perceptions of their values or
behaviors. Attachment in Young Adulthood
- Hazan and Shaver (1987) described the attachment
styles of adults, using the same three general
categories proposed by Ainsworth’s research on
young children: secure, avoidant, and
● Romantic Relationships anxious/ambivalent. Hazan and Shaver developed
- Adolescence is the developmental period during three brief paragraphs describing the three adult
which romantic relationships typically first attachment styles.
emerge. - Bartholomew (1990) challenged the categorical
- Dating serves many purposes for teens, including view of attachment in adults and suggested that
having fun, companionship, status, adult attachment was best described as varying
socialization, sexual experimentation, intimacy, along two dimensions; attachment related-
and partner selection for those in late anxiety and attachment-related avoidance.
adolescence. ● Attachment-related anxiety
- There are several stages in the dating process - Attachment-related anxiety refers to the
beginning with engaging in mixed-sex group extent to which an adult worries about
activities in early adolescence. whether their partner really loves them.
- The same-sex peer groups that were common - Those who score high on this dimension
during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer fear that their partner will reject or
groups that are more characteristic of adolescence abandon them.
- Interacting in mixed-sex groups is easier for teens ● Attachment-related avoidance
as they are among a supportive group of friends, - Attachment-related avoidance refers to
can observe others interacting, and are kept safe whether an adult can open up to others,
from a too early intimate relationship. and whether they trust and feel they can
- By middle adolescence teens are engaging in depend on others.
brief, casual dating or in group dating with - Those who score high on
established couples. attachmentrelated avoidance are
- Then in late adolescence dating involves uncomfortable with opening up and may
exclusive, intense relationships. These fear that such dependency may limit
relationships tend to be long-lasting and continue their sense of autonomy.
for a year or longer, however, they may also
interfere with friendships.
- Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on
romantic relationships, and their positive and
negative emotions are more tied to romantic
relationships, or lack thereof, than to friendships,
family relationships, or school.
- Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’
identity formation, changes in family and peer
relationships, and emotional and behavioral
adjustment.
● Relationship inauthenticity
- Relationship inauthenticity refers to an - A c c o r d
incongruence between thoughts/feelings yield four possible attachment styles in adults;
and actions within a relationship. Desires secure, dismissing, preoccupied, and fearful
to gain partner approval and demands in avoidant (see Figure 7.22)
the relationship may negatively affect an - Securely attached adults score lower on both
adolescent’s sense of authenticity. dimensions. They are comfortable trusting their
partners and do not worry excessively about their
CHAPTER 7: EMERGING AND EARLY ADULTHOOD partner’s love for them.
18
- Adults with a dismissing style score low on
attachment-related anxiety, but higher on CHAPTER: 8 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
attachment-related avoidance. Such adults
dismiss the importance of relationships. ● Sandwich generation refers to adults who have
- They trust themselves, but do not trust others, at least one parent age 65 or older and are either
thus do not share their dreams, goals, and fears raising their own children or providing support
with others. for their grown children.
- They do not depend on other people and feel ● At midlife adults may find themselves as a
uncomfortable when they have to do so. kinkeeper. In all families there is a person or
- Those with a preoccupied attachment are low in persons who keep the family connected and who
attachment-related avoidance, but high in promote solidarity and continuity in the family.
attachment-related anxiety. Such adults are often ● The empty nest, or post-parental period refers to
prone to jealousy and worry that their partner does the time period when children are grown up and
not love them as much as they need to be loved. have left home.
- Adults whose attachment style is fearful avoidant ● Empty nest syndrome emerged, which refers to
score high on both attachment-related great emotional distress experienced by parents,
avoidance and attachment-related anxiety. typically mothers, after children have left home.
These adults want close relationships, but do not ● Young adults who are returning after having
feel comfortable getting emotionally close to lived independently outside the home, and these
others. They have trust issues with others and are called boomerang kids.
often do not trust their own social skills in
maintaining relationships.
● Relationships with Parents and Siblings
- In early adulthood the parent-child
relationship has to transition toward a
relationship between two adults. This
involves a reappraisal of the
relationship by both parents and young
adults.
- One of the biggest challenges for parents,
especially during emerging adulthood, is
coming to terms with the adult status of
their children.
- Arnett (2004) reported that leaving home
often helped promote psychological
growth and independence in early
adulthood.
- Sibling relationships are one of the
longest-lasting bonds in people’s lives.
- Siblings must make the same reappraisal
of each other as adults, as parents have to
with their adult children.
- Aquilino (2006) suggests that the task in
early adulthood may be to maintain
enough of a bond so that there will be a
foundation for this relationship in later
life.
- Those who are successful can often move
away from the “older-younger” sibling
conflicts of childhood, toward a more
equal relationship between two adults.
19
ERICK ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIFESPAN CHAPTER 3: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

DEVELOPMENT Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson (1902-1994) and Psychosocial Theory ● Highlights the importance of attachment.
● Erikson (1950) proposed a model of lifespan ● Erikson maintained that the first year to year and a
development that provides a useful guideline for half of life involves the establishment of a sense of
thinking about the changes we experience trust.
throughout life. ● Infants are dependent and must rely on others to
● Erikson proposed that each period of life has a meet their basic physical needs as well as their
unique challenge or crisis that the person who needs for stimulation and comfort.
reaches it must face, referred to as psychosocial ● A caregiver who consistently meets these needs
crises. instills a sense of trust or the belief that the world
● If a person does not resolve a stage successfully, it is a trustworthy place. The caregiver should not
may hinder their ability to deal with later stages. worry about overly indulging a child’s need for
comfort, contact or stimulation.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
● Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 12 to 18 Problems establishing trust
months) ● Erikson (1982) believed that mistrust could
- The child develops a feeling of trust in contaminate all aspects of one’s life and deprive
caregivers. the individual of love and fellowship with others.
● Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt (18 months to ● Consider the implications for establishing trust if a
3 years) caregiver is unavailable or is upset and ill-prepared
- The child learns what can and cannot b e to care for a child.
controlled and develops a sense of free ● Or if a child is born prematurely, is unwanted, or
will. has physical problems that make him or her less
● Initiative versus Guilt (3 to 6 years) desirable to a parent.
- The child learns to become independent by ● Under these circumstances, we cannot assume that
exploring, manipulating, and taking the parent is going to provide the child with a
action. feeling of trust.
● Industry versus Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
- The child learns to do things well or Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
correctly according to standards set by ● As the child begins to walk and talk, an interest in
others, particularly in school. independence or autonomy replaces a concern for
● Identity versus Role Confusion (12 to 18 years) trust. The toddler tests the limits of what can be
- The adolescent develops a well-defined touched, said, and explored.
and positive sense of self in relationship to ● Erikson (1982) believed that toddlers should be
others. allowed to explore their environment as freely as
● Intimacy versus Isolation (19 to 40 years ) safety allows and in so doing will develop a sense
- The person develops the ability to give of independence that will later grow to self-
and receive love and to make long-term esteem, initiative, and overall confidence.
commitments.
● Generativity versus Stagnation (40 to 65 years) Problems establishing autonomy
- The person develops an interest in guiding ● If a caregiver is overly anxious about the toddler’s
the development of the next generation, actions for fear that the child will get hurt or
often by becoming a parent. violate other’s expectation, the caregiver can give
● Ego Integrity versus Despair (65 to death ) the child the message that he or she should be
- The person develops acceptance of how ashamed of their behavior and instill a sense of
one has lived. doubt in their own abilities.
● Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to
keep toddlers safe but let them learn by doing.
20
CHAPTER 4: EARLY CHILDHOOD ● Psychological moratorium
- Psychological moratorium, where teens
Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt put on hold commitment to an identity
● The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop while exploring the options.
into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas - The culmination of this exploration is a
and initiative action (Erikson, 1982). more coherent view of oneself. Those
● For example, children may want to build a fort who are unsuccessful at resolving this
with the cushions from the living room couch or stage may either withdraw further into
open a lemonade stand in the driveway or make a social isolation or become lost in the
zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to crowd.
those who want to come. Or they may just want to Expanding on Erikson’s theory, James Marcia (2010)
get themselves ready for bed without any identified four identity statuses that represent the four
assistance. possible combinations of the dimension of commitment
● To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should and exploration (see Table 6.2).
offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being
critical of messes or mistakes.
● Placing pictures of drawings on the refrigerator,
purchasing mud pies for dinner, and admiring
towers of legos will facilitate the child’s sense of
initiative.

CHAPTER 5: MIDDLEAND LATE CHILDHOOD - The least mature status, and one common in many
children, is identity diffusion.
Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority ● Identity diffusion
● According to Erikson, children in middle and late - Identity diffusion is a status that
childhood are very busy or industrious (Erikson, characterizes those who have neither
1982). They are constantly doing, planning, explored the options, nor made a
playing, getting together with friends, and commitment to an identity.
achieving. This is a very active time, and a time - Those who persist in this identity may
when they are gaining a sense of how they drift aimlessly with little connection to
measure up when compared with peers. those around them or have little sense of
● Erikson believed that if these industrious children purpose in life.
can be successful in their endeavors, they will get ● Identity foreclosure
a sense of confidence for future challenges. - Identity foreclosure have made a
● If not, a sense of inferiority can be particularly commitment to an identity without
haunting during middle and late childhood. having explored the options.
● Identity moratorium
CHAPTER 6: ADOLESCENCE - Identity moratorium is a status that
describes those who are activity exploring
Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion in an attempt to establish an identity but
- Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial have yet to have made any commitment.
task of adolescence was establishing an identity. ● Identity achievement
- Questions regarding their appearance, vocational - Identity achievement refers to those who
choices and career aspirations, education, after exploration have made a
relationships, sexuality, political and social views, commitment.
personality, and interests. - This is a long process and is not often
- Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and achieved by the end of adolescence.
experimentation regarding identity and one’s ● Ethnic identity
life path.
21
 - Ethnic identity refers to how people highly involved in the customs and values
come to terms with who they are based of their ethnic culture. One can be
on their ethnic or racial ancestry. confident in their ethnic identity without
- “The task of ethnic identity formation wanting to maintain the language or other
involves sorting out and resolving positive customs.
and negative feelings and attitudes about ● MAMA cycling
one’s own ethnic group and about other - MAMA cycling or moving back and
groups and identifying one’s place in forth between moratorium and
relation to both” achievement.
Phinney’s model of ethnic identity formation is based on ● Bicultural identity
Erikson’s and Marcia’s model of identity formation - Bicultural identity means the individual
(Phinney, 1990; Syed & Juang, 2014). Through the process sees himself or herself as part of both the
of exploration and commitment, individual’s come to ethnic minority group and the larger
understand and create an ethic identity. Phinney suggests society.
three stages or statuses with regard to ethnic identity: ● Multiracial
● Unexamined Ethnic Identity - Multiracial, that is whose parents come
- Adolescents and adults who have not been from two or more ethnic or racial
exposed to ethnic identity issues may be groups, have a more challenging task.·
in the first stage, unexamined ethnic ● Negative identity
identity.
- This is often characterized with a - is the adoption of norms and values that are
preference for the dominant culture, or the opposite of one’s family and culture, and
it is assumed to be one of the more
where the individual has given little
problematic outcomes of identity
thought to the question of their ethnic development in young people.
heritage.
● Ethnic Identity Search -In addition, those with a negative identity are
- Adolescents and adults who are exploring generally hostile and cynical toward society,
the customs, culture, and history of their often because they do not trust the world
ethnic group are in the ethnic identity around them.
search stage, similar to Marcia’s -These beliefs may lead teens to engage in
moratorium status. delinquent and criminal behavior and
- Often some event “awakens” a teen or prevent them from engaging in more positive
adult to their ethnic group; either a acts that could be beneficial to society.
personal experience with prejudice, a
highly profiled case in the media, or even CHAPTER: 7 EMERGING AND EARLY ADULTHOOD
a more positive event that recognizes the Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation
contribution of someone from the
individual’s ethnic group. ● Erikson’s (1950, 1968) sixth stage focuses on
- Teens and adults in this stage will establishing intimate relationships or risking
immerse themselves in their ethnic social isolation. Intimate relationships are more
culture. For some, “it may lead to a difficult if one is still struggling with identity.
● Achieving a sense of identity is a life-long
rejection of the values of the dominant
process, as there are periods of identity crisis and
culture”. stability. However, once identity is established
● Achieved Ethnic Identity intimate relationships can be pursued.
- Those who have actively explored their ● These intimate relationships include
culture are likely to have a deeper acquaintanceships and friendships, but also the
appreciation and understanding of their more important close relationships, which are
ethnic heritage, leading to progress the long-term romantic relationships that we
develop with another person, for instance, in a
toward an achieved ethnic identity.
marriage.
- An achieved ethnic identity does not
necessarily imply that the individual is Factors influencing Attraction
22
● Attraction - Friendships between men and women
- Attraction or what makes people like, become more difficult because of the
and even love, each other. unspoken question about whether the
● Similarity friendships will lead to a romantic
- One important factor in attraction is a involvement. Consequently, friendships
perceived similarity in values and beliefs may diminish once a person has a partner
between the partners. or single friends may be replaced with
- Similarity is important for relationships couple friends.
because it is more convenient if both ● Love
partners like the same activities and - Sternberg (1988) suggests that there are
because similarity supports one’s values. three main components of love: Passion,
- Having others like and believe in the intimacy, and commitment.
same things we do makes us feel
validated in our beliefs. This is referred to
as consensual validation and is an
important aspect of why we are attracted
to other
● Self-disclosure
- Self-disclosure the tendency to
communicate frequently, without fear of
reprisal, and in an accepting and
empathetic manner.
- Friends are friends because we can talk to
them openly about our needs and goals
and because they listen and respond to our
needs
- However, self-disclosure must be
balanced. If we open up about our
concerns that are important to us, we
expect our partner to do the same in
return. If the self-disclosure is not
reciprocal, the relationship may not last.
● Proximity
- Proximity or the extent to which people
are physically near us.
● Mere exposure
- Proximity has its effect on liking through
the principle of mere exposure, which is ● Passion
the tendency to prefer stimuli (including, - refers to the intense, physical attraction
but not limited to people) that we have partners feel toward one another.
seen more frequently. ● Intimacy
● Friendships
- In our twenties, intimacy needs may be - involves the ability the share feelings,
met in friendships rather than with psychological closeness and personal
partners. thoughts with the other.
- Friendships between men are more likely
to involve sharing information, ● Commitment
providing solutions, or focusing on
activities rather than discussion problems - is the conscious decision to stay
or emotions. Men tend to discuss opinions together.
or factual information or spend time
together in an activity of mutual interest. ● Liking
- Friendships between women are more - In this relationship, intimacy or
likely to focus on sharing weaknesses, knowledge of the other and a sense of
emotions, or problems. Women talk closeness is present. Passion and
about difficulties they are having in other commitment, however, are not. Partners
relationships and express their sadness, feel free to be themselves and disclose
frustrations, and joys. personal information.

23
 - These partners are friends. However, because they are looking for passion and
being told that your partner “thinks of closeness and are afraid it will die out if
you as a friend” can be a devastating they commit to one another and start to
blow if you are attracted to them and focus on other kinds of obligations.
seeking a romantic involvement. ● Companionate Love
● Infatuation - Intimacy and commitment are the
- Perhaps, this is Sternberg's version of hallmarks of companionate love. Partners
"love at first sight". Infatuation consists love and respect one-another and they are
of an immediate, intense physical committed to staying together.
attraction to someone. - However, their physical attraction may
- A person who is infatuated finds it hard have never been strong or may have just
to think of anything but the other died out over time. Nevertheless, partners
person. are good friends and committed to one
- Brief encounters are played over and over another.
in one's head; it may be difficult to eat and ● Consummate Love
there may be a rather constant state of - Intimacy, passion, and commitment are
arousal. present in consummate love. This is often
- Infatuation is rather short-lived, however, perceived by western cultures as “the
lasting perhaps only a matter of months ideal” type of love. The couple shares
or as long as a year or so. It tends to be passion; the spark has not died, and the
based on physical attraction and an closeness is there.
image of what one “thinks” the other is - They feel like best friends, as well as
all about. lovers, and they are committed to staying
● Fatuous Love together.
- Passion and commitment are aspects of
fatuous love. There is no intimacy and CHAPTER: 8 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
the commitment is premature
- Partners rarely talk seriously or share Erikson: Generativity vs Stagnation
their ideas. They focus on their intense
physical attraction and yet one, or both, is - According to Erikson (1950, 1982) generativity
also talking of making a lasting encompasses procreativity, productivity, and
commitment. creativity.
- Sometimes this is out of a sense of - This stage includes the generation of new beings,
insecurity and a desire to make sure the new products, and new ideas, as well as self-
partner is locked into the relationship. generation concerned with further identity
● Empty Love development.
- This type of love may be found later in a - Erikson believed that the stage of generativity,
relationship or in a relationship that was during which one established a family and
formed to meet needs other than career, was the longest of all the stages.
intimacy or passion, including financial - Individuals at midlife are primarily concerned
needs, childrearing assistance, or with leaving a positive legacy of themselves, and
attaining/maintaining status. parenthood is the primary generative type.
- Here the partners are committed to - Erikson understood that work and family
staying in the relationship for the relationships may be in conflict due to the
children, because of a religious obligations and responsibilities of each, but he
conviction, or because there are no believed it was overall a positive developmental
alternatives. However, they do not share time.
ideas or feelings with each other and have - In addition to being parents and working, Erikson
no physical attraction for one another. also described individuals being involved in the
● Romantic Love community during this stage.
- Intimacy and passion are components of - A sense of stagnation occurs when one is not
romantic love, but there is no active in generative matters, however, stagnation
commitment. can motive a person to redirect energies into
- The partners spend much time with one more meaningful activities.
another and enjoy their closeness, but - Erikson identified “virtues” for each of his eight
have not made plans to continue. This stages, and the virtue emerging when one achieves
may be true because they are not in a generativity is “Care”.
position to make such commitments or
24
 - Erikson believed that those in middle adulthood avenues for those in late adulthood to
should “take care of the persons, the products, remain vital members of society, and they
and the ideas one has learned to care for”. will be explored next.
- Erikson believed that the strengths gained from ● Activity Theory
the six earlier stages are essential for the - Activity Theory, which states that
generational task of cultivating strength in the greater satisfaction with one’s life
next generation. Erikson further argued that occurs with those who remain active.
generativity occurred best after the individual had - Not surprisingly, more positive views on
resolved issues of identity and intimacy. aging and greater health are noted with
- Erikson (1982) indicated that at the end of this those who keep active than those who
demanding stage, individuals may withdraw as isolate themselves and disengage with
generativity is no longer expected in late others.
adulthood. - Community, faith-based, and volunteer
- This releases elders from the task of care taking or organizations can all provide those in late
working. However, not feeling needed or adulthood with opportunities to remain
challenged may result in stagnation, and active and maintain social networks.
consequently one should not fully withdraw from - Erikson’s concept of generativity applies
generative tasks as they enter Erikson’s last stage to many older adults, just as it did in
in late adulthood. midlife.
● Generativity in Late Adulthood
CHAPTER: 9 LATE ADULTHOOD - Research suggests that generativity is not
just a concern for midlife adults, but for
Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair many elders, concerns about future
generations continue into late adulthood.
- According to Erikson, the last ● Volunteering
psychosocial stage is Integrity vs. Despair. - Many older adults spend time
This stage includes, “a retrospective volunteering. Volunteering aids older
accounting of one’s life to date; how adults as much as it does the community at
much one embraces life as having been large. Older adults who volunteer
well lived, as opposed to regretting missed experience more social contact, which has
opportunities,” been linked to higher rates of life
- Those in late adulthood need to achieve satisfaction, and lower rates of depression
both the acceptance of their life and the and anxiety.
inevitability of their death. - New opportunities exist for older adults to
- This stage includes finding meaning in serve as virtual volunteers by dialoguing
one’s life and accepting one’s online with others from around the world
accomplishments, but also and sharing their support, interests, and
acknowledging what in life has not gone expertise.
as hoped. It is also feeling a sense of ● Grandparents Raising Grandchildren
contentment and accepting others’ - Older adults have far less energy, and
deficiencies, including those of their often the reason why they are now acting
parents. as parents to their grandchildren is because
- This acceptance will lead to integrity, traumatic events.
but if elders are unable to achieve this - Grandparents were raising their
acceptance, they may experience grandchildren because the parents had
despair. Bitterness and resentments in problems with drugs and alcohol, had a
relationships and life events can lead mental illness, were incarcerated, had
one to despair at the end of life. divorced, had a chronic illness, were
- According to Erikson (1982), successful homeless, had neglected or abused the
completion of this stage leads to wisdom child, were deployed in the military, or
in late life. had died.
- Prior to Erikson’s theory, older adulthood ● Convoy Model of Social Relations
was seen as a time of social and leisure - The Convoy Model of Social Relations
restrictions and a focus primarily on suggests that the social connections that
physical needs. people accumulate differ in levels of
- The current focus on aging well by closeness and are held together by
keeping healthy and active, helps to exchanges in social support.
promote integrity. There are many ● Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
25
 - The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
focuses on changes in motivation for
actively seeking social contact with
others.
- To optimize the experience of positive
affect, older adults actively restrict their
social life to prioritize time spent with
emotionally close significant others.
- In line with this theory, older marriages
are found to be characterized by enhanced
positive and reduced negative interactions
and older partners show more affectionate
behavior during conflict discussions than
do middle-aged partners. The Early Years Child Well-Being and the Role of
● Loneliness or Solitude Public PolicyEdited by Samuel Berlinski and Norbert
- Loneliness is the discrepancy between the Schady
social contact a person has and the
contacts a person wants. It can result from COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
social or emotional isolation.
- Women tend to experience loneliness due
EARLY STAGE
to social isolation; men from emotional
isolation.
- Loneliness can be accompanied by a lack ● Cognitive skills
of self-worth, impatience, desperation, and - Cognitive skills include analytical skills,
depression. problem solving, memory, and early
- Being alone does not always result in mathematical abilities.
loneliness. For some, it means solitude. - When children respond to their own name
Solitude involves gaining self-awareness,
at about 12 months and learn to stack or
taking care of the self, being comfortable
alone, and pursuing one’s interests nest objects at 15–18 months, they are
- In contrast, loneliness is perceived social developing their cognitive abilities on
isolation. schedule.
- By age 3, most children are capable of
solving simple puzzles, matching colors
and shapes, and also show awareness of
concepts such as “more” and “less”.
- Cognitive development at school age is
associated with the knowledge of letters
and numbers, the ability to retain
information, and the knowledge of basic
information like one’s name and
address. Standardized tests of reasoning,
problem solving, memory, and
mathematical abilities at the start of
school are reliable indicators of children’s
cognitive development and are strong
predictors of scores throughout primary
and secondary school.
● Executive function
- A relatively new concept in
neuropsychology named “executive
function” (the ability to control impulses,
initiate action, sustain attention, and
persist in actions or attainment of goals)
tries to address this issue.
26
 - Executive function is an important problem or reach a goal that is most important
determinant of how well young children to assess.
adapt to and learn in school. ➢ Executive function is an important predictor of
- Executive function includes a set of basic children’s learning trajectories and long-term
self-regulatory skills that involve various outcomes, including in the labor market.
parts of the brain, particularly the
prefrontal cortex.
- Executive function starts to develop in
infancy but changes dramatically in
early childhood, as the frontal lobe
develops.
- These abilities are distinct from cognition WEEK 12: MORAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
or knowledge of information such as
vocabulary. PIAGET’S VIEW
Although there have been competing definitions of Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
executive function and how to measure it, there is a
growing consensus that executive function includes three ● Was a Swiss Psychologist known for his work on
broad domains: inhibitory control, working memory, child development.
and cognitive flexibility. Sometimes, attention is added as ● Placed great importance on the education of
a separate domain. children.
● His Theory of child development is studied in pre-
● Inhibitory control
service education programs.
- Inhibitory control refers to the ability to
suppress impulsive behaviors and resist Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
temptations.
- Inhibition of behavior or responses as ● Piaget conceptualizes moral development as a
demanded by the situation or task (such constructivist process, whereby the interplay of
action and thought builds moral concepts.
as not opening a box until a bell rings)
● Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in
● Working memory what children do (i.e., in whether they break rules
- Working memory refers to the ability to or not) but in what they think.
hold, update, and manipulate verbal or ● In other words he was interested in children’s
nonverbal information in the mind for moral reasoning.
short periods of time. ● Piaget (1965) studied children’s concepts of rules
- Working memory (e.g., holding by asking Swiss children about their games of
marbles and explored children’s concepts of
information in mind for a short time,
justice by presenting them with moral dilemmas to
such as a series of numbers) ponder.
● Cognitive flexibility
- Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability Piaget formulated a theory of moral development that
to shift attention between competing included a premoral period and two moral stages:
tasks or rules.
Premoral period
● Attention
- Attention is the ability to focus and ● Young children (under the age of 5) are unaware
disregard external stimuli, which is why of rules as cooperative agreements; that is, they are
it is often grouped with working unable to distinguish right from wrong.
memory.
- Paying attention as required or being able Two Moral Stages
to switch attention as necessary (such as ● Heteronomous morality (6 to 10 years old).
shifting focus from the color of a stimulus - Children take rules seriously, believing
to the shape of the stimulus) that they are handed down by parents and
➢ Different components of executive function can be other authority figures and are sacred and
measured separately and at different ages, but it is unalterable (the term heteronomous means
the ability to coordinate them to solve a under the rule of another). They also judge
27
 rule violations as wrong based on the - The goodness or badness of an act
extent of damage done, not paying much depends on its consequences. The child
attention to whether the violator had good will obey authorities to avoid punishment
or bad intentions. but may not consider an act wrong if it
● Autonomous morality (10 or 11 years old). will not be punished. The greater the harm
- Piaget said, most children enter a final done or the more severe the punishment,
stage of moral development in which they the more “bad” the act is.
begin to appreciate that rules are ➢ Stage 2: Instrumental Hedonism.
agreements between individuals- - A person at the second stage of moral
agreements that can be changed through a development conforms to rules to gain
con-sensus of those individuals. In judging rewards or satisfy personal needs. There is
actions, they pay more attention to some concern for the perspectives of
whether the person’s intentions were good others, but it is motivated by the hope of
or bad than to the consequences of his act. benefit in return. “You scratch my back
and I’ll scratch yours” and “an eye for an
KOHLBERG’S VIEW eye” are the guiding philosophies.
● Level 2: Conventional Morality.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) - At the level of conventional morality, the
individual has internalized many moral
● An American psychologist, author, and educator. values. He strives to obey the rules set by
● He is known primarily for his theory of moral others (parents, peers, the government), at
development. first to win their approval, later to
● In 2002, an empirical study by the Review of maintain social order. The perspectives of
General Psychology ranked Kohlberg as the 30th other people are clearly recognized and
most eminent psychologist of the 20th century. given serious consideration.
➢ Stage 3: “Good Boy” or “Good Girl” Morality.
Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development - What is right is now what pleases, helps,
or is approved by others.
● Kohlberg theory was inspired by Piaget’s - People are often judged by their
pioneering work. intentions; “meaning well” is valued, and
● He developed the theory by asking boys between being “nice” is important. Other people’s
the ages of 10 and 16 to resolve a set of moral feelings, not just one’s own, should be
dilemmas. considered.
- At its best, Stage 3 thinking involves
Each dilemma involved a choice between: reciprocity—a simple Golden Rule
morality of doing unto someone else what
1. obeying a general rule or authority figure, and you would want done unto you.
➢ Stage 4: Authority and Social Order–
2. acting in a way that goes against that rule or authority Maintaining Morality.
figure in order to satisfy a human need. - Now what is right is what conforms to the
rules of legitimate authorities and is good
● Kohlberg found that more men reached this stage
for society as a whole.
of moral reasoning than women and that men
- The principle of reciprocity becomes more
tended to be heavily focused on justice.
abstract and is applied on a broader
societal level.
Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning, and the two
- The reason for conforming is not so much
stages within each level.
a fear of punishment as a belief that rules
and laws maintain a social order worth
● Level 1: Preconventional Morality.
preserving. Doing one’s duty and
- At the level of preconventional morality,
respecting law and order are valued.
rules are external to the self rather than
● Level 3: Postconventional Morality.
internalized. The child conforms to rules
- At the final level of moral reasoning,
imposed by authority figures to avoid
postconventional morality, the individual
punishment or to obtain personal rewards.
defines what is right in terms of broad
The perspective of the self dominates:
principles of justice that have validity
What is right is what one can get away
apart from the views of particular
with or what is personally satisfying.
authority figures. The individual may
➢ Stage 1: Punishment-and-Obedience
distinguish between what is morally right
Orientation.
28
 and what is legal, recognizing that some
laws.
➢ Stage 5: Morality of Contract, Individual
Rights, and Democratically Accepted Law.
- At this “social contract” stage, there is an Influences on Moral Thinking
understanding of the underlying purposes
served by laws and a concern that rules ● Freud emphasized the role of parents in moral
should be arrived at through a democratic development, Kohlberg, like Piaget before him,
consensus so that they express the will of believed that the two main influences on moral
the majority and maximize social welfare. development are cognitive growth and social
➢ Stage 6: Morality of Individual Principles of interactions with equals.
Conscience. ● Regarding cognitive growth, reaching the
- At this “highest” stage of moral reasoning, conventional level of moral reasoning and
the individual defines right and wrong on becoming concerned about living up to the moral
the basis of self-generated principles that standards of parents and society requires the
are broad and universal in application. ability totake other people’s perspectives, and
gaining the capacity for postconventional or
“principled” moral reasoning requires still more
cognitive growth—namely, a solid command of
formal operational thinking.

WEEK 13: JAMES FOWLER’S STAGES OF FAITH

DEVELOPMENT

Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development

● The model was developed by theologian James W.
Fowler.
● He argues that the development of people’s
spiritual awareness runs parallel to other aspects of
human development.
● He thus suggests that spirituality is a basic aspect
of human existence.
● James Fowler does not define faith and religion as
a single correct religion, but as a way of
interacting with the universe and creating meaning
in life.

Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development, the 7 stages

29
 ● James Fowler describes faith as the universal logical arguments and think through and
quality of human meaning making. elaborate complex ideas.
● He argues that faith is the underlying meaning- - Children in this phase are therefore not
making process used by all people, regardless of yet able to develop a formalized
which faith plays a role in people’s lives. religious faith.
● Faith therefore occurs at all times and with - Faith at this stage is experiential and
everyone. develops primarily through hearing
● People also put their trust in money, family, stories, images, and the influence of
religion or power. others.
● Fowler’s stages of faith development describe the - An awareness of what is right and wrong
process in which this happens in seven phases. also develops in this stage.

7 Stages of Faith Development ● Stage 2: Mythic-Literal Faith (School Age)

- Starts around the sixth or seventh year of
● Stage 0: Undifferentiated Faith (Infants and life and continues until about the twelfth
Toddlers) year of life.
- Stage 0 starts from birth to about the - In this stage, information is organized
second year of life. into stories and together with moral
- A child at this stage learns to trust the rules are concretely understood by the
goodness or badness of the world based child.
on the way the child is treated by his - There is still little ability to distance
parents. yourself from a story and formulate an
- The baby should develop a sense of overarching meaning.
security, consistency and confidence at - Justice and fairness are seen as
this stage. These feelings later translate reciprocal.
into feelings trust and security in the - Some people stay in this phase their
universe and the divine. whole lives.
- Conversely, situations of neglect or
abuse can lead to the formation of ● Stage 3: Synthetic-Conventional Faith
feelings of distrust and fear of the (Adolescence)
universe and the divine. In many cases - Starts from about age 12 to age eighteen.
this forms the seed for later doubt and fear - This stage is characterized by young
or existence on earth. adults’ identification with a religious
- This phase corresponds to Jean Piaget’s institution, belief system, or authority.
sensory-motor phase. - Personal religion or spirituality also
takes a growth spurt.
● Stage 1: Intuitive-Projective Faith (Preschool) - Conflicts can also begin to arise at this
- is the stage where children begin to use stage. However, these are often ignored
symbols and their imagination. because they threaten a person’s identity,
- This phase starts where stage 0 ends and which is, after all, based in large part on
continues until about the seventh year of faith.
life. - What were once simple and compelling
- Children at this stage are very self- stories is now seen as a cohesive story of
centered and tend to take ideas about values and morals.
right and wrong very literally. - In this stage, children develop the ability
- The ability to distinguish real from fantasy to think abstractly and see layers of
is not yet well developed. Also, they are meaning in the stories, rituals, and
generally not yet able to see the world symbols of their faith.
from another person’s perspective.
- Keeley writes about this: children cannot ● Stage 4: Individuative-Reflective Faith (Early
think like a scientist, cannot consider Adulthood)
30
 - Runs from the mid-twenties to late thirties. others can inform, deepen and enrich their
- This stage is characterized by fear and own.
struggle as the person takes
responsibility for his or her beliefs and ● Stage 6: Universalizing Faith (Quite rare
feelings. “Enlightenment”
- Robert Keeley argues that for generations - Also known as the enlightenment stage,
people have experienced cognitive or later maturity.
dissonance with real questions of faith that - This stage is only reached by a limited
are addressed in this phase. number of people.
- People in these stages begin to question - A person in this stage is not limited by
their own assumptions. In addition to differences in religious movements or
questioning their assumptions about faith, spiritual beliefs between people in the
they also begin to question existing world. He or she views all beings as
authority structures within their faith. humans who can show compassion and
- That’s when someone turns their backs on understanding.
their religious community. That’s the only - An example of a person in this phase is the
solution when they don’t get their life of Count Leo Tolstoij. In his later
questions answered. years he emphasized the importance of
equality between people, asceticism in
● Stage 5: Conjunctive Faith (Middle Adulthood) people’s lifestyles and the importance of
- Also known as the time of the midlife compassion for all. Partly because of this,
crisis. he was expelled from the Russian
- A person at this stage recognizes that Orthodox Church.
there are paradoxes and mysteries - People who are at this stage have the
attached to the transcendent values and potential to become important religious
norms of faith. figures. That’s because they have the
- As a result, a person goes beyond the ability to interact with anyone at any
traditional beliefs that he or she has stage of faith development without
inherited from the earlier stages of faith being condescending.
development. - People in this phase cherish life, but do
- That simply means that the difficult not take life too seriously.
questions and struggles from the previous - They put their faith into action,
phase give way to a more comfortable challenge the status quo and work to
place. create justice and justice in the world.
- Answers to some of the hard questions
have been found and the person feels good
knowing that some answers are just not SIGMUND FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
easy to find. DEVELOPMENT
- Whereas in previous phases self-reflection
was central, this phase makes way for an Biographical Sketch
awareness of the importance of ● Sigmund Freud was born May 6, 1856, at
communities in faith development. People Freiberg,a small Austrian town now part of
will therefore not soon give up their faith, Czechoslovakia.
partly because of the social status they ● When he was four years old, his family suffered
have built up in the community. financial setbacks and moved to Vienna.
- Many people who have reached this ● He remained a resident of that city until he
stage are beginning to become more and migrated to England in 1938.
more open to the religions and beliefs of ● He was the oldest of seven children, although his
other people. This is not because they father had two sons by a former marriage and was
distance themselves from their own faith, a grandfather when Sigmund was born.
but because they believe that the faith of ● From a very early age, Freud excelled as a student.
31
 ● Despite the limited financial position of his family (3) A compelling method for treating mental or
which forced all members to live in a crowded behavioral disorders
apartment.
(4) A procedure for the investigation of mental
● Freud had his own room and even an oil lamp to
processes which are almost inaccessible in any other
study by. The rest of the family made do with way.
candles.
● Like other young people of his time, he had a ➢ His main contributions are as follows:
classical education, studying Greek and Latin
and reading the classics of various countries. He 1. Theory of personality
had a superb command of the German language
2. Method of treatment- Psychoanalysis
and fluency in French, English, Spanish, and
Italian. 3. Set of clinical observations (e.g., defenses)
● Freud recalled that he often had childhood
dreams of becoming a great Austrian general or 4. Methods of investigation (free association, dream
minister of state.
● He reluctantly decided upon a medical career analysis)
andentered the Faculty of Medicine of the
University of Vienna in 1873. Human Development Viewed Psychosexually
● He received his M.D. degree in 1881. - The psychoanalytic theory of development is
● In 1880 he began working with Breuer. based on two premises.
● The year 1885 marked an important turning point 1. genetic approach, emphasizes that adult
in Freud's career, for it was then that he went to personality is shaped by various types of
Paris to study hypnosis a method of treatment early childhood experiences.
which eliminated hysterical neurotic symptoms. 2. a certain amount of sexual energy (libido) is
● Freud later rejected hypnosis as a present at birth and thereafter progresses
therapeutictechnique and developed the method through a series of psychosexual stages
of Free Association, resistance, dream analysis, that are rooted in the instinctual processes
transference and counter- transference. of the organism.
● In 1886 he married Martha Bernays he had six
children and his daughter Anna Freud is a
famous child psychiatrist.
● In 1895 he published book called studies in
Hysteria and in 1897 he began his self analysis
but the year 1900 is important because his most
famous book called interpretation of dreams
was published.
● In 1909, Freud was invited by Stanley Hall to
deliver a series of lectures that provided him an
opportunity to familiarize his brand of
psychology internationally. He discovered in
1923 that he has cancer of the mouth and went
through some 33 operations . He died in 1939.

➢ Freud with his active writing and clinical

practice
developed:

(1) The first comprehensive personality theory

(2) An extensive body of clinical observations based

on his therapeutic experience and self-analysis

32
WEEK 16 strength na nakakabuti satin) (it can be
ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF good for us!)
DEVELOPMENT ● Too little strength at one stage results in
core psychopathology at a later stage
OVERVIEW OF POST-FREUDIAN THEORY ● Although social factors are key, stages are
- Erikson intended to extend Freud’s assumptions also biological in nature
● Extended infantile development into adolescence, ● Earlier stages do not cause later
adulthood, and old age personality development
● Life-cycle approach to personality (it changes and ● From adolescence on, personality
develops as we go through predictable stages) development involves identity crisis(dito
● Emphasis on social and historical influences nakilala si erik erikson)
● Stages of development are characterized by a
psychosocial struggle PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OFDEVELOPMENT
● For example, identity crisis– a turning point in
one’s life that may either strengthen or weaken ● Erikson maintained that personality develops in a
personality predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to
BIOGRAPHY OF ERIKSON adulthood. During each stage, the person
● Born in Frankfurt, Germany in 1902, the experiences a psychosocial crisiswhich couldhave
son of Jewish mother from Denmark and apositive or negative out come for personality
unknown father development.
● As a child, he did not feel accepted by ● For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a
either the Jewish or Gentile communities psychosocial nature because they involve
● Left home at 18 to live as an itinerant psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho)
artist, wandering Europe for seven years conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).
● In Vienna, was introduced to ● According to the theory, successful completion of
psychoanalysis by Anna Freud, who each stage results in a healthy personality and the
became his analyst acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
● Graduated from Vienna Psychoanalytic characteristic strengths which the ego can use to
Institute resolve subsequent crises.
● Lacking an academic degree, he accepted ● Failure to successfully complete a stage can result
a research position at Harvard Medical in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
School in 1933 therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense
● Published Childhood and Society in 1950 of self. These stages, however, can be resolved
● Taught at Yale, Berkeley, Harvard and successfully at alater time.
several other institutions
● Died in Cape Cod in 1994

Basic Points of the Stage Approach

● Growth follows the epigenetic
principle(may kanya kanyang
development in time magdedevelopment
din sya sa tamang time)
● Every stage has an interaction of opposites
(syntonic and dystonic elements)(each
stage may conflict ex trust vs mistrust
syntonic positive trust negative is
dystonic mistrust)
● Conflict between these opposites produces
ego strength(ex hope will like basic
1. Trust Vs. Mistrust
33
 ● Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's and may then become overly dependent upon
theory of psychosocial development. This stage others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of
begins at birth continues to approximately 18 shame or doubt in their abilities.
months of age. What Happens During This Stage?
● During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the ● The child is developing physically and becoming
world in which they live, and looks towards their more mobile, and discovering that he or she has
primary caregiver for stability and consistency of many skills and abilities, such as putting on
care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such
predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense skills illustrate thechild's growing sense of
of trust which will carry with them to other independence and autonomy.
relationships, and they will be able to feel secure ● For example, during this stage children begin to
even when threatened. If these needs are not assert their independence, by walking away from
consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety their mother, picking which toy to play with, and
may develop. making choices about what they like to wear, to
● If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable eat, etc.
and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense
of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation
the infant will not have confidencein the world What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of
around them or in their ability to influence events. Control?
● Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of ● Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their
hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant children to explore the limits of their abilities
can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a within an encouraging environment which is
real possibility that other people will be there as a tolerant of failure.
sourceof support. ● For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a
● Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to supportive parent should have the patience to
the development of fear. This infant will carry allow the child to try until theysucceedor ask for
the basic sense of mistrust with them to other assistance.
relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened ● So, the parents need to encourage the child to
insecurities,and anover feeling of mistrust in the become more independent while at the same time
world around them. protecting so that constant failure avoided.
● Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance ● A delicate balance is required from the parent.
of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has They must try not to do everything for the child,
outlined how the quality of the early experience of but if the child fails at a particular task they must
attachment can affect relationships with others in not criticize the child for failures and accidents
later life. (particularly when toilet training).
2. Autonomyvs. Shame & Doubt ● The aim hastobe“self control withouta lossof self-
● Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second esteem” (Gross, 1992).
stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial 3.Initiative vs. Guilt
development. This stage occurs between the ages ● Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik
of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According Erikson'stheory of psychosocial development.
to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on During the initiative versus guilt stage, children
developing a sense of personal control over assert themselves more frequently through
physical skillsand asenseof independence. directing play and other social interaction.
● Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. ● These areparticularly lively, rapid-developing
If children in this stage are encouraged and years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it
supported in their increased independence, they is a “times of vigor of action and of behaviors that
become more confident and secure in their own the parents may see aggressive."
abilitytosurvive intheworld. ● During this period the primary feature involves the
● If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not child regularly interacting with other children at
given the opportunity to assert themselves, they school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides
begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive,
34
 children with the opportunity to explore their abilitiesandtherefore maynot reachhis or her
interpersonal skills through initiating activities. potential.
● Children begin to plan activities, make up games, ● If the child cannot develop the specific skill they
and initiate activities with others. If given this feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative they may develop a sense of Inferiority.
and feel secure in their ability to lead others and ● Some failure may be necessary so that the child
make decisions. can develop some modesty. Again, a balance
● Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either between competence and modesty is necessary.
through criticism or control, children develop a Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the competence.
mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
parentswill tend to punishthechild and restrict his ● The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of
initiatives too much. psychosocial development is identity vs. role
● It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from
many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. about 12-18 years.
If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a ● During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of
nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their self and personal identity, through an intense
behavior asthreateningthenthe child may have exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
feelings of guilt for“being anuisance”. During adolescence, the transition from childhood
● Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact to adulthood is most important. Children are
with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some becoming more independent, and begin to look at
guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child the future in terms of career, relationships,
would not know how to exercise selfcontrol or families, housing, etc. The Individual wants to a
have aconscience. society and fit in.
● A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is ● The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or
important. Success in this stage will lead to the moratorium, a psychosocial stage between
virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense childhood and adulthood, and between the
of guilt. morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be
4. Industry vs. Inferiority developed by theadult (Erikson,1963, p. 245)
● Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving ● This is a major stage of development where the
industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an
duringchildhood between theagesof five and adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will
twelve. re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly
● Children are at the stage where they will be who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two
learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things identities are involved: the sexual and the
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important occupational.
role in the child’s life as they teach the child ● According to Bee (1992), what should happen at
specificskills. the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of
● It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s
gain greater significance and will become a major appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body
source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now imageof theadolescent changes.
feels the need to win approval by demonstrating ● Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel
specific competencies that are valued by society uncomfortable about their body for a while until
and begin to develop a sense of pride in their they canadapt and “growinto” the changes.Success
accomplishments. in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
● If children are encouraged and reinforced for their ● Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to
initiative, they begin to feel industrious others on the basis of accepting others, even when
(competent) and feel confident in their ability to there maybe ideological differences.
achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if ● During this period, they explore possibilities and
it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begin to form their own identity based upon the
begins to feel inferiour, doubting his own outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish
35
 a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know ● Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
role confusion. Role confusion involves the involvement in the world.
individual not being sure about themselves or their ● By failing to find a way to contribute, we become
place insociety. stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals
● In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their
adolescent may begin to experiment with different community and with society as a whole. Successin
lifestyles (e.g.,work,education or political this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
activities). 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
● Also pressuring someone into an identity can ● Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final
result in rebellion in the form of establishing a stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of psychosocial development. This stage begins at
unhappiness. approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation during this time that we contemplate our
● Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik accomplishments and can develop integrity if we
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. seeourselves asleading a successfullife.
This stage takes place during young adulthood ● Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not
between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. achieving their goals will experience feelings of
During this stage, the major conflict centerson bitternessand despair.
forming intimate, loving relationships with other ● Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance
people. of one’s one and only life cycle as something that
● During this stage, we begin to share ourselves had to be” (1950,p. 268) and later as“a sense of
more intimately with others. We explore coherence and wholeness”(1982, p. 65).
relationships leading toward longer-term ● As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour
commitments with someone other than family citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity
member. and explore life as retired person.
● Successful completion of this stage can result in ● Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as
happy relationships and a sense of commitment, unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that
safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding we did not accomplish our life goals, we become
intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often
can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes leading to depression and hopelessness.
depression. Success in this stage will lead to the ● Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
virtue love. wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on
7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation their life with a sense of closure and completeness,
● Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of and also accept death without fear.
eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of ● Wise people are not characterized by a continuous
psychosocial development. This stage takes place state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego
during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 integrity and despair. Thus, late life is
yrs). characterized by both integrity and despair as
● Psychologically, generativity refers to "making alternating states that need to be balanced.
your mark" on the world through creating or Additional Information
nurturing things that will outlast an individual. ● identity crisis– a turning point in one’s lifethat
During middle age individuals experience a need may either strengthen or weaken personality
to create or nurture things that will outlast them, Description of Ego Psychology
often having mentees or creating positive changes ● Ego creates a self-identity, “I”
that will benefit other people. The Three Interrelated Aspects of the Ego:
● We give back to society through raising our ● Body ego: seeing our physical self as different
children, being productive at work, and becoming from others
involved in community activities and ● Ego ideal: our self compared to our ideal self
organizations. Through generativity we develop a ● Ego identity: image of our self in a variety of
sense of being apart of the bigger picture. social roles
36
Society’s Influence ● Wisdom is the Basic Strength of Old Age
● Ego emerges from and is largely shaped by culture ● Core pathology is Disdain
Epigenetic Principle
● The ego grows as our organs do,
developingsequentially, with certain changes
arising at a particular time and with more recent
developments built upon previous structures

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Infancy
● Oral-Sensory Mode
● Modes of Incorporation: Receiving and Accepting
● The Crisis is Basic Trust vs Basic Mistrust
● Hope is the Basic Strength of Infancy
● Core pathology is Withdrawal

Early Childhood
● Anal-Urethral-Muscular Mode
● Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
● Will is the Basic Strength of Childhood
● Core pathology is Compulsion
Play Age
● Genital-Locomotor Mode
● The primary crisis: Initiative vs Guilt
● Purpose is the Basic Strength of the Play Age
● Core pathology is Inhibition
School Age
● Latency
● Crisis/Conflict: Industry vs Inferiority
● Competence is the Basic Strength of the School
Age
● Core pathology is Inertia
Adolescence
● Puberty
● Identity vs Identity Confusion is the main conflict
● Fidelity is the Basic Strength of Adolescence
● Core pathology is Role Repudiation (diffidence or
defiance)
Young Adulthood
● Genitality
● Crisis: Intimacy vs Isolation
● Love is the Basic Strength of Young Adulthood
● Core pathology is Exclusivity
Adulthood
● Procreativity
● The crisis is Generativity vs Stagnation
● Care is the Basic Strength of Adulthood
● Core pathology is Rejectivity
Old Age
● Generalized Sensuality
● Crisis/Conflict: Integrity vs Despair
37