PHY105: WAVES, OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS

MODERN PHYSICS- Dr T.A. Otunla

Physics Department
University of Ibadan
Study Session 9: Introduction to
Atomic Models
Introduction
In this session, you will be introduced to
different models of atom

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you
should be able to explain:

9.1 Atomic Structure

9.3 Thomson’s Model
9.4 Rutherford’s Model
9.5 Equations of the Rutherford’s Model
9.6 The Structure of Rutherford’s Atomic
Model
9.7 Limitations of Rutherford’s Model
9.8 Discovery of Electron

Expected Duration: 1 week or 3 contact

hours
9.1 Atomic Structure
Atomic structure are explained using
models. These models are used to help
understand the properties of matter. If they do
that successfully they are good models. As
scientists learnt more about the physical and
chemical properties of matter they modify the
current model to explain the new
observations. A real good model allows the
scientists to make predictions and test them
in experiments. It is wrong to think that old
models are wrong while the latest ones are
right. In one sense, they are all right in that
they can explain certain concept. In another
sense, they are all wrongs because of their
limitations. Each model is most appropriate
in a particular situation so the most important
thing to understand about a model is its
limitations.

9.2 Mechanical Atomic Model

This explain atom as the smallest
indivisible particle of an element. This model
can explain chemical combinations (e.g. law
of constant proportion, law of multiple
proportion, Gay-lussals law) and the kinetic
theory..
9.3 Thomson’s Model
 This model, in addition to explaining all
of the same thing as mechanical model can
also explain electrovalent bonding in terms of
electrical forces. Lack of detail about atomic
structure makes it however to fail in tackling
the problems of atomic spectral and
radioactivity.

Positive fluid

Electrons negative

Figure 9.1: Thormson’s Atomic Model

9.4 Rutherford’s Model
Rutherford in his famous experiment by
two of his research students (Geiger and
Marsden) direct collimated (parallel) beams
of alpha particles at very thin pieces of gold
foil (figure 9.2 ) expecting the alpha particles
to penetrate with a very small angular
deflection granting any deflection at all
(figure 9.3), because they knew how
Figure 9.2: Bombardment of gold-foil with
alpha particles
 Particles stay within 10 of the
original direction

S1 S1 S2 gold foil

Collimating slits

Figure 9.3: Alpha particles passing through

the gold foil within 1˚ of the original
direction
Incident Gold
a-particles nucleus

Figure 9.4: Few of the alpha particles were

scattered by the gold foil at large angles
(1) Most of what constitute atom is virtually
empty space (a very small ratio alpha
particles were deflected at large angle).
(2) At the centre of atom is a nucleus, which
has most of the mass of the atom and all
of its positive charge.
(3) Electrons orbit the nucleus much like
planets orbit the sun and bond to the nucleus
by an electrostatic attraction.
(4) Alpha particles scatter from the nucleus
because of the electrostatic repulsion
between like charges.
9.5 Equations of the Rutherford’s Model
The nearest distance the alpha particle
comes to the nucleus in the Rutherford’s
experiment, also known as distance of closest
approach or the impact parameter b is related
to the scattering angle θ by the formula.
  4  O b T
Cot   
2 e 2
1.1

where T is kinetic energy of the alpha

particle
e is electronic charge
z is atomic number of the target
material (gold).
 The number of alpha particle scattered
through an angle θ in one minute is given by
the equation.
7.9  10 24
N ( ) 
T 2 sin 4 ( / 2)
1.2

Example 9.1:
Calculate the impact parameter for a
beam of alpha particles whose scattering
angle is 460 and kinetic energy of 10 eV
given that atomic number of gold is 79
Ze 2 Cot ( / 2) 79  (1.6  10 19 ) 2  Cot (46 2)  9  10 9
b    2.68  10 8 m
4  O T 10  1.6  10 19

The following are some other useful

terminology.
Nuclide: a particular type of nucleus, e.g.
carbon – 12, uranum – 235 etc
Isotopes: nuclei of the same element with
different number of neutrons e.g. carbon –
12 and carbon – 14.
Alpha Particle: a molecular nucleus ejected
in radioactive decay.
Ion: charged atom.

Nucleon- a generic name for both protons

and neutrons
Isobars-nuclides with the same number of
40
16 S , 1740 Cl , 1840 Ar , 1940 K
nucleons. Examples:
Isotones- nuclides with the same neutron
number but different mass number.
12
6 C , 137 N , 148 O
Examples:

9.6 The Structure of Rutherford’s Atomic

Model
The structure of a nuclide can be written as
A
z X where A is mass number and z is atomic

number (or number of proton). Number of

neutron, N = A – Z. Adding the orbiting
electrons to the picture, Rutherford’s
planetary atom is given the sketch below:
Nucleus
(proton &
neutrons)

Figure 9.5: Rutherford’s Planetary Atomic

Model
If this were to be drawn to scale for Helium
– 4, the electrons will be several hindered
metres away.
Nuclear Radius
Rutherford found out that the size of
nucleus is tens of thousands smaller than
the atom itself.
The radius of a nucleus can be
represented by the equation :

R  R0 A1 / 3
where
R0  1.2  10  1.2 fm
15

1 fm  1015 m
Example:
 56
26 Fe nucleus
Calculate the radius of

R  R0 A 1/ 3

R  1.2  56 1/ 3

R  4.59 fm

9.7 Limitations of Rutherford’s Model

According to Maxwell’s theory, all
accelerating charges should radiate.
Electrons orbiting nucleus have centripetal
acceleration.
1. So as the electrons revolve round the
nucleus they radiate their energy away. Such
 electrons will therefore draw closer to
the nucleus until they are captured by the
nucleus and the atom collapsed.
2. If the electrons are radiating energies
continuously then all matter ought to give
a continuous spectrum whether it is cold
or hot, charged or neutral but this is not so.
3. The model could not explain the
existence of the line spectra when an
electron in an atom makes a transition.

Elementary Particle Physics

Late 18th – early 19th century, Scientists
thought the elementary particles (i.e the
basic building block of matter) that make up
the universe are electrons, protons and
neutrons.

Experiments in nuclear laboratories have

discovered several particles with various
properties.
These particles can be classified basis of
‘spin’ and ‘rest mass’

Classification on the basis of ‘spin’

The elementary particles are categorized
into two classes, namely: fermions and
bosons
Fermions Bosons

Spin is half odd Spin is zero or whole

s  1 , 3 
2 2 s  0, n
integer e.g integer

Particles obey Pauli The do not obey .

exclusion principle. Pauli exclusion
Two particles with principle. Any
the same quantum number of bosons
noumber cannot can occupy the same
occupy the same quantum state
quatum state

They are described They are described

by Fermi-Dirac by Bose-Einstein
statistics. statistics.
Examples are: Examples are:
electrons, protons, photons, kaons,
neutrinos, neutrons pions

Classification of elementary particles in

Nuclear Physics on the basis of ‘Rest mass’.
The particles are categories into light,
intermediate and heavy particles
(i). Light particles:
Massless boson: zero charge, zero rest mass,
zero or integer spin e.g photon
 m p ,e me ,e
Leptons: Positron( ), negaton( )
and neutrino(no charge and mass<<me)
(ii). Middle mass particles:
Examples- kaon or K-meson, pion or π-
meson. They have ±e charge and some are
neutral
(iii). Heavy particles:
Baryons: particle which have rest mass
equal or greater than mass of proton. They
also have half integral of spin. Examples are
protons, neutrons, hyperons etc
SUMMARY
In this unit you have been introduced to
different types of atomic models with respect
to (i) mechanical, (ii) Thomson and (iii)
Rutherford models. Discovery of electron
was also discussed
Study Session 10: Hydrogen Spectrum
and Bohr’s Model of Atom
Introduction
In this session, you will be introduced to the
concept of quantization of atom
Expected Duration: 1 week or 3 contact
hours

Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you
should be able to explain:
10.1 The Hydrogen Spectrum
10.2 Quanta
10.3 Bohr’s Model
10.4 Electrons (matter) as Wave
10.5 Bohr’s Quantum Condition
10.6 Bohr’s Radii and Energies for
Hydrogen Atom
10.7 Success and Limitations of of Bohr’s
Model
10.8 Electron Cloud Model
10.9 Wave-Particle Duality of Light

Study Session 11: Electron Cloud Model

and X-ray
11.1 X-Ray Production
11.2 Properties of X-rays
11.3 Nuclear stability
10.1 The Hydrogen Spectrum
Each element is known to display a
unique spectrum which serves to ‘fingerprint’
it. For gases and vapour at low pressures the
spectrum is a line spectrum consisting of
distinct lines of various colours.
Investigation on hydrogen, the simplest
element, reveal that the lines in the spectrum
are grouped into five distinct series identified
as the Lyman, Balmer, Pascher, Brackett and
Pfund series. The lines in each series get
closer together in the short wavelength end of
the spectrum converging towards a limit.
For the visible region of the spectrum,
obtaining an empirical
Balmer succeeded in
formula for the wave number K of the lines in
the series as:
K 
1

1 1
 RH  2  2 
2 n 
, n = 3, 4, 5, 6…….

where  is the wavelength and RH is a

constant
Similar formulas obtained by other authors
are given below.
For the Lyman series (in the ultra-violet
region)
K 
1

1 1
 RH  2  2 
n n 
, n = 2, 3, 4………..

For Pascher series (in the infrared

region)
 K 
1

1 1
 RH  2  2 
3 n 
, n = 4, 5, 6 ……..

For the Brackett series (in the infrared

region)
K 
1

1 1
 RH  2  2 
4 n 
, n = 5, 6, 7……..

For the Pfund series (in the deep infrared

region)
K 
1

1 1
 RH  2  2 
5 n 
, n = 6, 7, 8………
 10.2 Quanta
All hot bodies radiate. A black body is
an ideal radiator. The spectrum of radiation
from a black body is shown below.
Ultraviolet Experimental spectrum
Intensity of radiation

catastrophe Theoretical spectrum

for range

Figure 10.1: spectrum of radiation from

blackbody
10.3 Bohr’s Model
Bohr modified Rutherford’s model by
adding Max Planck’s quantum conditions as
follows:
1. Electrons occupy permissible (i.e.
allowed) orbits around the nucleus of an
atom. Each of the orbit corresponds to
certain radius and energy. The possible
energy levels and corresponding principal
quantum numbers, n = 1,2,3,….are shown
the (Figure 10.2).
 The energy increases upwards as the
levels come closer to each other. Atomic
collapse is prevented because there are no
allowed states between these energy levels
and because the lowest, or ground state is
not at zero energy. An electron at any of these
levels does not radiate.
2. When electron jumps from a higher to a
lower energy level (or orbit), it emits
radiation in definite amounts (i.e. in
quanta ). Also, electron absorbs radiation
when it jumps from a lower to a higher
energy level. The atom is said to be in an
excited state. The electron stays
 momentary (about 10-8s) at this excited
state before taking a jump (a dive) to
any lower allowed energy levels (Figure
10.2)
Energy
0 n=
E4 n=3
E3 n=2
Emission of photon ( )
bright lines
E2
Absorption of a photon
(dark lines)
E1 n=1

Figure 10.2: electronic transition

For this quantum jump
∆E = photon energy = hf
E
f 
h
 c hc
where   
f E

Atoms of a particular element have a

characteristic structure of energy level so
that there are only certain energy jumps the
electrons can make. This implies that the
photons emitted from atoms have certain
well-defined wavelengths. For instance, if a
gas of atoms is excited, by whatever means,
it emits a characteristics line spectrum. This
is a distinct and bright line of definite
wavelength on a dark background.

3. The angular momentum is conserved

(constant) in these allowed or
 The angular
permissible orbits.
nh
momentum, L  mvr 
2

where m = mass, v = velocity, r = radius

of the orbit, n = an integer, h = planck’s
constant. Note that n, h and π are
constants. This will be explained shortly but
let me quickly make a detour to discuss the
work of Prince L.V.P.R de Broglie, who
treated electron (a subatomic particle) as
wave.

10.5 Bohr’s Quantum Condition

If electrons in atoms can acts like waves,
they might behave like standing waves that
are formed on a string stretched and fixed at
both ends when plucked. Only certain
wavelength ‘fit’ the string and reinforce,
others cancel out. This leads to a set of
discrete frequencies that give fundamental
frequency and harmonics of the string.
These fundamental frequency and harmonics
of electron waves form the ground state and
excited states respectively.
In Bohr’s circular orbits, the condition for
electron wave to reinforce as standing waves
is simply that their wavelength fit the
circumference of the orbit a whole number
of times. The principal quantum number n is
the number of complete waves that fit the
circumference of the orbit.
Hence, Bohr’s quantum condition states
that:
2r  n
h h
 
p mv

nh
2r 
mv

But anqular momentum, L= mvr

Hence, L = mvr = nh/2π
This is Bohr’s third condition
10.6 Bohr’s Radii and Energies for
Hydrogen Atom
Bohr quantized hydrogen atom by assuming
that electron moves in a circular orbit of
radius r.
The electrical force between the proton and
electron is balanced by centripetal force.
i.e. me v 2
r

e2
4 o r 2
.................................... (1)

From Bohr’s postulate

h
me vr  ........................................(2)
2

Eliminating v from (1) and (2)

 o h2 n2
r  ......................................... (3)
me e 2
 r is the radii of the permitted orbits in
hydrogen atom. The value of r for n = 1 is
called first Bohr radius.
r  0.529  10 20 n 2 ......................................... (4)

The first Bohr radius = 0.529  10 10  0.529 A

The potential energy of electron (-e) at

dist r from proton (+e)
 e2
EP  .................................................... (5)
4  o r

The kinetic energy of the electron is

1 e2
EK  me v 2  ...................................... (6)
2 8 o r

The total energy of the electron is

 e2
E  E P  Ek  .......................................... (7)
8 o r

Eliminate r in (7) by using (3)

 me e 4
En  .................................................... (8)
8  2oh2n2
n = 1,2,3…..
The energy E1 corresponding to n=1 is
called the ground state energy, and is the
numerically the energy required to ionize
a hydrogen atom.
k
En  ...................................................................(9)
n2

E1  k  13.6eV ...................................................(10)

The possible frequencies which a

hydrogen atom can radiate when the
electron jumps from a higher level En1
to a lower level En2 are therefore given
by
hf  En 2  En1..........................................................(11)

That is,
 me e 4  1 1 
f  2 3 
 2 ..............................................(12)
8 0 h  n12
n2 

1 f me e 4  1 1 
K     2  2
 c 8 0 h c  n1
2 3
n2 

1 f  1 1 
K    RH  2  2 ...................................(13)
 c  n1 n2 

where RH , Rydberg constant, it has the

numerical value of 1.0973731× 107 m-1 .
Equation 13 is of the same form as Balmer’s
empirical formula. Bohr’s predicted the
existence of other hydrogen series which
were later observed.
Example 10.1
An electron in a hydrogen atom makes a
transition from the ground level to the third
level. If the energy for the ground level is -
13.6 eV, calculate the (a) energy for the
third level. (b). excitation energy (c).
frequency of emitted photon
(a). E3 
E1
n 2

 13.6
32
 1.51eV

(b). Excitation energy = E3 - E1 = -1.51 – (-

13.6) = 12.09 eV
(c). E= hf
E 12.09  1.6  10 19
f   34
 2.92  1015 Hz
h 6.63  10

Example 10.2
If electrons of energy (i). 6.0 eV, (ii). 16.0
eV collide with the atoms of hydrogen in the
ground state, how much energy will the
electrons retain in each case?
Solution
(i). The energy required for the first excited
state is
-3.39 eV - (- 13.6 eV) = 10.21 eV
Since 6.0 eV is less than this minimum
energy required for transition, no
transition can occur. The colliding
electrons retain their energy, and the
collision is perfectly elastic.
(ii). The colliding electron in this case can
retain a maximum of 16.0 eV – 13.6 eV=
2.4 eV
The ionization energy is numerically equal
to 13.6 eV for hydrogen. Since 16.0 eV
exceeds this value, transition from n = 1 to n
=2 atom absorbs -3.39 – (-13.6), that is
10.21 eV and the colliding electron retains
5.79 eV. For transition from n = 1 to n = 

10.7 Success and Limitations of of

Bohr’s Model
Success
1. It offers explanation for the structure of
the hydrogen atom.
2. It offers explanation for the existence of
line spectral of the hydrogen atom.
3. provides evidence for the existence of
energy level in the atom.
Limitations
1. It could not interpret the details of
spectra of complex atoms because he used a
simple atom of hydrogen for his model.
2. There is no theoretical basis for selecting
the allowed orbits or states.
3. The radius of an orbit could not be
checked experimentally.
4. The motion of the nucleus was not
considered.

10.9 Wave-Particle Duality of Light

Thomas Young, Davisson and G.P.
Thompson had shown that light and electron
could be diffracted (more recently a whole
atom) and their wavelength wave measured.
However, photoelectric effect could not be
explained using wave theory. It needed
Einstein’s photon hypothesis, a particle a
continuous wave. Going by the augment of
De Broglie, the dilemma is called wave-
particle duality.
SUMMARY
In this unit you learnt about quantization of
atom with respect to Bohr model and Planck
law. The concept wave-matter duality and
various types of hydrogen spectral were also
introduced
 Self Assessment Question
List all the limitations of each atomic model
Study Session 11: X-ray and Nuclear
Stability
Expected Duration: 1 week or 3 contact
hours
Introduction
In this session, you will be introduced to
production and properties X-ray. Nuclear
stability will also be treated
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you
should be able to explain:
11.1 X-Ray Production
11.2 Properties of X-rays
11.3 Nuclear stability

11.1 X-Ray Production

. The X-ray is the highly penetrating photon
of electromagnetic radiation produced when
electrons in a cathode rays tube accelerates
through a potential difference in excess of
1KV and are slowed down or stopped by an
obstacle
X-ray will have its maximum energy when all
the kinetic energy of electron beam is given
to or converted to a photon. Since this energy
cannot be greater than the energy the electron
has just before the collision. There will be a
maximum frequency and a minimum
wavelength associated with the X-ray that is
produced. The continuous spectral of x-ray
given off with wavelength having any value
from this minimum up is called
Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation.
 Accelerating voltage V

Vacuum
Tungsten target

Low Electron beam

tension
Heater supply
X - ray Water-cooled
copper (anode)

Lead shield

Heated tungsten
filament (cathode)

Figure 11.1: X-ray tube

11.2 Properties of X-rays
1. They affect photographic plates
2. They cause some materials to glow
3. They travel in straight lines (i.e. they
produced well-defined shadows)
4. They penetrate low density media
(e.g flesh, wood etc)
This forms the basis for their usage as
diagnostic tools in medicine and industry
5. They produce intense ionization and
therefore can cause damage to tissues
over-exposed to them
6. They can be diffracted by crystal
lattice
7. They are not deflected by either
electric or magnetic fields
8. In vacuum (i.e empty space) X-rays
travels at the speed of light
9. They can release secondary electrons
when beamed on metals. This
phenomenon is known as photoelectric
effect which is also exhibited by ultra-
violet radiation
Example
Calculate the minimum wavelength of X-
rays emitted for an x-ray tube in which the
accelerating voltage is 80 KV.
K.E of cathode rays = photon energy +heat
produced during collision
𝐾. 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝐸𝐻
But 𝐸𝐻 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑓
 ℎ𝑐
𝑓= = 𝑒𝑉
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 3.0 𝜒 108 6.6 𝜒 10−34
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑥 =
𝑒𝑉 1.6 𝜒10−19 80 𝜒 1000
−11
1.5𝜒10 𝑚
11.3 Nuclear stability
The nucleus is at the centre of an atom and
contains nucleons― proton and neutron.
The force binding the nucleons together is
known as the nuclear force. It is a short-
range attractive force which overrides the
coulomb force of repulsion between any
two like charges like protons. Nuclear
force decreases as particle size increases
and it vanishes when particle size exceeds
5.0 × 10−15 𝑚. Nucleons then tend to pull
apart and is said to be unstable.
Study Session 12: Radioactivity
Expected Duration: 1 week or 3 contact
hours
Learning Outcomes

Introduction
In this session, you will be introduced to
radioactivity with respect to its types,
equations, half- life and mean life

When you have studied this session, you

should be able to explain:
12.1 Types of Ionizing Radiations
12.2 Radioactive Decay equation
12.3 Activity
12.4 Half-life
12.5 Mean Life Time

12.1 Types of Ionizing Radiations

This is the process by which unstable
nuclear undergo spontaneous
disintegration by emitting ionizing
radiation until they attain stability. The
radiations commonly emitted in this
process are named alpha (α), beta (β) and
gamma (γ) radiations.
Alpha particles are the most strongly
ionized while gamma radiation is the least.
The more strongly ionizing a radiation is,
the more the more easily it dissipates its
energy when passing through a material
and the more easily it can be stopped.
Radioactivity is not affected by physical
and environmental conditions like
temperature and pressure (i.e. it is not a
transformation due to phase change). It
does not also depend on chemical bonding.
Both α and β are charged particles. A beta
particle is a type of fast electron ( −10𝑒)
emitted from the nucleus of an atom when
a neutron changes to proton. That is,
1
0𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −10𝑒.
An alpha particle is a helium nuclide
(𝐻𝑒 2+ ). That is, a helium atom that has
lost its two electrons. That is,
𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍 × → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝛼
For example, s 238
92𝑈 →
234
90𝑡ℎ + 42𝛼
Gamma rays electromagnetic waves with
frequencies greater than those of x-rays.
They accompany β and α decay. The α and
β decays leave the nuclei in excited state.
Gamma is necessary for atoms to return to
its ground state. That is
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍 ×→ 𝑍 𝑥 + 01𝛾
12.2 Radioactive Decay equation
Based on the following assumptions:
(i). Decay is completely random.
(ii). the rate of decay is directly
proportional to the number of unstable
nuclei present, a mathematical equation,
𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
was obtained. Where No is number of
initial populations of unstable nuclei, N(t)
is number of nuclei that remains, λ is
decay constant, it is a measure of how fast
the disintegration takes place and t, is time.
The statistical prediction based on this
exponential model (equation) will be
accurate if it is applied to a large
population. Otherwise, the uncertainties
significantly increase for small population
12.3 Activity
This is defined as the number of
disintegrations per unit seconds
That is,
𝑑𝑁(𝑡)
𝐴(𝑡) = | |
𝑑𝑡
From 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑁(𝑡)
= 𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑁(𝑡)
𝐴(𝑡) = | | = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 11.1
𝑑𝑡

But 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = 𝑁(𝑡)

Hence
𝑑𝑁(𝑡)
𝐴(𝑡) = | | = 𝜆𝑁(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

At time t =0, 𝐴(𝑡 = 0) = 𝜆𝑁(𝑡 = 0) = 𝜆𝑁0

𝐴0 = 𝜆𝑁0
From equation 11.1
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Thus, the activity, A(t), also satisfies the
decay equation. The S.I unit of the activity is
Becquerel (Bq). 1Bq=1 disintegration per
second.
Another unit is Curie (Ci).
1Ci=3.7x1010Bq.
12.4 Half-life
This is the time taken by a radioactive
material (i.e a large number of unstable
nuclei) to decay to half of its original
amount. In another sense, it is the time at
the end of which half of the radioactive
material have decayed.
𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑇1/2, 𝑁(𝑡) =
2
𝑁𝑜 −𝜆
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 𝑇1/2
2
1
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
 1
𝑙𝑚 ( ) = 𝑙𝑚𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
−𝑙𝑚2 = −𝜆𝑇1/2
𝑙𝑚2 0.693
𝑇1/2 = =
𝜆 𝜆

12.6 Sundry Examples

Example 12.1

Two radioactive elements P and Q initially

have the same masses. If their half-lives are
10 and 5 years respectively, what is the ratio
of their masses (P:Q) after 20 years?

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑏𝑒 𝑀

𝑇1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
2
 ∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠,
10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑀 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑀
𝑀→ →
2 4
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑄 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠,
5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑀 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑀 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑀 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑀
𝑀→ → → →
2 4 8 16
𝑀 𝑀
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑃: 𝑄 = : = 4: 1
4 16

Example 12.2:

A radioactive substance has a half-life of

25hrs. How long would it take a certain
quantity of the substance left somewhere at
time t=0 to decay to 20% of its original
quantity?

𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

𝑎𝑡 𝑡
= 0, 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑜

20 𝑁𝑜
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 =? , 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁𝑜 =
100 5
𝑁𝑜
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
5
1
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
5
0.693
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜆 =
𝑇1
2
 0.693
𝜆=
25
1 0.693
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, = 𝑒 25 𝑡
−
5
0.693
− 𝑙𝑛 5 = − 𝑡
25
0.693
𝑙𝑛 5 = 𝑡
25
25 𝑙𝑛 5
𝑡= = 58.06ℎ𝑟𝑠
0.693
Example 12.3

Living wood contains radioactive 14C which

is in equilibrium with 14C in the atmosphere.
A 1.00Kg sample of Carbon from living
wood gives an average of 255 disintegrations
per second/Kg.

A sample of 2.00 x 10-22 Kg of Carbon from

the wood of an ancient building gives an
average of 270 disintegrations per
14
minute/Kg. The half-life of C is 5570yrs.
Calculate the age of the building in years.

The ancient building wood has the same

activity as the living wood when it was also a
living wood.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴( 𝑡 = 0) = 𝐴0
= 255 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑/𝐾𝑔
The present activity of the ancient wood

𝐴(𝑡) = 270 /𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝐾𝑔

270
𝐴(𝑡) = ( −2
) /𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝐾𝑔
60 × 2 × 10

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇1 𝑜𝑓 14𝐶 = 5570𝑦𝑟𝑠

2

0.693
𝜆= = 1.2442 × 10−4
5570
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

270 −
0.693
𝑡
= 255𝑒 5570
60 × 2 × 10−2
270 −
0.693
𝑡
= 𝑒 5570
60 × 2 × 10−2 × 255
60 × 2 × 10−2 × 255 0.693
= 𝑒 5570 𝑡
270
 1.2442×10−4 𝑡
1.133 = 𝑒

𝑙𝑛 1.133
𝑡=
1.2442 × 10−4
𝑡 = 1005.74𝑦𝑟𝑠

Example 12.4

The half-life of 226Ra is 1620yrs.

a) How long will it take for 9/10 of a

given sample of radium to decay?
b) How many disintegrations will occur
in 5g of the element in 1 day?
 226
(NB. Atomic weight of Ra is 226
Kg/Kmol; Avogadro’s number Na is 6.02 x
1026 atoms/Kmol)

a) If 9/10 of the atom decayed, then 1/10

is left.
Let the time the material has to decay to
1/10 of its original amount be T1/10.

N(t) = No e−λt

1 −λT 1
No = No e 10
10
− ln 10 = −λT 1
10
 ln 10
T1 =
10 λ
0.693
but, T1 =
2 λ
0.693
1620 =
λ
0.693 −1
λ= y = 4.2778 × 10−4 y −1
1620
ln 10 2.3026
T1 = −4
=
10 4.2778 × 10 4.2778 × 10−4
= 5383yrs

226
b) 226Kg of Ra contains 6.02 x 1026
atoms.
 26
6.02 𝑥 10
1𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 226𝑅𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
226
5𝑔 𝑖. 𝑒. 0.005𝑘𝑔
6.02 𝑥 1026
= ×. 0.005 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
226
= 𝑁(𝑡)
Activity i.e. disintegration per unit time

𝐴(𝑡) = 𝜆𝑁(𝑡)
26
6.02 𝑥 10
= 4.2778 × 10−4 y −1 ×
226
× 0.005

4.2778 × 10−4 6.02 𝑥 1026

𝐴(𝑡) = ×
365 226
× 0.005
 𝐴(𝑡) = 1.561
× 1016 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑑𝑎𝑦

SUMMARY
In this unit you are introduced to radioactivity
with respect its (i) definition, (ii)types and
(iii) equations
Self Assessment Question
Two radioactive substances P and Q each of
mass 250g were properly mixed together at
time t=0. P has a half-life of 30.0hrs. Exactly
3 days later, the masses of the mixture (both
P and Q) was found to be 150g. What would
be the mass of this mixture after another one
day?
(Note: The substances could not react with
each other)