FACTORS

AFFECTING
CROP
PRODUCTION
CHRISTIAN M. BALBA
Assistant Professor III
A. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 An environment is the sum of the
conditions that surround and influence an
organism. The environment of a plant
includes, among others, the soil in which it
grows, the amount of sunlight and rain it
receives, the temperature of the air
surrounding it, and the animals that eat it.
A. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 The term environment broadly indicates the
surroundings of an individual organ or a community of
organisms, ranging on up to the entire biosphere, the zone of
the earth that is able to sustain life.
 By surrounding is meant all the nonliving and living
things that play any role in an organism’s, from soil and air
to what the organism feeds on and the organisms that may
feed on it. Any other factors acting on the organism, such as
heat and light and gravitation, make up its environment as
well.
Two Broad Groups of Environmental Factors

 1. Biotic factors of the

environment are those that possess
life, or the living environmental
factors. Examples are insects,
microorganisms, man and plants
Two Broad Groups of Environmental
Factors

 2. Abiotic factors of the

environment are those that do not
possess life, or the non-living
environmental factors. Examples are
soil, and the elements of climate and
weather.
ABIOTIC
FACTORS OF
THE
ENVIROMENT
 1. CLIMATIC FACTORS
 a. Climate- the seasonal
pattern of a particular place
occurring from year to year
 - a composite of day-to-
day weather conditions
described in averages and https://cdn.britannica.com

variability
 b. Weather- a momentary
state of the atmosphere brought
about the combination of
elements, Ex., temperature,
pressure, moisture content, air
movements, radiation, etc.
 - day to day changes of the
state or condition of the
atmosphere

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 c. Macroclimate- the climatic
environment one meter above the
plant canopy.
 d. Microclimate- generally
refers to the climatic
environment one meter below
the canopy in case of tall plants https://image.slidesharecdn.com/macroclimatemicrocli
or the climate within the leaf mate-190410072146/95/macroclimate-microclimate-2-
638.jpg?cb=1554881261
canopy in the for the short
plants
 The Climatic Elements
 1. PRECIPITATION- any form of water particles falling on the
ground in liquid or solid form (rainfall, hall, snow, etc)
Factors affecting amount of distribution of rainfall
 a. Topography- the forms and features of land surfaces
 b. Mountain ranges- presents barriers to clouds, causing
them to rise to higher elevations and generally colder
temperatures causing vapor to condense and water to fall on the
windward sides of the clouds pass over, leaving the leeward side
relatively dry.
 c. Air circulation patterns- affect the seasonal distribution of
precipitation.
 Drought- insufficiently low of rainfall/
moisture which seriously affects plant
growth
1. Absolute drought- 29 consecutive
days without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.
2. Partial drought- 15 consecutive days
without rainfall of at least 0.25 mm.
2. TEMPERATURE- the degree of hotness and coldness of a
body
- every chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is
influence by temperature.
Three cardinal temperature
a. Minimum temperature- that temperature below which the
velocity of the reaction becomes zero, due to the deactivation of
enzymes.
b. Optimum temperature- temperature where the velocity of the
reaction is at maximum.
c. Maximum temperature- that temperature above which the
velocity of the reaction becomes zero, due to the desaturation of
enzymes.
Temperature of the environment depends upon:
a. Solar radiation- vertical rays are more energy
efficient/unit area than oblique rays (in polar regions).
b. Surrounding land masses or bodies of water
c. Altitude- for every 100-meter rise in elevation, there
is a 0.6 OC decrease in temperature
In the Philippines:
High elevation- 13.2 – 24.6 C
Low elevation- 23.3 – 31.5 C
Classification of crops according to
temperature requirement
a. Cool season crops- Ex. Cole crops
b. Warm season crops- Ex. Rice and
banana
c. Tropical – Ex. Coconut
d. Sub-tropical- ex. Citrus
 Effect of temperature on crops
 Vernalization requirement of certain
crops for flowering (Ex. Celery seed
exposed to 4.4- 10 C for 10 days
under imbibed condition)
 Effect on crop maturation (crops
mature faster in hotter environment
than in colder ones)
3. WIND OR AIR IN HORIZONTAL MOTION
Normal wind speed in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr
At 30 km/hr= leaf tearing may already occur
especially in banana and abaca.
Effect of wind in plants:
1. increase in transpiration
2. destructive effects of strong winds, typhoon
3. sterility due to loss of pollens
4. disease spore dispersal
 4. SOLAR RADIATION OR LIGHT- energy
given out by the sun through radiation
 Three aspects important to plants
1. Light intensity- expresses in foot-candle or lux
 Plants are generally spaced so that maximum
leaf area is exposed to sunlight
 Some plants do not require high light intensity
because they have low saturation points
 Some plant requires subdued light to survive
Classification of plants according to light intensity
requirements
a. Heliophytes- sun loving, light
saturated at about 5000 foot
candles
Examples: banana,
chrysanthemum, corn, cowpea,
cucurbits, eggplant, papaya,
peanut, sugarcane.

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Classification of plants according to light intensity
requirements
b. Sciophytes- shade loving, light
saturated at about 500 foot candles
Examples: ginger, African violet,
ferns, philodendron, coffee.
Plant belonging to the intermediate
group may be converted through
acclimatization into either
heliophytes or sciophytes.
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2. Duration or day length- expressed in hours per
day
Classification of plants according to photoperiodic
response
a. Day neutral- will flower over wide range of
daylength. Ex. Banana, citrus, coconut, corn, tomato
b. Short day plants- requires dark period
exceeding some critical length to induce flowering.
Ex. Coffee, kenaf, lima bean, sesame, soybean,
winged bean.
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c. Long day plant- inhibited from flowering when
the dark period exceeds some critical length. Ex.
Aster, castor oil, onion, radish
3. Wavelength- expressed in
Angstrom or nanometer or identified
by color.
- not all wavelengths of light are
equally effective
In Photosynthesis- red and blue
wavelength
In Photoperiodism- far red and red
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wavelength a629796ded132745b64ade9c9617e139
5. RELATIVE HUMIDITY
 proportion/amount of
moisture in the air, low
relative humidity and
high temperature will
result to high
evapotranspiration,
high relative humidity
and high temperature
will result to low
evapotranspiration.
1. Gaseous Environment
a. Carbon dioxide- critical in enclosed
environments like green houses
b. Air pollution- toxic substances like lead,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, HF
2. Cloudiness- cloud including smog and fog
affect the amount of radiation received by plants.
Most solar radiation is reflected by clouds.
Climatic Stresses:
a. Typhoon and weather variations
Typhoon- strong winds with speed greater than 21 kph

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CLIMATIC STRESS- OZONE DESTRUCTION

Ozone- protective shield

against the harmful UV rays; it
is 6-30 miles above earth.
Harmful effects:
1. Depressed photosynthesis
2. Reduced levels of seed
protein, lipids and
carbohydrates
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CLIMATIC STRESS- GLOBAL WARMING
- increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
- CO2 concentration might double to around 600 ppm in 30-75 years
- Methane gas contributes to global warming

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 CLIMATIC STRESS- El Niño/ La Niña
- El Niño phenomenon happens when there is a periodic ocean-
warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by
deficient rainfall or prolonged drought in some areas, while
heavy rains, storm or hurricanes occur in other areas of the
globe.
- Climatic indicators of El Niño in the Philippines include:
a. Delayed onset of the rainy season
b. Early termination of the rainy season
c. Weak monsoon activity
d. Weak tropical cyclones activity
CLIMATIC STRESS- El Niño/ La Niña

Effects of El Niño
1. Fish kill especially cold water fish-
tuna and milkfish catch declines
2. Decrease in yield for most crops
3. Human death
e. Acid Rain
f. Lahar
B. EDAPHIC FACTORS
Refers to the soil as a factor
in crop production
What is soil?
 Soil- serves as a medium of plant growth
(physical support for anchorage of plant
roots; water and nutrient supplier)
 Composed of mineral matter, air, water
and organic matter and organisms
 Soil as a three-phase system: (solid-
mineral + organic matter),(liquid- soil
solution) and (Gas-various gases)
B. Soil Properties in relation to Crop
Production
I. Physical Properties
1. Soil texture- the relative proportion
of soil particles (sand, silt and clay) in
a particular soil
Particle size- Sand- > 0.02 µ, Silt-
.02-.002µ and Clay- <.002µ
 Soil texture range

SAND SILT CLAY

<10% Equal >4.5%

Proportion of sand
Clay Clay
and clay
 •Importance of soil texture to crop production
Heavy Soil Light Soil
Tillability Difficult Easy
Aeration Less More
Water-holding capacity High Low
Nutrient-holding capacity High Low
 Implication:
The desirable soil texture for crops is that in between heavy and light, i.e., heavy soil, to
allow for easy workability and sufficient water holding capacity.
2. Soil structure- the arrangement of
soil particles into aggregates
How soil structure is formed?
 Ped- natural structure
 Clod- structure formed with the
application of external force, e.g.,
plowing
 Organic matter- binding agent
 Types of structure
 Blocky
 Granular
 Columnar
 No structure

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 Importance of soil structure to crops
1. To some extent, soil tillability is related to
structure. There are soil that are
relatively easier to break-up because of
their structure.
2. Soil structure influences the infiltration of
water through the soil
3. Soil structure influences soil aeration
which is critical during seed germination
and seedling emergence.
3. Soil Depth- particularly, the top soil
relative to subsoil
 Top soil- from where crops obtain most of
the nutrients. Also, where organic matter is
concentrated.
 Sub-soil- storage of nutrient and water, but
often less fertile than top soil
 4. Bulk Density; Soil
Porosity; Hydraulic
conductivity-
properties related to
degree of aeration
and water holding
capacity
5. Soil organic matter content- composed of dead plants
residues and wastes
 For most mineral soil- 5%
 For most Philippine soil- 2-4%
6. Humus
 Amorphous, collided substance
which is resistant to further
decomposition
 Improves soil structure
 Increases CEC and water holding
capacity of soil gives dark color to
soil.
Importance
 Prevent loss of nutrients by forming complexes
with nutrient elements
 Facilities absorption and percolation of water into
and through the soil
 Increases water holding capacity
 Source of nutrients
 Improves penetration of roots
 Influences soil structure formation
 Influences soil chemical properties may contain N,
P, S, B, Zn
 Determines the biotic composition
II. Soil Chemical Properties
 1. Soil pH or soil-
reaction
 Degree of acidity or alkalinity
 Influences nutrient availability
 Negative logarithm of H+
activity
 7.0- neutral pH (H+=OH-)
 Decrease in soil pH-> acidity
 Increase in soil pH -> alkalinity
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2. pH Effects
 pH below 5.0- Al, Fe and Mn become toxic
Ca and Mo deficiency
 pH below 5.5- Mo, Za, K and S deficiency
 pH 6-7 (neutral)- most nutrients are in
available from
 pH above 7.5- Al toxicity, salinity, Zn and
Fe toxicity
 pH above 8.0- formation of Ca
phosphates
 pH above 8.5- salinity, Zn and Fe
deficiency
3. Cation Exchange Capacity
(CEC)- ability of soil to absorb
and release cations through
the soil solution
How? - soil particles
can be colloidal (e.g., clay) and
can contain excess (net)
negative charges
How measured ? - sum
of exchangeable cations in a
given wt. of soil expresses in
me/100g. soil
 Nutrient Holding Capacity- CEC
Particular me/100 g
Humus 600
Good clay
80-150
(Montmorillonite)
Not good clay
3 to 15
(Kaolinite)
Sand 0
Good soil 20 above
5 and
Bad soil
below
III. Soil Biological Properties
 Macroscopic organisms
 Microscopic organisms
 Fungi
 Actinomycetes and Protozoa- decomposers (aerobic)
 Bacteria (billion/g top soil)
o Thiobacillus--- oxidize S -- sulfate form
o Auxotrophic bacteria- oxidizes Mn and Fe to less available form
o Nitrifying bacteria
o N fixing bacteria
 Blue- green algae- Nitrogen fixation
 Root-microorganism association found in the nuts of legumes- Nitrogen
fixation
o Bacteria- rhizobia in nodules
o Fungi- mycorrhizal fungi- converts phosphorus to biological forms
1. Soil organisms
Fauna (habitat)
o Macro- small mammals, insects, millipedes,
centipedes, sowbugs, mites, slugs, snails,
earthworms, spiders
o Micro- nematodes, protozoa
Flora
o Roots of higher plants
o Algae- blue, blue-green, diatoms
o Fungi- mushroom, yeast, molds
o Bacteria- aerobic/anaerobic
o Actinomycetes
 Benefits from Earthworms
 Burrowing- channels for drainage and
aeration, entry of other animals, entry of water,
nutrients, roots
 Mix the soil, “plows” the soil
 Incorporates crop residues
 Contribute to OM
 Humus enrichment
 Improves soil structure
 Control pests (e.g., leaf miner pupa, scub
pathogen)
 Nutrient recycling
 Topography
- Whether the land is flat or sloping
- A major parameter in delineating lowlands and
uplands
 In the Philippines, the slope of the land is
used as the major determinant (>18%
slope- upland)
- In crop production, topography is critical in
irrigation and drainage and soil conservation
o In flat lands, the problem can be in drainage
o In sloping lands, the problem can be in how to
bring water up for irrigation
o Poor drainage can result into soil fertility
problems
o In sloping lands, soil erosion can be a major
problem especially if crop production practices
do not consider soil and water conservation
strategies
o To a great extent, CEC is an indicator of soil
fertility because most nutrients are taken up
by plant in cation form
o The soil can also exchange anions
o Roots of plant also have their own CEC- the
exchange therefore depends on the
interaction of soil and root CEC.
BIOTIC FACTORS
BIOTIC FACTORS
- All living elements in the
environment that can affect crop
production
 a. Beneficial organisms- provides
beneficial effects on crop production
 b. Pollinators – important role in
the preservation of species and in
biodiversity conservation.
BIOTIC FACTORS
 c. Decomposers- a trophic level, usually
consisting soil microorganisms specifically
important in the maintenance of soil
organic matter
 d. Natural pest enemies- provide
balance in a crop production system
particularly in the control of pests
 e. Pests- a collective term that includes
pests, diseases, weeds, invertebrates
and vertebrates
 B. GENETIC FACTORS
Includes all factors internal to the
plant
1. Genotypes- genetic design of a
plant which dictates the ceiling of how
much a variety/cultivar can yield.
 Genome- sets the ultimate limit for
plant variation
 B. GENETIC FACTORS
 2. Selection indices of major Philippine
crops
a. The choice of variety is one of the most
critical decisions in crop production
b. Technologies required in growing a
certain crop are dependent on the
characteristics of a particular variety
especially growth characteristics, quality of
the product and market acceptability.
 Genetically modified Organisms
(GMO’s) – the latest development in
biotechnology in relation to crop
improvement.
- Transgenic crops: corn, tomato,
soybean, cotton and potato
- Genetic engineering moves genes from
one organism to another in ways that
could never be possible in nature
C. HUMAN FACTORS
1. Preferences of farmers (crop type,
variety)
2. Capability of farmers
- Depends on resources and knowledge of
the farmer
- Most Filipino farmers are resource poor
- Our culture is very rich in indigenous
knowledge particularly about farming.
3. Cultural practices
Expect Quiz Next Meeting