Psychedelic

Information Theory

Shamanism in the
Age of Reason
by James L. Kent
PIT Press
Supermassive, LLC
1122 E. Pike St. #679
Seattle, WA 98122

Copyright © 2010 by James L. Kent

Some rights reserved. Do not reproduce or reprint any section of this text
without express permission from the author.

Library of Congress Publication Data

Kent, James L.
Psychedelic Information Theory: Shamanism in the Age of Reason / James L.
Kent. First Edition.
Includes bibliographical references
ISBN 1453760172
EAN-13 9781453760178

http://psychedelic-information-theory.com

Keywords: Psychedelics, Entheogens, Hallucinogens, Consciousness,

Perception, Pharmacology, Epistemology, Hallucination, Psychosis, Dreaming,
Shamanism, Novelty Theory, Creativity, Nonlinear Dynamics, Chaos Theory
 Psychedelic
Information Theory

Shamanism in the
Age of Reason
by James L. Kent

First Edition, PIT Press / Supermassive, LLC, 2010

For color images, updates, and links to references

online: http://psychedelic-information-theory.com

Images and Plates

01. Fractals generated by nature and computers 08 02. Entopic
patterns in phosphenes and prehistoric art 10 03. Chaos stars,
symbols of chaos magic 13 04. Feedback circuits in visual perception
28 05. Troxler’s fading illusion 39 06. Peripheral drift illusion 41 07.
Kalachakra time-wheels, mandalas, and calendars 44 08. Stabilized
and destabilized perception 48 09. ADSR Envelope 52 10. ADSR
Envelope for N20 and Saliva divinorum 53 11. Molecular structure
of glutamate and GABA 57 12. Molecular structure of amines and
hallucinogens 58 13. Layers of the neocortex 66 14. Biophillic
fractals selected for intrinsic natural beauty 76 15. Video feedback
loop spinning towards central attractor 77 16. Retino-cortical
coupling pathways and mapping planes 80 17. Entopic geometric
form constants 81 18. Examples of programmatic cellular automata
83 19. Muscles of the eye 85 20. Alien hallucination in entopic grid
91 21. Molecular structure of acetylcholine and choline 92 22.
Hobson’s AIM model 93 23. Kitaoka’s “Rotating Snakes” peripheral
drift illusion 98 24. Spiral and tunnel attractors in video feedback
101
25. “Mushroom Inside” trance festival flyer 112 26. Traditional
shamen and medicine drums 114 27. Shipibo textile patterns 133 28.
Hilbert plane-filling or Peano curves 135 29. EEG bands over one
level of activity 142
30. Period doubling bifurcations in the logistics map 176 31. Chladni
figures created by standing interference patterns 202
Preface
Psychedelic Information Theory (PIT) is a formal deconstruction of
psychedelic hallucination, expanded consciousness, and shamanism,
and as such it attempts to move topics which have traditionally been
classified as metaphysics into fields of physics and mathematics. The
goal of PIT is to unify all existing psychedelic research into a formal
model which accurately describes the complex dynamics generated
when a psychedelic drug is introduced into human neural and social
networks. PIT is a general model which links psychedelic pharmacology
directly to the nonlinear dynamics of expanded consciousness,
neuroplasticity, shamanic technique, and tribal organization. This book
should be equally enlightening for shamen, physicians, scientists,
mathematicians, mystics, and anyone seeking to model or understand
the functional limits of expanded consciousness.
PIT is presented as an introductory textbook for people with broad
interests in consciousness, perception, psychedelics, hallucination,
shamanism, dreaming, pharmacology, neuroplasticity, chaos theory,
and related fields. Because PIT is meant to be an overview of a general
theory which encompasses many diverse fields, it only scratches the
surface of what could be a far larger and more detailed text. Students
interested in further exploration on these topics should consult the
bibliography and references for more avenues of research and
discovery. For readers who are less scientifically inclined, or who seek a
quick overview of the concepts covered in this text, an informal
discussion of topics has been included in the appendixes. This
discussion provides a brief summary of PIT and answers some of the
most common questions raised in reaction to the text.

Sincerely,

James L. Kent
Table of Contents
Part I: Psychedelic Information Theory
01. What is Psychedelic Information Theory? 11 02. The Value
of Psychedelic Information 15 03. Psychedelic Information
Theory 21 04. What is Consciousness? 29
05. Limits of Human Perception 37 06. The Control Interrupt
Model of Psychedelic Action 49 07. Psychedelic Pharmacology 57
08. 5-HT2A Agonism and Multisensory Binding 67 09. What is
Nonlinear Hallucination? 75 10. Entopic Hallucination 81 11.
Eidetic Hallucination 90 12. Erratic Hallucination 99 13.
Psychedelic Neuroplasticity 105

Part II: Shamanism in the Age of Reason

14. What is Shamanism? 115 15. An Overview of Physical
Shamanism 120 16. Physical Shamanism and Shamanic Therapy 130
17. Hypnotic Entrainment and Induced Trance States 137 18. Psychic
Bonding and Psi 143 19. Group Mind and Fluid Tribal Dynamics 148
20. Shamanic Sorcery 153 21. Spirits and Spiritual Communion 158
22. Information Genesis and Complexity 163 Appendixes

01. Conclusions and Discussion 170 02. Informal Discussion of

Topics 179 03. About this Text 190 04. Bibliography and
References 192 05. About the Author 203
Figure 1. Fractals generated by computer programs and nature are examples
of deterministic chaos in nonlinear systems, and share many formal similarities
with psychedelic hallucinations. WikiMedia Commons.

8
 Part I

Psychedelic
Information Theory

9
Figure 2. Images of internally generated sensations of light (phosphenes) with
geometric shapes and no memory-based content, found in ethnographic reports
and prehistoric rock art studies. From Nicholson and Firnhaber.

10
Chapter 01

What is Psychedelic
Information
Theory?
Psychedelic Information Theory (PIT) is the study of information
creation in the human imagination, particularly in states of dreaming,
psychosis, and hallucination. PIT seeks to model the functional output
of human perception in order to extrapolate the limits and complexity
of information arising in human altered states of consciousness.
The foundation of PIT lies in novelty theory, the study of increasing
complexity of information over time. Novelty theory encompasses a
large time-scale, but PIT is specifically focused on the spontaneous
production of complex information in the human organism, which is
also known as creativity theory or generative theory. Modeling the
creation of information in the human brain requires formal definitions
for perception, consciousness, and information, and as such PIT is also
a work of systems theory, which posits that the potential output of any
system can be fully described by the functional limitations of its
components. PIT also draws on control theory, which models the
stability and complexity of signal processing in dynamical systems. By
applying control theory and systems theory to altered states of
consciousness, PIT is an analysis of the nonlinear dynamics of
hallucination and expanded states of consciousness. And finally PIT
draws upon the fields of wave mechanics, neural oscillators,
neuroplasticity, and the fundamentals of pharmacology, cognitive
theory, and neural signaling as they apply to perception, memory, and
consciousness; this also makes PIT a text on multidisciplinary
neuroscience.
 11
Why “Psychedelic” Information Theory?
The bulk of human consciousness exists in a linear range which
goes from highly focused and alert to deep asleep and dreaming. Most
states of consciousness are experienced uniformly and independently of
each other along this linear spectrum. For instance, when you are asleep
you are not awake; when you are focused you are not daydreaming;
when you are anxious you are not relaxed. The fact that consciousness
exists in only one state at one time is an indication that the system is
linear and stable. When two distinct perceptions or states of
consciousness overlap at the same time this is an indication that the
system is unstable, and in most cases where divergent states of
consciousness overlap the output is viewed as a pathology.1 State
divergent pathologies are typically treated with drugs targeted to
amplify the positive traits and/or dampen the negative traits.
The term psychedelic means “mind manifesting,” which implies
that all potential states of mind may be manifested under the influence
of psychedelic drugs. If normal consciousness moves in a straight line
along a spectrum of many possible states, psychedelics represent a
unique and reversible destabilization of this linear spectrum where
consciousness can assume multiple points of consciousness
simultaneously. The most extreme divergent state of consciousness is
described as being wide awake while simultaneously dreaming, a state
clinically referred to as psychosis or hallucination. The emergence of
multi-state consciousness under the influence of psychedelics
represents a system that has destabilized from linear output and has
become nonlinear and exponentially complex. Thus, in psychedelic
perception the linear functions of consciousness diverge into a complex
nonlinear state where multiple perspectives and analytical outputs may
be experienced simultaneously.2 According to PIT, this destabilized state
of nonlinear complexity is where new information is generated in the
human mind. Understanding the dynamics of this unique nonlinear
function is essential to understanding the informational limits and
potential complexity range of all human consciousness.

12

Figure 3. The eight-pointed star is a popular symbol of chaos magic. The

arrows represent energy, or information, scattering at high velocity. This
symbol is isomorphic of a nonlinear information system, like a universe, which
starts at a single point and erupts outward in all directions.

What is “Shamanism in the Age of Reason”?

PIT seeks to describe a model of psychedelic activation that can be
adapted to all possible permutations of human consciousness, including
group mind states, mystical states, and transpersonal awareness. The
ritual of using psychedelics to generate new information, bond with
peer groups, and program human belief is traditionally called
shamanism, so PIT is a study of the practice of shamanism, which can
also be called applied psychedelic science. The practice of using ritual
techniques of spiritual transcendence to manipulate belief systems has
been popularly dubbed chaos magic,
which is an occult blend of neo-shamanism, cognitive theory, and social
theory (Fig. 3). Chaos and complexity are also popular terms applied to
the study of nonlinear systems, such as fractals and cellular automata,
making chaos magic and shamanism spirituo-scientific explorations of
the generative function of nonlinear systems.
While PIT focuses on physiology over mythology, it is clear that
there is a fundamental human desire to achieve states of consciousness
subjectively described as Gnostic or spiritually enlightening. It is the
conjecture of PIT that all mystical states, including healing and
 regenerative states, have unique formal nonlinear qualities that can be
described in physical terms close enough to make good approximations.
This means that PIT is also a work of technical shamanism, neuro
theology, or spiritual neuroscience, and can be referenced in the clinical

13
application of psychedelic drugs in shamanic ceremony, mystical ritual,
or psychedelic therapy.

Generic Application, Neutrality, Margin of Error

PIT does not attempt to provide precise definitions of
consciousness, perception, or the psychedelic state. Instead PIT
attempts to model an approximation of psychedelic consciousness
based on the known functions and limits of human perception and
cognition. According to PIT, if a functional reproduction of
consciousness existed then it too could be made to have a psychedelic
experience. This also makes PIT a text on artificial intelligence which
can be tested in mechanical systems of perception. While this text may
contain some assumptions and conjecture on human brain function, the
fundamentals of PIT are generic enough to apply to any system of
consciousness which relies on real-time frame perception for interacting
with reality. Although the bulk of the text focuses on states of
hallucinogenesis afforded most readily by the tryptamines LSD,
psilocybin (magic mushrooms), and DMT (found in the South American
brew ayahuasca), and their action at the 5-HT2A receptor subtype, PIT
strives to be generic and substance neutral, meaning that the
fundamentals of PIT should apply to all drugs and techniques which
produce hallucination, even though they may target different receptors
and/or destabilize consciousness in a wholly unique way.

Notes and References

1. Some examples of pathologically divergent states of consciousness: Asleep
and active is sleepwalking; excited and drowsy is narcolepsy; awake and rigid is
Parkinson’s Disease; awake and dreaming is psychosis; relaxed and nervous is
anxiety disorder; fulfilled and sad is depressive disorder; and so on.
2. When a linear function diverges or bifurcates and begins plotting a range of
multiple outputs for the same input, this can be called unstable, dynamic,
nonlinear, complex, higher dimensional, undefined, and so on. It depends on
how you model your system.

14
Chapter 02

The Value of Psychedelic

Information
A text called Psychedelic Information Theory raises the question,
“What is Psychedelic Information, and why should we care?” Generally,
psychedelic information is any information created in the mind of the
subject during a psychedelic experience. Psychedelic information is
generated spontaneously in reaction to the psychedelic catalyst;
typically the subject has little or no control over the information
generated in a psychedelic experience. Psychedelic information is
almost always previously unknown to the subject and may appear to
originate from an external source or materialize out of thin air.
Psychedelic information typically takes the form of visual, audio, and
sensory hallucination, but can also be abstract or gestalt like an
emotional epiphany. Finally, psychedelic information applies to any art
or concept that originates from or evokes psychedelic experience.
This text focuses primarily on the physiological process underlying
the spontaneous generation of psychedelic information, and how that
information influences both personal and cultural identity. The fact that
psychedelic information makes its way into popular culture is proof that
humans find psychedelic information valuable, but it is still ambiguous
if psychedelics add any real value to culture. Research has shown that
spiders are affected by psychedelics,1 as are rats,2 cats,3
monkeys,4 and so on. However, there is little evidence that information
 other than noise is generated during psychedelic episodes in animals;
the experience does not mean anything beyond a specific derangement
of the senses. In contrast, the human adaptation to translate subjective
experience into meaningful narrative is uniquely exploited by
psychedelics. Psychedelics target perception, memory, and the complex
emotions attached to symbols and concepts; the core functions humans

15
rely on to formulate belief. Because of this exploit, the result of the
psychedelic catalyst in humans is the spontaneous generation of
meaningful information which is imprinted into memory.
Any perceptual system can have a psychedelic experience,5 but it
takes abstract thinking and the interconnection between symbols,
concepts, and emotions to make psychedelic information meaningful.
Thus, the psychedelic experience does not create information in all
systems of consciousness; the psychedelic experience only generates
meaningful information in systems of consciousness with the capacity
for abstract reasoning via symbolic logic and emotional attachment.
Presumably any conscious system which emulates the functions of
human abstract reasoning will also similarly generate meaningful
information during a psychedelic experience.

The Value of Information

Within the set of information valuable to humans there are domains
of descending importance. First there is information valuable to all
organisms (biological information), then there is information valuable
to all humans (species information), then there is information valuable
only to a specific local group of humans (cultural information), and then
there is information valuable only to a single human (personal
information). All biological information and the most important bits of
species information are genetic and are preserved through natural
selection. Within the domain of human species importance there is also
technological information (such as fire, tools, language, music,
agriculture, science, etc.) which are culturally agnostic and serve the
needs of the entire species equally. Technological information of
species-level importance is equated with high value and will be adopted
by all cultures over a short period. Species-level information has high
durability and changes very slowly over time.
Cultural information falls in the category of language-based memes
and regional or tribal traditions. Cultural information may be shared
across cultures or may be restricted to a specific region or subculture.
Cultural information is considered to be of medium value, low
durability, and changes rapidly over time as the memes and traditions

16
of culture change. Religion and artwork are examples of cultural
information that typically only have value to their culture of origin, but
occasionally ascend to species-level importance. Finally there is
personal information, which is valuable only to a single individual.
Personal information changes rapidly, is subject to experience and
whim, and is only useful over the lifetime of the organism. Personal
information has very low durability and low overall value.

The Value of Psychedelic Information

Psychedelic information is generated within the domain of the
personal; yet many people who take psychedelics perceive the
information as having species-level importance. There are a few reasons
for this phenomena. The first, and easiest, is that psychedelics create
states of mania and delusions of grandeur in which the subject feels that
he or she is the most brilliant person on the planet, or that they are
receiving supernatural prophecy. Secondly, the subject may experience
archetypal visions or sensations of transcendence that are perceived to
be of high religious or mystical importance. Thirdly, the subject may
experience a deconstruction of consciousness associated with animal
consciousness, reptilian consciousness, plant consciousness, the Gaian
mind, genetic-level intelligence, or deep species memory; information
perceived to be of value to all humans or all living creatures. Because
psychedelics produce all of these experiences they are routinely
perceived as having species-level importance.
Psychedelics are obviously useful in the domain of the personal;
shamanism and psychedelic therapy rely on the information function of
psychedelics to diagnose and heal. In the cultural domain psychedelics
can be employed in ritual to build strong religious or tribal groups; they
 can be used in healing or sorcery; or they can be a catalyst for
innovation and creative expression. Beyond this their value is
ambiguous. There are some debates to be made in this area, such as
pointing out that Francis Crick envisioned the spiral structure of DNA
after he ingested LSD,6 or that LSD helped Kary Mullis think up the PCR
process that earned him a Nobel Prize in genetics.7,8 To counter

17
these arguments, both Crick and Mullis had been studying molecular
biology for years trying to crack those very problems; LSD cannot take
credit for anything more than helping Crick and Mullis organize their
thoughts in a new way. We can point to great discoveries as examples of
psychedelic information, but only a tiny fraction of all psychedelic
information can claim this level of importance. Worse than this,
erroneous psychedelic information claiming species-level importance
has negative cultural value and dilutes the overall information
marketplace, making psychedelic information almost statistically
worthless.9
Probability dictates that most psychedelic information will have
little or moderate value, and that the rare piece of psychedelic
information will have extreme negative or positive value. It also follows
that the more times a subject takes psychedelics the more likely it is
they will generate information of high positive or negative value.
Similarly, the more often a subject takes psychedelics the more likely
they are to latch onto and subsequently reinforce information of high
perceived value, either positive or negative. In this case the psychedelic
becomes an information imprinting tool. In psychedelic imprinting the
information is always subjectively perceived to be of high value, even if
it is of low or even negative cultural value.10

Negative and Positive Information Value

It is easy to demonstrate that psychedelic information has value;
cultures that use psychedelics as sacraments place high value on the
information they receive; people will trade hard-earned cash for a
psychedelic experience. But because the quality of psychedelic
information has such a wide range it is easy to perceive psychedelics as
having no value or, in the argument of prohibition, negative value.
Psychedelic information with negative value can be described as that
which is delusional, paranoid, false, or subverts the health of the
individual or culture. Negative psychedelic experiences, or bummers,
are a commonly reported element of psychedelic experimentation, but
this does not necessarily make bummers negative. Some users claim
that negative experiences have value because they provide emotional

18
insight; others report that negative psychedelic experiences cause
permanent psychological damage, which is extremely negative. In rare
cases people act out and harm themselves or commit suicide on
psychedelics. Obviously these are extreme examples of negative value,
and these extreme examples are usually linked to mixing drugs, drug
binging, or overdosing. There is an optimal dose range for any
psychedelic substance; reports of negative effects increase once the
optimal dose range is surpassed.11
Conversely, there is a range of psychedelic experience that is just as
extreme but positive in value; the spiritual or therapeutic or
entheogenic experience that adds value to the user and their culture.
Having an extremely positive psychedelic experience does not happen
by accident; there is nuance involved in selecting the proper dose,
finding the right setting, and so on. By contrast, having a negative
psychedelic experience is almost always an accident due to improper
dose or setting. Therefore, the positive value of a psychedelic experience
can be predicted and controlled up to a certain dose range, but beyond
that the potential positive value drops and potential negative value
increases.
Shamanism, which for the purposes of this text is defined as the
practice of using psychedelics in ritual, employs specialized techniques
to guide psychedelic information along desired pathways. Influencing
and imprinting psychedelic information along positive pathways is
perceived as spiritual, enlightening, and therapeutic; influencing or
imprinting psychedelic information along negative pathways is
perceived as mind control, black magic, or sorcery. Although the value
of psychedelic information generated in any single episode is
ambiguous, the practice of shamanism is a durable technology with
 species-wide application. Thus, shamanism is a technological subset of
psychedelic information with high value to the entire species, even
though the practice of shamanism can be employed to both positive or
negative effect.

19
Notes and References
1. Christiansen A, Baum R, Witt P, “Changes In Spider Webs Brought About By
Mescaline, Psilocybin And An Increase In Body Weight”. JPET April 1962
vol.136 no.1 31-37.
2. Butters, Nelson, “The effect of LSD-25 on spatial and stimulus perseverative
tendencies in rats”. Psychopharmacology, Volume 8, Number 6 / November,
1966
3. Trulson M, Howell G, “Ontogeny of the behavioral effects of lysergic acid
diethylamide in cats”. Developmental Psychobiology Volume 17 Issue 4, Pages
329 - 346
4. Jarvik M, Chorover S, “Impairment by lysergic acid diethylamide of accuracy
in performance of a delayed alternation test in monkeys”. Psychopharmacology,
Volume 1, Number 3 / May, 1960.
5. See Chapter 04, "What is Consciousness?".
6. Rees, Alun, “Nobel Prize genius Crick was high on LSD when he discovered
the secret of life”. Mail on Sunday, 8 August 2004.
7. Mullis, Kary, “Dancing Naked in the Mind Field”. Vintage, NY, 2000.
8. Rabinow, Paul, “Making PCR: a story of biotechnology”. University of
Chicago Press, 1996.
9. The psychedelic community produces a new guru every decade or so, and the
cultural contributions of these gurus trends from pseudo-scientific to outright
fantastical. It is often difficult to tell if the contributions of psychedelic
celebrities outweigh the more nonsensical memes they propagate.
10. Psychedelic imprinting can take many forms, and in some cases negative
information can be imprinted into identity. Brainwashing is the act of
imprinting another person against their will, which is viewed as negative. Self
brainwashing is the act of imprinting yourself with negative information either
by choice or error. In self-brainwashing negative information typically assumes
explicit paranoid or messianic themes. Extreme cases of psychedelic self
brainwashing will mimic elements of psychosis and persistent delusional
disorder. See Chapter 13, “Psychedelic Neuroplasticity”.
11. Hasler F, Grimberg U, Benz M, Huber T, Vollenweider F, “Acute
psychological and physiological effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a
double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-effect study”. Psychopharmacology,
Volume 172, Number 2 / March, 2004.

20
Chapter 03

Psychedelic Information
Theory
Like dreams, psychedelics are catalysts for generating information
in the human imagination. There are many theories about the origin of
this information: the subconscious; repressed emotions; the collective
unconscious; genetic memory; spirit entities; alien transmission; junk
data from neural excitation; and so on. Regardless of the origin it is
widely accepted that psychedelics do generate information, and not
merely junk data of questionable value. Psychedelics excel at producing
salient information which can have a profound impact on the beliefs
and identity of the subject.
The information generated by psychedelics is usually personal, but
it can become transpersonal as psychedelic insights are shared with
friends and the public. The rate of psychedelic information flow can be
measured by the amount of explicit influence psychedelics have over
any given culture, and the rate of flow is different for every culture.
Some cultures repress anything resembling psychedelic information
while others make it central to their spirituality.1 Since the cultural
revolution of the 1960s, psychedelic information flow has erupted into
 Western culture at an unprecedented rate. This rate of modern
psychedelic information flow has had its ups and downs, but overall has
remained relatively constant even in the face of global prohibition.2
The pathway of psychedelic information flow is simple and
universally the same: 1) ingestion; 2) internal transmission; 3) internal
integration; 4) cultural transmission; 5) cultural integration. Most
psychedelic research focuses solely on internal transmission, the second
stage of the psychedelic information process which is commonly called
the trip. While the trip is certainly interesting it is still only one part of
the larger overall process by which psychedelics influence both

21
the individual and culture. Each part of this information process has its
own patterns and predictable stages, and different portions of this text
will attempt to illuminate one or more of these stages in the service of
providing an overall understanding of how psychedelics impact culture.
Below is a capsule summary of each stage in the psychedelic
information process.

Ingestion
While it is difficult to define why people choose to take
psychedelics, each society has its own rules which dictate who is allowed
to ingest a psychedelic drug and in what context. In traditional settings
ingestion is a spiritual exercise used to gain supernatural wisdom, and
dosage is controlled ritually by the shaman. In modern Western culture
the traditional rules have broken down and psychedelic ingestion has
become complex and somewhat haphazard. In a modern context most
people are introduced to psychedelics in mundane recreational
circumstances, motivated by hedonism, curiosity, boredom, peer
pressure, or rebellion. Sometimes an innate hunger for the mysterious
drives ingestion. Typically the psychedelic user is seeking something,
however vague that notion.

Internal Transmission
Internal transmission is where the psychedelic interacts with the
neural network and new information is generated. Information in the
psychedelic state is generated spontaneously within visual and audio
hallucination; ideas which pop into the subject’s imagination; novel
juxtapositions of previous concepts; and removed perspectives that
allow for new holistic analysis. This information can be literal or
figurative; it can be abstract; it can come in words or phrases; it can be
spoken or sung; it can be visual; it can emerge as epiphanies or brilliant
ideas; it can be a recalled memory; it can be delivered by spirit entities
in strange languages; and so on. The information density in a
psychedelic session is layered, saturated, and colorfully detailed. Much
of the information in a psychedelic hallucination may be accurately

22
described as kaleidoscopic noise, but within this noise comes a wealth
of salient content.4
In physical terms psychedelics create new information via
spontaneous activation and organization of sensory and perceptual
networks. Psychedelic information is experienced via direct neural
firing and is transferred to memory via the creation and strengthening
of synaptic connections in the neural network.5 Psychedelic information
generation takes energy, and the information processing capacities of
the human brain are finite, and thus there is an upper limit to the
amount of information that can be generated within a single
psychedelic session before the brain begins to down-regulate in an
attempt to return to baseline.6

Internal Integration
For many reasons there is loss of fidelity in the transmission of
hallucinatory information from imagination into memory. Like a
dream, memories of the psychedelic session must be compressed into
manageable snippets that stand out within the larger wash of
information. Although psychedelic hallucinations fade quickly they can
have lasting emotional impact. How each person deals with the content
of each experience is unique to their world view. Some people may
choose to ignore content derived from the psychedelic experience;
others may cherish anything they can remember and will scrutinize
each vision in pursuit of higher metaphysical truth. During this process
 the information generated during the psychedelic trip is encoded into
personal memory by forging and testing new synaptic pathways.
During post-psychedelic integration the subject may begin to re
assess and modify personal beliefs and behaviors. Cryptic and intense
visions may be recalled over and over, or the subject may dwell
obsessively on novel feelings experienced during their trip. The subject
will typically review their psychedelic trip and create a lasting narrative
of the journey, including what they experienced and what they learned.
Integration is where the subject decides what happened in the
experience. The content of the hallucination is not as important as the
process by which the subject takes that content and shapes it into

23
lasting memories, beliefs, and behaviors; this is the process of encoding
psychedelic information into synaptic networks. Content generation
without behavioral integration is essentially meaningless, so the true
testament of psychedelic power is not the ability to produce visions, but
the ability to imprint new information and transform belief.

Cultural Transmission
Psychedelic visions do not stay in the head; if they did there would
be no psychedelic art, no psychedelic music, no psychedelic spirituality,
and no psychedelic revolution. Psychedelics activate a process in which
the realm of the psychological spills out into the realm of the physical. It
is clear from 20th century history that psychedelics can fuel artistic
expression, social experimentation, religious movements, and political
activism. There is no other class of drugs which can claim to have such
powerful cultural sway.7 If psychedelics only produced hallucinations
there would still be legitimate cause for fascination, but psychedelics
also influence cultural movements, which makes them a global religious
and political force to be reckoned with.
The ritual bonding of social groups though cultural transmission of
psychedelic information is a subject that has been overlooked in almost
all psychedelic research. Not only do psychedelics produce change at
the individual level, they also produce changes at the group or tribal
level, and thus they influence change in the social structures and goals
of human culture. The spread of psychedelic information can be subtle
or explicit, starting with the creation of art influenced by the
psychedelic experience and culminating in the indoctrination of others
into the psychedelic tribe through ritual sharing of the sacrament. Once
a subject has been indoctrinated they too will spontaneously generate
psychedelic information and begin sharing that information with
others. This information process cascades from person to person until
the cultural transmission of psychedelic memes reaches a tipping point
and becomes openly adopted and even celebrated by the cultural
mainstream.

24
Cultural Integration
By conservative estimates perhaps 10-15% of the population has
ever tried a hallucinogen.8 Despite such low levels of exposure the
archetypes of psychedelic experience are well integrated into modern
culture. Psychedelic subcultures (urban tribes) are active in every city
on the planet. Annual psychedelic festivals, raves, and massives draw
tens of thousands of people together from all continents.9 Psychedelic
influences appear constantly in modern fashion, music, visual arts, film,
television, consumer products, marketing, packaging, advertising,
videogames, and so on. Despite years of prohibition the promise of
psychedelic spirituality and psychedelic therapy is still fresh in the
public imagination.10 The global cultural integration of psychedelic
information may not be complete, but it is measurably on its way.
It has only been 50 years since the cultural revolution of the 1960s,
and the speed with which psychedelics have influenced global culture is
impressive. Over the decades the use of psychedelics has jumped
generations, and each new generation rediscovers and repurposes the
psychedelic ritual for its own needs. There are religious and political
forces actively seeking to control or stop the use of psychedelics, but if
current trends continue the complete cultural integration of psychedelic
information seems inevitable. There may soon come a time when the
global majority is in the psychedelic tribe, with the uninitiated minority
 self-excluded from the ritual. When psychedelic indoctrination reaches
a majority of any population then that culture can be described as being
saturated with psychedelic information. A culture that has become
saturated with psychedelic information will naturally recognize
psychedelic ritual as a legitimate rite of passage or spiritual practice.11

Psychedelic Information Process

The psychedelic information process is an observable phenomenon
that has influenced cultures throughout history and is now affecting
modern global culture. At the center of this information process is the
pharmacological action of a small number of molecules hitting a tiny
subset of neural receptors for a relatively short duration of time. The
ongoing information process generated by this small pharmacological

25
interaction goes far beyond the normal range of what we expect drugs to
accomplish. Because psychedelics defy pharmacological rationality they
are misunderstood, feared, and revered as spiritual in origin. This
misunderstanding drives the psychedelic information process into
divergent streams of theory and mythology, creating the tapestry of
psychedelic propaganda, confusion, and disinformation we have today.
The divergence of psychedelic information and existence of
competing schools of psychedelic ideology demonstrates there is no one
objective and true psychedelic ideology; any ideology can be influenced
and amplified by the psychedelic information process. The psychedelic
information process is neutral and ideology non-specific; it applies
equally to learning, creativity, mind-control, brainwashing, mysticism,
sorcery, and healing. The psychedelic process and psychedelic
archetypes can be co-opted by any religious or political group for
personal power gain, and psychedelics can be used as weapons as easily
as they can be used as medicines or sacraments.12 The only constant
between all divergent schools of psychedelic ideology is the physical
process that stimulates the flow of novel information through human
neural networks. The study of this information process is known as
Psychedelic Information Theory.

Notes and References

1. Psychedelic information flow within any culture is a function of religion and
politics. Traditional shamanic cultures value psychedelic information as a ritual
form of bonding, healing, and discovery, and encourage psychedelic
information flow. Industrialized cultures with centralized beliefs view
psychedelic information as subversive and anti-authoritarian, and repress
psychedelic experimentation out of fear of losing centralized control.
2. A close scrutiny of late 20th century history indicates that there was a small
decline in psychedelic interest in the late 1970s and 1980s, followed by a global
resurgence of underground psychedelic interest in the 1990s, and a complete
return to psychedelic research at the turn of the 21st century. Prohibition may
slow the flow of psychedelic information, but it does not stop it.
4. The content of psychedelic hallucinations has been described vividly in many
places. See “Tripping” by Charles Hayes, or the Erowid.org Experience Vaults
for hundreds of fascinating first person accounts.
5. See Chapter 13, “Psychedelic Neuroplasticity”.
6. Gresch PJ, Smith RL, Barrett RJ, Sanders-Bush E., “Behavioral tolerance to
lysergic acid diethylamide is associated with reduced serotonin-2A receptor
signaling in rat cortex”. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005 Sep;30(9):1693-702.

26
7. Since psychoactive drugs shape politics and warfare around the world, the
claim that psychedelics are more influential on culture and cultural movements
than other drugs can be easily disputed. However, psychedelics are unique in
their ability to quickly catalyze tribal subcultures bent on spontaneous altruism,
populist activism, and free radicalism.
8. HHS/SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies, “Ecstasy, Other Club Drugs, &
Other Hallucinogens”. Internet Reference, 2008.
9. Modern psychedelic festivals can be traced to the “Be-ins” and “Acid Tests” of
San Francisco in the late 1960s, made famous by Tom Wolfe's “The Electric
Kool-Aid Acid Test”. These festivals evolved into Woodstock, the Grateful Dead
circuit, the Rainbow Family, Rave culture, Burning Man, the Boom Festival, the
Love Parade, and other gatherings around the world dedicated to psychedelic
music, art, and culture. Attendance at the largest of these annual festivals is
regularly in the tens to hundreds of thousands of people.
10. The 2006 psilocybin and mysticism study by Roland Griffiths brought new
enthusiasm to mixing psychedelic spirituality with clinical therapy.
11. It is easy to claim that traditional tribal societies are saturated with
psychedelic information, but modern society is not far behind. Western media
is filled with psychedelic imagery and fascinated by altered states. In the United
States, ayahuasca and peyote are already recognized as legitimate religious
sacraments within specific churches, and psychedelic drug experimentation is a
common rite of passage among university students.
12. Groups linked to the weaponized use of psychedelics include the Manson
Family, the SLA, Aum Shinrikyo, the CIA, and the United States Department of
Defense.
 27

Figure 4. Feedback circuits in visual perception pathways. Sensory signal in

human consciousness projects up and around the brain like a wave as
consciousness arises in distinct stages. Sensation begins with the sensory
organs and feeds into the thalamus (through the LGN for visual pathways),
which filters and routes sensation into higher areas of the cortex. Recognition
happens quickly and instinctively in the thalamus and medial temporal lobe,
focusing attention on salient information. Memory identifies incoming signal
moving upward in the cortex, passing data through parallel layers of spatial and
object recognition along dorsal and ventral pathways. Multisensory perception
finally converges in the pre-frontal cortex as a parsed reconstruction of reality
is presented for informing real-time behaviors.

28
Chapter 04

What is Consciousness?
Since this text is about the manipulation of consciousness it is
beneficial to have working definition for this term. Consciousness is
defined here as a dynamical information processing system with
specific functions and emergent operating properties, all of which are
necessary to maintain system stability.1 The minimum specific functions
for any conscious system are: 1) perception 2) recognition 3) memory 4)
recall, and 5) behavior. The minimum specific operating properties for
any conscious system are: 1) modular coherence 2) linear stability 3)
feedback control 4) adaptability, and 5) self-awareness. When all of
these functions and operating properties are working in tandem you get
something resembling human consciousness.2 When one or more of the
 five essential functions is degraded then consciousness slides into
semi-conscious, subconscious, or unconscious modes. When one or
more of the five operating properties is degraded then consciousness
becomes unstable and loses fidelity. A description of the functions and
operating properties of consciousness follows.

Five Basic Functions of Consciousness

All conscious systems rely on five basic functions to interact with
the environment in real time.

Perception

A conscious system must receive input, this input is called

perception. For humans, perceptual input is received as sense data
moving towards the brain from the peripheral nervous system.
Sensation does not become actual perception until it is routed up
through the thalamus and into higher cortical areas for processing.
Humans also perceive internal thoughts and feelings, their own external
behaviors, and small pieces of their dreams. Perception is linear, it
feeds back on itself through behavior and recall, and its

29
primary function is to observe changes in environment over time.
Errors in human perception are sometimes called hallucination.

Recognition

Data from perception is parsed and matched against known salient

patterns; this process is called recognition. Human recognition is driven
by hormonal reaction to salient patterns; patterns which have high
emotional resonance. Human recognition utilizes fast nonlinear
analysis over slow semantic analysis. Fast recognition has high utility
but low fidelity, meaning it works quickly but must be double-checked
by linear memory for accuracy. Recognition is contextual, multisensory,
associative, and its function is to find salient data in incoming
perception. Nonlinear recognition errors include false identification,
misrepresentation, and déjà vu.

Memory

All salient patterns are stored in memory. Patterns stored in

memory are matched against incoming data for recognition; they are
also matched against possible solutions for recall. In humans memory is
imprinted by emotional resonance, reinforced through linear repetition,
and potentiated though nonlinear contextual association. Human
memory has many layers; semantic, eidetic, associative, and potentially
holographic. Multi-layered human memory involves long
term potentiation and lossy compression, but this compression also
includes indexing redundancy to serve fast recall and recognition of
salient data.

Recall

Recall uses associative patterns stored in memory to make

informed decisions based on logic. Unlike recognition, which is
spontaneous and intuitive, recall uses negative feedback to inhibit
detrimental solutions and positive feedback to stimulate advantageous
solutions. Recall is cyclical and associative, meaning it can use both
negative and positive feedback to cycle through and evaluate many
hypothetical scenarios before resting on a final decision.3 The main

30
function of recall is to analyze patterns stored in memory to inform
intelligent decisions and behaviors in real time.

Behavior

A conscious system performs behaviors based on input. Human

behavior takes the form of both internal and external actions. Internal
behaviors, such as thinking thoughts and feeling emotions, transform
memory and recall into logical decisions; external behaviors translate
internal decisions into outward actions. Human behavior is linear and
serial; behaviors are performed in sequence one at a time, typically with
thoughts and emotions preceding and informing the intent of action.
Both internal and external behaviors feed back into perception, closing
the loop on the perceptual feedback process.

Operating Properties of Consciousness

When all of the functions of consciousness are up and running the
 system begins to take on certain familiar operating properties. These
basic properties are what we would expect from any conscious system,
and any conscious system that loses these properties will also become
unstable and lose fidelity of perception and memory.

Modular Coherence

In order to perform like a seamless, integrated system,

consciousness must have some means of synchronizing performance
between modular sub-functions. Functional cooperation between
different areas of the brain is measured in terms of coupled neural
oscillators, neural spike synchrony, and coherence of network
oscillations.4 Waking consciousness oscillates within the alpha and beta
ranges; high frequency gamma coherence is associated with the fast
binding of cortical networks necessary for perception and
5
consciousness. Modular coherence is the first operating property of a
conscious system; precise timing between all areas is necessary for
multisensory integration. Without coherence the modular sub functions
of consciousness lose interoperability and destabilize.

31
Linear Stability

Consciousness can perform many different functions, but it only

performs one function at a time. The functional range of consciousness
is linear and moves predictably from state to state with the passage of
time. Consciousness transitions seamlessly from one behavior to the
next. Consciousness retains state data and reacts logically to
environmental change. In conscious systems the perception of the
passage of time remains constant. The ability to remain focused on the
environment and perform sequenced, goal-oriented behaviors in real
time is an operational baseline for all conscious systems.

Feedback Control

Conscious systems must be able to monitor and control their own

stability and perform behaviors to modulate system input and output.
All conscious systems must have some form of feedback control to
retain object focus, retain state data, refine behaviors, perform state
transitions, and maintain linear stability. Without feedback control, a
dynamical information processing system is prone to output
6
exuberance, memory overload, and error.

Adaptability

A conscious system must be able to store patterns, predict

outcomes, learn new behaviors, and react to external variable change.
Adaptability and the ability to learn from experience is an
epiphenomena or spontaneous operating property of a functionally
stable consciousness. Intelligent systems that do not exhibit adaptability
only mimic some of the functions and properties of consciousness
without actually achieving full consciousness.

Self-Awareness

A conscious system must be aware of itself and be able to recognize

other conscious systems. Self-awareness is an epiphenomena of the
functions and properties of consciousness maintaining linear stability
through time. Self-awareness and the ability to recognize and interact
with other conscious systems may be the truest and most objective test
of any stable consciousness.

32
Modular Consciousness
The most dramatic way to demonstrate the fragility of
consciousness is to lose it. We sleep every night, and sleeping is a very
limited form of consciousness where most of the functions and
properties disappear. When we sleep we cannot hold state information
from one moment to the next, thus we lose contextual data and self
awareness. In dreams we have perceptions and perform behaviors, but
they are not linear nor do we have much control over them. In deep
sleep all functions of consciousness go offline and almost entirely shut
down. When we wake up these functions slowly return and then re
stabilize into an alert waking mode. Consciousness turns itself off;
consciousness turns itself back on.
Sleeping and dreaming demonstrate that the basic functions of
 consciousness are modular and interdependent; they can operate
individually as well as in specialized groupings. The modular functions
of consciousness can be switched off and on in any order without
affecting the long-term stability of the fully operational system. The
modularity of consciousness becomes evident in cases of brain trauma
or mental illnesses where the subject loses some functions of
consciousness but retains others.7 When consciousness is stable we
cannot tell it is modular; it runs as a seamless whole or an integrated
system. When consciousness destabilizes the modular units uncouple
and reveal themselves to be sub-personal pieces of a larger identity
process. The loss of multisensory perception and the splintering of
consciousness into multiple independent processes can accurately be
described as an altered state of consciousness.

Psychedelic Consciousness
If consciousness is modular and the modular functions can
interoperate in multiple configurations, it is reasonable to assume there
are multiple configurations of sub- and meta- consciousness that are
rarely explored. The linear states of consciousness we experience daily
are controlled by a top-down homeostatic regulator,8 but when we
short-circuit this regulator we find that modular sub-functions of
consciousness can be destabilized, uncoupled, and accessed in novel

33
ways. All forms of mysticism rely on radical destabilization of
homeostasis.9 EEG studies of subjects with hallucinogen persisting
perception disorder (HPPD) have shown that when the visual cortex
loses coherence with other areas of the brain and coherence among local
visual networks increases, spontaneous hallucinations are produced.10
Sensory deprivation for as little as fifteen minutes is all that is necessary
to uncouple the visual cortex and have it start producing coherent
self-sustaining hallucinations.11 This can be described as sleep onset
visualization, similar to daydreaming or lucid dreaming, and is
sometimes called the prisoner’s cinema because extended periods of
solitary confinement also produce this effect, as does macular
degeneration of the retina. This demonstrates that when modular
functions of the brain are uncoupled from top-down coherence they do
not always disappear, they may also spontaneously organize into more
locally coherent configurations. This uncoupled and locally coherent
activity can produce wandering or non-linear sensation in lower brain
areas which floats up to conscious awareness as linear perception. This
is a neat formal definition for states of dreaming, creative visualization,
and hallucination.
Psychedelic Information Theory posits that the uncoupled sub
functions of modular consciousness, acting either alone or in novel peer
groupings, are responsible for the subjective altered states classified as
hallucinogenic, dissociative, and psychedelic. All hallucinogens must
first destabilize top-down coherence of consciousness to produce novel
states of spontaneous organization between the modular sub-units; this
is how all hallucination begins. Dissociatives disrupt top-down
coherence by blocking the excitatory pathways that allow the modular
units to communicate. Psychedelics have a more subtle effect on top
down coherence; they periodically interrupt or excite the modulatory
frequency of multisensory frame binding, causing perception to
destabilize into energetic nonlinear configurations.12 By destabilizing
the top-down control of consciousness, psychedelics allow the modular
sub-functions to wander and/or interact with coupled peers in
dedicated subsystems; similar to the dedicated circuit created between
perception and memory when dreaming.

34
Destabilizing or splintering consciousness into novel configurations
is the essence of psychedelic exploration. When consciousness
bifurcates or splits, subjective perception instantly becomes more
chaotic and complex. Splintered consciousness may actually appear to
be in two places at once, stuck in a superposition between waking and
dreaming, finding stability in two simultaneous perceptual states, also
know as multi-stability a multi-stable state. Novel configurations of
splintered or multi-stable consciousness can be described as nonlinear,
complex, meta, transpersonal, depersonalized, faceted, holistic, higher
dimensional, expanded, mystical, subconscious, semi-consciousness,
and so on. Splintering, re-configuring, and rebuilding the modular sub
units of identity are techniques that may be applied in brainwashing or
 metaprogramming,13 but also fall under the rubric of mysticism and
shamanism. By subverting and re-organizing the modular functions of
linear consciousness, psychedelics expand the functional range of
consciousness to include many novel states of multi-stable complexity.
These complex perceptual states, also known as expanded states of
consciousness, are the origin of hallucination and the source of all the
psychedelic information that has influenced human mythology, religion,
art, science, and culture.

Notes and References

1. There is a popular school of thought which posits that consciousness
precedes physicality, and that for there to be atoms and molecules and galaxies
there must first be consciousness. This is a very broad definition of
consciousness which should be saved for more metaphysical discussions.
2. The functions and operating properties of consciousness described here are a
simplification of the functions of the human brain, but they are an ample
enough description for modeling human consciousness in any environment.
3. This definition of deliberative recall is simplified and based on principles of
deductive and inductive reasoning. This definition compresses a much larger
discussion on the various types of neural logic and does not account for human
emotional irrationality, but it is the minimum definition needed to model the
output of human reasoning.
4. The so-called “binding problem” of multisensory perception is approached
from a variety of directions, but current theories rely on measuring the
strength, frequency, synchrony, and resonance of spike waves propagating
through neural assemblies. There are many ways to estimate the relative
cooperation between separated brain areas based on their wave properties.
Coherence is a term used to indicate strong signal cooperation between

35
separated areas. Areas that are high in coherence may act like coupled
oscillators in a feedback circuit, or they may take the form of parallel circuits
engaged in a synchronized but distributed processing task.
5. Meador KJ, et al., “Gamma coherence and conscious perception”. Neurology
2002;59:847-854.
6. WikiPedia.org, “Control Theory”. Internet Reference, 2010.
7. The most compelling examples of mental illnesses which destabilize
consciousness are Alzheimer's disease, which affects memory, and
schizophrenia, which affects coherence and linear stability. These two examples
compress a much larger discussion of how the degradation or loss of specific
functions and operating properties of consciousness lead to specific
pathologies.
8. Top-down modulation of waking consciousness is a function of aminergic
modulation in the forebrain – serotonin and dopamine focusing and
maintaining attention – but total homeostatic regulation of brain and body is
generally considered to be a function of the hypothalamus. From WikiPedia:
“The hypothalamus co-ordinates many hormonal and behavioral circadian
rhythms, complex patterns of neuroendocrine outputs, complex homeostatic
mechanisms, and many important behaviors.”
9. Fasting, chanting, meditation, trance-dancing, isolation tanks, mind
machines, and other non-drug visionary practices are rituals designed to
destabilize homeostasis through deprivation and hypnotic repetition.
Psychedelic drugs achieve more dramatic results by directly interrupting
neuromodulatory pathways at the receptor site.
10. Abraham HD, Duffy FH, “EEG coherence in post-LSD visual
hallucinations”. Psychiatry Res. 2001 Oct 1;107(3):151-63.
11. Mason OJ, Brady F, “The psychotomimetic effects of short-term sensory
deprivation”. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009 Oct;197(10):783-5.
12. See Chapter 06, “Control Interrupt Model of Psychedelic Action”.
13. Metaprogramming is the term John Lilly chose in the text, “Programming
and Metaprogramming in the Human Biocomputer”. Splintering is a term used
in brainwashing to describe the process of breaking the subject’s identity into
multiple pieces through stress exercises, making them vulnerable to imprinting
and manipulation.

36
Chapter 05

Limits of Human
Perception
Any discussion of psychedelic hallucination is a discussion of the
 spontaneous emergence of information in human perception. Human
perception is limited by the capacity of sense organs; the speed and
architecture of the neural network; and the number of distinct
perceptions the brain can analyze at any one time. Despite functional
limitations, human consciousness is seamless, meaning that each
perception and behavior flows smoothly from one to the next. When
consciousness is stable, perception and behavior is seamlessly
integrated; when consciousness destabilizes, perception and behavior
lose cohesion until we are no longer in control of our thoughts and
actions. Destabilization of consciousness can happen all at once, in the
case of being knocked unconscious, but more often it happens
incrementally, as in going to sleep.
Psychedelics are unique in that they can both enhance and degrade
perceptual limitations by orders of degrees; psychedelics can obscure
and distort perceptual data, or they can enhance resolution and
generate expanded states of consciousness. These contrasting results
may be dose dependent, but it is also possible that psychedelics
simultaneously produce perceptual degradation and enhancement.
Psychedelic hallucinations are often described as being beyond the
limits of human imagination, a trait which is offered as de-facto
evidence of expanded consciousness or supernatural dominion. Since
the boundaries of the human imagination can be modeled with some
close degree of accuracy, any substantial discussion about the nature of
psychedelic hallucination must therefore start with some basic
assumptions about the limitations of human perception, and thus the
functional limitations of expanded consciousness.

37
The Visual Spectrum
The human visual spectrum has evolved to work best in a small
window of sunlight penetrating the Earth’s atmosphere, comprising the
white-light band seen in a rainbow; roughly the 400-790 THz
(terahertz) energy range which oscillates on the order of hundreds of
trillions of cycles per second. The smallest wavelength of visible light is
violet, which is only 380 nm (nanometers) wide and travels with the
highest frequency. Red, by contrast, is 750 nm long on the other end of
the visible spectrum, and at twice the length it travels at half the
frequency.1 Unlike some organisms, the human eye does not see into
ultraviolet or infrared rages, nor does it see microwaves, radio waves, x
rays, gamma rays, or anything that falls out of the visual spectrum. This
also applies to night vision and dark-adapted vision. The dark-adapted
eye utilizes the rod cells as opposed to the cone cells of daylight vision;
rod cells are more photosensitive and more numerous, but they lack the
color sensitivity and detail resolution of daylight rendering.2
Subjects on psychedelics often report increased luminosity and
saturation of colors, as well as halos or auras of light surrounding
objects; this implies an increase in color saturation and photosensitivity
likely related to dilated pupils associated with 5-HT2A agonism. In
closed-eye or low-light environments subjects report vividly saturated
geometric matrices rendered in swirling palettes of fluorescent purple
and neon green.3 All of these reports fall within the expected range of an
overly saturated visible color spectrum, with the dark-adapted eye
finding more sensitivity in the shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency,
violet to green ranges.
There is speculation that psychedelic hallucination is the result of
tuning the brain to receive cosmic radiation at a wider bandwidth than
normal; bands associated with electromagnetic, metaphysical,
morphogenetic, Akashic, or geomagnetic fields. This so-called spectral
argument posits that instead of producing consciousness, the human
brain acts as a radio receiver for consciousness, and psychedelics allow
the user to tune the brain to new perceptual frequencies, possibly
higher dimensional in nature. This metaphor may make intuitive sense,
but no research exists to confirm any spectral advantage to psychedelics

38
other than increased photosensitivity and some visual acuity at low
doses.4,5,6 Subjective reports indicate that psychedelics may increase
auditory or synesthetic sensitivity to electromagnetic background noise,
and the perception of energy fields or auras emanating from living
organisms is reported often enough to warrant further scientific
scrutiny, but these claims have not been tested rigorously enough to be
conclusive.7 The spectral argument is further weakened by the
observation that if the human eye can be tuned to see a novel frequency
 range, a mechanical spectrum analyzer should also be able to pick up
information on that same frequency. To date no hidden psychedelic
spiritual energy fields have been detected by even the most sensitive
spectral scanning devices.

Figure 5. Troxler’s fading illusion demonstrates temporal decay of peripheral

filling. Stare at the dot in center of image and hold eyes perfectly still for a
count of 20. The border around the dot will being to fade. Blinking or moving
the eyes will bring the fading areas back. From WikiPedia.

39
Visual Frame Aliasing
Seamless perception relies on rapid frame updating to render
external changes in real time. Humans can render changes in reality at
roughly 13-15 frames per second (fps, or Hz), which means that human
reality fully refreshes roughly once every 77 milliseconds (ms), and
open-eye saturation of peripheral filling fully fades at around 10-20
seconds (Fig. 5). Human frame perception is exploited by animation
and film, which updates at 24 fps, and television, which updates near 30
fps. Computer monitors and high-definition televisions refresh at 60 Hz
or higher, and at this rate human perception of motion is entirely
seamless.8 The rate of human frame perception corresponds roughly to
the alert beta range of waking human consciousness (12-30 Hz) seen in
EEG readings.9 Any event which happens faster than 1/60th of a second
(16.6 ms) falls between perceptual frames and is considered to be
subliminal or imperceptible to human consciousness.10 Seamless frame
rendering is also called temporal aliasing, and can be subverted by a
variety of common phenomena, including stroboscopic lights which
break motions into jerky snapshots, and wagon-wheel illusions where
rotating spokes appear to stop or spin backwards.11,12,13
In addition to retaining visual information, perceptual frames hold
the totality of multi sensory rendering. Smooth frame aliasing preserves
semantic state information from one moment to the next, and retains
fidelity of information held in working memory. There is evidence that
the brain can track multiple object layers for each frame;14 possibly
corresponding to the number of distinct items we can sustain in
working memory, which is about seven.15 Frame rendering is a
distributed cortical task modulated by the aminergic system. High
aminergic modulation of the frontal lobe is a good indicator of external
frame alertness. Any drug which interrupts the precise timing of the
aminergic modulatory system will also disrupt the seamless nature of
temporal frame aliasing in the same way that a strobe light disrupts the
motion of a spinning wheel. Temporal aliasing hallucinations include
frame stacking, frame delay, frame freezing, frame reverse, frame echo,
and infinite frame regression; all of which are considered to be uniquely
psychedelic.16 The sensation of hallucinogenic frame stacking indicates

40
that psychedelics may create a temporary frame decay buffer that allows
for simultaneous multi-frame analysis and increased complexity of
visual comprehension. Subverting or enhancing the limits of visual
frame aliasing is an indication of expanded consciousness.
 Figure 6. The peripheral drift illusion (PDI) is easily seen when this image is
in the visual periphery. Research suggests the illusion is based on temporal
differences in tracking luminance along four degrees of gradation. The four step
gradient processing produces a temporally mismatched contrast signal that
fools the peripheral motion system. WikiPedia, Faubert & Herbert, 1998.

Visual Frame Resolution

Human visual resolution is limited by a number of factors. The first
limitation is the density and distribution of retina in the eye; 130
million photoreceptors feeding into 1.2 million optic projections, with a
spatial compression ratio of roughly 100 to 1. Photoreceptors in the eye
are distributed in rings with color-sensitive cones clustering towards
the center and contrast-sensitive rods filling the periphery.17 Despite the
large number of photoreceptors the field of vision is incomplete.
Including the blind spot where the retina attaches to the optic nerve, as
much as 20% of peripheral vision contains gaps that must be filled with
progressive rendering. Incoming rings of visual data must be smoothed
into lines and shades in the visual cortex; a process that can produce
artifacts of the spatial network when destabilized.18 The smoothed

41
visual image is then passed forward in two divergent projections for
spatial and object analysis, and the finished image reaches multi-modal
convergence in the PFC (Fig. 4).19 This is a fair bit of signal juggling for
any processor to handle at 15 frames per second.
 Even though human vision employs elaborate compression and
reconstruction techniques, the human eye can detect visual detail at
resolutions into the micrometer range. From a meter’s distance the
human eye cannot detect detail under 100 micrometers in length,
making print resolutions of 300 dots-per-inch (DPI) entirely seamless.
Some estimates put the detail of human visual resolution at 14 million
pixels per the entire visual field; or by the 3D topographical field
rendering limit of 10 billion triangles per second, or 760 million
triangles per frame.8 Human detail resolution is only reliable near the
center of vision; many optical illusions exploit perceptual filling
functions of the periphery (Figs. 5 & 6).20,21,22 Given the mechanical
shortcomings of peripheral rendering, these estimates should be taken
as visual saturation points as opposed to functional capacities.
The rendering of visual information may be the most complex and
energy-intensive task of the human brain. Seamless visual perception
requires precise neural firing. When perception destabilizes the visual
field falls apart; the most commonly reported form of visual
destabilization is diplopia or double-vision. Since visual rendering is so
rich and complex, it is potentially the easiest part of the brain to
destabilize. In other words, visual rendering is so elaborate and time
dependent it can be easily fooled by hallucination and illusion.

Dreaming, Imagination, Psychosis, Hallucination

While the information resolution of imagination and dreams is

difficult to measure, it is widely agreed that dream perception is less
resolved in detail than waking perception. Dreams are incomplete;
contextual state data is not retained from frame to frame; and thus the
durability of dream data falls apart under close scrutiny. Sometimes
dreams can be vivid to the point of being indistinguishable from reality,
containing people and places and narratives that retain state

42
information over many different sequences, but more often dreams are
fleeting and half remembered, lasting only a few seconds before fading.
Visual rendering of human imagination is more durable than dreams,
 but is also very low in resolution. Humans can imagine objects, people,
and places in their minds, but human visual imagination is not typically
photorealistic. Human memory is more semantic than eidetic, meaning
that waking thoughts are mostly verbal, emotional, and only minimally
visual. Most humans can imagine basic shapes, outlines, and sensual
concepts; a smaller percentage can imagine topographical maps and
rotate 3D objects in their mind. Visualizing a simple object like a cube
or a pyramid is a cognitive task that requires full concentration; and
even at peak visualization the internalized form rarely rises beyond a
blurry silhouette. The exception to this limitation is dreaming or
daydreaming, when eidetic or photographic snapshots bubble up into
consciousness almost fully-formed. The emergence of dreamlike eidetic
information into waking consciousness is usually a spontaneous reflex;
few people have full control over photorealistic rendering of
imagination and memory.23,24
Having fully-formed visions spontaneously erupting into
consciousness is sometimes called overactive imagination,
daydreaming, vivid memory recall, eidetic memory, photographic
memory, emergent ideation, hallucination, or psychosis. Each of these
modes of internal visualization is characterized by a different intensity
and duration of imaginary detail; the more intense and durable the
phantom detail, the less it looks like imagination and the more it begins
to look like psychosis. Mediating transitions between external alertness
and internal visualization is a baseline for perceptual stability;
confusing the two would be problematic. The function of internal
visualization is activated by the medial temporal lobe and modulated by
neurotransmitter acetylcholine; psychedelics presumably activate this
function spontaneously by interrupting aminergic alertness of the
forebrain.25 If psychedelic hallucinations capitalize on the brain’s
capacity to produce vivid dreamlike images, we would expect the detail
of a psychedelic frame to match the information profile of a dream
frame; low information resolution, fleeting and erratic state data, low
formal durability from frame to frame. This means that contextual

43
information such as identity, location, and purpose would also morph
and transition many times over the period of a few seconds. If the
quality of a hallucinogenic frame matches the formal quality of a dream
frame, one could expect psychedelic visions to be of lower resolution
than normal vision; but subjective reports indicate that multiple layers
of dreaming and waking consciousness can overlap in a single frame,
creating a complex overlay of both real and imagined perceptions. Being
unable to separate imagination from reality is the clinical definition of
psychosis, but also implies an increase in potential frame information
density, which implies expanded consciousness.

Figure 7. Mandalas and calendars representing universal harmony and

knowledge. Top row: a Kalachakra time-wheel mandala; a Mesoamerican
calendar. Bottom row: a mandala of the enlightened Buddha; a mandala of the
Wheel of Life (Bhavacakra, or samsara). Nonlinear art embeds holographic
information – such as an entire cosmology – into a single image.

44
The Limits of Expanded Consciousness
 If the human imagination is infinite, and if psychedelics can expand
the capacity of human imagination, then psychedelics can paradoxically
make the infinite even more infinite. This makes sense if you accept that
infinity is a linear concept which starts at zero and goes in one direction
forever; but if infinity is bent into a series of repeating loops and spirals
then it begins to look more like a fractal than a line, and thus more
psychedelic. Human perception is linear, but humans live in a nonlinear
system. One of the basic limitations of human consciousness in the
inability to think exponentially; even with mathematics to assist us,
envisioning and predicting exponentially complex systems is a vast
conceptual hurdle. Psychedelics destabilize linear perceptions of space
and time to produce fractal states of frame layering, bifurcation, and
infinite frame recursion. This allows perception to become exponential,
to exist in multiple states at once, much like a quantum computer that
processes multiple simultaneous probabilities. If normal human
imagination is bound within the limits of linear infinity, psychedelic
perception is expanded to the limits of exponential or fractal infinity.
Psychedelic perception presents a progressive nonlinear bifurcation of
recursive self-similar information corresponding to both internal and
external perceptual space. The psychedelic layering, bifurcating, and
regression of internal and external perceptions creates a timeless,
transpersonal perspective of a fractal rendering of time and space.26
The perception of seeing all time and space unfolding as a single
unified function is a theme that has been reproduced in Eastern
mandalas and Mesoamerican calendars for thousands of years, where a
central figure sits in the center of concentric interlocking rings of reality
(Fig. 7). In Sanskrit this great wheel of time is called Kalachakra (time
wheel), and Kalachakra yoga emphasizes the interlocking self-similarity
of body cycles and celestial cycles.27 The description of Kalachakra
overlaps with Mesoamerican cyclical calendars and spiritual themes,
expressed by Maria Sabina, the Oaxacan healer who first shared the
magic mushroom known as Teonanacatl with R. Gordon Wasson.
Sabina said, “The more you go inside the world of Teonanacatl… you

45
see our past and our future, which are there together as a thing already
achieved, already happened… I knew and saw God: an immense clock
that ticks, the spheres that go slowly around, and inside the stars, the
earth, the entire universe, the day, the night… He who knows to the end
the secret of Teonanacatl can even see that infinite clockwork.”28 This is
undoubtedly a reference to Kalachakra, the great wheel of time.
Witnessing the timeless infinity of Kalachakra can be compared to
Western models of Gnosticism and Hermeticism (“As Above, So Below”)
where the pinnacle of mystical achievement is channeling the infinite
wisdom of the universal spirit;29 or early Deist notions of a God as a
great Clockmaker who set the universe in motion and let it run without
intervention.30 According to Maria Sabina’s report, the subjective
experience of the infinite clockwork is an end secret of psychedelic
vision; this is where you arrive if you follow the process of fractal
information regression to the beginning and end of all time. The
thought of experiencing Kalachakra as expressed by Maria Sabina
stretches the boundaries of believability, but the subjective reports of a
timeless, infinite psychedelic space where the size of the universe is
revealed and everything in the past and the future has already occurred
is common enough to conclude that this experience is not only possible,
but that it might be the end-point of expanded human consciousness. 31

Notes and References

1. WikiPedia.org, “Visible spectrum”. Internet Reference, 2010.
2. Miller RE II, Col (RET), “The Eye and Night Vision”. USAF Special Report,
“Night Vision Manual for the Flight Surgeon”, 1992.
3. Accounts of colors seen in tryptamine hallucinations from subjective reports.
4. Hill RM, Fischer R, “Interpretation of visual space under drug-induced
ergotropic and trophotropic arousal”. Agents Actions, 1971 Nov;2(3):122-30.
5. Fischer R, et al., “Psilocybin-induced contraction of nearby visual space”.
Agents Actions, 1970 Aug;1(4):190-7.
6. Fischer R, “Effects of psychodysleptic drug psilocybin on visual perception.
Changes in brightness preference”. Experientia, 1969 Feb 15;25(2):166-9.
7. Accounts of seeing auras taken from subjective reports. Casual tests to
confirm spectral claims have been inconclusive.
8. Michael F. Deering, “Limits of Human Vision”. Sun Microsystems,
1998. 9. WikiPedia.org, “Electroencephalography”. Internet Reference,
2010.
 46
10. WikiPedia.org, “Subliminal stimuli”. Internet Reference, 2010.
11. VanRullen R, et al., “The Continuous Wagon Wheel Illusion and the ‘When’
Pathway of the Right Parietal Lobe: A Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic
Stimulation Study”. PLoS ONE 3(8): August 6, 2008.
12. WikiPedia.org, “Wagon wheel effect”. Internet Reference, 2010.
13. Bach M, “Wagon-wheel effect”. From Michael’s Optical Illusions & Visual
Phenomena. Internet Reference, 2010.
14. VanRullen, Rufin, “The continuous Wagon Wheel Illusion is object-based”.
Vision Research Volume 46, Issue 24, November 2006, Pages 4091-4095.
15. WikiPedia.org, “Working memory”. Internet Reference, 2010.
16. See Chapter 12, “Erratic Hallucination”.
17. WikiPedia.org, “Retina”. Internet Reference, 2010.
18. Gutkin, Pinto, Ermentrout, “Mathematical Neuroscience: From Neurons to
Circuits to Systems”. Journal of Physiology - Paris 97 (2003) 209–219.
19. LeDoux, Joseph, “Synaptic Self”. Viking Penguin, NY, 2002. 20.
WikiPedia.org, “Peripheral drift illusion”. Internet Reference, 2008. 21.
WikiPedia.org, “Grid illusion”. Internet Reference, 2010. 22. Pinna,
Baingio, “Pinna Illusion”. Scholarpedia, 4(2):6656, 2009.
23. The low rendering of human visual imagination is taken from a survey of
subjective reports. The quality of internal visualization is enhanced by closing
the eyes and falling into a state like meditating or daydreaming.
24. Hobson, J. Allan, “The Dream Drugstore: Chemically Altered States of
Consciousness”. MIT Press, 2001.
25. Hobson JA, et al., “The neuropsychology of REM sleep dreaming”.
NeuroReport 9:3, pR1-R14, 16 February 1998.
26. A fractal is a nonlinear algorithms that repeats a basic set of instructions to
generate complex, self-similar, recurrent patterns from microscopic to
macroscopic to cosmic scales.
27. WikiPedia.org, “Kalachakra”. Internet Reference, 2010.
28. Schultes RE, Hofmann A, “Plants of the Gods”. Healing Arts Press,
Vermont, 1992.
29. WikiPedia.org, “Hermeticism”. Internet Reference, 2010. 30.
WikiPedia.org, “Watchmaker analogy”. Internet Reference, 2010.
31. Exploring the mystical implications of Kalachakra, the great fractal time
wheel, has filled many volumes and fueled many prophecies. There is a solid
case to be made that Kalachakra is the pinnacle of all mystical achievement; the
end of psychedelic exploration; and the endpoint of human consciousness.
Since the psychedelic Godhead is a transcendent state of timeless, infinite,
omniscient consciousness, it is doubtful that anything more complex or
expansive can ever be experienced by the human mind, marking the functional
 end-point of expanded consciousness.

47
Figure 8. Stabilized and Destabilized Perception.

Stable perception refreshes at 15 frames per second, allowing seamless update

of consciousness in the beta range of 12-30 Hz, indicated by the wave. At this
refresh rate objects and textures can be rendered with high precision.
When the precise frame refresh rate of perception is interrupted, consciousness
destabilizes and begins to track overlapping information from multiple
receding frames. Destabilization, feedback, and latency of frame refresh creates
sensory echo and complex frame interference patterns.

48
Chapter 06

The Control Interrupt

Model of Psychedelic
Action
The brain is an information processing organ that uses top-down
signal modulation to control the flow of bottom-up sensory input.
Feedback modulation of incoming signal is an example of self stabilizing
control in an information processing system. Using the tenets of
cognition and control theory it is possible to describe a model in which
hallucinogens periodically interrupt the top-down modulatory control
of perception to create sensory interference patterns, multisensory
frame destabilization, and altered states of consciousness.

Bottom-up Perception, Top-Down Control

What we perceive as waking consciousness is a synthesis of bottom
up sensation modified by top-down expectation and analysis.1 Incoming
sensation is gated by the top-down focus of subjective attention.
Inhibitory feedback subtracts background noise while excitatory
feedback resolves and amplifies salient data. This configuration
describes a signal filter-amplifier with an inhibitory excitatory feedback
loop to control signal focus and content discrimination. The top-down
filtering and focusing of sensory signal is an autonomic reflex and is
perceptually seamless; the brain blocks background noise, transitions
focus, and recognizes objects without disrupting subjective frame
 continuity. Without the ability to control incoming sensory signal with
feedback, perception would become under-constrained, distracted,
overloaded, exuberant, and error-prone. Under-constrained internal
sensory noise entering into multisensory awareness would be perceived
as hallucination.

49
Constraint, Control, and Feedback Inhibition
Feedback excitation is applied in sensory circuits to amplify salient
input, but the majority of the brain’s feedback circuits are inhibitory,
meaning that human consciousness is more constrained than
unconstrained. In dynamical information processing systems, signal
constraint and error correction is applied through negative feedback to
subtract or cancel perturbation and noise entering the signal circuit;
this is known as control theory. In sensory networks, such as the layers
of the cortex or the retina, fast inhibition is applied laterally to boost
contrast discrimination in line detail; this is called lateral inhibition.
Fast inhibition in the cortex can also be applied from the bottom-up as
well as laterally, this is called the synaptic triad of fast inhibition.
Inhibition can also be applied from the top-down, allowing the logical
cortex to filter or ignore noisy input from the thalamus; this is called
top-down feedback inhibition, and it is typically tonic, meaning top
down feedback is inhibitory over many consecutive spike trains to
control extended periods of channeled focus. When the brain is alert
and focused, this means it is highly constrained by inhibitory feedback.
When people express their fears about psychedelics, the most
commonly voiced concern is the fear of losing control. Common
entheogenic wisdom states that you must relinquish control and submit
to the experience to get the most out of psychedelics. Holding onto
control causes negative experiences and amplifies anxiety. Metaphors
for control and submission are applied to psychedelics because
hallucinogens subvert various forms of feedback control, allowing
perception and behavior to become unconstrained and unpredictable.
Extreme states of under-constrained perception would include sensory
saturation, sensory echo, synesthesia, hallucination, disorientation, and
confusion. Extreme states of under-constrained behavior would include
mania, hysteria, paranoia, euphoria, and as the system becomes totally
overloaded, catatonia.
Loss of feedback restraint in a dynamical information processing
system causes output to become exuberant and unpredictable; this is
called deterministic chaos, or chaos in deterministic systems. In order
for a perceptual system to transition from a linear to a chaotic or

50
nonlinear state, negative feedback control must be removed or
subverted by a periodic driving force. If control is entirely removed then
perception becomes totally unconstrained, leaving a system that is
quickly overloaded with too much information. If control is placed in a
partially removed state, or in a toggled superposition where it is
alternately in control and not in control over the period of a rapid
oscillation, then the constraints of linear sensory throughput will
bifurcate into a nonlinear spectrum of multi-stable output with signal
complexity correlating to the method of control interruption.

The Control Interrupt Model of Psychedelic Action

Before the mind can start hallucinating, the top-down modulatory
control of consciousness must first be interrupted. Interrupting top
down control of consciousness allows the mind to destabilize into novel
information processing configurations. When top-down control of
waking consciousness is destabilized, neural oscillators in the brain will
spontaneously organize into coherence with the most energetic local
drivers. This process can be described in terms of oscillator entrainment
and resonance; when the modulatory driver maintaining global
oscillator coherence is interrupted, uncoupled oscillators will naturally
fall into synchrony with most energetic periodic drivers in the
environment.2 In this state, the normally inflexible configurations of
consciousness and perception become extensible and open to the
influence of environmental feedback. This explains why psychedelics
create synesthesia or cross-sensory representations of energetic sensory
drivers, and why set and setting have a profound influence on the tone
and content of a psychedelic experience.
When top-down modulatory control of consciousness is
 interrupted, the seamless nature of multisensory perception degrades
and the subject begins to experience hallucinations (Fig. 8). Early
indicators of modulatory interruption include periodic high-frequency
distortion or noise in sensory networks. In tactile networks this periodic
interruption may be felt as parasthesia, or phantom tingling and
pulsating; in visual networks it may be perceived as phosphenes, or
strobing or flickering of light intensity, possibly fast enough to produce

51
geometric hallucinations; in audio networks it may be perceived as
tinnitus, ringing, humming, buzzing, or tones that cycle up and down in
pitch. These are all descriptions of field-based hallucinations generated
in response to periodic interruptions along multisensory signal
pathways. The speed and intensity of the control interrupt, and thus the
speed and intensity of the hallucinations, are a direct result of the
hallucinogen’s pharmacodynamics and method of ingestion.

Figure 9. Using an Attack-Decay-Sustain-Release (ADSR) envelope we can

model the intensity of hallucinogenic interrupt for any drug. From WikiPedia.

Control Interrupt Envelopes

Using control interruption as the source of hallucinogenesis, we can
model hallucinogenic frame distortion of multisensory perception the
same way we model sound waves produced by synthesizers; by plotting
the attack, decay, sustain, and release (ADSR envelope) of the
interruption as it effects consciousness (Fig. 9).3,4 For example, nitrous
oxide (N20) inhalation alters consciousness in such a way that all
perceptual frames arise and fall with a predictable “wah-wah-wah” time
signature. The throbbing “wah-wha-wah” of the N20 experience is a
stable standing wave formation that begins when the molecule hits the
neural network and ends when it is metabolized, but for the duration of
N20 action the “wah-wah-wah” completely penetrates all modes of
sensory awareness with a strobe-like intensity. The N20 sensation is
often described as a soft tingling, throbbing, or buzzing that grows to
consume all sensation.

52

Figure 10. Modeling the interrupt envelope for N2O and Salvia we can see N2O
has a hard but rounded attack and decay. In contrast Salvia has a slightly faster
and more intense ADSR profile, describing a slightly more biting and
disorienting effect on multisensory perception.

Taking into account the subjective reports of N20 action, the

periodic interrupt of N20’s “wah-wah-wah” can be modeled as a
perceptual wave ambiguity that toggles back and forth between
saturated consciousness and semi-consciousness at roughly 8 to 11
frames-per-second, or @8-11 Hz (hertz).5 Consciousness rises at the
peak of each “wah” and diminishes in the valleys in between, growing in
 sustained intensity with each cycle until the subject passes out. On sub
anesthetic doses, N20 creates a looping effect where frame content
overlaps into the following frame, causing a perceptual cascade similar
to fractal regression. We can thus model the interrupt envelope of N20
as having a rounded attack, fast decay, low sustain, medium release,
with an interrupt frequency of @8-11 Hz. Any psychoactive substance
with a similar frequency and shape of interrupt envelope will produce
results that feel similar to the N20 experience (Fig. 10). For instance,

53
Smoked Salvia divinorum (vaporized Salvinorin A&B, or Salvia) has an
interrupt envelope similar to N20, except Salvia has a slightly faster
interrupt frequency (@12-15 Hz), a harder attack, a slightly longer
decay, a more intense sustain, and a slightly longer release.6 These slight
changes in the frequency and shape of interrupt envelope cause Salvia
to feel more physically intense, more hallucinatory, and more
disorienting than N20, even though they share a similar throbbing or
tingling sensation along the same pathways and frequency range.
Using interrupt envelopes we can contrast smoked Salvia or inhaled
N20 with vaporized DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), which when
smoked has similar onset and duration to both substances but very
different hallucinogenic effects. Unlike the slow throbbing periodicity of
N20 or Salvia, vaporized DMT produces an interrupt frequency
associated with a high-pitched carrier wave and high-speed frame
flicker (24-30+ Hz). The frequency of DMT’s interrupt is so rapid the
entire body ramps up in panicked response to the new driver. The rate
of DMT’s visual frame flicker is fast enough to instantly produce
geometric hallucinations and fully realized animations.7 Taking these
subjective effects into account we can model DMT’s interrupt envelope
as having a moderate attack, long decay, medium sustain, long release,
and high frequency (24-30+ Hz). The moderate attack means DMT’s
perceptual frame interference is less of a physical throbbing than N20,
but because of a higher frequency and longer frame release the
rendering of DMT hallucination is more fluid, detailed, seamlessly
aliased, and fades longer over a higher number of frames.
The interrupt envelopes modeled here are approximate and based
on reported subjective effects, but may also give some insight into the
pharmacodynamics of each substance.8 Following the logic of the
Control Interrupt Model, it can be assumed that each hallucinogen has a
unique interrupt envelope based on receptor affinity, receptor density,
rate of metabolism, and so on, and each unique interrupt envelope
creates a distinct type of interference pattern in multisensory
perception. The interrupt envelope for any substance will also change if
the substance is ingested orally as opposed to vaporized or injected; the
speed of absorption into the bloodstream will naturally affect the
intensity of ADSR values. This is why each psychedelic can produce

54
unique sensations and hallucinations, and why each psychedelic can
produce subtle variations in the speed and intensity of hallucination
depending on method of ingestion.9
By modeling the interrupt envelope of a psychoactive substance it is
possible to accurately predict its subjective results on multisensory
perception. Non-drug sources of hallucination, such as those caused by
psychosis, deprivation, fever, or schizophrenia, may also have unique
and quantifiable control interrupt envelopes related to erratic
multisensory frame modulation.

Control Interrupt and Shamanism

If consciousness must have a top-down control frequency to remain
stable, and psychedelics produce a periodic interruption of this control
frequency, then the interaction between the perceptual control
frequency and the periodic interruption can be described as a wave
interference pattern in global oscillator coherence. Subjects on
moderate doses of psychedelics can override the hallucinogenic
interrupt and retain global coherence via energetic physical movement
or repetitive behaviors like chanting or dancing. Conversely, if the
subject lies motionless, then the interruption fully destabilizes alert
consciousness into a depersonalized dreamlike trance.10 These reports
indicate that even though psychedelics destabilize top-down
modulatory control of consciousness, feedback control and linear
system stability can be entrained back into coherence via external
periodic drivers, including rhythmic motor activity, drumming, singing,
chanting, rocking back and forth, dancing, and so on. It is no accident
 that these are also the basic formal elements of shamanic ritual.
In physical terms, the shaman is the primary energetic driver, or
resonator, stabilizing attractors within the chaotic hallucinogenic
interference pattern created in the consciousness of the subject. In the
mathematics of nonlinear dynamics, this phase-locking action is similar
to deterministic chaos seen when entraining limit cycles in a forced Van
11
der Pol oscillator. By prescribing a psychedelic substance, the shaman
introduces the control frequency interrupt, and through ritual craft and
showmanship the shaman applies harmonic interference to navigate

55
and influence the tone and texture of the trip. By mixing the
hallucinogenic control interrupt with a harmonic periodic driver the
shaman can entrain expanded states of consciousness and manipulate
the subject’s mind with high precision. The precision wave-based
manipulation of neural oscillators within the psychedelic state can be
called applied psychedelic science, physical shamanism, or Shamanism
in the Age of Reason.

Notes and References

1. Corlett PR, Frith CD, Fletcher PC, “From drugs to deprivation: a Bayesian
framework for understanding models of psychosis”. Psychopharmacology
(Berl). 2009 November; 206(4): 515–530.
2. WikiPedia.org, “Entrainment (Physics)”. Internet Reference, 2009.
3. ADSR envelopes were chosen as the best available shorthand for
approximating differences in the tone and texture of each hallucinogen as it
interrupts consciousness. Arguably a more precise model could be employed,
but using ADSR compresses a longer discussion on how to precisely model
intensity and onset of subjective hallucinogenic effects.
4. WikiPedia.org, “ADSR envelope”. Internet Reference, 2009. 5. N20
interrupt envelope is an approximation based on subjective reports. 6.
Salvia interrupt envelope is an approximation based on subjective reports.
7. DMT interrupt envelope is an approximation based on subjective reports.
8. Most receptor interactions occur on the order of microseconds, so attempting
to model pharmacodynamics based on rate of subjective frame interruption
may be impossible, or require complex statistical interpretations.
9. ADSR envelopes will change slightly for any substance depending on dose
and speed of absorption into the bloodstream, but beyond that they may also
change depending on the purity of hallucinogen. For instance, if an LSD
experience is described as “clean”, this means the hallucinogenic interrupt is so
subtle that it is almost invisible; this also implies purity of the LSD. In contrast,
when an LSD experience is described as “dirty” or “jagged”, this means the
interrupt induces transitions in consciousness that are abrupt and unpleasant;
this also implies the LSD is adulterated or has not been sufficiently purified. It
is widely accepted that if one batch of LSD induces a soft interrupt envelope
with a wiggly and sensual attack, that same LSD should produce similar result
for everyone. The same would be true for LSD that produces a jagged and
abrupt attack. If a pure sample set could be acquired and tested, it may be
possible to model precise interrupt frequencies and ADSR envelopes for every
known psychoactive substance.
10. Reports taken from subjective accounts and corroborated over multiple
subjects and experiences.
11. Kanamaru, T., “Van der Pol oscillator”, Scholarpedia, 2(1), 2202, (2007).

56
Chapter 07

Psychedelic
Pharmacology

Figure 11. Glutamate ad GABA, the neural messengers for go and stop.
Glutamate excites neurons and promotes spiking, GABA inhibits spike trains.

Sensory signal traveling through the brain is mediated by

glutamate, an excitatory chemical messenger. Sensory signal is filtered
by GABA, an inhibitory messenger GABA (Fig. 11). The precise spike
timing of these messengers is tuned by neuromodulators, which
synchronize spiking across the entire brain. Most hallucinogens are
structurally similar to the modulators which tune global spike timing,
such as serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and
dopamine (DA) (Fig. 12). All of these chemicals are classified as amines,
meaning that they have a nitrogen (N+) containing amino group
 hanging off a root carbon ring. This nitrogen structure is the key
element in any amino acid, carrying the energy needed for metabolic
processes which do work. Since these transmitter chemicals have only
one nitrogen group they are called monoamines, and they are the
essential messengers of the aminergic neuromodulatory system.
Monoamines entering the bloodstream are normally kept out of the
brain by the blood-brain-barrier, but psychedelic molecules have a
neutral charge so they are able to pass. When these amine crystals pass
through the blood-brain barrier they brush against neural receptor
sites; if the receptors are a good fit then the crystals get stuck for a short

57
period of time. The bonding of amine ligands to serotonin and
dopamine receptors is where psychedelic action begins.1,2
Figure 12: Psychedelic amines look very much like the endogenous
neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. On the left are
the adrenal-promoting catecholamines, amphetamines, and phenethylamines;
on the right are the indoleamines, also called tryptamines, and their
hallucinogenic counterparts. LSD, a synthesized molecule, is also an
indoleamine, but is more structurally engineered than its organic counterparts.

58
Serotonin and the Tryptamines
Because of depressive mood disorders and pharmaceuticals like
Prozac, the most well known neuromodulator is serotonin, or 5-HT (5-
hydroxytryptamine). 5-HT is essential to many basic brain functions,
linked to mood, depression, contentment, learning, anxiety, sleep,
appetite, and the regulation of involuntary smooth muscles that control
blood pressure and digestion. Serotonin is an indoleamine and a variant
of tryptamine, which is the most basic of all the indoleamines and the
structural starting point for DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), 5-
MeO-DMT, psilocin, psilocybin, DPT, AMT, and most psychedelic drugs
with acronyms ending in T (which stands for Tryptamine). LSD is also
an indoleamine, but it is larger and more complex than organic
indoleamines, and is in many ways structurally unique.

Dopamine and the Phenethylamines

 Working in concert with serotonin is the neuromodulator dopamine
(3-hydroxytyramine). Dopamine is synthesized from L DOPA and is
instrumental in modulating salient attention, motivational response,
and fine motor control. Dopamine is central to the reward system, and
dopamine release is stimulated by recreational drugs, food, gambling,
sex, and physical risk taking. Dopamine imbalances are linked
Parkinson’s disease, ADD, compulsive risk behavior, and psychosis. The
role of dopamine interruption is relevant to psychedelic activity in many
aspects; psychedelics may affect sensuality and motor control, and may
facilitate psychosis, mania, and compulsive behaviors.
Amphetamines and the phenethylamine group of psychedelics
(mescaline, 2-CB, MDA, MDMA, and so on) are more structurally
similar to dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, which are also
monoamines but sometimes referred to as catecholamines since they
are based on the single catechol ring structure. Epinephrine and
norepinephrine are referred to as stress hormones because they prime
the body’s adrenal production and energy response to stress and
danger. The phenethylamines and catecholamines all have the six
carbon benzene ring backbone, simpler than the dual-ring tryptamine

59
structure, with at least one amine group. The simplest form of this
molecule is called phenethylamine, and is similar to amphetamine. In
very general terms, the phenethylamine psychedelics are said to be
more energetic, sensual, empathogenic, or entactogenic, while
tryptamine psychedelics are thought to be more hallucinogenic,
disorienting, and somatically heavy. These descriptions are very broad,
but this is the popular distinction made between the two major classes
of psychedelics.

Neuromodulators and Global Brain States

Serotonin, dopamine, and the other monoamines don’t cause
neurons to fire, they instead tune the spiking rate of neurons, which
means they adjust global network polarity over time to make neural
assemblies more or less responsive to stimulus. Serotonin and
dopamine are projected into higher areas of the brain from nuclei in the
brainstem and middle brain, meaning they are primal signaling
mechanisms for modulating many areas of the brain simultaneously.
The axons from these aminergic clusters reach upward to many areas of
the cortex, affecting the thalamus (sensory filter), amygdala (fear and
survival), hypothalamus (homeostatic regulator), hippocampus
(memory and learning), and neocortex (sensory and logic processing).
Neuromodulators synchronize the neural response to incoming
stimulus and keep local competing brain circuits functioning smoothly
and in unison. These neuromodulators produce a one-way bottom-up
effect, which means they are switched on and off reflexively and
unconsciously by glands in the brainstem and basal forebrain in direct
response to internal conditions or external stimulus. With
neuromodulators the brainstem can exert global homeostatic control
over organism mood and behavior. The effect of the aminergic
modulators projected upward by the brainstem are tonic, which means
their signaling effects are sticky and persist over the duration of many
incoming spike trains.
Generally serotonin is thought to have a polarizing effect on
neurons, making them less likely to fire and thus having an overall
relaxing effect on the brain. This is why many depression and anxiety

60
remedies focus on increasing the supply of serotonin; to decrease
anxiety and increase satisfaction. If we assume psychedelics are mimics
for neurotransmitters and apply this analogy to DMT, we would expect
DMT to have a calming effect on the brain because it looks similar to
serotonin. But a flood of DMT does not calm the brain, it makes it
hallucinate. Since DMT binds to the same receptor sites as serotonin
but does not produce a relaxing effect, it would be logical to assume that
DMT is a 5-HT antagonist, meaning it blocks serotonin and depolarizes
neurons, making them more excitable. This is not the case. There are
many different types of 5-HT receptors, some inhibit neural activity and
some promote neural activity. Like most hallucinogens, DMT is
classified as a selective 5-HT2A partial or full agonist; also active at other
5-HT subtypes, at DA receptors, at adrenal receptors, at Sigma 1
receptors, and at tertiary amine receptors. This means that DMT is
active at many receptor sites and can mimic the agonistic functions of
 serotonin with varying affinity and efficacy.
5-HT2A partial agonism can be described as a subtle form of
aminergic modulatory signal interference. In the most general case it
can be assumed that psychedelic activity is due to interference at 5-HT
receptor subtypes. In more specific cases we can assume that visual
hallucinogenic effect is associated with 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor
interaction. Somatic heaviness and dreaminess is associated with
broader aminergic interaction; and more sensual, entactogenic, or
compulsive effects are associated with dopamine and adrenergic
receptor interaction. Psychedelics can have a wide affinity and interact
as partial or full agonists at multiple receptor subtypes to produce a
wide range of effects.
Because psychedelics are full or partial agonists acting on the same
modulatory pathways as 5-HT, the synergistic interaction between these
competing agonists can be described in terms of a modulatory wave
interference pattern. Agonistic interference at 5-HT subtypes promotes
disinhibition and cross-excitability between feedback
coupled assemblies in the brain. Excitation and loss of feedback
inhibition in the circuits responsible for processing sensation and
perception lead to spontaneous self-sustaining feedback hallucinations.
Prolonged states of feedback excitation between the circuits which

61
process perception and memory leads to infinite working memory
regression and expanded states of psychedelic consciousness.

Molecular Shape, Receptor Affinity, MAO Metabolism

The strength and duration of the bond a ligand forms with a
receptor is referred to as receptor affinity or potency, and is described in
terms of pharmacodynamics. The higher the affinity, the stronger and
longer the ligand bonds with a receptor, thus influencing neural activity.
Research has shown that 5-HT2A receptor affinity is an accurate measure
of the potency of any psychedelic compound; the higher the affinity the
higher the potency and psychedelic effect.4,5 Another thing we know is
that the conformational shape of the amine determines how long the
molecule takes to metabolize and how sticky it will be at 5-HT receptor
types.6 For instance, the amine tail of LSD is different from other
tryptamines; it is long, complex, and connects back to the benzene ring,
keeping it rigid instead of flexible like most amino groups or
substitutions. Designer amines with a similarly rigid molecular
structure have also shown a marked increase in psychedelic potency.7
Using this information it can be assumed that the unique structure
of LSD is what makes it so potent; giving it a high affinity across a wider
range of receptor types; making it more difficult to metabolize; and
giving it a broader range of effect over a longer duration. DMT also
binds to a wide variety of 5-HT receptor types, but it is smaller and
metabolizes very quickly. When DMT is taken with a monoamine
oxidase inhibitor (MAOi) in an ayahuasca mixture, the enzymes which
metabolize DMT are blocked, making the hallucinogenic effects of DMT
orally active and longer lasting. Adding an MAOi to any tryptamine
psychedelic will make it nearly twice as hallucinogenic.8 These few
pieces of pharmacology tell us that the efficacy of modulatory
interruption, or psychedelic potency, can be somewhat predicted by
molecular shape, the rigidity of the molecular structure, and speed of
metabolic pathways. If metabolic pathways are degraded by synergistic
dosing, as in an ayahuasca mixture, then the potency of the drug
increases over the duration of effect in direct proportion to the latency
of metabolism.

62
 Table 1: Popular psychedelic drug affinities across aminergic receptor targets
listed in order of 5-HT2A receptor affinity, with dopamine (D1) and adrenal
receptors on the right. A value of 4.00 indicates high affinity at that target; any
value under 2.00 should be considered imperceptible. Three non-psychedelic
control molecules are listed at the bottom for comparison. From Ray, 2010.3

Breadth of Psychedelic Receptor Binding

Table 1 lists the binding strength of popular psychedelic drugs at
many 5-HT receptor sites, listed in order of 5-HT2A affinity.3 This table
should be an accurate representation of hallucinogenic potency of
various psychedelics in descending order. From subjective reports all
substances at the top of this list are very hallucinogenic, but DMT,
which is often considered to be the most hallucinogenic, actually falls
somewhere in the middle. If we also look at 5-HT2C affinity, which is
implicated in hallucination, we can see that all substances at the top of
the list also have high 5-HT2C affinity, with DMT and DOI having
slightly higher affinity than the rest. 5-HT7 receptor affinity, which
stimulates cAMP activity and the reward system, also seems to be
implicated in overall transcendent psychedelic action, with the

63
mystically popular DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, and LSD topping the affinity list
for these receptors.
In contrast, there are four non-visual psychedelics at the bottom of
the list, 5-MeO-DMT, DiPT, Mescaline, and MDMA. These substances
have very poor 5-HT2A,2C affinity, but all have a high 5-HT2B and adrenal
affinity; this indicates they are effective at stimulating serotonin
production, cardiovascular activity, and acute sensuality. 5-HT2B
affinity is quite high for all samples in this list with the exception of
DMT and 5-MeO-DMT, making 5-HT2B affinity a good indicator for
purely sensual or entactogenic effect. It is interesting to note that DiPT,
Mescaline, and 5-MeO-DMT all have a high 5-HT1A affinity, which is
generally thought to work in contrast to 5-HT2A agonism to promote
well-being and satisfaction. DiPT is unusual because it produces distinct
audio hallucinations and little or no visual hallucinations, and
predictably does not bond with 5-HT2A,2C receptors implicated in visual
hallucination. By analyzing this affinity table it seems possible to predict
the relative potency and effect of any hallucinogen based solely on
binding profiles, though the three control molecules at the bottom of the
list (6-F-DMT, Lisuride, 4C-T-2) are reportedly non-hallucinogenic
despite high 5-HT receptor promiscuity; this is likely because they are
not active as agonists, they are antagonists, or their binding profiles are
not synergistic and somehow cancel each other out.

Dissociatives, Anticholinergics, Other Hallucinogens

Psychedelic tryptamines and phenethylamines are not the only
hallucinogens, but all hallucinogens work by interrupting sensory
processing pathways. Hallucinogenic dissociatives like ketamine
(special K), phencyclidine (PCP), and dextromethorphan (DXM) block
NMDA glutamate sensory signaling pathways; these pathways mediate
fast sensory signal projection through the brain. Anticholinergic
deliriants like scopolamine and atropine interrupt cholinergic
modulation of memory, recall, and dreaming; these pathways mediate
the smooth input and output of memory from the hippocampus. Salvia
divinorum interrupts kappa-Opioid tactile sensory pathways; these
pathways mediate pain, gravity awareness, and sensation for

64
determining physical orientation in space. Depressants like GHB and
alcohol activate inhibitory GABA pathways, pathways which dampen
and slow smooth sensory throughput. Nitrous Oxide (N20) is the
simplest and perhaps the most promiscuous of all hallucinogens,
worming its way in between a number of rudimentary signaling
pathways to produce anesthetic tingling, dissociation, and out-of-body
emergence. Although the pharmacological targets of hallucinogens may
differ, in all cases perceptual distortion is linked directly to interruption
of seamless multisensory signaling and representation across the
cortex. Any drug which interrupts pathways of multisensory signaling
or binding will be considered psychedelic or hallucinogenic at high
enough doses, which is why so many different types of plants and
chemicals can be uniquely hallucinogenic across many different
receptor targets.

Notes and References

1. Snyder S, “Drugs and The Brain”. Scientific American Books, 1986.
2. Cooper JR, et al., “The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology”. Oxford
University Press, NY, 7th ed., 1996.
3. Ray TS, “Psychedelics and the Human Receptorome”. PLoS One. 2010; 5(2):
e9019.
4. Glennon RA, et al., “Evidence for 5-HT2 involvement in the mechanism of
action of hallucinogenic agents”. Life Sci. 1984 Dec 17;35(25):2505-11.
5. Sadzot B, et al., “Hallucinogenic drug interactions at human brain 5-HT2
receptors: implications for treating LSD-induced hallucinogenesis”.
Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1989;98(4):495-9.
6. McLean TH, Parrish JC, Braden MR, Marona-Lewicka D, Gallardo-Godoy A,
Nichols DE, “1-Aminomethylbenzocycloalkanes: conformationally-restricted
hallucinogenic phenethylamine analogues as functionally-selective 5-HT2A
receptor agonists”. J Med Chem. 2006 Sep 21;49(19):5794-803.
7. Sattelkau T, “An Interview with Dave Nichols”. Trip Magazine, V5, Spring
2000, p 42.
8. Subjective reports of taking an MAO inhibitor with psychedelic tryptamines
such as DMT, psilocybin, LSD, and 5-MeO-DMT confirm that the addition of an
MAOi increases potency and hallucination by an order of magnitude. MAOi
potentiation can come from plant sources, such as the harmala alkaloids found
in Peganum harmala seeds and Bandisteriopsis caapi vine, but is particularly
intense with a pharmaceutical source like moclobemide.

65
Figure 13. Layers of the neocortex. Sensory signal rises from the thalamus
through intermediary cortical layers to the dendritic arbors at the top layer, the
very outer membrane of the cortex, where the highest density of 5-HT2A
receptors are expressed. The dendrite arbors in layer I connect back down to
the large layer V pyramidal cells, which bind multisensory data via lateral
projections, recurrent ascending projections, and reciprocal thalamocortical
feedback loops. From Grey’s Anatomy, modified.

66
Chapter 08

5-HT2A Agonism and

Multisensory
Binding
Most visual hallucinogens are active as full or partial agonists at the
5-HT2A receptor subtype, and all produce similar visual hallucinations
that are immediately recognizable as psychedelic.1 Although the 5-HT2A
receptor subtype is not the only receptor implicated in
hallucinogenesis,2 it is one of the most studied hallucinogenic targets
and offers some insights into the nature of psychedelic action. 5-HT2A
receptors are ubiquitous throughout the nervous system, found in the
sensory cortex, the frontal cortex, the olfactory cortex, the basal ganglia,
the cerebellum, the hippocampus, thalamic nuclei, brainstem nuclei,
sensory neurons, platelets, fibroblasts, intestines, smooth muscles, and
cardiovascular systems.3,4,5,6 By following the pathways of 5-HT2A
modulated signal transduction through the human organism it is
possible to extrapolate that psychedelic experience is not limited to
mere hallucination, but is instead a complex multi-layered experience
integrated throughout all biological signaling systems.
The layering of cellular signaling systems mediated by 5-HT
provides a framework for viewing the 5-HT2A pathway as a primary
modulator for homeostatic regulation of multisensory awareness,
behavior, and learning.7 5-HT2A receptor agonists, also known as
hallucinogens, promote disinhibition and excitability in 5-HT mediated
pathways, indicating that psychedelic action is the product of
spontaneous excitation and self-sustaining feedback in 5-HT mediated
signaling pathways. The most obvious effects of 5-HT2A agonism are
real-time perceptual distortions, or hallucination, but given the wide
distribution of these receptors, there are also bound to be more subtle
holistic effects on respiration, metabolism, cellular activity, memory,
learning, and long term behavior.
 67
5-HT2A receptor mechanics
The 5-HT2A receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), which
means it does not activate ion channels or directly alter cell polarity, but
instead sets off a chain reaction of intracellular signaling systems
involving phosphatidylinositol (PI) hydrolysis, the production of
inositol trisphosphate (IP3), the release of calcium (Ca2+), and the
activation of protein kinase C (PKC) as well as various mitogen
activated protein kinases (MAPK).6,8,9,25 PKC regulates a variety of
cellular functions at the membrane, including signal transduction,
receptor desensitization, and synaptic formation and strengthening
responsible for learning and memory.10 MAPK regulates fundamental
intracellular functions in the cytoplasm and nucleus such as gene
expression, proliferation, cell growth, and survival.26 It is interesting to
note that Salvinorin A, another potent hallucinogen, also stimulates
PKC and MAPK signaling pathways via kappa-Opioid receptors.28,29,30
These receptor-mediated secondary pathways undoubtedly play a role
in psychedelic neuroplasticity and cellular regeneration,27 but the
stimulation of secondary messengers is not always necessary for
hallucination and psychedelic effect.

Layer V pyramidal cells and perceptual binding

In the human brain the highest density of 5-HT2A receptors are
expressed on the dendrites of cortical layer V pyramidal cells,3,4,5,6,8 and
the highest density of layer V dendrites project upward into the dendrite
arbors of cortical layer I, the very outward surface of the brain
(Fig. 13). 5-HT2A receptors in the dendritic arbors of pyramid cells are
primarily responsible for modulating asynchronous (late) glutamate
release in the wake of strong incoming spike trains,1,11,12 presumably for
enhanced top-down aliasing, latent reconstruction, and memory
imprinting of salient sensory data.13 Sensory signal rising to the
dendrites of the cortical surface encodes a highly detailed
reconstruction of external perception for latent real-time analysis and
progressive perceptual filling. Multiple layers of the neocortex have
descending columnar dendrites or ascending recurrent axon collaterals
to provide real-time sensory feedback to latent apical rendering layers,
 68
allowing a seamless representation of perceptual motion to be
synchronized across the cortex. Cortical layer V neurons receiving input
through apical dendrites are one of the primary conduits for binding
coherent sensory perception across the entire cortical surface.14
Layer V pyramidal cells are unique in that they mediate multiple
pathways of perceptual feedback analysis.14,15 For example, in the visual
cortex layer V pyramidal cells are responsible for synchronizing
corticothalamic activity with the thalamus via descending axons; they
mediate feedback discrimination in columnar circuits via recurrent
collaterals ascending through Layers I-IV; they mediate reciprocal
interareal connections via laterally branching arboreal and basilar
dendrites; and they mediate afferent cortico-cortical signal flow to the
pre-frontal cortex (PFC) along both dorsal and ventral processing
streams. Through lateral, vertical, elliptical, and recurrent feedback
connections, layer V pyramidal cells bind multisensory frame data
across the cortex with a functional refresh rate of roughly 15 to 30
frames-per-second (FPS), which means these neurons must process and
neutralize incoming sensory spike trains at roughly every 30-60
milliseconds.16 Loss of precise synchrony and coupling in these circuits
would necessarily lead to loss of temporal fidelity in multisensory frame
binding. Agonism, disinhibition, excitation, and nonlinear amplification
in layer V recurrent circuits would necessarily lead to global
multisensory frame aliasing errors, feedback synesthesia, and eventual
perceptual overload.

Destabilization in thalamocortical feedback loops

The most potent psychedelics are 5-HT2A receptor agonists; the
highest density of 5-HT2A receptors are in the dendrites of layer V
pyramidal cells; layer V pyramidal cells bind information in feedback
projections throughout the brain. Taking these factors into account it is
reasonable to assume that psychedelic hallucinogenic activity is due to
nonlinear signal destabilization and amplification via disinhibition
recurrent layer V feedback projections. Psychedelic hallucination is
achieved by partial or full agonism along recurrent layer V binding
junctions; the introduction of a competing agonist in the 5-HT2A
 69
modulatory system leads directly to loss of inhibition, under constrained
perception, and self-sustaining excitation in autonomic sensory
processing circuits. Destabilization of layer V projections is most acute
where signal travels in recurrent loops or feedback circuits that resolve
and react to incoming sensory data in real time. The primary circuits for
binding real-time sensation include the cortico striato-thalamo-cortical
(CSTC) loops, and the more distributed cortico-thalamo-cortical
feedback loops (or thalamocortical loops) which pass information from
the cortex either through the basal ganglia or directly back into the
thalamus for discriminating and gating attention of incoming signal
flow. These loops can be described as attention-controlled feedback
filters which drive and stabilize external perception and behavior. CSTC
loops provide real-time sensory feedback for fine-tuning eye
movements, motor reflexes, emotional responses, and cognitive value
placed on stimulus.17 Destabilization in signal coupling along
thalamocortical feedback pathways will necessarily lead to problems
with sensory gating, multisensory frame resolution, working memory,
and seamless temporal aliasing.
There are specific entopic perceptual effects one would expect to see
as a result of instability in thalamocortical feedback loops between the
thalamus to the visual cortex, such as a subtle flickering or pulsing of
light intensity; geometric grids and matrices; the perception of halos or
auras around light sources; increased luminosity of reflective objects;
the softening of line and texture resolution; and the inability to hold
sharp focal contrast between foreground and background in depth
perception.18 Sensory filling in the visual periphery relies on fast
temporal aliasing of signal for motion detection, and this time
dependent temporal aliasing can be subverted by optical illusions which
create a sense of movement in the periphery (Figs. 6,23). A competing
5-HT2A agonist would necessarily disrupt the precise inhibitory timing
in the cortical columns needed for peripheral edge detection and
sensory filling, leading to shifting line and depth ambiguities in the
periphery along predictable pulse cycles. If the rate of multisensory
frame saturation or neutralization was slowed or interrupted by even a
few milliseconds, incoming sensation would begin to layer over itself
 70
with increasing levels of smoothing, liquidity, and phantom frame echo
decaying in the wake of sensation.19
5-HT2A receptor agonists can destabilize multisensory perception in
a number of ways. The most general explanation is that 5-HT2A agonists
introduce a competing excitatory impulse that disrupts the precise
timing of sensory binding in the apical dendrites and recurrent circuits
of the thalamus and cortex. Evidence indicates that 5-HT2A agonists
promote a late release of glutamate from layer V pyramidal cells
following strong incoming spike trains, resulting in the generation of
asynchronous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs).1,11,12
Asynchronous EPSCs in recurrent sensory circuits are normally helpful
for resolving important perceptual data, but if the subject is unable to
inhibit evoked EPSCs caused by exogenous modulators (hallucinogens),
this late signaling action can lead to glutamate flooding and tonic
sensory saturation in perceptual neural assemblies, which is consistent
with manic self-sustained states of hallucinogenesis.20
There is evidence that 5-HT2A agonists lead to lateral disinhibition
in the cortex by blocking presynaptic uptake of 5-HT at the lateral
inhibitory synapse, or by overriding tonic GABAB inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) with asynchronous EPSCs at the
lateral-inhibitory synapse.21,22 Loss of inhibition at the lateral synapses
in columns of the visual cortex would lead directly to shifting and
wiggling in peripheral line, texture, and contrast resolution. As
thalamocortical feedback circuits become increasingly disinhibited,
they may fall into coherent self-sustaining states of under-constrained
23
perception, promoting phantom sensory activity such as hallucination
and spontaneous dream filling in the corners of the eyes. In the
disinhibited or under-constrained psychedelic state, mild stimulus may
not provoke hallucinogenic response, but intense stimulation would
drive sudden localized feedback coherence, signal amplification, and
resulting frame saturation and latency errors. The sudden shift from
stabilized brain focus to states of elicited, recurrent thalamocortical
feedback excitation can be described in terms of a nonlinear, non
equilibrium phase transition caused by energetic sensory drivers.15
 71
5-HT2A cross-agonism and organism re-modulation
Looking beyond the cortex, it is worth mentioning that 5-HT2A receptors
are also found in the midbrain, olfactory systems, the brainstem,
intestines, and all over the body in smooth muscles and cardiovascular
systems. There is some evidence that 5-HT2 agonists have a secondary
effect at the locus ceruleans in the brainstem (LC), promoting adrenal
activity in the presence of strong sensory drivers.1 Sensory driving of
adrenal release may promote a synesthetic burst of emotional intensity
accompanying any strong multisensory experience. There is evidence
that 5-HT agonist hallucinogens inhibit sensory gating in the thalamus,
allowing more raw sensation to flood the cortex;17 this is consistent with
decreased gating and nonlinear feedback amplification in
thalamocortical loops. A common early side effect of hallucinogen use is
stomach tightening and intestinal cramping; this is undoubtedly due to
5-HT2A agonism interfering with modulation of smooth muscle
contraction in the gut. 5-HT2A cross agonism in the intestines can lead to
nausea and purgation, and reports of intense hallucinations typically
increase immediately following release of intestinal discomfort.24 This
indicates that radical interruption and re-modulation of all 5-HT2A
pathways, from the intestines to the cortex, may be a common precursor
to peak psychedelic experiences and states of intense bodily
transcendence.
Because of the multiple systems affected by 5-HT2A receptor
agonism, it would be overly reductive to point to a single pathway as
being responsible for full psychedelic activation. The synergistic effect
of multi-layered 5-HT2A agonism is felt subjectively as a throbbing or
pulsation of energy which suffuses the entire body, builds in strength
and complexity, and culminates in a cathartic multisensory release of
highly charged transformative content. At the sensory level, glutamate
flooding saturates perception. At the emotional level, adrenal response
drives sensual intensity. At the frame level, aminergic interference leads
to disorientation and loss of temporal ego cohesion. At the cognitive
level, aminergic destabilization drives irrationality, depersonalization,
and hallucinogenic dream states. At the circulatory level, 5-HT2A
agonism promotes vasoconstriction and increases blood

72
pressure. At the somatic level, an interruption of digestive functioning
drives metabolic function and energetic intracellular signaling. At the
organism level, the holistic effects of prolonged 5-HT2A agonism become
nonlinear, meaning they feed back on themselves and begin to generate
complex energetic output in response to sensory input over time. This
multi-layered organism activation can be formally described as a
runaway biological feedback process, or a nonlinear cellular signaling
loop, which drives increasing cellular activity and complexity over the
full duration of synergistic agonism.

Notes and References

1. Aghajanian GK, Marek GJ, “Serotonin and Hallucinogens”.
Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999 Aug;21(2 Suppl):16S-23S.
2. Ray TS, “Psychedelics and the Human Receptorome”. PLoS One. 2010; 5(2):
e9019.
3. Burnet PW, et al., “The distribution of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptor mRNA
in human brain”. Brain Res. 1995 Apr 3;676(1):157-68.
4. Forutan F, Estalji S, Beu M, et al., “Distribution of 5HT2A receptors in the
human brain: comparison of data in vivo and post mortem”. Nuklearmedizin.
2002;41(4):197-201.
5. Pompeiano M, Palacios JM, Mengod G., “Distribution of the serotonin 5-HT2
receptor family mRNAs: comparison between 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors”.
Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1994 Apr;23(1-2):163-78.
6. WikiPedia.org, “5-HT2A Receptor”. Internet Reference, 2010.
7. Azmitia EC, “Serotonin and brain: evolution, neuroplasticity, and
homeostasis”. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007;77:31-56.
8. Nichols DE, “Hallucinogens”. Pharmacology & Therapeutics Volume 101,
Issue 2, February 2004, Pages 131-181.
9. Urban JD, et al., “Functional selectivity and classical concepts of quantitative
pharmacology”. J Pharmacol Exp Ther.;320(1):1-13. Epub 2006 Jun 27.
10. WikiPedia.org, “Protein kinase C”. Internet Reference, 2010.
11. Aghajanian GK, Marek GJ, “Serotonin, via 5-HT2A receptors, increases
EPSCs in layer V pyramidal cells of prefrontal cortex by an asynchronous mode
of glutamate release”. Brain Research V 825, 1-2, 17 April 1999, Pages 161-171.
12. Aghajanian GK, Marek GJ, “Serotonin Induces Excitatory Postsynaptic
Potentials in Apical Dendrites of Neocortical Pyramidal Cells”.
 Neuropharmacology Volume 36, Issues 4-5, 5 April 1997, Pages 589-599.
13. Spratling MW, “Cortical Region Interactions and the Functional Role of
Apical Dendrites”. Behavioral and Cog. Neuroscience Rev., 1-3 (2002) 219-228.
14. Jones EG, “Thalamic circuitry and thalamocortical synchrony”. Philos Trans
R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2002 Dec 29;357(1428):1659-73.

73
15. Lumer ED, Edelman GM, Tononi G, “Neural dynamics in a model of the
thalamocortical system. II. The role of neural synchrony tested through
perturbations of spike timing”. Cereb Cortex. 1997 Apr-May;7(3):228-36.
16. See Chapter 05, “Limits of Human Perception”.
17. Vollenweider FX, Geyer MA, “A systems model of altered consciousness:
integrating natural and drug-induced psychoses”. Brain Res Bull. 2001 Nov
15;56(5):495-507.
18. See Chapter 10, “Entopic Hallucination”.
19. See Chapter 12, “Erratic Hallucination”.
20. Geyer MA, Vollenweider FX, “Serotonin research: contributions to
understanding psychoses”. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008 Sep;29(9):445-53.
21. Kass L, Hartline PH, Adolph AR , “Presynaptic uptake blockade hypothesis
for LSD action at the lateral inhibitory synapse in Limulus”. The Journal of
General Physiology, Vol 82, 245-267.
22. Shao Z, Burkhalter A, “Role of GABAB receptor-mediated inhibition in
reciprocal interareal pathways of rat visual cortex”. J Neurophysiol. 1999
Mar;81(3):1014-24.
23. Behrendt RP, “Hallucinations: synchronisation of thalamocortical gamma
oscillations underconstrained by sensory input”. Conscious Cogn. 2003
Sep;12(3):413-51.
24. Accounts of hallucinogens causing stomach unease and intestinal cramping
taken from surveys of subjective reports.
25. Watts SW, “Activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway via
the 5-HT2A receptor”. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998 Dec 15;861:162-8.
26. WikiPedia.org, “Mitogen-activated protein kinase”. Internet Ref., 2010.
27. See Chapter 13, “Psychedelic Neuroplasticity”.
28. Belcheva MM, et al., “μ and κ Opioid Receptors Activate ERK/MAPK via
Different Protein Kinase C Isoforms and Secondary Messengers in Astrocytes”.
J Biol Chem. 2005 July 29; 280(30): 27662–27669.
29. Bohn LM, “Mitogenic Signaling via Endogenous κ-Opioid Receptors in C6
Glioma Cells: Evidence for the Involvement of Protein Kinase C and the
Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Cascade”. J Neurochem. 2000
February; 74(2): 564–573.
30. Bruchas MR, et al., “Kappa Opioid Receptor Activation of p38 MAPK Is
GRK3- and Arrestin-dependent in Neurons and Astrocytes”. June 30, 2006 The
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 281, 18081-18089.
 74
Chapter 09

What is Nonlinear
Hallucination?
Psychedelic Information Theory invokes nonlinearity to describe
the perceptual effects of hallucination, but the term nonlinear has a
variety of definitions which are sometimes confusing or unclear. To
clarify the nonlinearity of psychedelic hallucination, the following is a
description of formal nonlinear dynamics, broader definitions of
nonlinear systems, and how each of these definitions may apply to
psychedelic perception.

Nonlinear Systems
Nonlinear systems can be defined in terms of the complexity of
output in proportion to input, also described in terms of sensitivity to
initial conditions. The output of changes in a linear system are simple
and can be modeled with a line on a graph. In contrast, the output of a
nonlinear system feeds back on itself and becomes chaotic and complex;
simple small changes in initial conditions will result in unpredictable
and exponentially divergent data sets that cannot be easily predicted. In
mathematical terms, the results of a nonlinear system begin to
bifurcate, diverge, or split into multiple possible data points the farther
out you attempt to resolve them. The results of a nonlinear system
cannot be modeled with a linear function because linear functions plot
 sequential or additive complexity; nonlinear functions plot exponential
or geometrically expanding complexity. The mathematical study of
nonlinear systems has resulted in chaos theory, complexity theory, and
the analysis of self-amplifying recursive systems such as fractals and
cellular automata. Renderings of nonlinear systems output are
1
considered to be of high intrinsic beauty, (Fig. 14) and the repeating
forms and patterns are often perceived as spiritual or

75
mystical because they are isomorphic of chaotic or nonlinear systems in
biology, nature, and the cosmos.

Figure 14. “Electric Sheep” fractals selected for an aesthetic voting

experiment. Images chosen for intrinsic natural beauty. From Taylor, 2008.1

Nonlinear Consciousness
 The physical world is a complex nonlinear system, but human
consciousness perceives reality as a single linear sequential narrative
that moves predictably forward in time. The linearity of perception is an
indication that consciousness is producing stable, predictable output. If
perception suddenly diverges into multiple unpredictable outputs for
the same linear input, this is an indication that consciousness has
destabilized and become nonlinear. A video feedback loop is an good
example of a nonlinear perceptual system; each frame

76
captures itself and the receding previous frame, and then itself and two
receding frames, and then itself and three receding frames, and then
itself and four receding frames, and so on, feeding back on itself at 30
frames per second until complexity recedes into chaos and infinity (Fig.
15). This is the mathematical definition of nonlinear system generating
fractal complexity, or chaos, through an iterated map or recursive
frame-stacking feedback loop.

Figure 15. A video feedback loop creates a nonlinear system isomorphic of a

fractal, where from recedes inward on itself, spiraling towards infinite
complexity in under a second. From Hofstadter, 2007. 2

Other examples of nonlinear consciousness may be less classically

 nonlinear, meaning not generating exponential complexity, but still
lacking in linear formalism. For instance, consciousness may perceive
itself to be in multiple places at once; it may perceive multiple data sets
for the same input; it may see multiple different perspectives of the
same scene; it may move sideways or backwards or completely outside
of linear time. These would all be considered nonlinear perspectives of
consciousness. Dreaming can be associatively nonlinear, which means
narrative content moves unpredictably from state to state while
retaining some tangential linearity. Psychedelics are famous for being

77
progressively nonlinear, which means incoming sensation saturates
perception and begins to stack over itself, generating increasing
complexity of sensual intensity through time.

Phenomenology of Nonlinear Perspectives

By definition, a nonlinear system produces results with increasing
complexity over time. In a linear perspective a human will parse a literal
analysis of each object and then move on to the next object. In a
nonlinear perspective the subject produces increasingly complex
perceptual results for each object held in focus for the duration of that
focus. For instance, a subject staring at a rock in a linear state may
notice interesting shapes, textures, or colors; in a nonlinear state that
same rock may provoke thoughts and visions of the birth of the universe
and the origins of suns and planets and all solid matter leading up to the
formation of that very rock. The linear perspective sees literal, formal
attributes of the rock in the moment; the nonlinear perspective sees the
rock as a temporary clump of energy bound in a cosmic information
system receding forwards and backwards to the beginning and end of
time. The metaphor of seeing the entire universe in a rock can also be
applied to emotional epiphanies, autobiographical insights, passing
fantasies, paranoid delusions, and so on. Whatever the focus of
nonlinear perception, the object held in focus will be amplified with
increasing salient complexity the longer it is held in focus.
The endless complexity of nonlinear perception can cause the
subject to fall into perceptual loops which spiral, bifurcate, and recur
with the formal qualities of a fractal (Figs. 1, 14). Frame information
stacked in nonlinear psychedelic perception iterates on the order of 2 to
16 times a second, depending on drug and dose range, allowing for
increasingly complex renderings of nonlinear information to the point
of total sensory overload. Because of the quickly bifurcating complexity
of nonlinear object analysis, the information produced in a nonlinear
state emerges into consciousness much faster than information
produced in a linear state. The production of fast, nonlinear data in the
psychedelic state is often described as a download; an inconceivably
large amount of information that compiles into memory almost

78
instantly. The only way this amount of information can be processed
through the brain is via nonlinear analysis; linear attempts to formalize
psychedelic nonlinear information into words or pictures typically fall
short of capturing the holistic perspective.

Nonlinear Hallucination
There are many colorful examples of nonlinear hallucination.
Seeing geometric grids, webs, and spirals are nonlinear artifacts of
destabilization of coupled oscillators in optic networks. Subjective
reports indicate that DiPT produces unique nonlinear pitch
transposition in audio networks, causing subjects to hear sounds
modulated down an entire octave or more depending on the pitch and
volume of stimulus. Auditory echoes, visual motion trails, and phantom
tactile sensations are recursive artifacts of perceptual frame feedback.
Perceiving multiple perspectives for the same input is a nonlinear
bifurcation of multisensory coherence. Perceiving dream images
superimposed over external space is nonlinear destabilization of visual
memory recall. Seeing the formal boundaries of solid objects bend and
melt into each other is a nonlinear destabilization of contrast and edge
detection. Hearing a voice on the television or radio speaking directly to
you is a nonlinear destabilization of semantic parsing and sequencing.
Skipping time, missing time, or moving sideways or backwards in time
is a nonlinear destabilization of temporal frame buffering. The basic
tenet of psychedelic hallucination is that hallucinations move
progressively from linear to nonlinear complexity depending on dose
range and duration of effect; the higher the dose of the hallucinogen, the
more disproportionately nonlinear, unpredictable, and complex
perception will become in response to stimulus over time.

Notes and References

1. Taylor RP, Sprott JC., “Biophilic fractals and the visual journey of organic
screen-savers”. Nonlinear Dynamics Psychol Life Sci. 2008 Jan;12(1):117-29.
2. Hofstadter DR, “I am a Strange Loop”. Basic Books, March 26, 2007.

79
Figure 16. Spatial-relationship mapping between retinal cells with associated
areas of the striate (visual) cortex. Images hitting the funnel and spiral ringed
networks of the eye must be translated to lines and shades in the cortex for
visual rendering. Geometric hallucinations, phosphenes, and entopic form
constants arise from destabilization in (a) distance and (b) orientation selective
retinal-cortical coupling. From Bressloff, 2002, Gutkin 2003.

80