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FIRST YEAR ZOOLOGY – CHAPTER WEIGHTAGE

UNIT CHAPTER SCORE WEIGHT

1 THE LIVING WORLD 1

4 ANIMAL KINGDOM 9

III 9 BIOMOLECULES 5

17 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES 3

18 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 5

19 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 3

20 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 2

21 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 5

22 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 6

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Chapter 1

THE LIVING WORLD

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

➢ First introduced by Carolus Linnaeus.

➢ The scientific name of an organism has two names.

Rules of Binomial nomenclature

• Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics.

• The first word in the name represents genus name and second word represent species name.
• If handwritten both the word should be underlined separately.
• The genus name should start with capital letter and species name should start with small letter.
Eg:- Mangifera indica Linn.

Author citation – Last part of the biological name

It is the abbreviated name of the author after the species name.
ICBN - International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
ICZN - International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

Taxonomic hierarchy

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae

Phylum/Division Chordata Arthropoda Angiospermae Angiospermae

Class Mammalia Insecta Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae

Order Primata Diptera Sapindales Poales

Family Hominidae Muscidae Anacardiaceae Poaceae

Genus Homo Musca Mangifera Triticum

Species sapiens domestica indica aestivum

Taxonomic Man Housefly Mango Wheat

hierarchy (Homo sapiens) (Musca domestica) (Mangifera indica) (Triticum aestivum)
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Species - Individual organisms with fundamental similarities as a species.

taxon - Each category in represents (unit of classification) a taxon

Taxonomical Aids

Types Specimen Nature

Herbarium Plants Dead
Botanical Garden Plants Live

Herbarium - Store house of plant specimens that are dried, pressed and preserved on sheets.

Important Botanical Gardens

Kew Garden - England

Indian Botanical Garden - Howrah
National Botanical Research Institute - Lucknow

KEY - Identification of plants and animals based on the similarities and dissimilarities.
Keys are based on the contrasting characters generally in a pair called couplet.
Flora - Habitat and distribution of plants of a given area.
Manuals - Information for identification of names of species found in an area.
Monographs - Contain information on any one taxon.

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Chapter 1

ANIMAL KINGDOM
LEVEL OF
PHYLUM SYMMETRY COELOM IMPORTANT CHARACTER EXAMPLES
ORGANISATION
1. Aquatic animals Sycon, Spongilla & Euspongia
PORIFERA 2. Water canal system
Asymmetry Cellular level
(SPONGES) (ostia spongocoel osculum
3. Choanocytes present
1. Cnidoblast present Hydra, Adamsia, Physalia,
COELENTERATA 2. Metagenesis present (Polyp & Medusa Pennatula & Gorgonia
(CNIDARIA) Acoelomate form alternate in life cycle)
Radial symmetry Tissue level 3. Coelenteron (gastrovascular cavity) present.
CTENOPHORA 1. Comb plates present Pleurobrachia & Ctenoplana
(COMB JELLIES) 2. Bioluminescence present
1. Flame cells (Excretory organ)present Taenia – Tape worm
PLATYHELMINTHES Organ & Organ Fasciola – Liver fluke
2. Endoparasites
(FLAT WORMS) system level
4. Hooks & suckers present
1. Alimentary canal complete Ascaris – Round worm
ASCHELMINTHES
Pseudocoelomate 2. Sexual dimorphism present Wuchereria – Filarial worm
(ROUND WORMS) Ancylostoma – Hook worm
1. Metamerism present Nereis, Hirudinaria &
ANNELIDA Bilateral symmetry Pheretima
2. Closed circulation present
(SEGMENTED WORM)
3. Nephridia for excretion
ARTHROPODA 1. Chitinous exoskeleton present Honey bee, Silk worm,
(JOINTED 2. Open circulation present Laccifer,
APPENDAGES) 3. Malpighian tubule (Excretory organ)present Locusta & Limulus
MOLLUSCA Organ system 1. Calcareous shell present Pila, Pinctada, Sepia, Loligo,
(SHELLED ANIMALS) level 2. Radula (rasping organ) present Octopus, Aplysia & Dentalium
Coelomate Asterias, Echinus, Antedon
ECHINODERMATA Larvae bilateral 1. Exclusively marine
(SPINY BODIED) Adult radial 2. Water vascular system present Cucumaria & Ophiura
1. Worm like marine animals Balanoglossus & Saccoglossus
HEMICHORDATA 2. Proboscis gland (excretory organ)
Bilateral symmetry 1. Notochord present
2. Pharyngeal gill slits present
CHORDATA
3. Nerve cord dorsal, hollow and single
4. Post anal tail present

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Chordata Nonchordata Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes

Notochord Present Notochord absent All are marine fishes It includes both marine and
fresh water fishes
Nervous system dorsal, Nervous system ventral, They have cartilaginous They have bony endoskeleton
hollow and single solid and double endoskeleton
Pharyngeal gill slit Pharyngeal gill slit absent Mouth is ventral Mouth is terminal
present
Post anal tail present Post anal tail absent Gill slits separate Four pair of gills covered by
without operculum operculum
Ventral heart Dorsal heart Skin contains placoid Skin is covered with
scales cycloid/ctenoid scales
Air bladder absent Air bladder present
Eg:-Shark, Trygon Eg:- Exocoetus, Clarius
Flight adaptations of Birds
1. Presence of feathers 2. The forelimbs are modified into wings
3. Pneumatic bone (hollow with air cavity) present 4. Air sacs present in lungs
Chordata

Protochordata Vertebrata

Urochordata Cephalochordata Agnatha(Jaws absent) Gnathostomata (Jaws present)

Eg:- Ascidia, Salpa Eg:- Amphioxus Super class

ClassCyclostomata Pisces (Bear fins) Tetrapoda(Bear limbs)

Eg:- Myxine & Petromyzon Class Class

1. Chondrichthyes 1. Amphibia
Class 2. Osteichthyes 2. Reptilia
3. Aves
4. Mammals
“All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates”
In vertebrata, notochord is present in the embryonic stage. It is replaced by bony vertebral
column in adult stage.
Parapodia - Lateral appendages of Nereis which help in swimming.
Limbless amphibia - Ichthyophis.
Cloaca - A common chamber into which alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open is called
cloaca. Present in amphibia, Reptilia and Aves.
Oviparous mammal (Egg lying) - Ornithorhynchus (Platypus).
Warm-blooded or Homoiothermous – Animals that are able to maintain a constant body temperature.
Eg :- Aves (birds) and mammals
Cold-blooded or Poikilothermous :- Animals that lack the capacity to regulate their body temperature.
Eg :- Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia and Reptilia.
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Identify the figures and name the phylum/animals/its function

(a) - Coelomate
Eg :- Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropods,
Echinoderms, Hemichordates and Chordates
(b) – Pseudocoelomate
Eg :- Aschelminthes
(c) - Acoelomate
Eg :- Platyhelminthes
(a) Diploblastic
Eg :- Coelenterates

(b) Triploblastic
Eg :- Platyhelminthes to chordates

(a) Radial symmetry

Eg :- Coelenterates, Ctenophores and
Echinoderms

(b) Bilateral symmetry

Eg :- Annelids to chordates

Chordata

Cnidoblast / Cnidocytes
Function :- Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage,
defense and for the capture of prey.

Bony fishes
(a) Hippocampus
(b) Catla

Cartilaginous fishes
(a) Scoliodon
(b) Pristis

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CHAPTER 9
BIOMOLECULES
Primary metabolites Secondary Metabolites
The biomolecule directly involved in The biomolecule not directly involved in growth and
physiological activity development
Eg:- Aminoacids, Sugars, Lipids, etc. Eg:- Alkaloids, flavonoids, rubber, antibiotics etc
Aminoacids
Organic compound containing both amino R group Name of Aminoacid
(-NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) group. R=H Glycine
Aminoacids are the building units of protein R=CH3 Alanine
R= CH2OH Serine

1. Acidic aminoacid – Glutamic acid

2. Basic aminoacid – Lysine
3. Neutral aminoacid - Valine
Nucleotides
Building units of nucleic acids Nitrogen base Nucleoside Nucleotide
Nucleoside = Pentose sugar + Nitrogenous base Adenine Adenosine Adenylic acid
Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group Thymine Thymidine Thymidylic acid
Guanine Guanosine Guanylic acid
Cytosine Cytidine Cytidylic acid
Uracil Uridine Uridylic acid
Major Biomolecules
A. Polysaccharides B. Protein C. Nucleic Acids d. Lipids
Polysacchrides Protein (Polypeptides)
Long chain of sugars Heteropolymer of aminoacids
Monosacchrides are building blocks Protein act as transport molecule, hormones or enzymes
Glycosidic bond:- In a polysaccharide, Peptide Bond :- In a protein aminoacids are linked by
monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic peptide bond.
bond
Eg:- Cellulose – Polymer of glucose Eg :- Collagen – Most abundant protein in animals
Inulin - Poymer of fructose RuBisCO – Most abundant protein in plants
Chitin – Complex polysaccharides GLUT-4 – Enables glucose transport into cells

NUCLEIC ACIDS LIPIDS

Nucleic acids are polynucleotides They are simple fattyacids
Nucleotides are the building blocks Fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol
Nucleotides contain Lipids are grouped into monoglycerides,
a. Heterocyclic nitrogen containing diglycerides and triglycerides.
compound
Purines – Adenine & Guanine Eg:- Palmitic acid, Arachidonic acid
Pyrimidines – Thymine, Uracil & Cytosine Lecithin – phospholipid present in cell membrane
b. Pentose Sugar
Ribose – in RNA
Deoxyribose- in DNA
c. Phosphoric acid

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Phosphodiester bond- The bond between the two nucleotides is called phosphodiester bond
DNA Structure – Watson & Crick Model (B- DNA Model)
1. DNA exist as double helix 2. The two strands are antiparallel
3. Sugar-phosphate- sugar form the backbone 4. ‘A’ pair with ‘T’ by two hydrogen bond (A=T)
5. ‘G’ pair with ‘C’ by three hydrogen bond 6. Each strand appear as helical strand
7. One full turn contain ten base pairs 8. Pitch of the helix is 34 Ao
Protein Structure
Primary Structure Secondary Structure Tertiary Structure Quaternary
Structure
• The sequence of • The helically coiled • Folded structure of • A complex
aminoacids in Protein structure of protein Protein structure formed
• Give positional • Only right handed helix is • Three dimensional by the association
information of observed structure of Protein of more than one
aminoacids polypeptide.
• Eg:- Haemoglobin

Enzymes:- Enzymes are biocatalyst. All enzymes are protein

Ribozymes:- RNA act as enzymes

Mode of enzyme Action

• Each enzyme has a specific site for binding

substrate
• Substrate bind to the active site of the enzyme
• The Enzyme –substrate complex (ES) is formed
• The ES complex reduces the activation energy
• This helps to break the bond in substrate to
form Product
• Enzyme-Product complex (EP) is formed
• The enzyme releases the product

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Factors affecting Enzyme Action

Temperature/PH Substrate concentration
• On increasing temperature or PH the enzyme • Increasing the substrate concentration increases
activity increases. the rate of enzyme action at first
• The temperature/pH at which the activity of • The rate of enzyme action reaches to maximum
enzyme is maximum is called Optimum value (Vmax) at particular concentration of
Temperature/pH substrate
• An increase in temperature/pH beyond optimum • This is due to the saturation of enzyme.
level decreases its activity.

Competitive Inhibition of Enzyme Action:- If the inhibitor molecule closely resembles the substrate it bind
to the active site of the enzyme and inhibit the activity of enzyme
Eg:- Inhibition of Succinate dehydrogenase by Malonate
Km Value – It the value of concentration of substrate at which the velocity is half its maximum value
Classification & Nomenclature of enzymes
Type Activity Reaction
Catalyse the oxidation reduction
Oxidoreductases/Dehydrogenases S red. +S’ oxd. S oxd. +S’ red.
reaction

Transferases Catalyse the transfer of group S-G + S’ S +S’-G

Catalyse the hydrolysis of ester,
Hydrolases
ether, C-C, C-halide or P-N bond
Catalyse the removal of group
Lyases cx-cy c=c + xy
from substrate
Catalyse the inter conversion of
Isomerases
isomers
Catalyses the linking of two
Ligases
compounds

Components of Enzyme

Apoenzyme (Protein Part) Co-factor (Non- protein part)

Prosthetic group Co-enzyme Metal ion

Tightly bound organic molecule Loosely bound organic molecule Inorganic ion
Eg:- Haem in peroxidase Eg:- Niacin in NAD or NADP Eg:- Zn in carboxy peptidase

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CHAPTER 17
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

Breathing
The process of exchange of oxygen from the atmosphere with carbondioxide produced by cells.
Respiratory organs in animals
Organ Animals
Skin Earthworm
Trachea Insects
Gills Aquatic arthropods, Molluscs & Fishes
Lungs Terrestrial animals

Human respiratory system

External nostril Nasal cavity Nasopharynx Pharynx Larynx

Alveolus Bronchioles Bronchi Trachea

Lungs :- The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli forms the lung
Pleura :- The membrane Covering the lungs
Epiglottis :- Opening of trachea called glottis is covered by cartilaginous flap called epiglottis.
It prevents the entry of food into trachea.
Respiratory volumes
Inspiratory Reserve Tidal Volume Expiratory Reserve Volume Residual volume
volume
IRV TV ERV RV
➢ Additional volume of air ➢ Volume of air inspired ➢ Additional volume of air ➢ Volume of air remaining in
a person can inspire by or expired during a person can expire by a the lung after forcible
a forcible inspiration normal respiration forcible expiration expiration
➢ 2500-3000ml ➢ 500ml ➢ 1000-1100 ml ➢ 1100-1200 ml
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
➢ Total volume of air accommodated in lungs at the end of forced inspiration TLC= IRV+TV+ERV+RV
Vital capacity (VC)
➢ The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forced expiration
➢ VC= IRV+TV+ERV
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
➢ Total volume of air that a person can inspire after a
normal expiration IC= IRV+TV
Expiratory Capacity (EC)
➢ Total volume of air that a person can expire after a
normal inspiration EC= TV+ERV
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
➢ Volume of air remain in the lungs after a normal
expiration FRC = ERV+RV

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Mechanism of Breathing
Inspiration Expiration
➢ Breathing in of atmospheric air ➢ Breathing out of alveolar air
➢ The diaphragm contracts ➢ The diaphragm relaxes and dome shaped
➢ External intercostal muscle contract and lift the ribs ➢ Intercostal muscle relax
➢ Sternum raised; diaphragm flattened ➢ Sternum return to orginal position
➢ Thoracic volume Increases ➢ Thoracic volume decreases
➢ Pulmonary pressure decreases ➢ Pulmonary pressure increases

Exchange of Gases
Diffusion is the basic principle behind gas exchange
It depends on the partial pressure of oxygen and carbondioxide.
Blood Blood
Alveoli Tissue
Respiratory Gases (Deoxygenated) (Oxygenated)
(mm Hg) (mm Hg)
(mm Hg) (mm Hg)
O2 104 40 95 40
40 45 40 45

Transport of Gases
O2 Transport CO2 Transport
➢ By two methods ➢ By three methods
➢ 97% transported by RBC (Oxyhaemoglobin) ➢ 70 % transported as bicarbonate
➢ 3% dissolved through plasma ➢ 20-25% transported by RBC (carbamino-haemoglobin)
➢ About 7% dissolved through plasma
Oxyhaemoglobin :- oxygen bind with haemoglobin in reversible manner to form Oxyhaemoglobin

Oxygen Dissociation Curve

➢ A sigmoid curve obtained when percentage saturation of
haemoglobin is plotted against partial pressure of oxygen.

Factors favourable for Factors favourable for

formation of oxyhaemoglobin dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin
➢ High pO2 ➢ Low pO2
➢ Low pCO2 ➢ High pCO2
➢ Lesser H+ ion concentration ➢ High H+ ion concentration
➢ Lower temperature ➢ Higher temperature

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Transport of Carbon dioxide

a. Carbamino-haemoglobin :- CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin.
b. Carbonic anhydrase :- The enzyme present inside the RBC, which reversibly convert CO2 to bicarbonate.

Regulation of Respiration

➢ Respiratory rhythm centre present in the medulla region is the primary centre for breathing
regulation.
➢ Pneumotaxic centre present on the pons region of brain moderate the activity of respiratory rhythm
centre.
➢ A chemosensitive area adjacent to rhythm centre is activated by high concentration
of CO2 and H+ ion.
➢ Chemosensitive area signal the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustment.

Disorder of Respiratory System

1. Asthma
2. Occupational respiratory disorder
3. Emphysema :-
Chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged, decreasing the respiratory surface area.
Cigarette smoking is the major cause of emphysema.

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Chapter 18
BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION
Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue consisting of plasma and formed elements.

Plasma (55%) Formed Elements (45%)

➢ 90-92% of plasma is water

➢ 6-8% protein Erythrocytes Leucocytes Platelets
➢ Three types of proteins* ➢ Known as RBC ➢ Known as WBC
Fibrinogen- For clotting of blood ➢ 5 -5.5 million in blood ➢ Colourless cells without haemoglobin
Globulin - For immunity response ➢ Formed in the red bone marrow ➢ They are nucleated
Albumin- For osmotic balance ➢ Biconcave shape without nucleus ➢ 6000-8000 mm-3 in blood
➢ RBC contain haemoglobin ➢ They are short lived.
➢ 12-16 gm of haemoglobin in ➢ They are two types
100ml of blood
➢ Life span is 120 days
➢ Spleen is the graveyard of RBC
LEUCOCYTES

GRANULOCYTES AGRANULOCYTES
➢ Granules in cytoplasm ➢ No granules in cytoplasm

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

60 – 65 % of WBC 2 – 3 % of WBC 0.5 – 1 % of WBC 20 – 25 % of WBC 6- 8 % of WBC
Phagocytic function Allergic response Inflammatory response Immune response Phagocytic function
Most abundant cells Least percentage in WBC Two types
Secrete histamine, heparin T- Lymphocytes
B- Lymphocytes

Platelets (Thrombocytes):-
Platelets are also called thrombocytes.
Blood normally contain 1,50,000 – 3,50,000 platelets.
Platelets are involved in coagulation of blood.
Lymph:-
Lymph is colourless fluid containing specialized cell called lymphocytes.

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Blood Groups
ABO Grouping
ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of antigen A and antigen B on RBC.
The plasma of blood contain two antibodies namely anti-A and anti-B.

Universal Donor: - O group blood can be given to person with any other blood group.

Universal Recipient: - Person with AB blood group can accept blood from person with AB as well as
the other groups of blood.
Rh Grouping Erythroblastosis foetalis
o Presence or absence of Rh antigen on the ➢ Rh incompatibility observed in Rh –ve blood of
RBC is the basis of Rh grouping pregnant mother with Rh +ve foetus.
o Rh antigen is similar to one that is present in ➢ During the delivery of first child Rh +ve antigen mix
Rhesus monkey and majority of humans. with mother blood.
➢ Mother’s blood start to prepare antibody against
o Those with Rh antigen are called Rh positive
Rh antigen.
(Rh+ve). ➢ During next pregnancy Rh antibody enter into
o Persons without Rh antigen are called Rh foetal blood and destroy the foetal RBC.
negative (Rh-ve). ➢ This severe anaemic fatal condition is called
erythroblastosis foetalis.
Coagulation of Blood
The formation of clot or coagulum on the wound to prevent excessive loss of blood.
Damaged tissue + Platelets → Thrombokinase

Circulatory Pathways
Open Circulation Closed circulation
➢ Present in arthropods and molluscs. ➢ Present in Annelids and chordates.
➢ Heart pumps the blood into open spaces or ➢ Blood pumped by heart always circulated
sinuses. through blood vessels.

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Hearts in Vertebrates

Organisms Number of chambers Features

Fishes 2 – chambered
➢ Single circulation.
1 Auricle & 1 Ventricle
Amphibians & 3 – chambered
➢ Incomplete double circulation.
Reptiles 2 Auricles & 1 Ventricle
Crocodiles, Birds 4 – chambered
➢ Double circulation present.
& Mammals 2 Auricles & 2 Ventricles

Human Heart
Human heart is protected by a double walled membrane called pericardium.

➢ Four chambered, two auricles and two ventricles.

➢ Inter auricular septum separate the two auricles.
➢ Inter ventricular septum separate the two ventricles.
➢ Atrio-ventricular septum separate auricle from ventricle.
➢ Right auriculo-ventricular septum is guarded by tricuspid valve.
➢ Left auriculo-ventricular septum is guarded by bicuspid or
mitral valve.
➢ The opening of pulmonary artery and aorta are guarded with
semilunar valves

Nodal tissues of Heart and Activity: - Myogenic because activity is controlled by muscle node
Nodal Tissue Activity of Nodal tissue
Sino-atrial node (SAN):- S A node
➢ Muscular tissue present in the right upper
corner of right auricle. Action Potential
➢ SAN is known as the pacemaker of the heart. Atrial systole
Atrio-ventricular node (AVN) :-
➢ Muscular tissue seen on the lower left corner
of right atrium. Action potential to AV node
Atrio-ventricular bundle (AV bundle) :-
➢ Bundle of nodal fiber from AVN to the inter
ventricular septum Action potential to AV bundle
➢ AV bundle branch to form the right and left
bundle
Purkinje fibres :- Action potential to Bundle of His
➢ Minute muscle fibres present on the wall of
ventricle
Bundle of HIS:- Action potential to Purkinje fibres
➢ The purkinje fibre along with right and left
bundle is called bundle of His
Ventricular systole

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Cardiac Cycle (0.8 Second) Electrocardiogram (ECG)

➢ The sequence of events in the heart which ▪ The graphical representation of the electrical activity of
is cyclically repeated is called cardiac cycle. heart
➢ Each cardiac cycle have 3 stages ▪ Recorded by the machine electro cardiograph.
Atrial systole ▪ ECG have
• Contraction of auricle ▪ P - wave
• Blood is pumped into Excitation or depolarization of atria
ventricle ▪ QRS – complex
Ventricular systole Depolarization or contraction of Ventricle
• Contraction of ventricular ▪ T – wave
muscle Repolarisation of ventricle
• Tricuspid and bicuspid valve It makes the end of systole
close Any deviation in ECG indicate the abnormality of heart. So
• Semilunar valve open it is clinically important.
• Blood is pumped out from
heart
Joint diastole
• Simultaneous relaxation of
atria & ventricle

Cardiac Output = Stroke volume (70 ml) x Heart rate (75/ min) = 5 litres

Double Circulation
Double circulation = pulmonary circulation + systemic circulation
pulmonary circulation systemic circulation

Right Pulmonary Left

ventricle artery
Lungs Aorta Tissues
ventricle

Pulmonary Right
Left atrium Vena cavae
vein atrium

Disorders of Heart
High Blood Pressure (hypertension) Angina
Blood pressure above normal level. Commonly known as angina pectoris.
Blood pressure in hypertension is 140/90 mm Hg Acute chest pain due to low supply of oxygen.
Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg Heart Failure
Coronary Artery Diseases (CAD) Heart is not pumping blood effectively.
Commonly known as atherosclerosis.
It is due to the deposition of calcium, fat and
Cholesterol into the lumen of coronary artery.

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CHAPTER 19
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
Types of excretion

Type Nitrogenous waste Example

Ammonotelism Ammonia Bony fishes, Aquatic amphibian, Aquatic insects
Uricotelism Uric acid Reptiles, Birds, Land snail, Insects
Ureotelism Urea Mammals, Terrestrial amphibians, Marine fishes

Excretory organs in Animals

Excretory Structure Animals/Phylum
Flame cells (Protonephridia) Platyhelminthes, Cephalochordata
Nephridia Annelids- Earthworm
Malpighian tubule Insects – Cockroaches
Antennal gland or Green gland Crustaceans- Prawn
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Consist of a pair of kidney, One pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
Internal Structure of Kidney

Cortex (outer part) Medulla (inner part)

• Medulla have conical pyramid called medullary pyramids
• Medullary pyramids project into the calyces
• Cortex extend into the medullary pyramids as renal columns called column of Bertini
• Medullary pyramid containing millions of nephrons
NEPHRON

Glomerulus Renal tubules

• Tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent Consist of
arteriole ➢ Bowman’s capsule
➢ Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
➢ Henle’s Loop
➢ Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
➢ Collecting duct
Peritubular Capillaries :- Network of capillary around the renal tubules formed from the efferent arteriole
Vasa recta:- Blood capillary run parallel to Henle’s loop as ‘U’ shaped structure
Process Of Urine Formation 3 Steps
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION TUBULAR REABSORPTION TUBULAR SECRETION
• Also called ultrafiltration • Selective reabsorption of • Active secretion of some
• Water and dissolved nutrients and ions from renal substances from the renal
component of blood filter out tubule tubule into the peritubular
from glomerulus • 99 percentage of the filtrate is capillaries
• GFR- Glomerular filtration rate reabsorbed.
125ml/minute

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Transport Properties of renal tubule

Proximal convoluted • Reabsorb all essential nutrients, water, NaCl, K+ and HCO3-
tubule • Selective secretion of H+ and NH3
• Descending limb is permeable to water and impermeable to salt
Henle’s Loop
• Ascending limb is permeable to salt and impermeable to water
• Reabsorption of water, NaCl and HCO3-
Distal convoluted tubule
• Selective secretion of H+ and K+
• Large amount of water is reabsorbed
Collecting Duct
• Small amount of urea is secreted

Mechanism of Production of Concentrated Urine

Two features of nephron help to produce concentrated urine
1. By maintaining a counter current flow of primary urine and blood in the Henle’s loop and vasa recta
respectively.
2. By maintaining high osmolarity in the medullary interstitium by diffusing urea and NaCl from collecting
duct and ascending limb of Henle’s loop.

Regulation of Kidney Activity.

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) JGA Activity (Renin- Angiotensin Mechanism)

• ADH increase in blood When GFR is less
• Increase the permeability of renal tubule JGA release renin
• More water is reabsorbed from descending Angiotensinogen (in blood)
limb Renin
• Level of ADH will be high in summer because Angiotensin –
water is more reabsorbed from renal tubule Renin
Angiotensin –

Increases glomerular Stimulate adrenal cortex

blood pressure
secrete aldosterone

reabsorb Na+and H2O from

renal tubule

Increases glomerular
Blood pressure

ANF :- Atrial Natriuretic Factor from auricle of heart act opposite to renin-angiotensin mechanism

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Disorder of Excretory system

1. Glomerulonephritis:- Inflammation of glomeruli of Kidney
2. Uremia :- Accumulation of urea in blood due to kidney failure

Haemodialysis :- A clinical treatment for treatment of uremia.

Heparin :- an anticoagulant added to the blood during haemodialysis.

Internal Structure – Kidney Nephron

Malpighian body (renal corpuscle)

A - Afferent arteriole B - Efferent arteriole
C - Bowman’s capsule D – glomerulus
E - Proximal convoluted tubule

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Chapter 20
LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
Types of Movement
Type Example
Amoeboid Amoeba, Macrophages
& leucocytes
Ciliary In Trachea & female
reproductive tract
Muscular Vertebrates

Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle

➢ Also called striated muscle or ➢ Also called non striped muscle ➢ Also called heart muscle
striped muscle
➢ Found attached to skeleton, ➢ Occur in the wall of internal ➢ Occur in the heart wall
body wall etc Organs
➢ Cells are multinucleate ➢ Cells are uninucleate ➢ Cells are uninucleate
➢ Voluntary in activity ➢ Involuntary in activity ➢ Involuntary in activity
➢ Cells are cylindrical and parallely ➢ Cells are fusiform shape ➢ Branched, intercalated disc
arranged present

Structure of Muscle

➢ Consist of several bundles called fascicles (Muscle bundles)

➢ Each fascicle contain cylindrical unbranched structure called muscle fibres
➢ Each muscle fibre has lining membrane named sarcolemma
➢ Cytoplasm called sarcoplasm is with many nuclei (Syncitium)
➢ Sarcoplasmic reticulum – Endoplasmic reticulum of muscle fibre
Sarcomere
➢ Sarcomere is the structural and functional unit of contraction in muscle
➢ It is the space in between two Z- lines
➢ Each sarcomere have
A-band(Anisotropic Band) - dark band consist of myosin filament
I-band (Isotropic Band) - Light band consist of an actin filament
H- zone - Central part of A- band not overlapped by actin filament
Z- line - An elastic fiber present at the centre of I- band

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Myofibrils Or Myoifilaments

➢ Sarcoplasm contain parallely arranged protein filaments called myofibrils. They are two types
Actin Myosin
Consist of 3 elements ➢ Made up of meromyosin units
➢ F- actin- Made up of two helically ➢ It has a globular head and tail
wound filament with G- actin units ➢ Head is called heavymeromyosin (HMM)
➢ Tropomyosin – two tropomyosin ➢ Tail is called lightmeromyosin (LMM)
filament run paralley with F-actin ➢ Head contain two sites –
➢ Troponin - Small globular protein mask ATP binding site
the active site of actin Actin binding site

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction Sliding Filament Theory

Signal reaches to the

Signal from Central Release acetyl choline at
neuromuscular junction
Nervous system neuromuscular junction
through motor neuron

Sarcoplasmic Generate action

Active site of actin Ca2+ bind to
expose troponin
reticulum release potential in
Ca2+ sarcolemma

Myosin head binds

ATP converted into
to active site of ADP released from myosin pull actin
ADP in myosin
actin (Cross bridge myosin head filament over it
head
formation

Changes in the sarcomere during Muscle contraction

➢ Z- line come pulled inwards

➢ H-zone disappear
➢ Length of sarcomere decreases

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Red Muscle White Muscle

➢ Reddish appearance ➢ Whitish appearance
➢ High amount of myoglobin ➢ Low amount of myoglobin
➢ Large number of mitochondria present ➢ Less number of mitochondria present
➢ Prolonged contraction without fatigue ➢ Soon become fatigue

SKELETAL SYSTEM (206)

Axial Skeleton (80) Appendicular Skeleton (126)

Skull Ear osscicles Hyoid Vertebral column Sternum Ribs Fore Limbs Hind Limbs
(22) (6) (1) (26) (1) (12 pairs) (60) (60)

Cranial (8) Facial(14) Pectoral girdle (4) Pelvic girdle (2)

Vertebral column

Cervical (7) Thoracic(12) Lumbar(5) Sacral(1) Coccygeal(1)

Fore Limbs (2x30=60) Hind Limbs (2x30=60)

Humerus 1 Femur Thigh bone 1
Radius 1 Tibia 1
Ulna 1 Fibula 1
Carpals Wrist bones 8 Tarsals Ankle bones 7
Metacarpals Palm bones 5 Metatarsals 5
Phalanges Digits 14 Phalanges Digits 14
Patella Knee cap 1
Total 30 Total 30

Cavities in Girdle Bones

Glenoid Cavity – Cavity present in the scapula of pectoral girdle
Acetabulum – Cavity present in the coxal bone of pelvic girdle
JOINTS
Type Features Example
Fibrous Joint Do not allow any movement Skull joints
Cartilaginous Joints ➢ Bones are joined with cartilage Vertebral column
➢ Allow limited movements

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Synovial Joints
➢ Characterised by the fluid filled synovial cavity
Type Example
Ball and Socket Between humerus and pectoral girdle
Hinge joint Knee Joint
Pivot Joint Between atlas and axis
Gliding Joint Between carpals
Saddle Joint Between carpal and metacarpal

Disorders of Muscular Systems

Myasthenia gravis :- Autoimmune disorder of neuromuscular junction.
Muscular Dystrophy :- Genetic disorder leading to degeneration of muscles.
Arthritis :- Inflammation of joints.
Osteoporosis :- Age related disorder leading to bone weakening
Low level of oestrogen is the reason.
Gout :- Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid.

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Chapter 21

NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Human Neural Systems

Central Neural System (CNS) Peripheral Neural System (PNS)

(All neurons associated with CNS)

Brain Spinal cord

Afferent Fibres Efferent Fibres

Somatic Neural System Autonomic Neural System

(Impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles) (Impulses from CNS to smooth muscles)

Sympathetic Neural System Parasympathetic Neural System

Afferent nerve fibres - Transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS

Efferent fibres - Transmit impulses from the CNS to the tissues/organs.
Structure of Neuron

➢ Cell body called cyton contain cytoplasm with granular body called
Nissl’s granules.
➢ Short repeatedly branching fibres from cyton are called dendrites
➢ Axon is the long fibre with branched distal ends.
➢ Axon transmit impulse away from cyton.

Myelinated neuron Non-myelinated neuron

➢ The nerve fibre is covered with ➢ The nerve fibre is covered with
Schwann cells. Schwann cells.
➢ Schwann cell produces myelin ➢ Schwann cell does not
sheath around the axon. produces myelin sheath
➢ Found in spinal and cranial around the axon.
nerves. ➢ Found in autonomous and
somatic neural system.

Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse

Resting axonal membrane of neuron is polarized due to

• Axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and nearly impermeable to Na+ ions.
• Axonal membrane is impermeable to negatively charged proteins present in axoplasm.
• The sodium-potassium pump transport 3 Na+ outwards for 2 K+ ions into cells
This condition makes the outer part of axonal membrane become positive and inner become negative. The
potential difference is called Resting Potential.

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Membrane
Polarised axonal
membrane (Resting Stimulus become freely Influx of Na+
permeable to
potential ) Na+

Depolarisation
Action Reversal of
nerve impulse of axonal
potential polarity
membrane

Reversal of Depolarisation Nerve impulse

polarity to the next site transmitted

Transmission of Nerve Impulse

Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another neuron through junctions called synapses.
Synapse has a pre-synaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron
The space in between the two neuron is called synaptic cleft
Synapses are of two types
Electrical synapses Chemical synapses
➢ Membranes of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic ➢ Membranes of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic
neuron are very close neuron are separated by fluid filled synaptic cleft.
➢ Electrical current flow from one neuron to another ➢ Chemicals called neurotransmitter are involved in
for impulse transmission impulse transmission.
➢ Impulse transmission is faster ➢ Impulse transmission is slower.

Transmission of nerve impulse in chemical synapse

Movement of
Impulse or action Synaptic vesicles Neurotransmitter
synaptic vesicles
potential at axon fuses with released into the
towards
terminal plasmamembrane synaptic cleft
membrane

Binding opens
Action potential Neurotransmitter
ion channel in
generated in post bind to the
post synaptic
synaptic neuron specific receptors
membrane

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Central Nervous system

Consist of brain and spinal cord Meninges consist of three layers
Brain is protected by skull • Outer – Dura mater
Brain is covered by cranial meninges • Middle – Arachnoid
• Inner – Pia mater
BRAIN

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Cerebrum Thalamus Hypothalamus Pons Cerebellum Medulla

Corpora quadrigemina
Parts of Brain Features/functions
Cerebrum ➢ Cerebrum has two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum.
➢ It has an outer grey matter and inner white matter.
➢ Grey matter has motor area, sensory area and association area.
Thalamus ➢ Thalamus is the major coordinating center for sensory and motor
signaling.
Hypothalamus ➢ Control body temperature, urge for eating and drinking.
➢ Act as endocrine gland and secrete hormones.
Limbic System ➢ It contains inner part of cerebral cortex, amygdala & hippocampus
➢ It is involved in regulation of sexual behavior, expression of emotions and
motivation
Medulla ➢ Control respiration, gastric secretion & cardiovascular reflexes.

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Chapter 22

CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

HYPOTHALAMUS

Releasing Hormone Inhibiting hormones

GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Somatostatin

Hormone) (Inhibit the releasing of
Growth Hormone from Pituitary gland)

Pituitary Gland

Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis (Pars Nervosa/

Posterior Pituitary)

Pars Distalis Pars intermedia

(Anterior Pituitary)
Growth Hormone (GH) Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Prolactin (PRL) Regulate Pigmentation of Skin
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Adreno Cortico Trophic Hormone (ACTH) Produced by Hypothalamus
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Oxytocin Vasopressin(ADH)
Act on smooth muscle Reabsorption of
Milk ejection from Mammary gland water from nephron
Pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella tursica
Hormone Function Disorder

Growth Hormone (GH) Growth of the body Gigantism- Hypersecretion of GH

Dwarfism – Hyposecretion of GH
Prolactin (PRL) Growth of mammary gland
Stimulate secretion of thyroid
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
gland

Adreno Cortico Trophic Hormone (ACTH) Stimulate secretions of

adrenal cortex
In male, stimulate the synthesis & secretion of androgens
Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
In female, help in ovulation & Maintain corpus luteum
Gonadotrophins Follicle Stimulating In male, stimulate spermatogenesis
hormone
In female, help in growth of ovarian follicle
(FSH)

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GLAND CELL/PARTS HORMONE/COMMON NAME FUNCTION DISORDER

PINEAL GLAND MELATONIN • Regulate 24 hr rhythum of body
1. Tetraiodothyronine (T4) • Regulation of BMR (Basal Metabolic Goitre- hypothyroidism
Or Rate) Enlargement of thyroid gland
Thyroxine • Involved in RBC formation Deficiency of iodine leads to
Thyroid Gland
2. Triiodothyronine (T3) goitre
Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) • Decrease the blood Ca2+ level
Hypocalcemic hormone
Para Thyroid Hormone (PTH) • Increase the blood Ca2+ level
Parathyroid Gland
Hypercalcemic hormone • Demineralisation of bone
Thymosin • Differentiation of T – lymphocytes
Thymus Gland
• Involved in cell mediated immunity
1. Emergency hormone • Increases alertness, heart beat,
(Hormones of Flight & Fight) respiratory rate etc. (Stress situation)
Adrenal medulla
a. Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
b. Noradrenalin (Norepinephrine
1. Cortisol (Glucocorticoid) • Regulate the balance of water and
electrolyte
• Help in RBC production
Adrenal Gland
• Anti inflammatory reaction
• Gluconeogenesis
Adrenal cortex
2. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid) • Reabsorption of Na+ and water from
renal tubule
• Maintain blood pressure, electrolyte
balance & osmotic pressure
3. Androgenic steroids • Development of pubic and facial hair
Glucagon • Increases the blood glucose level
α- cells (Hyperglycemic hormone) • Stimulate glycogenolysis &
Pancreas gluconeogenesis
(Islets of Langerhans) Insulin • Decreases the blood glucose level Diabetes mellitus – Prolonged
Β- cells (Hypoglycemic hormone) • Stimulate glycogenesis hyperglycemia due to low level
of insulin
Androgens • Devolopment, maturation and
Leydig cells
Testis Testosterone activity of male sex organs
(Interstitial cell)
• Involved in spermatogenesis

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GLAND CELL/PARTS HORMONE/COMMON NAME FUNCTION DISORDER

Ovarian follicle Estrogen • Stimulate the growth of activity of

female sex organ
• Involved in mammary gland
Ovary
development
Corpus luteum Progesterone (Pregnancy hormone) • Support pregnancy and help in milk
secretion
Other Hormones
Organ Hormone Act on Function
Auricle of heart ANF (Atrial Natriuretic Factor) Blood vessel • Decrease blood pressure
Juxtaglomerular cells of Kidney Erythropoietin • Erythropoiesis (Formation of RBC)
Gastrin Gastric gland • Secretion of HCl and pepsinogen
Secretin Pancreas • Secretion of water and bicarbonate ions
Gastro Intestinal Tract Cholecystokinin (CCK) Pancreas • Secretion of pancreatic juice
Gall Bladder • Secretion of bile juice
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) Gastric gland • Inhibit gastric secretion

Mechanism of Protein hormone action Mechanism of Steroid hormone action

Protein Hormones Steroid Hormones
e.g. :- Insulin, Glucagon, Pituitary hormones, Hypothalamic hormones, e.g. :- Cortisol, Testosterone, Estradiol and Progesterone

cyclic AMP, IP3, Ca++ are the second messengers in protein hormone action.

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Acromegaly - Excess secretion of growth hormone in adults result in severe disfigurement called Acromegaly.
Diabetes Insipidus – Low secretion of ADH results in a diminished ability of the kidney to conserve water.
This leads to water loss through urine.
Goitre - hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland.
Cretinism - Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby.
Exopthalmic goitre / Graves’ disease - Hyperthyroidism
Characterised by enlargement of the thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyeballs,
increased basal metabolic rate, and weight loss.
Addison’s disease – Low secretion of hormones by the adrenal cortex alters carbohydrate metabolism causing acute
weakness and fatigue.
Diabetes mellitus - Prolonged hyperglycemia.
It results in loss of glucose through urine.

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