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WrIle
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Ai11114/.UIL 88

TSCMN1CAL RUP=RT N.7"a

CRATERING BY EXPLOSIONS: A COMPENDIUM

AND AN ANALYSIS
by
A. D. Rook., Jr., B. L Cams, L K. Davis

DDC
Jamary 1974 MOW
IFES IM9
Sower by OFfce, Chief J$ Enginrm, U. S. Army
Project 4A062118A880, Task 04 U
UI .. St.UU IZ,
D
Cenoted by U. S. Amy Einew Watinwap Gxporiment Station
Weapons Effects Laboratory
Vicksburg, Missisippi

O).fbtoe ulmftd to U.S.Cormet oenc" s o0r test and evhatlo; Jenovry 1974.
Other requesto for this document gmust be refereed t U.S. A. y Englnew Waterways Eixriment Station.
 ~ABSTRACq'

Cratering programs and data resulting from numerous single-charge

explosion tests are summarized and rnmptlad in tabul^- form. Az.yzc
are performed on these data to provide means of predicting basic
cratering parameters. rrediction equations wern developed by use of
Ithe method of least squares. Means of updating these tabulations and
analyses on a regular basis by automatic data processing are discussed.
Data are grouped so as to account for the factors which primarily
.* affect crater size and shape: y 4 eld, burst geometry, and cratered
medium. The influence of other conditions, such as soil moisture,
"* layered media, etc., iz also considered. Emphasis is on single-charge,
dry-land experiments, wnich best permit isolation of the factors con-
tributing to the basic parameters. Howeer, effects of environmental
influencef., unusual c',arge geometries, and other factors significantly
affecting craters are also briefly considered. Similarly, basic ejecta
* information is included.
Trends in crater dimensions are shown by means of graphs normalized
to charge sizes commensurable to large chemical and small nuclear yields.
Scaling as a prediction tool is discussed.

.1

S. ,

1'
 /N

PREFACE

This report deals with cratering from explosive charges. It is in-

tended to compile in tabular form all single-charge cratering data suit-
able for analynis, taken from numerous test programs conducted in a varl-
ety of media, and it includes a somewhat abbreviated empirical analysis
of these data. The study was conducted for the Office, Chief of Engi-
neers, Department of the Army, under Task 04, Project No. 4A62118A880,
by the U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES) during the
period January 1970 through April 1971. The research was under the gen-
eral supervision of Mr. G. L. Arbuthnot, Jr., Chief, Weapons Effects Lab-
oratory, and Mr. J. N. Strange, Chief, Engineering Research Branch, and
• nder the direct supervision of Mr. A. D. Rooke, Jr., Chief, Earth Kinet-
ics Section. This report was prepared by Messrs. Rooke, B. L. Carnes,
and L. K. Divis. Assistance in the search for data and in the biblio-
graphical compilation was given by Mr. J. A. Conway; Mr. S. B. Price as-
sisted in preparation of the graphs. Assemblage, typing, and proofing
of the report draft were by Miss Virginia Mason and Mrs. Dean McAlpin.
Additionally, special assistance in certain subject areas was provided
as follows: crater ejecta - Mr. J. W. Meyer; charge stemming -

SP5 H. L. Knudson; and crater-cavity formation - LT H. D. Hardcastle.

A previous WES compendium on cratering was used as the primary

source of cratering data prior 'o 1960, and a previous analysis of

crater data served as a guidelin for this analysis. The usefulness of
these research efforts in preparing this report is gratefully
acknowledged.
COL Levi A. Brown, CE, B( Ernest D. Peixotto, CE, and COL G. H.
Hilt, CE, were Directors of the WES during the preparation of this re-
port, and Mr. F. R. Brown was Technical Director.

4
 CONTENTS

AB&TRACT ............................ 3
PREFACE ......-------- 4
NOTATIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND DEFINITIONS-------------------- 9
CONVERSION FACTORS, BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT -------- 13
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ------------------ 14
1.1 Background ---- ------- ------- 14
1.2 Purpose -15
1.3 Scope .. -- .- ..-- ................-- .........-.- 16
CHAPTER 2 SYNOPSIS OF CRATERING RESEARCH EFFORTS ------------ 20
2.1 HE Test Programs: Prior to 196 2 -------- 20
2.2 HE Test.Progreas: 1962 and After --...---- 21
2.3 Nuclear Tests-t - - -....... 25
2,3.1 Pacific Test Programs------- - - 25
2.3.2 NTS Test Programs -----. .. ...............-------- 25
2.4 Plowshare Experiments --------.-.-.--..............---- 26
2.5 USSR Cratering Experiments-. ------------------ ------ 29
2.6 ................................... 29
CHAPTER 3 CRATERING DATA-... -............... .......- 31
3.1 Description of Data --- -- 31
3.2 Explosives Characteristics ............................. 31
3.3 Data Presentation-------------. 32
3.14 Subsurface Deformation-- -t i 34
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DATA TRENDS--------...---.......- 37
4.1 Crater Size and Sha.-.---.. . -- 37
4.2 Cratering Mechanisms-----..........-.- 37
4.3 Scaling Considerations-.................. 4o
4.3.1 Scaling as a Prediction Tool~ .. . .. 40
4.3.2 Linear Scaling Relations-41
4.3.3 Volumetric Scaling Relations ------------------ 142
4.3.4 Depth-of-Burial Scaling------- 142

CHAPTER 5 CRATER E.FETA--....-.....-.....................e63

5.1 Composition and Origin ---------- 63
5.2 Descriptive Paraweters-- 64
5.2.1 Crater Lip---------- --.----- -------- 64
5.2.2 Discrete Ejects Field-- ..-.---..... -. -- 65
CHAPTER 6 EFFECTS OF VARIATION IN SHOT GEOiTRIES..-...... 73
6.1 Multiple-Explosion Arrays------..............-. 73
6.1.1 Row Craters --------------.------------------- 73
6.1.2 Other Multiple-Explosion Arrays-....-.-...........eT4
6.2 Charge Stemming-- - ......................---- 714

5
 6.3 Underwater r.75
6.4 Deeply Buried Explosions - --------------- 75
6.5 Bomb/Shell Craters------------ 77
6.6 Successive Shots on a Vertical Axis-78
CHAPTER 7 ENVIRONMFUTAL INFLUENCES------- 87
7.1 Sloping Topography----- - - -------- 87
7.2 Layered Systems. .. . . . 88
7.2.1 Water Tables l 88
7.2.2 Bedrockr...- 88
7.2.3 Rock Bedding/Jointing-.................. 88
7.3 Snow and Icee..--------.---. ------- 89
CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDA TIONS- ---------------- 92
8.1 Summary--....................---- 92
8.2 Recom imendations-. -. 92
APENDIX A TABULATION OF CRATER DATA. -- 94
APPENDIX B GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF CRATER DATA- 129
APPLNDIX C BIBLIOGRAPHY 315
APPENDIX D COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR CRATER DATA-... -..... 331
REFERXNCES ----------- 339
TABLES
3.1 Comparison of Explosive Cratering Efficiency with That of )
TNT- .--------36
A.1 Crater Data for Basalt and Granite~
. -.--------- 100
A.2 Crater Data for Sandstone---------. 103
A.3 Crater Data for Shale, Tuff, and Frozen Ground---... 106
A.4 Crater Data for Dry Clay-------..... . ........... 110
A.5 Crater Data for Moist Clay-................. 111
A.6 Crater Data for Wet Clay--....... . .-.... 113
A.7 Crater Data for Moist Loese and Moist Lacustrine Silt---- 116
A.8 Crater Data for Moist Silty Clay- - - - . - 118
A.9 Crater Data for Dry-to-Moist Sandy Silty Clay - ---. 119
A.10 Crater Data for Dry Desert Alluvir2---.......... 121
A.11 Crater Data for Moist Sandy Silt----- ... .. 123
A.12 Crater Data for Dry-to-Moist Sand~.............. 124
A.13 Crater Data for Wet Sand-- 126
A.14 Crater Data for Hemispherical Charges- - ------- 128
D.1 Computer Program for Crater Data-- ---.-- ... 332
FIGURES
1,1 Aerial view of a typical crater formed by a low-yield
nuclear device at near-optimum depth of burial in basalt- 18
1.2 Typical half-crater profile and nomenclature for a buried
charge- 19
2.1 Illustrated histoT7 of major blast- and shock-effects
tests-......- -------- --- ......... 30

0
 4.1 Apparent crater dimensiuns for 1-ton TNT sphe-res in baaalt
and granite ............ 44
4.2 True crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in sandstone- 45
4.3 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TUT spheres in shale,
tuff, and frozen grourd--------- -------------- 46
4.4 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in moist
...----
..... -- -- - 47
4.5 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in dry
clay----- -----------..... .... .8
4.6 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TFT spheres in moist
loess and moist lacustrine silt--....... 149
4.7 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in dry
desert alluvium----------... ..-......... ...... 50
4.8 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in dry-
to-moist sand- . . .... .. . ... . .. 51
4.9 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in vet
4.10 Composite graph for apparent crater radius for 1-ton TNT
spheres-----......... 53
#..31 Composite graph for apparent crater depth for 1-ton TNT
spheres-- -- -- -------- -.--.-- ---- 54
4.12 Composite graph for apparent crater lip height for 1-ton
TNT spheres-- 55
4.13 Apparent crater
.... dimensions
alluvium--- . .. for 1-kt
.. charges
. . in
.. desert
. 56
4.14 True crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in desert
alluvum 56
4.15 Apparent crater dimensions for l-k* :narges in rock----- 57
4.16 True crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in rock ------ 57
4.17 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in moist clay- 58
4.18 Composite graph for apparent crater radius for 1-kt
charges---. 58
4.19 Composite graph for apparent crater depth for 1-kt
charges--..-...................... 59
4.20 Apparent crater dimensions versus charge yield, showing
the variation of scaling exponent with charge yield----- 60
4.21 Charge yields scaled to various powers-- 61
4.22 Crater shapes as affected by burst geometries 62
5.1 Throwout of ejecta by a low-yield cratering explosion at
near-optimum depth of burial----......... 66
5.2 Ejection process for a buried explosion----------- 67
5.3 Ejection process for a near-surface explosion--... .. 68
5.4 Eject& origins and relative ranges for HE detonations---- 69
5.5 Fraction of total eJecta volume as a function of range
from 70
5.6 Dimensionless plot of ejecta mass density as a function
of range expressed as multiples of the apparent crater
5.7 Maximum missile range for buried charges---------- 72

( 7I
6.1 Project Dugout, a row crater 135 feet wide, 35 feet
deep, and 285 feet long, formed by the detonation of
five 2C-ton HE charges at near-optimum DOB--------- 79
6.2 Enhanccment of single-charge apparent crater
dimensions in a row crater as a function of charge
spacing at optimum DOB in soil--------------------- 80
6.3 Increase in HE crater dimensions as functioni of
stemming and DOB--- 81
6.4 Apparent dimensions of underwater craters from 1-ton
charges fired at the earth-water interface in a
variety of fine-grained materlrsi------------ 32
6.5 Adiabatic expansion coefficient a as a function of
.edium's moisture content ---------------- 83
6.6 Apparent crater dimensions for deeply buried bomb
explosions,----------------84
6.7 Increase in apparent crater dimensions for nail-
driving experiments------------------... .. . .. - 85
6.8 Increase in true crater dimensions for nail-driving
experiments -- ----- 86
T.1 Crater and crater lip formed in sloping terrain------ -90
7.2 Crater dimensions for surface detonations in snow and
ice --.-.-.-------- --------- 91
B.l-B.9 Dimensions of craters in basalt and granite ---------- 130
B.l0-B.15 Dimensions of craters in sandstone 148
B.16-B.23 Dimensions of craters in shale, tuff, and frozen
ground--- -- -------- 160
B.24-B.33 Dimensions of craters in dry clay-- 176
B.34-B.39 Dimensions of craters in moist clay ------- 196
B.40-B.46 Dimensions of craters in wet clay-- --...... 208
B.2'1-B.5
1
4 Dimensions of craters in moist loess and moist
lacustrine silt-......----
- 222
B.55-B.58 Dimensions of craters in moist silty clay---------- 238
B.59-B.61 Dimensions of craters in dry-to-moist sandy silty
clay--.... . .... . 246
B.62-B.68 Dimensions of craters in desert alluvium-------- 252
B.69-B.74 Dimensions of craters in moist sandy silt- - - 266
B.75-B.82 Dimensions of craters in dry-to-moist sand- 278
B.83-B.92 Dimensicas of craters in wet sand --- d-- 294
B.93 Apparent crater radius and depth versus charge yield
for hemispherical charges in sandy silty clay ------- 314

8
 NOTATIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, ANUD DEFINITIONS

fotations

C An obierved cavity proportionality constant

d Crater depth (general)
d Depth of apparent crater at ground zero
a
d Depth to limit of plastic deformation at ground zero
d
dr Depth to limit of rupturc zone at ground zero
dt Depth of true crater at ground zero
C A factor which represents the enhancement of crater dimensions
in multiple explosions
h Height of apparent crate." lip
k A constant usad in scaling relations
K A constant representing the fraction of ejects volume contribut-
ine to the formation of the crater lip
L The length of a row crater
n Crater scaling exponent
N The number of charges in a row shot. Shot number in successive
charges fired on a common vertical axis
r Crater radius (general)
ra Radius or apparent crater
re Radius of true crater cavity
rch Radius of charge
rd Radius to outer limit of plastic deformation
~e r Radius to outer Ulnt of ejecta
rh Radius to maximum lip height
r Radius to outer limit of apparent lip
r Radius to outer limit of apparent lp
rr Radius to outer limit of apparent rupture
rt Radius of true crater
ru Radius to point of maximum upthrust
R Range (distance) from ground zero
Charge spacing in a row shot
u Height of ,pthrust
v Crater volume (general)
va Volume of apparent crater
 v Volume of crater due to compression (compaction)
vdi s Preshot volume of material dissociated by the explosion

ve Volume of ejecta
Vexp Voltume of joint expansion
vf Volume of crater due to plastic flowage of the medium
Vfb Volume of fallback
vL Volume of crater lip
vt Volume of true crater
"u Volume of upthrust
"r Void ratio
W Charge weight
Z Scaled depth o- height of b:'st (negative if DOB)
o An exponent based on tbe adixbati: (gns) expension coefficient
7 Unit weight of the cratered redlu:
6 Areal density of ejecta
v Dyramic viscosity of the cratered medium
0 Density o '.he cratered uiuum
a Cnzpres 'e- •
sbear, and ,n., .le strengths or elastic properties
o the cr" ' , edium.

*,.b -oviations

AN An= Mut n.

DOB Depth of b'ir;t Ito center of gr ... ity of charge) below original
grour
GZ Ground zero, the hypocenter or eplcenter of the burst
HE High e;,plosive
HOB Height of burst (to center of gravity of charge) above original
ground
kt Kiloton
Mt Megator.
NE lt.w.lear explosive
NM Nitrometh:.ne
TNT Trinitrotolhene

100
 'Common dimensional abbrevIations are used in accordance with '"Wea-
pon Test Reports Preparation Manual"; DASA-26, September 1966; Defense
Atomic Support Agency, Washington, D. C.
Additional abbreviations are used in Chapters 1 and 2 to designate
agencies, and in Appendi.: A to identify explosion-effects tests and
programs. All such abbreviations are identified where used.

Definitions

Apparent crater The visible crater, bounded at the top by the

original ground surface elevation
Crater lip The region of continuous ejecta surrounding a
crater
Ejecta Earth material permanently ejected from the crater
void by the explosion
Fallback Material, dissociated by the explosion, which has
fallen back within the true crater void
Multiple explosion The detonation of two or more charges with suf-
ficient simultaneity and proximity to cause inter--
action in crater formation
Nail driving A blasting technique using successive explosions
on a vertical axis, with each charge being em-
placed in the center of the crater of the pre-
ceding shot
Optimum DOB The depth of burst at which the largest desired
crater dimension occurs
Row crater A crater or channel formed by the detonation of
charges emplaced in a row-shot geometry
Row shot A multiple explosion with the charges emplaced
in a linear array
Rupture zone Material below and beyond the true crater which
has sustained significant physical damage (frac-
turing, crushing, shearing, etc.) as a result of
the explosion
* Stemming (verb) The backfilling of the charge emplace-
ment hole of an underground charge; (noun) back-
fill material
Surface tangent A charge geometry with the surface of the spheri-
(above and below) cal charge tangent to the ground surface. (Above
indicates the charge is resting on the ground and
below indicates the charge is buried one charge
radius)

11 .
True crater The boundary of the crater representing the limit
of dissociation of the medium by the explosion -
(the crater prior to fallback)
True surface burst A charge geometry with the center of gravity of
the charge at the ground surface
Upthrust Material that has been permanently displaced above
the original ground surface, but not dissociated

10
 CONVERSION FACTORS, BRITISH TO METRIC UNITS OF MEASURE4ENT

British units of measurement used in this report can be converted to

metric units as follows:

Multiply By To Obtain

feet o.308 meters

square feet 0.09290 square meters
cubic feet 0.02832 cubic meters
pounds 0.4536 kilograms
short tons 0.9072 metric tons
pounds per cubic foot 16.02 kilograms per cubic meter

~1(

13
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

The importance of explosive cratering was greatly increased when,

through the advent of nuclear weapons, it became possible to release in-
stantaneously enormous amounts of energy from essentially a point source.
Certainly the best method to establish the effects of nuclear explosives
(NE) is through full-scale testing. However, because of the hazards in-
volved and the restrictions imposed by international treaties, not to
mention costs, full-scale testing is presently impractical. Often, the
best method to approximate nuclear explosives or weapons effects is
through chemical or high.- .- *, '. 2) testing, despite difficulties in
scaling HE results to in charge "
Scaling difficul', , , ihich have absorbed much of the research ef-
fort in this field, st& ..imarily from a lack of definitive information
regarding the relative importance of various crater-forminS mechanisms
and the physical factors bearing on these mechanisms, as well as from
similarity violations which inevitably occur in this type of experimenta-
tion. They are compounded by basic differences in energy release and
partitioning between HE and NE charges. However, by considering these
facts and weighing the scaled HE data against the actual NE data that are
available, the former can be useful in predicting the effects of nuclear
devices or weapons, particularly when the nuclear yields in question are
below the megaton level.
Future weapons-effects research will undoubtedly involve the appli-
cation of near-surface or below-surface HE and NE detonations. A knowl-
edge of the effects of cratering and its associated debris-ejection mech-
anism will be a prerequisite to any such application. The crater, its
surrcunding zones of subsurface deformation, and the ejects field repre-
sent varying degrees of damage or possible damage to structures located
therein (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Moreover, the size of the crater produced

in such an explosion is an indicator of the total energy coupled into

140
the medium; therefore, the prediction of crater Iarameters is of major
concern in weapons employment. Crater size has also been shown to be
useful in normalizing other explosion effects phenomena, e.g., ground
motion.
The military applications of cratering research include the capa-
bility of weapons to damage or destroy hardened defense installations,
to create obstacles or barriers in various situations, or to provide
xpedient means of excavation. The civil applications are mostly in-
volved with excavations of canals, harbors, etc., river diversion or
damming, underground stimulation of mineral production, underground
storage, etc.

1.2 PURPOSE
In the past, efforts to analyze and correlate cratering data have
met with considerable difficulty because of the large number of reports
in which the data are presented, and because of the fact that cratering
data are often secondary to the main purpose of the research. The com-
pendium of 1960 (Reference 1) and analysis of 1961 (Reference 2) allevi-
ated this situation; however, much cratering research has been done
since that time, and a fresh look at the problem of tabtlation, correla-
tion, and analysis is in order.
The purpose of this report is to compile and analyze all available,
useful cratering data (both HE and NE) in one report, and to present it
in such a manner that it will serve as a guide both for cratering appli-
cations and for planning future cratering research. It is intended that
the compilation be in such form as to permit continuous updating as ad-
ditional cratering experiments are performed. The data are grouped to
permit ijolation and quantification of factors which significantly in-
fluence crater size and shape. These include charge yield, shot geom-
etry, and properties of the cratered medium, as well as other factors
that are less dominant in their influence on the cratering process. The
purpoce of the analysis is to provide prediction techniques so that all
important cratering phenomena. can be predicted with a reasonable degree
of accuracy.

15
 It is also the purpose of this compendium to present all important
aspects of cratering phenomenology. True crater dimensions (see Fig-
ure 1.2) are important as the limit of dissociation of the medium; it
is unlikely that any structure can survive within this boundary. Both
true and apparent crater volumes are important from the standpoint of
excavation, and apparent crater lip height and the interior angle of
slope are considerations in the creation of crater barriers an. the slope
stability of the crater walls. Also important in the design of hardened
structures are the limits of subsurface deformation surrounding a crater.
Few observations are available on these limits, but they are summarized
in Chapter 3.

1.3 SCOPE

Although this report is intended to describe cratering phenom-

ena in general, it has been necessary to limit the contents in some
cases. Thus, single-charge craters produced in conditions of uncompli-
cated media and on more or less level topography are coniidered at
length, while multiple-charge arrays and craters occurring under less )
usual geometric or environmental conditions are examined only briefly.
It has also been necessary to restrict the lower limit of charge size
to 1 pound.1 Successful experiments with smaller charges have been con-
ducted, bdt too often cratering results are open to question, due pri-
marily to difficulties in scaling medium properties so as to be suitable
to such small yields. Data from shaped charges have also been omitted,
since their use is hignly specialized. Cratering data in certain un-
usual media or conditions (e.g. snow and ice, earth-water interfaces)
are considered only briefly in this report, but bibliographical refer-
ences for these experiments are included. The same is true for craters
formed by unstemmed or partially stemmed charges. In such cases, pre-
vious U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES) reports are

1 A table of factors for converting British units of measurement to

metric units is presented on page 12.

16 ,
cited which provide compendia of these data.
A further limitation in content results from a self-imposed require-
ment that this publication be unclassified, making it available to the
maximum number of usero. However, while classified data are excluded
e se, they have bcen included in the construetion of the cratering
curves and the empirical expressions derived tterefrcm.
In order to bring the compendium to a conclusion, it was necessary
to establish a cutoff date for consideration of new test results. This
was set as the end of calendar year 1970. Important tests have taken
place since that time, and these "ill hopefully te included in future
updating of thin report.

17
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 CHAPTER 2

SYNOPSIS OF CRATERING RESEARCH EFFORTS

2.1 HE TEST PROGRAMS: PRIOR TO 1962

The first significant efforts to investigate the phenomena of cra-
tering from explosives appear to have originated during World War II.
Both the U. S. War Department and the Ministry of Home Security in
England conducted investigations in which various types of American,
British, and German bombs were statically detonated in different types
of soil. An early study involving the modeling of large-scale cratering
effects by using small-scale charges was conducted by the U. S. Army
Ballistic Research Laboratories to estimate the amount of material re-
quired to fill bomb craters. References for these and other tests sum-
marized in this chapter are contained in the Bibliography (Appendix C).
Near the end of World War II, the Underground Explosion Test (UET)
program was conceived to study design criteria for underground struc-
tures to resist the effects of underground explosions. The size of the
1
largest test charge detonated in the program, 320,000 pounds, indicates
that the possibility of attack by a nuclear weapon was now also con-
sidered ago a threat. The UET program was conducted in two major phases:
a preliminary program of detonations in rock by the Colorado School of
ines in 1948-49, and a more extensive program by Engineering Research
Associates, Inc., from 1949 through 1951. Although several series of
tests were fired for crater investigations alone, the majority of the
tests involved target structures in earth and tunnels in rock.
A second major test program initiated by the postwar interest in
protection against bombing attacks was the Isthmian Canal Studies (ICS)
conducted in 1947. This program was conducted by the Canal Zone Divi-
sion of the Army Corps of Engineers, and involved the study of cratering

1
Unless otherwise specified, charge weights are given in terms of tri-
nitrotoluene (TNT) or its energy equivalent.

0
qil II I II II__ Hit Ji _ L i2a
damage and the initiation of slope failures from bomb explosions in the
embankments adjacent to the Panama Canal. TTIT charges ranging from 8 to
200 pounds were fired in five different media representative of the soil
and rock types along the canal route.
The first nuclear test series at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) in which
cratering was studied per se was Operation Jangle. The operation re-
quired a limited IM Lest series to permit some reasonable basis for pre-
dicting the nuclear test phenomena that were to be measured. The Jangle-
HE series was conducted in the fall of 1951, and involved four shots:
three 2,560-pound charges and a 20-ton event. Three of the HE spheres
were tangent to the surface (above and below), and the fourth was shal-
lowly buried. An additional objective of these tests was to relate the
results of the UET program, conducted at Dugway, Utah, to the soil char-
acteristics of the desert alluvium at NTS.
Project Mole was an HE program consisting of four test series:
two in a sand-gravel medium, one in dry clay, and one in moist clay.
All charges were 256-pound TNT spheres, with charge positions ranging
from 6 feet above to 6 feet below the ground surface. The purpose of
Project Mole was to investigate the relations between charge position
and soil type and to study the effects of underground explosions. The
program was conducted by the Stanford Research Institute for the Army
Corps of Engineers in 1952-54.
A number of studies were conducted at WES during the period 1957-60
to investigate various phenomena associated with cratering. Among
these were investigations of the effects of different types of charge
stemming (backfill of the charge-emplacement hole), the effects of a
shallow soil-rock interface below the explosion area, and the formation
of craters in loess and clay. Charge weights in these tests ranged from
1/8 to 256 pounds.

2.2 HE TEST PROGRAMS: 1962 AND AFTER

In 1962, the entire complexion of testing programs involving large,
crater-forming explosions changed. Part of the change was due to a
redirection of cratering research in support of the newly initiated

21
-t
Plowshare Program to utilize nuclear explosives for pe;aceful purposes
(discussed in Section 2.4), but the increased intensity of testing ef-
forts was in larger part due to the end of the first moratorium on
atmospheric nuclear testing in 1961 and the consequent resumption of
nuclear testing by the U. S. early in 1962. The most important
cratering experimento conducted during this period are illustrated in
Figure 2.1. Nuclear cratcring tests were conducted at NTS from March
through July 1962. After a six-month pause, an additional series of
experiments, named Ferris Wheel, was planned for early 1963 to directly
compare the cratering efficiencies of nuclear and TNT explosives of
equal yield. The advent of the second moratorium on nuclear testing
came within a few weeks of the execution of Ferris Wheel, however, and
the program was cancelled.
The Flat Top Series utilized two of the experimental arrays that
were emplaced in Frenchmen Flat at NTS for the Ferris Wheel Series.
Event II was a 20-ton, half-buried, spherical TNT charge as originally
planned for Ferris Wheel, while Event III involved the substitution of
an identical 20-ton TNT charge for the originally planned nuclear de- . )
vice. A third event, Flat Top 1, was added to the series to compare the
craters formed in playa silt by Events II and III with a crater formed
by an identical 2O-tcn charge in limestone. The entire program was
sponsored and directed by the Defense Atomic Support Agency, now the De-
fense Nuclear Agency (DNA).
The Air Vent Series was sponsored by DNA and conducted in 1963-64
by the Sandia Corporation to provide a tie-in between the Flat Top
crater results in playa and previous large HE cratering tests fired at
deeper depths of burst (DOB) in NTS desert alluvium. The Air Vent
Series was composed of three phases: Phase I was a single 20-ton TNT
sphere detonated at a DOB of 17 feet, Phase II was a series of twenty
256-pound spherical TNT charges fired at a vide range of DOB, and
Phase III was a scries of nine TNT charees of 64, 1,000, and 6,000
pounds, all fired as true surface bursts (center of gravity at ground
surface).
The Multiple Threat Cratering Experiment (MTCE) was sponsored by

22.
 DIA and conducted by the Boeing Company under the supervision of the
Air Force Weapons Laboratory at the U. S. Army Yakima Firing Rage,
Washington, in 1965. The purposes were to investigate the effects of
detonating successive charge3 along a single ve.r.ical axis, and to
t,-4~.
4h4 ~influence of the charge shape on the crater and ejecta from
near-surface explosions. The WTCE tests consisted of eighteen
s,000-pound charges and two 16,000-poimd TNT charges, with one each of
the two sizes being hemispherical and the -emainder spherical. Nine of
the spherical 4,000-pound charges were "nail-driving" shots (i.e., the
charge was detonated in the crater of a preceding detonation), four were
true surface events, three were surface-tangent above the surface, and
one was surface-tangent below the surface. The second 16,000-pound
charge was a true surface detonation. All events were fired in a weak
basalt.
Additional nail-driving experiments were conducted In small-scale
experiments in 1963-64, prior to the MTCE tests. A single series of
64-pound TNT charges was fired in desert alluvium in a Sandia Corpora-
tion test program, while 4- and 21-pound TNT charges were fired in a
* sandy-clayey silt by WES.
Operation Sailor Hat was a series of three 500-toa, hemispherical
charges detonated on the surface of a basalt medium on Kahoolawe Island,
* Hawaii, in 1965. Crater measurements were only made for the first event,
since the latter t.o events were decoupled from the basalt by placing
the charges on artificial fill materials. Sailor Hat was conducted by
the Navy, under the sponsorship of DNA, to test the response of ships
(anchored offshore) to airblast loadings.
The Mine Shaft Series was conducted in 1968-69 on a granite medium
near Cedar City, Utah. These tests were sponsored by DNA and conducted
by WES to develop data on the effects of near-surface explosions over a
hard rock medium. The main events were preceded by ten 1,000-pound
calibration shots fired at different heights of burst (HOB) very near
the air-rock interface. The Mine Shaft I Series involved two 100-ton
spherical TNT charges: Mine Under at an HOD of two charge radii (or
2rh) and Mine Ore at an HOB of 0.9 rch . The Mine Shaft II Series

23
consisted of the 100-ton Mineral Rock Event, a duplicate of Mine Ore,
and the Mineral Lode Event, a 16-ton spherical charge of ammonium
nitrate slurry detonated at a DOB of 100 feet.
Cratering experiments were conducted at the Canadian Defence Re-
search Board's Suffield Experimental Station (SES, later designated the
Defence Research Establishment, Suffield, or DRES) at Ralston, Alberta,
from 1958 to 1970. Both the Watching Hill and Drowning Ford test ranges
at DRES consist of glacial till, a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt,
gravel, and fine sand strata. An early test series involved the detona-
tion of 74 TNT charges ranging in weight from 8 to 10,065 pounds, in
both spherical and hemispherical charge shapes. The spherical charges
were fired in both half-buried and surface-tangent geometries, while the
hemispherical charges were all resting on the surface. From 1959
through 1963, six additional detonations of large, hemispherical TNT
charges occurred at DRES, with charge weights ranging from 5 to 100 tons.
In 1964, a 500-ton hemispherical charge was detonated on the surface for
the Snowball Event. As with other tests involving hemispherical charges,
airblast measurements primarily dictated shot gec .etry.
The Distant Plain Series was conducted in 196E-6 7 at DRES as a part
of the Quadrapartite 2*program to develop improved methods for simulating
and predicting the effects of nuclear explosions. Six of the Distant
Plain Events produced craters: Events 1A, 3, 5, and 6A were 20-ton
spherical TNT charges, with the first fired at an HOB of 29 feet, the
second and third half-buried, and the lest placed tangent to the sur-
face; Event 4 was a 50-ton hemispherical charge detonated on the ground
surface in a forest near Hinton, Alberta; and Event 6 was a 100-ton
spherical charge in a surface-tangent geometry.
Two recent tests were made at DRES, both 500-ton spherical charges
fired surface-tangent. The Prairie Flat Event occurred in 1968 and the
Dial Pack Event in 1970.

2 A cooperative effort for blast-effects research bet.oen the U. S.,

Great Britain, Canada, and Australia. Prior to the inclusion of
Australia, it was known as the Tripartite program.

24 0
 2.3 NUCLEAR TESTS
2.3.1 Pacific Test Programs. The testing of nuclear devices for
weapons development began at the Pacific Test Range almost immediately
after World War II. Of the many tests conducted, only a few produced
measurable craters (i.e., the major portion of the crater being con-
tained in a land area), and relatively few of those craters were ade-
quately measured. Ten of the Pacific tests produced craters whose
measurements were recorded. All were fired at either the Bikini or
Eniwetok Atolls, where the soil medium is described as coral sand under-
lain with intermittent beds of hard coral and cemented rubble.
The Mike Event of Operation Ivy in 1952 was the first test of a
thermonuclear weapon. The 10.4-Mt device was fired at a height of
35 feet above the island surface. Five more high-yield devices, ranging
from 1.3 to 15 Mt, were detonated: Braivo, Zuni, and Tewa at Bikini and
Koa and Oak at Eniwetok. Tewa and Oak were both detonated on barges
floating in shallow water. The Koon Event was a llO-kt detonation at
Bikini, while Lacrosse, Seminole, and Cactus were 40-, 14-, and 18-kt
( yields, respectively, at Eniwetok. Seminole was detonated inside b tank
of water.
2.3.2 NTS Test Programs. The first nuclear cratering experiments

i conducted at the NTS were the Jangle-S and Jangle-U Events of Operation
Plumbob in 1957. Both were 1.2-kt yields, fired in desert alluvium--
Jangle-S at an HOB of 3.5 feet and Jangle-J at a DOB of 17 feet. The

~Tapovit 6Een foled. in 195, a end wasnna ed i der inI

chamber 100 feet beneath a sloping mountainside, in a volcanic tuff

medium. The Neptune device had a yield of 0.115 kt.
No nuclear cratering tests were conducted during the first mora-
torium on nuclear testing from 1959 through 1961. After the resumption
of testing by the USSR in 1961, the 0.42-kt Danny Boy Event was fired
in March 1962, at a DOB of 110 feet iu a basalt mesa at NTS. Danny Boy
was soon followed by Small Boy, a low airburst 3 over playa, and the

Classified yields are omitted.

25
Little Feller I and Little Feller II Events, all in desert alluvium.
Johnie Boy was a near-surface detonation, while the Little Feller Events
were both small weapons fired at low HOB's. Except for the Plowshare
Program, no further nuclear cratering tests were scheduled until the
Ferris Wheel Events of February 1963, which were cancelled due to the
commencement of the second moratorium on nuclear testing.

2.4 PLOWSHARE EXPERIh S

The Plowshare Program was inaugurated by the U. S. Atomic Energy

Commission (AEC) in 1957 to develop peaceful applications of nuclear
explosive energy. The most immediately obvious application was, of
course, earthmoving by explosive cratering. Thie first actual planned
use of nuclear cratering for constructive purpces was the excavation
of a harbor on the co=tt of Alaska. This experiment, nicknamed Project
Chariot, was to proof-test the feasibility of nuclear excavation in
the early 1960's. Unfortunately, the project was soon postponed, then
eventually cancelled. Among the planned or proposed projects for
nuclear excavation were (1) the excavation of a railroad pass through
a mountain ridge in California, (2) the construction of a portion of
a canal connecting the Tennessee and Tombigbee Rivers, (3) the olasting
of a harbor at Cape Keraudren, Australia, and (4) a sea-level canal
through or near the Isthmus of Panama. As of this writing, the use of
nuclear explosions as P_means of producing excavations has been indef-
initely postponed as either unjustifiable, uneconomical, or unpopular
from an environmental and/or political viewpoint.
The most ambitious conco.pt for nuclear excavation was the construc-
tion of a new, sea-level "Panama" Canal. This project afforded the pri-
mary stimulus for extensive research in the field of cratering technology
supported by the AEC for the past decade under the Plowshare Program.
Much of the testing was done in desert alluvium at IiTS because of its
availability and the economic advantages of support at NTS, but many of
media later selected for cratering experiments were chosen due to their
similarity to the soil and rock indigenous to the Panamanian Isthmus.
The first significant cratering experiment under the Plow'ihare

26
 Program was Project Stagecoach which included three separate detonations
of 20-ton spherical TNT charges at DOB's of 17, 34, and 80 feet. The
tests were conducted in desert alluvium at NTS in March 1960. One of
the chief objectives of Stagecoach was to determine if cube-root scaling
was actually valid for HE crater formation in desert alluvilm. Sandia
Corporation was primarily responsible for the conduct of this experiment
and the next two which followed it.
Project Buckboard was a similar test series fired in basalt at the
NTS to provide basic information on the formation of craters in a hard
rock environment. This series, conducted in 1960, consisted of ten
1,000-pound cast TNT charges fired at DOB's ranging from 5 to 25 feet in
5-foot intervals, followed by three 4O,000-pound spherical TNT charges
fired at DOB's of 26, 43, and 60 feet.
Project Scooter was a 500-ton spherical TNT charge fired at a DOB
of 125 feet in desert alluvium at NTS in October 1960. This test, the
final in the Sandia series, was designed to extend knowledge of the
mechanics of crater formation into yields near the kiloton regime.
The Sedan Event was the largest explosive crater'ng experiment ever
conducted by the U. S. The 100-kt device was detonated in 1962 at a DOB
of 635 feet in the desert alluvium at MTS. The main purpose of the ex-
periment was to extend empirically based cratering theory to large yields
representative of those that would be employed in an actual large-scale
conatruction project under the Plowshare Program. Equally important was
the evaluation of the physical hazards, particulerly radiation, that
could be expected from such employment. The Lawrence Radiation Labnra-
tory, now the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory (LLL) at Livermore, Cali-
fornia, had primary responsibility for the Sedan experirent.
In late 1962, the Nuclear Cratering Group, now the WES Explosive
Excavation Research Laboratory (EERL), was crested as an organization
under the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers to have direct responsibility
for supervising experimental research on the use of nuclear explosions
for civil construction purposes. The first test program under the su-
pervision of EERL was Pre-Buggy I, conducted in desert alluvium at NTS
in the winter of 1962.63 to develop design criteria for a future

(27°1 '27

-1I
large-scale nuclear row-charge cratering experiment. Pre-Buggy I was, in
turn, parcially designed from data acquired in an earlier, smaller scale
row experiment called Project Rowboat (by LLL). Six single-charge tests
were fired to determine optimum DOB, followed by four 5-charge row
events to determine the most desirable charge spacing for the creation
of row craters or channels. Each charge was a 1,000-pound sphere of a
4
liquid explosive, nitromethane (NM). The Pre-Buggy II Series was fired
several months later, and consisted of six row shots in which charge
spacings, DOB, and stemming were further varied.
The Pre-Schooner Series was executed by EERL in February 1964 in
basalt on the Buckboard Mesa at NTS. Four shots of 20 tons of NM each
were fired at DOB's ranging from 42 to 66 feet. These were soon fol-
loved by the Dugout Event, a row-charge crater shot in basalt consisting
of five 20-ton NM charges. In December of 1964, a low-yield (85-ton)
nuclear cratering event named Sulky was detonated in the basalt at
Buckboard Mesa. The DOB of 90 feet was slightly greater than optimum
in an attempt to contain a greater percentage of radioactivity. The
Pre-Schooner II Event was an 85-ton charge of NK fired in rhyolite in
southwestern Idaho in September 1965. 9
The Palanquin Event was a .3-kt nuclear cratering experiment in a
rhyolitic rock at NTS, fired at a DOB df 280 feet, in April 1965. A
second nuclear cratering experiment in rhyolite, the 2.3-kt Cabriolet
Event, was fired in January 1968. The largest cratering shot in rock
was the 35-kt Schooner Event, fired in tuff at NTS in December 1968. In
1969 the Buggy Event, a nuclear row charge consisting of five 1.1-kt de-
vices, was detonated in basalt at ,ITS.
An extensive program of testing known as Pre-Gondola was also con-
ducted by EERL in a wet clay-shale medium at Ft. Peck Reservoir, Montana,
from October 1966 to October 1968. Charge weights ranged from very small
(less than 10 pounds) to 40 tons, in both single-charge crater tests and
various row-charge tests. Most of these experiments employed NM as the
explosive, although some tests used an ammonium nitrate slurry.

4 Explosive equivalences in terms of cratering

efficiency are considered
in Chapter 3.

28
 Concurrent with their larger scale experiments, EERL carried out
an extended series of 3ingle- and row-charge studies using 1-pound
charges in a closely controlled sand medium, under the name Project Zulu.
An additional program of multiple-charge cratering research, using
relatively small HE charges, has been conducted at Sandia for the last,
decade under sponsorship of the Plowshare Program. Most of these
studies have been concerned with the cratering effects of multiple
charges detonated simultaneously or in a particular sequence, such as
adjacent rows of charges fired in sequence, square arrays of charges
fired simultaneously, or vertical arrays of charges. Virtually all of
these tests were conducted in desert alluvium near Albuquerque, New
Mexico.

2.5 USSR CATERING EXPERIMENTS

In recent years, an ambitious program of civil cratering applica-

tions has been undertaken in Russia, generally paralleling the U. S.
Plowshare Program. At this writing, 11 nuclear projects have been car-
ried out, as described in Reference 3. Since reported results are in-
complete, these tests are, with one exception, not included in this
report. Reports of these projects make interesting reading, however,
and they are listed in Appendix C.

2.6 SUmmARY

The foregoing synopsis, which lists only major recent cratering

experimentation (illustrated in Figure 2.1), indicates the accumulation
of a wealth of crater data, much of it in the past decade. To the
casual reader, it might appear that sufficient testing has been accom-
plished to answer virtually all questions pert'iring to this subject;
unfortunately, this is not the case. Cratering phenomena are so com-
plex, and cratering applications are so varied, that much yet remains
to be done. In the chapters that follow, an attempt will be made to
define basic crater parameters, drawing on al: applicable data available
to the authors, and methods of applying this information will be dis-
cussed. In the process, areas of insufficient data will be pointed out.

29
 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4.)
_ _ _ _ _ _
_

1 84
2

II

4 C'4

w 00
 CHAPTER 3

CRATERING DATA

3.1 DESCRIPTION OF DATA

The size and shape of an explosively generated crater are dependent

upon many different factors. The areas of influence are divided into
two main categories: environmental parameters and explosive parameters.
The environmental parameters include the density, composition, and
strength of the medium in which the crater is formed, the material's
moisture content, the jointing or layering of the medium, and, for the
sake of completeness, the atmospheric conditions at the time of detona-
tion. Explosive parameters include the quan'dity and type of explosive
used, the geometry of the charge, the method of charge emplacement,
and the position of the charge relative to the air-medium interface,
(in every case, a complete detonation of the charge is assumed). The
actions and interactions of these independent variables on crater form&-
tion are complex, and only the major influencing factors are examined
in this report. These major factors form the basis upon which the data
tables (Appendix A) are subdivided. Within the appropriate subdivisions,
data on crater sizes and shapes are includel.
The tables are as complete as is possible in a mass compilation of
this sort. If all variables have tabulated values for any particular
shot, the crater can be essentially reconstructed. For example, by
using the available apparent crater depth, radius, lip height, and angle
of slope in connection with a crater shape code, a typical crater pr.-
file can be drawn.

3.2 ECPLOSIVES CHARACTERISTICS

Approximately 10 different kinds of explosive have been widely used
for different test programs, depending upon the requirements of the test
snd/or the convenient availability of various explosive types. For this
report, all explosives are converted to an equivalent TNT yield; each
equivalent TNT weight is assumed to be a sphere of cast explosive.

31
 The explosives that have been most commonly used for cratering )
research are TNT, NM, ammonium nitrate/fuel oil mixtures (ANFO), and
ammonium nitrate (AN) slurries. TNT has been selected as the basic ex-
plosive due to its widespread use in the past, a result of the fact that
it is readily available (to military users); it can be cast in any size
and shape, and it is a relatively insensitive explosive and thus safe
to handle. HM is a liquid; actually, it is classed as a solvent rather
than an explosive. It has been widely used in Plowshare cratering ex-
periments due to the fact that a large volume of NM (up to 100 tons has
been used) can be poured into an underground emplacement chamber through
small-diameter fill pipes from the surface, thus greatly simplifying the
problem of charge emplacement for large, deeply buried shots. ANFO has
been used for many years for cratering. It is classed as a blasting
agent, and can be mixed on-site prior to placement in its cavity or con-
tainer. AN slurry has been used increasingly in recent years, since it
is also classed as a blasting agent and can be pumped into deeply buried
charge emplacement chambers; its higher viscosity in most instances
eliminates the need for extensive lining of the chamber to prevent 9
leakage.
Unfortunately, very few data exist that permit performance compari-
sons of the crater-forming abilities of different types of chemical ex-
plosives as compared to the base explosive TNT. In the absence of more
definitive research on cratering performance, a list of common explo-
sives and their TNT equivalents has been compiled from References 1 and
10 and is presented as Table 3.1. Table 3.1 does not take ito account
the effects of different soils or rocks on cratering.

3.3 DATA PRESENTATION

All crater data available to the authors and falling within the
scope of this report are presented in Appendix A, Tables A.1 through
A.I4. The data tables are subdivided into three major parts. First,
they are separated according to type of medium, since crater size is
strongly dependent on strength of the %aterial cratered. Second, the
shots in each medium are grouped acording to water content because of

32J
 the variation in medium strength and shock-propagation characteristics
with change in water content. For example, all crater data for sand
are further subdivided into vet, dry-to-moist, and dry sands. The third
data group consists of 10 categories of scaled depths (heights) of burst,
since differences in charge positioning affect energy partitioning into
the medium. For specifying the charge position, cube-root scaling has
been used. Thus, depth or height of the charge position is divided by
the cube root of charge weight, permitting the grouping of explosion
events of different yields. Selection of this cube-root scaling expo-
nent is further discussed in Chapter 4. Note that the categorical divi-
sions are uneven; they have been selected to Identify HOB/DOB at which
critical changes in crater dimensions and/or crater scaling "laws" can
be expected.
l -
A special data group which stands apart from the regular, spherica
charge cratering tests, but which is properly included in a cratering
t guide such as this, is that of the hemispherical-charge data contained
in Table A.14. All available cratering data for this charge geometry,
which is frequently encountered in connection with airbast measurements,
are included in this table.
The data in Tables A.1 through A.13 are graphically presented in
Appendix B, Figures B.1 through B.92; Figure B.93 is a graphical repre-
sentation of the hemispherical-charge data from Table A.14. Data are
fitted by the method of least squares to provide empirical equations.
Each equation is based on a minimum of two data points representing a
minimum range in charge yields 2/3 of a logarithmic cycle. In addition,
no curve with a slope 1.5 < < 0 was considered. Each curve was
dx
drawn from 1 pound on the abscissa to a point slightly beyond the largest
Yield for which data were available.
The computer program used to separate, analyze, and plot the data
is shown in Appendix D. Explanations necessary to the use of the

crater-data tables precede the tables. Note especially that only HOB
is listed; a negative number denotes a buried charge geometry (DOB).

0) 33
3.4 SUBSURFACE DEFORMATION
As shown in Figure 1.2, extensive permanent subsurface deformation
accompanies a large crater. The outer limit of this deformation, too
indistinct for precise measurement, marks the boundary at which the
transient ztresses (compressive, tensile, or shear) imposed by the ex-
plosion shock wave exceed the respective medium strengths. Beyond this
boundary, the medium responds elastically.
Subsurface deformation may be divided into two general zones:
rupture and plastic deformation. The rupture zone is so named because
of the extensive crushing and cracking which it contains, while the
plastic zone exhibits a smoother flowage of the medium (in soil), often
unnoticeable unless special methods, such as preemplaced colored sand
columns, are used to detect such movement. In the upper portion of the
plastic zone, a shearing action often occurs by slippage along hori-
zontal planes of weakness. In rock, the plastic zone is nonexistent
or insignificant, but permanent displacement occurs by the closing or
opening of joints. In rock as well as many soils, boundaries of the
individual zones of deformation are irregular and indistinct.
Relatively few observations are available for definition of sub-
surface deformation zones, especially for large explosions. Summarized
in the following tabulation, in terms of true crater radius rt and
depth d or cavity radius r0 , are "rule-of-thumb" limits of these
zones in soil and rock:

Type of Shot Geometry

Failure.
Near-Surface Deeply Buried

Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical

Limit Limit Limit Limit

For Soil
Rupture 2r 1.5d 2rt 1.5da

Plastic 6r t 3.Od 4rt -b

t t
(Continued)
Where d DOB + r b Insufficient data.
t O c
34
 Type of Shut Geometry
Failure
Near-Surface Deeply Buried

Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical

Limit Limit Limit Limit

For Rock
2 3 2rt 2.Odt a
Rupture rt Odt

Displacement 4r t 4.0dt b b

a Where dt = DOB + r.
b Insufficient data.

Dimensions of cavity radius r. are discussed in Section 6.4.

Plastic deformations or displacements are intended to include only
those which are Aefinitely measurable. In general, morement of the
medium close to the charge is radially outward, or away from the explo-
sion. There is often a vertical component to such movement, usually
upward for surface and buried charges (upthrust) and downward for above-
surface geometries. Farther from the charge, permanent displacement
toward GZ has frequently been observed. Some surface rotation (in the
horizontal plane) is usually observed on survey monuments that were per-
manently displaced by an explosion, but no pattern of rotation is dis-
cernible. Relaxation of the deformed medium has also been observed to
occur over a period of several days, while a condition of equilibrium is
established among pore and/or joint pressures and the crater void itself.
Relaxation is manifested by a small but measurable movement of the com-
pacted medium toward GZ.

35
TABLE 3.1 COMPARISON OF EXPLOSIVE CRATERING EFFICIENCY
WITH THAT OF TNT (REFERENCES 1 AND 10)

To determine relative cratering efficiency (TNT), mul-

tiply weight of explosive charge by convorsion factor.

Explosive Conversion Factor

TNT 1.00
Anatol 0.94
Dynamite (40%) 0.68
Pentolite 1.23
C-4, C-3 1.34
Ammonium Nitrate 1.00
Nitromethane 1.10

a TNT explosiye energy w 10 9 calories/ton heat of deto-

nation ft1 QLC calories/kt.

.3

I*

3O
 CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA TRENDS

4.1 CRATER SIZE AND SHAPE

The logarithmic graphs of Appendix B are sumarized in Figures 4.1
through 4.19. Figures 4.1 through 4.9 are constructed to show crater di-
menclons at the 1-ton yield (weight) level in terms of TNT equivalence
for those media for which sufficient data exist and for the range of
HOB/DOB available. For this yield, crater radius, depth. and lip height
may be read directly from the curves; for other yields, the graphs may
be entered with scaled HOB or DOB, and dimensions may be scaled to the
* appropriate charge weight using the nearest value of the scaling expo-
nent shown or an interpolated value. Section 4.3 discusses scaling in
more detail. Figures 4.10, 4.11, and 4.12 each show the variation of
a single crater dimension for the same charge weight with different
media. This makes possible an estimate of crater dimensions for those
media for which insufficient data exist to support a separate curve.
Figures 4.13 through 4.19 show crater dimensions for the 1-kt yield
level. It will be noted that fewer data are available for this yield,
a problem which worsens rapidly as yield increases. No attempt is made
in this study to illustrate crater dimensions above the 1-kt level; the
general trends in yield scaling exponents for crater radius and depth
from small to very large yields are illustrated, however, in Figure 4.20.
Scaled values for yields of interest may be approximated by the use of
Figure 4.21.
An illustration of the general shapes of craters for charges of
all sizes and for geoetries ranging from low airbursts to containment
depths, at which subsidence craters may be formed, is shown in Fig-
ure 4.22. Details of crater nomenclature were shown in Figure 1.2.
Deeply buried explosions are discussed in more detail in Section 6.4.

4.2 CRATERING MECHANISMS

An understanding of the mechanics of crater formation aids in

37
i'I
predioting (or explaining) the size and shape of the crater void and the
volume of material ejected from it. In addition to the three primary
cratering variables (charge yield, shot geometry, and characteristics
of the cratered medium), there are three basic mechanisms which govern
the formation of HE craters: material ejection, cowpact.on, and plasr
tic flowage. For practical purposes, the same may be said of nuclear
craters, since the volume of material involved in the fourth
mechanism--vaporization--is generally regarded aE being insignifictnt.
One method of defining the importance of different cratering mech-
anisms is through their contributions to crater volume. A number of
volumetric parameters for craters have been isolated and defined. For
craters in soil, the following relations are -talid:

vt * 'dis *Vc +Vf (1.1

71(.2
Ydis " (ve + ) (v.2b)

v - vt - va (4.3)

v Kve + (4.4)
v a vf (4.5)

Where: vt = volume of true crater

Vdi s ' volume (preshot) of material dissociated by the explosion
vc a volume of crater due to compression (compaction)
Vf M volume of crater due to plastic flovage of the medium
,0071 0 preshot (in situ) and postshot unit weights of cratered
material, respectively
v a volume of ejecta
Vfb a volume of fallback
va volume of apparent crater
v
v a total volume of crater lip
K a a constant representing the fraction of ejects volume
contributing to the formation of the crater lip

38
 v = volume of upthrust region
Equations 4.1 through 4.5 permit assessment of the contributions of
various cratering mechanisms to total crater volume. Similar relations
have been developed on: the basis of mass (Reference 4). These same
equations (4.1 through 4.5) are equally applicable in rock, except that
the plastic flowage term for this medium is negligiblo; therefore, Equa-
tion 4.5 does not apply. Upthrusting of the lip region does occur,
however, by upward displacement of rock strata (buried shots) and ex-
pansion of Joints by rebound action in near-surface shots. A similar
action has been noted beneath the rock craters for near-surface geome-
tries. When this occurs,

Vt - Vdi s ~t
- Vex p *V~~~(14.6)

where v w net volume of Joint expansion.

exp
Reference 5 examines in detail the dimensional analyses which
serve as background to scaling relations. Selecting from the listed
properties of medium variables those which are probable primary con-
tributors to the three basic mechanisms, the following tabulation can
be made:

Cratering Contributing
Mechanism Properties
of the Medium

Material Ejecrion C

Compaction , r
Plastic Flow , V

Where: a - comression, shear, and tensile strengths or elastic prop-

erties M"iT "2 in units of mass-length-time
Yr a void ratio, dimensioiess
V U dynamic viscosity, MLIT "

39
 .7

4.3 SCALING CONSIDERATIONS

4.3.1 Scaling as a Prediction Tool. A primary purpose of the
graphs in Appendix B is the development of exponent to permit pre-
diction of crater size. Generally referred to as "scaling," this is a
mathematical exercise of the form

r, d, Y kWn (4.7)

Where: r - crater radius (apparent or true)

d - crater depth
v a crater volume
k a a constant numericallv equal to the graphical intercept at
~W~l
W - charge weight (TNT equivalent)
n - the scaling exponent (slope of logarithmic graph)
A related procedure can be employed when crater dimensions from a

similar experiment are available and when u is known or can be

approximated. Thus, ()
rl, d1 , v1 r 2 , d2 , v2
WnWn
1 2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two different cratering events,
the results of which are known for one or the other. The foregoing
equations have been used extensively.
An alternative method, now under development, is computer simula-
tion of cratering processes. A thorough discussion of this technique
is beyond the scope of this report; briefly, it utilizes a numerical
computer routine such as a finite element program to simulate the effects
of a detonation upon a medium of known physical properties. The results
can be graphed to illustrate crater formation at any stage (as a function
of time). Obviously, a detailed knowledge of both the explosive and the
medium characteristics is prerequisite. While this method has contrib-
uted greatly to the science of cratering, it will probably never replace
scaling as a rapid means of crater prediction.

,°4
0
 4.3.2 Linear Scaling Relations. Reference 5 develops four scaling
rules governing crater radius and depth dimensions. Each rule is pred-
icated upon certain assumptions, some controversial. Three of these
rules result in the generally well-known cube-root scaling (W1 13 ); the
fourth rule, based on energy-gravity scaling (charge energy and gravi-
tational acceleration g are considered when forming the dimensional
terms, but with g and the medium density p held constant), results in
fourth-root scaling of linear dimensions. In all cases, experimental
similarity--to include scaling of material properties--is necessary
for unqualified applicati(, of the rules. In practice, similarity re-
quirements are seldom (if ever) met, and vtolation of these requirements
generally results in larger crater dimensions for increased charge sizes
than would be predicted by formal scaling rules. Thus, observations of
crater data frequently show n > 1/3 , especially for low yields. By
the same token, where experiment shows n < 1/3 , the influence of
energy-gravity scaling considerations may be suspected. Since empirical
exponents for linear crater dimensions show a general decrease with in-
creasing charge yield (Figure 4.20), it seems likely that energy release
rather than charge mass or weight becomes increasingly important in the
larger yields. It can be seen from the foregoing discussion that pre-
dictions which span a wide difference in charge yields may be subject to
the conflicting influences of similarity violations and energy-gravity
considerations.
As explosion yield increases, and one moves out of the HE domain
and into the NE u,.,'!n, basic differences in scaling behavior between
the two muft be considered. HE occupies some finite volume and gener-
ates its own explosion gases, while NE is essentially a point source of
thermal energy which vaporizes the adjacent material, thereby generating
gases. Thus, differences in energy partitioning and coupling into the
cratered medium almost surely cause differences in the eans by which
the craters are formed and in the scaling factors applied to them. Ex-
perience shows that HE craters are larger than those for comparable NE
yields.
It seems probable that no single scaling exponent will ever

(I'P1
V.
 suffice to precisely predict any crater dimension except under closely
controlled conditions and for a limited range of charge yields. This is
probably true in homogeneous media, not to mention real-world soils,
where layering and inhomogeneities abound. It is for this reason that
empirical approaches to crater scaling are so generally used. Analyses
presented in this report show that scaling exponents for linear crater
dimensions fall roughly between 0.20 and 0.40 for spherical charges;
however, higher values have been observed for scaling crater depths from
hemispherical charges in plastic soil.
Presumably, scaling of crater eject. field dimensions could be ac-
complished in a manner similar to that discussed here. As with crater
formation, attempts are under way to describe ejects deposition by com-
puter simulation, as well as by analysis of experimental data. Thus far,
rather tenuous scaling exponents in the range of \0.3 _ n _ 0.17 have
been developed from the latter, with the larger exponent applying to
surface geometries. Empirical scaling exponents for ejecta ranges are
further discussed in Chapter 5.
4.3.3 Volumetric Scaling Relations. For most of the geometric (-1
shapes which best describe craters (e.g., paraboloid, hyperboloid),
volume is proportional to r 2 . It is frequently assumed that

where n. , n2 , and n3 represent the scaling exponents for depth,

radius, and volume, respectively. Intuitively, it would seem that
U3 , although apparent violations have frequently been noted.
Development of scaling relations for crater volumes, in addition to the
problems outlined above, is plagued by difficulties in obtaining good
volume measurements. Volumes given in the literature, especially those
obtained prior to 1960, are oftentimes based on one or two radial sur-
veys and are therefore not as accurate as those developed from aerial
stereophotography or from a number of radial surveys.
4.3.4 Depth-of-Burial Scaling. Cube-root (mass or mass-gravity)
scaling ic used in this report for charge DOB, a common appzoach. Two

40
LI°
 alternatives are also found in other studies:
1. If the appropriate scaling exponent is known or assumed before-
hand, it can also be applied to DOB scaling.
2. An iterative approach can be used in which yield is held con-
stant and an exponent is found which best matches both crater dimension
and DOB (Reference 6).
Generally, all three methods produce satisfactory data fits; some
advantcge may be noted in the last method where data are grouped to
facilitate its use. This was not always the case in this study, how-
ever. A primary purpose o, this report was to develop and illustrate
dimension scaling relations; hence the choice of cube-root DOB scaling.

(! 43

(2 143

Li] _____________________
 SCALED O/00. PT/L3Mi
0.4 0 0.-.3*. e-2.0 -.

In

aa
£0
U0
R o9

5--. I0 Is -.s -30 -n -SO

SURFCJiSJFAC's-

Figure 4.1 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in basalt
and granite. Example: For a 2-ton detonation in granite at a DOB of
*6.3 feet, find scaled DOB - 6.3/01,000)13.1/30.4. ft/lb 1/3 . From the
graph, the dimensions for a 1l-ton charge at the same scaled DOD are (see
illustration): ra u14 feet, d s 8 feet, hia 2 feet. By inter-
* polation, scaling exponents are IpproximatelY 0.29T, 0.308, and 0.3534,
respectively. Thus, scaled dimensions are as follows:
14 \2-'-00-- a 17.2 feet-, da 8(4.000
ra *
,000 9
a 2,00 0308 9.9 feet;

h *2( G."000 2.5 feet.

V. 40
 ' I

1/
SCALEO H4O/DOI, PT/L.
f K0.4 , 0 -0.4
I I -0.6
i i I
-.. 2
I I .1.6
I I I F 'Y
-2.0 -2.4

30a

SRADIUS

'U.1

iif
a

( 0

s -s -to -is -as -21 -

SUMNAC RUmrACC 405/001. Pf'o

Figure 4.2 True crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in sandstone.

0
1.
 1
LL aQ0@DOti0, T/LM3'
0.4 0 -0.4 *O.S '2
C -1.4 -2.0 -2.4

21

a C;

* Lip WH

0 -30-n -3

A@9 GCU
RUAK ISRAK"OO.09

Fiue43Aprn rtrdmasosfr1tnTTshrsi
shal,
tff, nd roze grund

a4
 SCALED MOS/corn. e'T/Lrn
0.4 0 0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -.-. 0-2.4

aC

a4

ay

N 47
 SCALO HIO0/00. T/LU'Ol
0.4 0 -0.4 -0.6 -1.2 -1.6 -2.0 .4
o i , I ' ' ' I F Ii I I I I '

Us -

I,-
ILI N

6 0

* ,o

!1 !
df

i • * i mm, I **, , i , , I, imp * I -

I l •I l fill lOC
-IAC I1 40S/OOU, Pif7r-IVERY
-10

Figure 4,5 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TNT spheres in dry
clay.

44

148-'
I:..
A.1
 SCALRO 1408/009. PT/LM /

0 0.4 0.0 1.2 1.0 2.0 2.4

K0.4

SS-

to

(UFCIFC I

C/C

49
 k,-~W - -1 1 -4-*

1 3
SCALCO NOS/OO1, P?/'/.
. *. -2.
0 .0.4 -0.1 -1.2
0.4
10 1 * j I I ' I I I I I I I I ' * ' I

1U

z I

* 3.
I..

a 10

II

U',0

S -s -I o -Is - so -55 - .

ADO
SgURFACI
Ac
S UtFACC 106/,002. P2E?

Figure I.7 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-ton TIT spheres in

dry desert alluvium.

50
 SCALCO M14006. Pr/LWe'l
0.4 0 -0.4 -. 3 *'.2 *14-2.0-*

Is--

0 tI

aw
fr-omit #U3 rC

Fi= .8
S!M5~l

sand.
paetcae
MM09.P

iesosfrItnMTshrsi
 SCALEO 1408/009. PY/L@ *
0.4 0-0.4 -0.6 -1.2 -16-2.0 -2.4
Do*I**~ r-r711 1 1 1 I~II I

iC a At

C;

0
AIS a
E O%" 9 0 11 1,9

%UPIPCE
SRFAC

F£ xe49Aprn rtrdmesosfr1tnTTshrsi

wet saxId

III52
4- i iII illiiili
i-

SCAL O HO / . . T/LS
0.4 0 0.4 40.8 -1.2 -1.4 -2.0 .2.4
II

le I..10 1.0/0, f/1

, I iI i I I I -I
i I i
10 * ii 1 m g pl mi

o 0 -. -1. -is .2. -s -.30

.. AC SftP-ACE "nfm~on. Fggy

Figure 4.10 Cotposite graph for apparent crater radius for 1-ton
TNlT spheres.

"(',53
 1
SCALKO MOWom/b. PT/Lw

30 0.4 2-.e0. .4.0 ..

U g
I-W

I, 7 ,

iU; E URPACE "mog~@. PUlT

Figu.re 4.11 Composite graph for apparent crater depth for 1-ton
TNT spheres.

!i40
 SCALOO HOEI/M111 py/L8112
0.4 0-0.4 -0.3 -1.2 .1. .. 0 ..

is

I.0
OPMMcr

LitUl r 7

"FCI
£o/" 18

£ iw .2Cmoieguhfraprn rtrlphih o
1-ton TN phrs
 SCAL,. :OIDIO.PI /, I1
*.l1 *l.i * 0. t

- I Ii I

-- L

_AIOVC I lOW14101II
SUPAC. ! NI
mAW'

Figure 14.13 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in desert

alluvium.
geALe p@/oes. PT/LeS,

to - i
64 5 -04 -5.5 -l1a -1.5 -iS -. 4

am

S I
IO I ,I I. I I t I I aI

Figur~e 4 .14 True crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in desert

556
 SCALRO WSO. Pt/00
S• 4 *-0.4 -0l.l0' ..-. O L4

so-

to • -9o -1o -0-00 N

Figure 4.15 A~parent crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in rock. Crosx-
hatched area shows region in which uncertain results are obtained, de-
C pending uyon strength and composition of rock. "

Set

In "

N 0 . -in ti•- - -]
tLIi i I ipm I

e6 0 .l0e *te0 .10 -00 -No -W

- Figure 4 .16 True crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in rock.

-.. m57
 SAIO wOlO. P?/.Ilft
04..,~B. 0 0.4. *O.• o.I -I.. -8. -1iO .)
I - e

II

U.

1
0 *' * l Inii .1.. * i I p.. *, p pIl, ,
i -s-0 -i -m -*I -

ABOVE BELOW
Ou"Ace I'M NOIOI Pa?

Figure 1-.17 Apparent crater dimensions for 1-kt charges in moist clq.

G"L"S ""/coo. PILow

JI *~
t,.30, 14 *IL 0..
4

"m

* I.- N N -I I *

o, AtOVp p ,I

SURACR SUWAC6 U/O.PE

Figure 4.18 Ccmposite graph for apparent crater radius for 1-kt charges.

58

7'
 OCALIO NOS/OCO. OPT/Lolls
6.a-0.6 o ,a -~ i -a..

do1

-0 so
2m 41LO o
SU1UM U

Figure 14.19 Compoite graph for apparent crater depth for 1-kt charges.

59
 ILI

10

60.
!05

lot

SCALED CHAAG9 YIELD W, LlUf

Figure 4.21 Charge yields scaled to various powers.

06
 - ... j.*.~-

U.

jjK* iA4t~
*IIJ
qj) **.*

0)

4)

S...
6.~

_________ -'a'

* . . S
* .

* *
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* . ii
* * L
R

* 0
. *
... a 'I
0 * .

'Rf
:..E
**~
*
t~pw
1IJ '.- *~ I
1.1
I
* .~' * '~

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*

S..
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*
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.6
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.~ *.. qt*
S

p.. . *,S' '0

 CHAPTE. 5

CRATER EJECTA

Although not a primary consideration in this report, the ejec~ion

mechanism is sufficiently important in the formation of a crati to
warrant explanation. A complete treatment is properly the subject of
a separate study; for this, the reader in referred to the BtlIJDgraphy.
The following paragraphs are intended to provide a general appreciation
of this phenomenon.

5.1 COMPOSITION AND ORIGIN

Crater ejectA consists of that portion of the soil or rock debris

thrown beyond the boundaries of the apparent crater by an explosion
(Figure 5.1). Together with the fallback, which lies between the true
and apparent crater boundaries, it comprises all material completely
dissociated from the parent medium by the explosion. It may represent
a significant hazard at considerable distances from the crater.
(7) In a buried explosion, ejecta mainly originates in the dome of earth
material which in forced upward by the expanding gas bubble. As the
dome disintegrates and gas venting occurs (Figure 5.2), discrete
particles of ejected material enter a trajectory which is, except for
very small, vindborne particles, essentially ballistic. For near-
surface explosions, where the fireball obscures the cratered region,
the mechanics of eectimn are not so well kro-wn. Observations of near-
surface explosions show an early, fast-moving corona of material
ejected from a position near the charge and at a steep angle to the
ground surface. The ejection process is, however, known to take place
over a longer period of time and to include lowur exit angles.
Material fractured by the ¢cmpressive stress wave may be dislodged
And ejected by the explosion gases, as visualized in Figure 5-.3. How-
ever, attempts to predict ejecta ranges by consideration of shock-front
conditions and by calculation from early trejectory parameters have been
unsatisfactory. At appears that additional experimental observations
will be necessary for this purpose.
~0

+ _. + + . .. • 3 • . . .. . .+ + - . ,, ,.t.+.-
: ,+ . • +6

. .-. . + . i, , I -_ I -. . . . .
 Theoretical studies indicete that in large near-surface deton6bions,
eject. particles of considerable size may be captured by the thermal up-
drafts and lofted into high, nonballistic trajectories. Figure 5.4 il-
lustrates origins and relative ranges for general cases of HE charge
geometries, as deterwined from field observations.

5.2 DESCRIPTIVE PARAMETERS

The ejecta field is divided into two zones: (1) the crater lip
(the continuous ejects surrounding the apparent crater), and (2) the
discontinuous ejecta, comprising the discrete natural missiles falling
beyond the crater lip.
The principal parameters used to describe the ejects are the aver-
e lip crest height (h) (Figure 1.2); the radial extent of the crater
lip (r ) from GZ; the depth of deposition, eject. mass density, and
missile size/distribution defined as functions of radial distance from
GZ; and the maximum missile range (re). The principal variables which
control the ejects parameters are the shot yield and geometry and the
physical nature of the earth medium. 0
5.2.1 Crater Lip. The amount ad extent of the continuously
deposited ejecta in the crater lip are determined primarily by the shot
yield and geometry. The radial extent of the crater lip will usually
vary from about 2 to 4 apparent crater radii. The maximum depth of
ejects in the lip occurs at or near the lip crest, and its height above
original ground can be estimated as about one-fourth to one-third the
apparent crater depth for near-surface bursts. For deeper bursts, the
lip height is usually one-fifth to one-fourth the apparent crater depth.
The depth of eject. will decrease rapidly in an exponential fashion as
the distance from GZ increases. In general, the volume of ejects
deposited within the crater lip varies from about 40 percent to over
90 percent of the total, the latter figure representing near-optimum
DOB's in cohesive media. Deeper bursts may, of course, result in a lip
containing all of the ejected material, surrounding an apparent crater
of insignificant size (Figure 4.22e). Figure 5.5 illustrates the
fraction of total deposition with range from GZ.

640
 .~5.2.2 Discrete EJecta Field. The discontinuous ejecta beyond the
crater lip is usually described by areal mass density (e.g., pounds of
ejects per square foot) and a numerical density (number of missiles per
square foot). Both parameters decrease exponentially as distance from
GZ increases, and a wide circumferential variation is usual, which is
main],y the result of medium inhomogeneities. Figure 5.6 provides a means
of predicting ejects azeal density for a given explosion. Predictions
obtained fror these curves should be considered only as first-order
approximations, as deviation can be caused by variations in shot geom-
etry, earth media characteristics, and the &symmetry of the ejects
field itself.
Ejects missile size and quantity, both in the crater lip and in
the discontinuous portion of the eject& field, depend primarily on the
characteristics of the earth medium. For example, the cohesiveness of
a soil vith a high clay content often results in missiles of substantial
size, vhile a noncohesive material such as sand *ill produce almost no
missiles of significant size. Explosions in glacial tills will produce
a large n,,mber of long-range missiles. In rock, the spacing of joints
is a controlling factor in determining missile size. At this writing,
*e--= of predicting natural missile-size distribution, either analyti-
cally or tmpirically, are considered too tentative for Lclusion in a
report of this nature.
For buried charges, maximm missile range is approxifraely pro-
portional to , and is shown graphically as a function of DOB in
Figure 5.7 (from Reference 7). Surface or near-surface,
iboveground
0 3
bursts produce maximum missile ranges vhich more nearly scale as Wl
It has been observed that, for near-surface HE geometries, the periphery
of the ejects field consists of predominantly small (Q1pound)
particles.
Finally, the reader is cautioned that the figures of this chapter
are primarily qualitative, showing trends and very rough values for
ejects, parameters. No attempt should be made to extract from them
detailed quantitative information.

065
 ---------
,~el.
 Q+

a. Cavity and ome imediately prior to venting.

.. . . . - - _' . -

-- .- .- .. -

- """:

fit
,'\N,

b. Venting and ejection of in situ material.

Figure 5.2 Ejection procesR for a buried explosion.

67

[S]~ ~ ~~ ~7 7______________________ ________

 AIR

EARTH

Figure 5.3 Ejection process for a near-surface explosion.

i . . 68

. °o
 - ------ -

II

OISTNI PAOUoz. "IT

a. Buried detonation (20 tons)

zw

jW

00 ~ LIMIT OF DISSOCIATION

DISTANCE FROM OZ. FEET

i. NEAR-SURFACE DETONATION

b. Near-surface detonation (100 tons)

Figure 5.4 Pjecta origins and relative ranges for HE detonations.

0 69
 !.0

ENVELOPE OF
DATA FROM
BURIEO
EXPLOSIONS

> NEAR-SURFACE EXPi.OSIOUS

AU IN ROCK

z
I..
l'-
A 0.2

0 to so I00

RANGE FROM GZ IN APPARENT CRATER RAOII,.t-

e

Figure 5.5 Fraction Of ',otal e,1sct& volme 92 & function of range

from GZ.
: °.0
".
o, ^0

070
 LCGCEND
SOIL

I EJECTA AREAL DENSITY. Lit/FTS

7 MEDIUM UNIT IWEIGHT. L@/FTl
w*R APPARENT CRATER VOLUME. FTI
IOR RANGE IDISTANCE) FROM GZ. FT
toAPPARENT CRATER RADIUS. FT

CK

to-oo

Figui'e Dimnsionleas plot of ejects mass d-enaity as a function of

(7) range expressed as mutiples of the apparent crs- r ralium.

*71
 2.000 I I 1111 1 "

1,000

G.oo ...

- I

100

5.

00

F __ _ _ _ _ 0
7

0. 0. . .
100 SCLE 008 /,

toI I IlitII I I
0,1 0.3 1.0 4.0
1
SCALED 003l, PT1/LII

?itgure 5.? Maximum missile range ror buried ch.arges.

: • ' 7 2,
 CHAPTER 6
EFFECTS OF VARIATION IN SHOT GEOMETRIES

6.1 mULTIPLE-EXPLOSION ARRAYS

Weapons or munitions may be detonated in close proximity to one
another for the purpose of creating military obstacles or for excava-
tion purposes (Figure 6.1). When the detonations are simultaneous and
sufficiently close to permit interaction between charges, the shot geom-
etry is herein termed "multiple explosion." A linear array of this
nature is termed a "row shot," and the resulting crater is referred to
as a "row crater" or a "channel." The channel may also result from two
or more connecting row shots. The row-shot geometry has been the object
of widespread research, due to its numerous possible military and civil
applications. Multiple-explosion arrays may also be tailored to other,
less common purposes, however, and may be nonlinear and/or detonated in
varying sequences. A portion of the Bibliography is devoted to this
general cratering application.
6.1.1 Row Craters. In addition to the cratering variibles dis-
cussed in Chapters 3 and 4, row shots are dependent upon the spacing
between charges and the degree of simultaneity of detonation. Sig-
nificant departure from detonation simultaneity may degrade row-charge
crater dimensions. Close spacings of charges (less than 1.4 single-
charge crater radii) enhance both erater radius and depth, as compared
to single craters at the same scaled DOB. Figure 6.2 shows the en-
hancement of single-charge crater dimensions obtained by reducing the
spacing between charges in a row charge at optimum DOB. As the charge
spacing decreases, the optimum DOB for each charge must be increased
by the enhancement factor. The length L of a row crater can be
found from the equation

2
L a s(N - 1) + ra (6.1)
Where: N a the number of charges in the row
a = charge spacing

73

8_ IIINFO _ _ _ __
'0 "° -- ; 1
Spacings of about 3ra in soil and up to 4ra in rock may produce
satisfactory linear obstacles, since the crater lip is part of the
obstacle.
6.1.2 'Other Multiple-Explosion Arrays. As explained in Chapter 2,
a variety of geometries has been studied, mostly in granular soil, for
specific applications of multiple-explosion arrays. These have included
nonlinear arrays, adjacent row shots fired simultaneously and in varying
sequences, and "ultiple-pass" geometries, wherein row charges are fired
beneath channels created by preceding row shots. The applications in-
clude explosively formed earth dams, overburden removal, and the shaping
of row-shot channels to certain specifications. Since these applica-
tions are quite specialized, no attempt will be made in this report to
discuss then further. Those hiving such an interest should consult
the Bibliography.

6.2 CRM STD*(INO

"Steemig" refers to the backfilling of material in the charge-

emplacement hr!e. Ideally, charges should be completely stemmed and -
tamped to a density equal to that of the parent material to insure that
the explosive provides the maximum in cratering performance. There are,
however, occasional requirements, mostly alitary, that stemming be re-
ducel or that its emplacement and removal be expedited. Thus, some
attention has been given to the effects on crater dimensions of various
sizes of emplacement holes with different depths of stemming and with
different stemming materials, including water. Based on HE experiments,
it has been concluded that atemziag does little to increase crater
diameter, which is generally the dimension of greatest military impor-"
tnce. Stemming of about one-half the emplacement-hole depth (50 percent
temmin ) provides most of the crater depth which woulA be expected from
a fully stemmed charge. Water appears to be an efficient stemming mate-
rial. Figure 6.3 illustrates the sm&al-scale experimental results, as
caziled In Referanc* 8.

74 "0
 6.3 UNDERWATER C3ATEING

A limited amount of experimentation has been devoted to cratering

underwater. With one exception known to the authors, all such experi-
ments within the time frame of consideration in this report have in-
volved charges resting on or only partially buried beneath the earth-
water interface. The exception is Project Tugboat (by ZERL), for which
both small and large HE tests of buried charges have been conducted.
The goal of this study is a light-draft harbor at Kawaihae on the island
of Havaii.
Reference 9, which is included in the Bibliography on this subject,
is in itself a compendium on underwater cratering preceding Tugboat.
Data from a number of tests are compiled, interpreted, and analyzed in
this reference. In addition to single charges, limited data are in-
cluded on row and "nail-driving" detonations (see Section 6.6). The data
from the single-charge experiments are included in Figure 6.4, scaled to
the 1-ton yield level. In general, both row and nail-driving experience
parallels that for land craters, with allowances made for differences in
(- single-charge crater shapes and sizes.
Two additional 5-ton TNT charges fired at Mono Lake, California, in
1966 resulted in underwater mounds rather than craters. Due to the
anomalous, bnexplained results, these shots were not included in
Reference 9. Also, a small quantity of old, formerly classified data
has recently been located, and this may be included in future analyses.

6.4 DEPLY BURIED ELOSIONS

The cratering effects of explosive charges buried deeper than opti-

ma DOB are illustrated in Appendix A and in Figures 4.1 through 4.19.
A c -t-nued ± zed in DOB will result in a smaller apparent crater,
although true crater dimensions will continue to increase. At some DOB,
the apparent crater will cease to be evident, or may (especially in co-
* hesive material) result in a mound due to heaving and/or bulking action.
Essentially, this is the containment DOB. Below this depth, a camouflet,
or underground cavity, is formed. The true crater no longer intersects
the surface, but is coincident with the caouflet, with concentric zones

0 C) 75

,--* * * .
 of deformation. These conditions are illustrated in Figure 4.22. (
Approximate containment depths may be extrapolated from the figures
of Chapter 4 in terms of DOB/W1'/ 3 . The depth of containment was
reported in Reference 2 as about 3.5 ft/lb11 3
. Cavity radii are ap-
1/ 3
proximately 1.2 ft/lb for HE charges, or about 47 ft/kt1 /3
for NE, as
taken from reports on a number of nuclear experiments. For HE, an
empirical equation which considers DOB is
1.25w21 3
r m --DOe (6.2) (Reference 10)

More accurate calculations for NE, which take into account the effects
of medium properties and DOB, provide the equation

r a C -- (6.3) (Reference 11)

Where: C = an observed cavity proportionality constant

a - an exponent based on the adiabatic (gas) expansion
coefficient
0
Other terms are as previously defined in the text or Figure 1.2. The
explosion gases are, of course, formed by vaporization of the medium.
Figure 6.5 shows values of a as a function of water content, and
assumed values of a , p , and C are shown below for several rock
media.

Medium pL C
3
gm/cm
Granite 0.324 2.7 103
Tuff 0.292 1.9 97
Alluvium 0.296 1.9 89
salt 0.311 2.3 96
Dolomite 0.329 2.3 89

760

7 air
 To use Equation 6.3, enter W in kilotons and Z in meters; cavity
radius r vill be found in meters.
In desert alluvium, subsidence craters have been experienced for
large yields fired below containment depths. This action, which may
take place over several days, results from the subsidence of overlying
soil into the cavity formed by the explosion. Characteristically,
these craters are wide and shallow. In view of the uncertainties as-
sociatel1 with their formation, no prediction techniques appear
applicable.

6.5 BOmB/SHEL CRATERS

As indicated in Chapter 2, cratering by conventional bombs has long
been of interest to the military. Recently, limited cratering tests
have been conducted with artillery and mortar shells in connection with
the design of protective structures. It does not appear sufficient to
predict bomb/shell crater dimensions from those formed by bare charges
equivalent in yield to the bomb or shell filler material, even though
it msy be argued that explosive energy lost in rupturing the case is
regained in kinetic energy of the fragments. The explosive filler ma-
terial is usually cast in a cylindrical configuration, and detonation
Is usually initiated in the nose or tail of the warhead; these consider-
ations also fail to answer completely the questions raised over differ-
ences in craters.
The limited study which has been done on this subject indicates
that deeply buried bombs produce craters smaller in radius bat larger
in depth than do comparable bare charges. There do net seem to be suffi-
cient data on shallowly buried bombs to permit conclusions. Experience
with mortar and artillery shells, which contain a proportionately
heavier casing, indicates that near-surface (fuze quick) bursts form
craters whieh are somewhat larger than those of bare charges. Unfortu-
nately, a complete resolution of the problem is hampered by lack of
definitive test lata. Figure 6.6 shows general bomb-data trends, and
may be compared with spherical-charge curves in Appendix B.

77

-- -2... - .. I L. _u .:'
 iI

6.6 SUCCESSIVE SROTS ON A VERTICAL AXIS

Some interest has been shown in the craters poduced by a series
of surface or near-surface explosions, each detonation (after the first)
*occurring in the center of the crater left by the preceding shot. This
technique, known as nail driving, may represent a means of attacking
deeply bu ied, hardened structures. The results of several experiments
conducted in granular and clayey soils and in competent rock are shown
by envelopes of data in Figures 6.T and 6.8. Althoughi there is consid-
erable scatter in the data, the envelopes approximate the expected in-
creases in crater dimensions, and also show the general differences to
be expected in soil and rock.

o4

! 0
: 78
 NI..

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79

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2I
4Owa..

a I
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PCCIRNt STIMMWbI

ALL.SYPINO MAT"~ALS

Pence"? S1RWlNO
0.VOLtMg .
Figure 6.3 Increase in 10 crater dimensions as functions of
stemming and DOB.

V MrTW7'
83. .,#
 I(9

0c

04) C

003

93 03 0

~43
aov
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82' 4
 0,$4 I I I I I I
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0

26

a 1 !0 Is 20Z 25 so as
WATERI CONTINT, PErRCENT

Figure 6.5 Adiabatic expansion coefficient a as a function of

medium's moisture content (Reference 11).

( co

• .' ,iU-

'", ')83
 Fto Z00

10mj
0z 0

.
o o_ ... 2

10 1
00

CHARGE YIELD, OUN03

!

J:I Figure 6.6 Apparent trater dimensions for deeply buried bomb explosions.
h84
p,. .;
 i ___________________________________________________________________

I I I a.:

(
a.

I
S i.
S
6 1

i
U
I
I
~
U
IA

I a
64

I.,

blot UUUMR IwO? WJU~A

0. OIPTh h. RADIUS

0
0

I
Figure 6.7 Increase in apparent
crater dimensions for nail-driving : 4
experiments.

I I 1 4 S
blOt NUNSUN

a 85 a. VO~ubM

~.. ... ,
 U

S"OT NUMG SNOT O"P

, /Figue 6.8 increase in true crater

Sdimensions for heil-driVing
; experiments.•

S. 1.4

861
 CHAPTER 7

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

The graphs in Appendix B and Chapter 4 are based primf*rily on tests

conducted in relatively homogeneous, isotropic media. In many situa-
tions, however, it may be necessary to detonate explosives in a medium
containing some environmental anomaly, such as a water table at a shal-
low depth, a layering of one type of soil over another, parallel planes
of distinct Jointing in rock, or a steeply sloping ground surface. All
of these factors can influence the formation of a crater and, in some
cases, radically change its size or characteristics.

T.1 SLOPING TOPOGRAPHY

Terrain slopes of about 5 degrees or greater will affect crater
formation for a surface explosion, the venting process for a buried ex-
plosion, and ejecta distribution in any case. For gentle slopes, the
total volumetric effects will be about the same u for craters on level
Oground, but the resulting crater will be Raymmetrical, wider up-slope
and with a larger lip down-slope (Figure 7.1). For the field of discrete
ejects particles, greater maximum ranges will occur down-slope, assuming
that the wind is not a significant factor.
Limited small-scale cratering experiments have been conducted in
moist, sandy soil and in desert alluvium on slopes ranging from
40 degrees to vertical wedges, the latter representing the extreme in
sloping topography. For charges buried on severe but nonvertical slopes,
with DOB measured from the sloping surface and with the vertical depth
of overburden being greater than containment depth, crater dimensions
decrease with increasing slope. Optimum vertical DOB and optimim dis-
tance from the free, vertical face of a wedge appear roughly the same,
and perhaps larger by about one-third than optimum DOB on level terrain.
For this geometry, ejecta distribution is preponderantly directed toward
the free face, with about three-fourths of the total ejecta mass falling
in this direction when DOB is optimum for crater volume. The disparity
in ejecta distribution increases with further increase in DOB.

.87
 7.2 -LAYERED SYSTEMS
7.2.1 Water Tables. Based upon HE experiments, a subsurface water
table In a soil medium viii begin to influence the size and shape of the
crater then its depth below the surface is equal to or less than three-
fourths the predicted apparent crater radius. Its effect is to flatten
and widen the crater. As the water table depth decreases, its effect
becomes more evident; for a water table depth of one-fourth to one-
fifth the original predicted crater radius, the final radius may be as
much as rO percent greater than and the depth as little as one-third
that of the original predicted value.
7.2.2 Bedrock. The influence of a bedrock layer below a soil
medium is similar to that of a water table, though somewhat less pro-
nounced. For HE explosions at the surface, the bedrock layer may in-
crease the crater radius slightly (5-10 percent), and may decrease the
final depth by as much as one-third when the overburden layer is as
shallow as one-fourth the predicted apparent crater radius.
T.2.3 Rock Bedding/Jointing. For low-yield NE and high-yield HE
explosioni at or very near the surface, the bedding or Jointing planes in (D
rock can influence the shape of the crater produce4, as well as the di-
rection of the ejecticn process. The formation of the crater will tend
to follow the direction of the predominant joints, thus increasing the
crater radius by as much as one-third in the direction parallel to the
joints, or decreasing it by as much as one-third normal to the joints.
The uapnitude of the crater depth is usuaiV not affected significantly,
but the deepest point may be shifted to one side of the crater. As yield
or DOB is increased, the influence of rock Jointing is reduced.
The dip of bedding planes will influence energy propagation,
causiug the maximum crater depth to be offset in the down-dip direction.
Little overall effect is noted in regard to crater radius, but differ-
ences in ejection angles cause the maximum lip height and ejecta radius
to cccur dovn-dip.

120

.... _ _ _I__--.-.__ . _ _ _ I III II I I_ I ' i

 //
//

T.3 SNOW AND ICE

Measured craters in snow or ice are a rarity, and for this reason
are presented separate from the more general data of Appendix B and
Chapter 4. A few crater" have been recorded for surface HE explosions
Iin sno/ice; these are larger than craters in soil, and are characteris-
tically wide and flat. Figure 7.2 shows trends in crater size and shape
for a surface-burst geometry in this medium.

T
44 89

POW
 -;z -

.-......
WK Dc

*I 7R Z. $

A-I t.51.
4 ~-J1 --

~ ~VAL

~ y90
 102
I..

.. 2.14 W 1

1K

to' to o1 12 0 0

10o 0
102o to 2 to0 a
CHARGE WEIGHT W. POUNDS

APPARENT CRATERADUSND EPT

isnw andice
-91
 CHAPTER 8
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 WmMARY
The foregoing chapters have presented a brief history of cratering
research and a compilation of HE and NE crater data. An attempt has
been made to sort these data in such a fashion as to identify the sig-
nificant variables affecting crater size, and an analysis has been con-
ducted to provide the tools necessary for crater predictions. Varia-
tions in crater shapes and sizes due to departures from the usual test
geometries or to unusual environmental conditions have been discussed.
Phenomena associated with debris ejection from the crater have also been
examined briefly. The result is a series of graphs from which crater
parameters may be read directly (Appendix B) or from which data trends
can be identified (Chapters 4 and 5), and to which certain judgment
factors can be applied for practical usage.

8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS )
The report has been prepared in a manner to facilitate the addition
of crater data by the user. It is recommended that a formal updating be
accomplished on a periodic basis-say, biennially or triennially--to
insure maximum use of new data as it becomes available. With the data
/ retrieval and computerized platting system which has been established,
this could be done without great effort. For the more specialized

crater applications (e.g., multiple-charge arrays, cratering on slopes),

such a periodic updating would help fill serious gaps in the existing
data. To aid in updating, users are urged to submit suggestions and
corrections which they feel are appropriate.
A crater/ejecta study should be a part of every experimental plan,
and especially so for tests involving NE large HE yields. In the
past, where this has been overlooked or neglected, the result has been
the loss of data needed at some later time. In generals the area in
which crater data are most needed is that of large yields in clays And

920

u.'. 1
 (. silts and mixtures thereof which proabl~y represent the major portion of
the earth's soils. More information is needed on cratering in layered
systems, also, to insure proper application of available data to practi-
cal problems. True crater dimensions and zones of subsurface deformation,
often omitted from explosion test research, should be measured wherever
possible. These data are important not only in the prediction of damaee
to undergrould structures, but also in the formulation of volumetric
and mass-balance equations, as well as in formulating expressions for
basic cratering mechanisms. Accurate volumetric data, particularly of
true craters, are valuable for normalizing certain other energy Input
phenomena, e.g. ground motion, craterIng efficiency, etc. Finaly,
every available opportunity to study the phenomenon of crater ejects
should be expleited, since it is the damage mechanism in cratering which
is potentially the most far reaching. Considerable research is needed
to accurately quantify the parameters discussed in Chapter 5.

*C) 93

I-

-
 APPENDIX A 9
TABULATIOI! OF CRATER DATA

This appendix contains the data tabulation (Tables A.1 through

A.14) introduced in Section 3.3. All but Table A.14 are reproductions
of computer printouts, the program for which is contained in Appendix D.
Explanatory material., also included in the program, is reproduced below.

IDENTIFICATION OF CODES AND VARIABLES

STC Operation Stagecoach

RRV Railroad Vulnerability Program
SES Cratering by Ground Burst at Suffield Experimental Station
SCH Project Schooner
PB Project Pre-Buggy
AV Air Vent Cratering Series
MS C Mine Shaft - Calibration Cratering Series
MS I-1v Mine Shaft I - Mine Ore
MS I-MU Mine Shaft I -Mine Under
MS II-MR Mine Shaft II - Mineral Rock
BKBD Operation Buckboard
SC II Sandia Corporation Cratering Series II
SC I Sandia Corporation Cratering Series I
MTCE Multiple Threat Cratering Experiment
DB Project Danny Boy
DP Operation Distant Plain
TPOTS Teapot Ess
PAL Palanquin
FT Flat Top
STAK9 Simulation Testo of Artillery and !:ortar Shell Explosions
J,/S,JU Operation Jangle
CSM Colorado School of Mines, Underground Explosion Test Program
UETP Underground Explosion Test Program
SSC Cratering in Sand from Spherical Charges

94

- * S
 (UE Effects of Underground Explosions
FCBT Fort Churchill Blast Tests
MOLE Small Explosion Tests, Project Mole
CESBC Cratering Effects of Surface and Buried HE Charges
CDS Cratering in Dry Sand
ESRIC Effects of a Soil-Rock Interface on Cratering
SEU Effects of Stemming on Underground Explosions
SE Stemming Effects for Certain HE Charges
PCE Energy Partitioning for Partially Confined Explosions
ICSBA Cratering Tests in Basalt - Inter-Oceanic Canal Study
ICSCC Cratering Tests in Cucaracha Culebra - Inter-Oceanic Canal
S udy
ICSGS Cratering Tests in Gatun Sandstone - Inter-Oceanic Canal
Study
ICSMM Cratering Tests in Marine Muck - Inter-Oceanic Canal Study
ICSRC Cratering Tests in Residual Clay - Inter-Oceanic Canal Study
FICS Investigation of Charge Shepe at Ft. Churchill
SRI Crater Study, Operation Castle, Stanford Research Institute
ANC Ammonium Nitrate Cratering
RUS Russian Nuclear Event.
PG Project Pre-Gondola
NEP Project Neptune
TRIN Project Trinidad
JJ WES Stemming Series
PF Operation Prairie Flat
SEDAN Operation Sedan
SL Sandia Laboratories Series
ZUL Project Zulu
DIAL Operation Dial Pack

90.3

Tl

/ o
°/° . A
 MEDIUM CCDE

Concrete or Grout .......... . . . 0

Hard Rock-Granite, Basalt, Limestone, Etc. . 1
Soft Rock-Sandstone, Etc. .......... 2
Very Soft Rock or Very Hard Soil - Shale,
Tuff, Frozen Soil. . .......... . 3
Clay . . . . .. .. . ..
Silty Clay . .. .. .. .. f.... .. 6
Loess and Lacustrine Silt .. ....... . 5
Silt, Sand, and Clay . . . . . . . . 7
Silty Sand and Desert Alluvium . .. . . 8
Sand*. . . . . .. . . . . 9

MOISTURE CODE

Completely Dry . . . . . . . . ....... 0

Very Dry . . . . . . .1

Dry . o.t.. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 2
M oist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
SlVghtly
Moist . . * . . . * # . . . f
Very Hoist . *. a *. @ *. . . . 5
Vlightly Wet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o 6
Wet . . . .0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0 T

Very Wet . .. . . . .* * * . e a8
Saturated ........ ........ 9

EXPLOSIVE CODE

Nuclear ....... *
• .. 1. . 0

C- 14TC-.. . . . . . . . . . . . *. . * 2
C-4, C-3 . . . . . . . .. 2
Pento ite . . . . . ........ 3
Ammonium Nitrate - Slurry or Grains . ... . 4

960
 ( Nitromethane .................

IThanlte . ........ ..... 6

Amatol.. . . . . . . .. 7
C-3 and Tetrytal.. o o . . 8

CRATER SHAPE CODE

0-Unknown

(Continued)

.97
CRATER SHAPE CODE (Continued) I-STANDARD .9:

244YPERBOLIC

3-SHALLOW PARABOLA

4-SOM03RERO

5-LONGHORN

(Continued)
o l~
 CRATER SHAPE CODE (Concluded)

6-PAN

7-CONE

-HALF-EGG
OFFSET

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TABLE A.ll CRATER DATA FOR 24ISPHERICAL CHARGES

Ivent Yield Med- Mois- Apparent Crater

( T) i.u ture
Code Code Radius Depth Lip Volume
Height
pounds feet feet feet ft3

Sandy Silty Clay:

SESo (5-shot series, 512 7 3 6.2 4.8 1.0 --

rTil 1958) 551 7 3 6.1 3.8 0.5 --
523 7 3 5.8 3.0 0.3 --
521 7 3 5.8 3.3 O. .-
520 7 3 6.2 3.4 0.2 -
SES (Fall 1958) 600 7 3 6.6 3.7 0.5 --
ss (Oct 1959) 10,000 7 3 20.0 12.5 -- -
SES (Aug 196o) 0,000 7 3 36.7 15.1 -
SES (Aug 1961) 200,000 7 3 69.9 20.7 - .
SES (Jul 1963) 40,000 7 3 :8.1 21.3 .. ..
SN (Aug 1963) 10,000 7 3 10.7 19.7 .. .. ()
GES (Aug 1963) 10,000 7 3 19.7 14.1 -- -
S (Sep 1963) io,o0o 7 3 20.1 i. ...
Snowball 1,000,000 7 3 139.8 13.8 -- 580,000
Distant Plain 4 100,000 7 3 40.7 16.4 - -
Dry BSnds
White Tribe 1-1 *1,560 9 1 1 .3 6.6 2.1 --
White Tribe 1-2 1t,.C60 9 1 20.0 10.3 2.0 --
White Tribe 1-3 1,560 9 1 16.0 6.2 2.1 --
White Tribe 11-1 U,560 9 1 18.3 8.6 1.8 --
White Tribe .LI-2 11,560 9 1 17.9 8.3 2.3 --
White Tribe rI-3 11,560 9 1 18.0 9.6 2.6 --
White Tribe 111-1 11,560 9 1 17.3 6.1 1.5 -
White Tribe 111-2 11,560 9 1 15.5 7.5 1.9 --
White Tribe 111-3 11,560 9 1 19.1 10.0 1.6 --

- Conducted
1leent, at SuffieldAlberta,
Suffield), Experimental Station (now Defence Research Estab-
Canada. :.i

128
 APPENDIX B
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF CRATER DATA

The tabular data of Appendix A are contained in graphical form in.

Figures B.1 through B.93 of this appendix. Essentially, these are
least-squares fits of the data, as explained in Section 3.3. Where in-
sufficient data exist to support a curve (actually, a straij).t-line fit
in all but Figure B.93), the available points are showrn. Where no data
exist for one or two plots in a figure (apparent dimensions, true dimen-
sions, or volumes), the blank graph(s) is (are) included for future
entries. This permits the use of a consistent format, with all graphs
in a single figure printed and bound for ease in readAng.
Where available, classified data have been considered in prepara-
tion of the graphs, although not shown here or elsewhere in zhis re-
port. Existence of such data are noted on the appropricte figures.
The category nubers used in the graphs and in the tables in
Appendix A refer to the height-of-burst categories into which the data
(are divided (as explained in Section 3.3).

129
 A I

5 AARN /R
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-

I-

I 5 t S
51 5 1 S 1 5 S I SI S 1 5
! '1
!,XIo 3i !1'0 )1I {|O
0 I l.O I| I |o 4 1 xiaO I) I ot )(10O r nkI laO
1 %, 1
C"4Clq YIII. POUhD5 !

SAPPAMENT CRATER DIMINSW VERSUS CHAR GE YIELD

ANO DATA AVAILALIE FOR FUTURE US0

AC CRTq LP"l
'APRU'
a 0'
I 51 51 NODAAAVIASEIFRFUUE
51 91 51 St1. 1 OS 51 S5:I
(XI 031~~
IO1a XIO
I ' 1I 3I *K II 4IO'110 I I GI UI
t110 I otai10 3XI
1 I1
CI"qqGE YII.O. P0LOND
31 L a-CK~r &. TPPRUK U! VERSUS CHARGE
CRATER DIMENSION YIELD
111MaalL I;I'

$ TRUE CRIFTFR ROIUTH

£13
* Si 51 $Si 1 St 5 . St 5 ! 1 SI
l
(EIO 03 (KIO I CXIO 3 (EIO s) iKO I 11 I~i 111 3Xl
111 ' 3t| X. 03 (110 '

CHAtRCC tictO. POUNOS

IS. TRIUE CRATER DIMEN3IONS V~h.- CHARGE YIELD
Figure B.2. Dimensions of craters in basalt anid grwnite for" }

, "4 0.20 <Z c 0.50 ft/1b1 / 3 , Category 2 (sheet 1 of 2).

,(

I5
o
0

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-

a NO DATA AVAILAISLE IFOR FUTURE USE)

CR Y

- I
0[-
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a' LEGEND
O APPARENT CRATER VOLUME
313
-s i TRUE CRATER VOLUME
K
- j JLj lll8iM | llllid I IlllII*M I lillIlIM I l11 ll11 lll1 I IIIIIIII11111 I IlIlII i I1IIIIU I fltHll
I I II I I II I I I $I I I
0 2 e
(Mb e) ID') (ID'O) ID ) (ID') IXID'I (XK10) (KID') (K10 ) ID'O)

CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

o. APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figuze 1 (,,heet 2 or"2).

..

/
 toe
LE[N
APPARNTADI)CATFR
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PRUEY
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1
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c"Wruc YIELD. POUNDS
Figur*
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0.3<Z<02

Lj-0 O13
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LEGEND

• APPARENT CRATER VOLUME

j.9 TRUE ICRATI VOLUME

~ I 51t 51 51 61 St StI I1 I I
) I
ml~l mll 1I10") m~oll IX104 1 IO10 1XlOG) IX1671 1X 6 mXot)

CHARGE YIfLo. FOUND$

& APPARENT AND TRUE CPATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD a

Figure B.2 (sheet 2 of 2).

£ ~33
tLA

1s S1

LESEND
L..O APPARENT CRATE.R RADIUS
0 APPARENT CRATER OtPT7l
S APPARENT CRATE.R LIP "I

SSI 1 SI1 5 1 S I 5 1 5 1 S I 51 51
%~; !KID 'I !%;a !%1 ' *XID 43 1XI I I !KI0 61 1KID ' 1 (XO 0 1 (IO I
CHAR5E YIELD. 'OuJNI)S
aAPPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

- LEGENO

x TRUE CRATER RADIUS

5 TRUE CRATER DEPTH

t IfIPW
*pgii 4jI~gju 4 I~
1 t 411N
tfitl I 1I1gfl I f1111it 441 1111 441

I1 1 5.1 5 1 5 1I S I5 5I S I 5 1 5 1
.X10 *I (KID *- tX10rO 0II' £tIO 4 (KI0 'I (K1)a I t 0tI (K103I (K1029
CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS
b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VEKSU CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.3 Dimaensions of craters in basalt and granite for

-0.05i Z < 0.05 ft/bl 1 3, Category 14(abeet 1 of 2). (
 II

II
II
!K Y
II

I.

LEGEND

~APPARENT CRATEIR VOLUME

TRUt CRATER VOLUME!

x ILK I IN II I ! 1 II I
I ) ) I ) I )
1XTIC,} 1XIC 1IC11l 4IiOS) 1I0lO 1 (XIOS) |Xl04 mal~ 1XIC |X 1
€4RQ YIELD, POUNDS4

Figure B 3 13
(sheet,2 0of2). 4"
.,-
 So

LNrN

.,. * APPARE[NT CRATERl RROIU3

2 o ~PPARE.NT CRAWff DEPTH

-_.
h I v APPARENT CRATER LIP MY

0_-- ~ ~ J I ILL- -L 11t II fu..,I ItI I fit"

IU . m -LL
aLU I II A . Ist~
I fII
uI
S I S I S I S 1i S StI 1 5 1 S 1 5
; ;
tX10 1 ,XIO I I (XIO !e; I, I} !XIO 4 1 !XIO I w I. I| !XI3 . 1XID 1; 1XI I}
CHARGE T117. POUNDS
- !
•APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Cc LEGEND
-- * APTRUE CRATR RAU
N PPRUE
T CRTER DEPT

N
- I
5 I1 1T R II
tXEO *IX E.X3O I IXIO
I3E 3IO
)1 4 XI I I .EO;
'1 I lEOD I I 'XIO IDO 1
k. I
CHARGE YIELD . POUNDS
66 MPAEN CRATER DIMENSINS VERSW CHARGE YIELD
-U a R[ RTR .

5 . - Catgor (b,T. 1 T2

$ 1 5 I I I L L I~ n u Iu
1/3

O.
',TUI ORATIER DIMENNIONS VERSUS~ OHAAGII YIELD ,

-Figue 3.14 Dinenuions or eraters in basalt azid granite fur ,

-0.20 < Z < ,-0,05 t/ 1 :1/ 39 Categor 5 (s eeot 1 of 2).,--() ''

,136 ". ' '

 NR

x.

x ~ 4 ~ -. 4 .

"TA AVAILA.t.. 4"

4-~~N

Ix

UGU

8 APNgAUVU
9 VMRIIVLM

3.3
 _ -

w I
S
.- - If

I-

.1 #4(4 POINTS)

2• 5 I~l A PPARENT C;RATER DEPTH1

V APPARENT CRATER LIP iT

"" | 1 lllll I11l llllf I IIIIiM I I11I111 I 11I1111 I I Illilll I Ill lllil I I1 l11lli I111 l1l1n I III1l1
11I U j j uL -- 101H 1111
t-ilf 111
5 I 5 I S I SI 51
S S 1 51 5
til ) (2(1 I (2( a I (0IOI I 2 (XIO ) (2)0 aI (iO I(XO 9) ((1
I0)
CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS
AIPAMENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

o0*

'

.f 0

ow

Cc LEGEND
! TRUE CRATER RADIUS
9 TRUE CRATER DEPTH

SI SI Si I SI f I S I S II I I I
,, , I DS)t(KID') (til 0 ) (X Oll 12(1') (210i) I(I1 ) (2(10') (2(10') (I0)i

CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

L TRUE CRATIR DMINONW VIRSUS CHARON YI!LD

-0.50 Z < -0.20 ft/lb / Category 6 (sheet 1 of 2).

138
 10

4
K PAETCAE OU

OIN

23
 29
o
CCLGN

WAMCAM Ab

b.~qN cNiR ri

S AET R E LP"

-e

- LEGEND
x MPAEN CRATER RDIUS
z TRU~EN CRATER DET"1

APPAREus
CR~~IP Iimuu

I SI1 i S1
5 S 1 I15 5 I S1 51 51 51
(XIO *21(IO '3 1 I~ I l O I I (XIO I O I I t'KbS9 tI
' I' (KID 'i 'I1)
CI1ARGE YIFLO. POUNDS
ka M OFP
METRlP
0KOIMIt VRWA CHARGE YIELD

igrB. muinofcaesikbvtangrntfo
-0.0 Z<-.0CSb/,Ctgr aetIo )

Na 00
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at LEGEND
.5
1 6 AD9ARSNT CRATER V04 5U
1 ~ ThUS CRATER VOUJMS

j Ifl~ A ten~ I Ilium I *Ifl, * ~IIm1n I iIug I Iaas~ I IIUIMO I IIIIA I 11111
* St St St St St St St St St St
EXIOS) EXtS'I IXt@'~ IXtO'I ~Xt@') IXO*t Ext.', EXt'I exio*i sxo*t
CRANGE VELO, POUNDS '1
L AF9ARINY AlSO TRUE CRATER ~OLUE6S WREUS O4ARGS YIELD
'S.

FiSure B.6 (abeet ~ c~f 2).

-I
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) *J*.-**-..OS ~ .......... s-.

/
/
* .. - . .. w it

a-ot I)io I4 1 XO I(i I XIO I (X'! OZ I o

a& APPARENT CRATER DIMENMON VERSU CHARGE YIELD

II
o go
a-F-

* S. I. --

X; TRIUE CRAr'T ROMU

*. : 5: e: 5: 5: 5 5:I S3 5: 5
.1t0 I (EIO I3A IO 8 (o31 I I ok I~ I3 Xi I3 IO I I iokl I I (XIO 9 1 'XO I
IK~
C',qscf virt!o. POUNDS5
b6 "LIE CMATIM DIMENSIONS VEf" CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.7 Dimensionis of craters in basm1t, and granite for

-14.10 cZ 4 -. 90 ftil3 catesoy 8 shtIof 2).0

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Figure B.10 Dimensions of craters in sandstone for

-0.05 Z < 0.05 tt/lb1 /3, Category 4 (sheet 1 of 2). 0
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rigiwe B3.19 Fimensioni of craters ina shale, tuff, and frozen grouiw~
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NO DATA AVAILABLE (FOR FUTURE USE)
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P . Figure B.25 Dimensions of craters in dry clay for

1 0.20 < Z < 0.50 , Category 2 (sheet I of 2), 1

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Figure B.25 (sheet 2 of 2).

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Figure 3.28 Dimensions of craters in diy cla~y for

0.20 < 2 < -0.05 ft/lb1 , Category 5(shent I of 2).
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Figure B.31 Dimensions of craters in dry Clay for .:

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Figure B.32 Dinensions of craters in dry clay for

S-2.00 < Z < -1.10 f/b 3,Category 9 (sheet 1 of 2). ( '
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Figure B.33 Dimensions of craters in dry clay for

Z < -2.00ft/b Category 10 (sboet I of 2).

194
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Figure B.14 Dimensions of craters in moist clay for .

-0. .. <0.05 ft/lb / , Category 4 (sheet 1 of 2).0
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Figlure B.:35 Dim.ensilons of' cr'aters in moi~st claey f'or

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Category 6 (sheet I-of 2).0
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Figure B.36
-0-90 < Z < -0-50 ft/lb
C'A CEL.'OlO
Dimensions of craters in moist clr~y f,%--
/ ,
Category 7 (sheet 1 of a) '
!
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Figure B.37 Dimensions of craters in moist clay for

-1.10 < Z < -0.90 ft/1b1 /3 , Category 8 (sheet 1 of 2). 0
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1
tigure B.38 Dimensions of craters in moist clay for

I -2.00 < Z < -1.10 f',/lb /3

2o4
, Category 9 (she,-A 1 of 2) C)
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Figure B.38 '(sheet 2 of 2).

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5 TRUE CRATER OEPTH

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l.lllfI L.I.JII jIIIIII I l I I IillI I IIIIIUI I l lli~ lIUA
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I0 I (XIO d 'I I XIO I (XIO I
CHARGE YIELD. POUND,
b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B,39 Dimensions of craters in moist clay for

Z < -2.00 ft/lb 1 /3 , Category 10 (sheet 1 of 2).

206
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APPARENT
AND~~ TRUE CRATER ESSCAG
VOLUMES IL

20

I Figure B.39 (sheet 2 of 2).

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NO DATA AVAILABLE IFOR FUTURE USE)

5 5 1 5 11 5 1 '5 1 5 1 5 1

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APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.bO Dimensions of craters in wet clay for

0.05 1 Z < 0.20 rt/1bl"3 , Category 3 (sheet 1 of 2).0

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Figute B.!.O (sheet 2 of 2). -,
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~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~Q
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&APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

~NO DATA AVAILAIUE (FOR FUTURE USE)

= LESE[NO
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, d:IPIRUE _ttCRF__ O_

5 1 S I S I S I I S I S 1 5 1
1
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chFRcGc Ytrta. PouIhos

Ii. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUSCHAR'GEYIELD

Figure B.4 Dimensions of crters in vet cl for

/ ,
-0.05 < Z < 0,05 ft/lb Category 4 (sheet 1 of 2).0

210
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I
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l lllm
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c. APPARIEt*T AND TRUE CHATER VOLUMES VERISUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.41 (sheet 2 of 2).

( 211
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SL -. I '3 tEI ', PPFRENT CRATEfR LIP htt

15 15
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. 5

d, WNDATA AVAILAULE)
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b6 TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD
Figure B.42 Dimensions of craters in vet clay for
-0.50 < Z < -0.20 ft/lbI /3 , Category 6 (sheet 1 of 2). 0
212
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b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.4~3 Dimensions of craters in vet clay for

1/3
-0.90< O DA.50
ft/lb Category 7 (sheet 1 of 2).

214
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b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS HARGE YIE

: Figure B.44 Dimensions of crters in wet ly for..

',-1.10 -216
< Z < -0.90 f/b13,Category 8 (sheet I of 2).
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CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS
4L APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER
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Figure B.44 (sheet 2 ofTR 2).A

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Dimmensions of craters in vet cly for

.'
Figure B.i45
-2.00 < Z c -1.10 t./ibI / 3 , Category 9 (sheet 1 of 2). C)
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Figure B.45 (sheet 2 of 2).

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k. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.46 Dimensions of craters in wet clay for

Z < -2.00 ft/lbl / 3 , Category 10 (sheet 1 of 2).

220
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I I1 SI1 51 51 S1 51
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I. TRI CRATER OIMENSIONSt VERSU CHARGE YIELDI

Figure BATi Dimensions of craters in moist loeas and moist lacuetrine

silt for 0.05 !Z < 0.20 ft/lb1 , Category 3 (sheet 1 of 2).
222
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€. APPARENT AND* TRUE CRAT:ER VOLUMES VER$US CHARGE :YIELD

Figure B.1 i7r (sheet 2 at 2).

( ' 223
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N a APPARENT CRATER DEPTH

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b6 TRUE CRATER DIMKINSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.48 Dimensions of craters in moist loess and moist lacustrine

silt for -0.05 < Z < 0.05 ft/lb 1 /3 , Category 4 (sheet 1 of 2)

224i
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a. APPARENT AND TRUE ;',FATER VOLU~ftS VERSUS CHARGOE YIELD

Figure B.48 (shet 2 of 2)..,

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4. .6POINTS

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* APPARENT CRAItfR RAOIuS
n J~APPARENT CRQ TfR orpTt

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3
CHARGE YIELO. POUNOS
k. TRUK CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.49 Dimensions of craters in moist loess and moist lacustrine

silt for -0.20 < Z < -0.05 ft/lb1 /3
, Category 5 (sheet 1 of 2). (
226
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CHRGE YIELD. POUNDS
b. TRUF CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.50 Dimensions of craters in moist loess and moist lacustrine

silt for -0.50 < Z < -0.20 ft/inb /3 , Category 6 (sheet 1 of 2).

228
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Figur'e B-51 Dimensions of craters in moist loess and moist lacustrine...

silt for -0.90 < Z < -0.50 Category 7 (sheet 1 of 2).
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bIL TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

i Figure B.52 Dimensions of cr.?.te,:a in moist loess and, moist lacustrine

'i ' '
.
silt for-1.10 <--Z < -0.90 ft/ibl1/3f Category 8 (sheet 1 of 2). (

i" -' 232

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YIELD

Figue 3.52 (sheet 2 of 2).

C.) 233

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b TIUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.53 Dimenaions of craters in moist loess and moist lacustrine

silt for -2.00 < Z < -1.10 ft/lb I/3 , Category 9 (sheet 1 of 2).
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CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS5

b, TRUE CRATER D-1IMENSIONS VERSUSW
CiMkO! YIELD

Figure B.54 Dimensions of craters in moist loess an4 moist lacustrins

mlt for Z < -2.00 ft/lbl/3 , Category 10 (sheet 1 of 2).

F:'" ' 236

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CHARGE YIELD, POUNDS

a. APPARENT AAD TRUE CRATC-R VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

10 Figure B.54 (sheet 2 of 2).

237
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CHARGE YIELD. 0OUNDS

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b APRuE CRAtErR -iMENSio4 VESU CHAEi[YIEDI

Figure B.55 Dimenjions of craters in moist silty clay for

0.50 <Z ft/lbl/ 31 Category 1.(sheet 1 of 2). 0 '

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23
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CHAROC YIELD. POUNDS

a APARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

34

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31 | II III a I ll 1 1 f 111111
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CHARqGE YIELD. POUNDS
b, TRUS CRATER 04fWCNWiOVERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.56 Dimensions of cratirs in moist silty clay for

-0.50 < Z < -0.20 ft/!bI1/ 3, Category 6 (sheet 1 of 2).

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CHARGE YIELD, FOUNDS

4, APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.56 (sheet 2 of 2).

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Figure B.5T Dimensions of craters in moist silty clby for

-0.90 < Z < -0.50 f/b3,category 7 (sheet 1 of 2).

,24
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Figure B.5T7 (sheet 2 of 2).

243
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b, TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.58 Dimensions of craters in moist sl1y clay for

.1/
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Figur'e 3.58 (sheet 2 of 2)..:

2145 "

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Figure 3.59 Dinezisit-' of crates in dry-to-moist sandy silty clay

to? 0.50 < Z 't/b' S , Category 2. ( beet 1 of 2). (
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Figwe B.60 Dimensions of craters in dry-to-mist oandy silty clay

for 0.05 < Z < 0.20 ft/lbl/3, Category 3 (sheet 1 of 2).

248
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Vigure B.62 Dimensions of craterc in desert aluvi= for

0.05 < Z < 0.20 ft/lb/ Category 3 (abeet 1 of 2).

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Fiur B6 DmNtOn AoAT aters inO desUrEall) i o

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IIONSVERSUCHARGE YIELD

Figure B.66 Dimensions of craters in desert alluvium for

-1.10 < z < -0.90 ft./1:0I / 3 , Categ~or-y 8 (sheet I of 2).

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Figure' B.66 (sheet 2 oV 2).

261
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CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

b. TRUE CRATER D;14E.IOt,$ VEPMU. CHARGZ YIELD

Figure B.67 Dimensions of ersters in desert alluvium for

-2.00 4 Z < -1.10 ~t/ib I1/3 , Category 9 (sheet I of 2).
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Figure B.68 Ditmensionz of craters in desert alluvium for

Z .- 2.O0 ft/lbl/ 3 . Category 10 (sheet I of 2).Q

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Figure B.69 Dim.ensions of craters in moist sandy silt for

• , 0.20 Z < 0.50 /1/3' Category 2 (aheet 3. of 2)

0
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* Figure B.69 (sheec 2 of 2).

267
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1 °" 5
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CHARGEYIELLEGENND

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26
CRATER
ESVOLUMES
CAG IL

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b _ _ _ _ _
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' * APPARENT CRATER RADIUS

N a APPAREIT CRATER DEPTH
IS
," S • APPAqRENT CRATE'R LIP Hit

I S 1 5 1 1 1 Si SI S S 1 ! SI

Xlo 1 EXEI I Ix~o f I tx~o I I (XIG 1 (KIo I 2 (XIO 1 Io I t(10K I (xIO I.

CIIARGE YIELD. POUNDS
LIL CRkle
ATER DIMENSIONS VERSiMCAEYID

(
No DATA AvAILASL (Poo Pruruh us
- a S
'U N

-S

. .GED
N

x a TRUE CRATER RADIUSI

N v TRUE CRATER EPTH

-, p , geI u *p Iiuu
pItll I l ll111k I I11111k1 I ]llChug
I iiII l!1 I IIikI
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SI I I S I 51 SI S1 1 51 5 I
txlOD* (KIO ) (XO IO(x1O 0 2 (O) i ! t
)O IO ) EXl 1
t' 61O*
EIxO1
ChARGE YIELD. POUNDS
16 THUE CRATIM OIMSMIMS V1RSIS CIARGl YIELD

Figure B-71 Dlmensic,. of craters in moist sandy silt for

-0.05 . Z < 0.05 ft/lb "I 3 ,
Category 4 (sheet 1 of 2). 0 . --

2701
 * g
!0

ia

I NO DATA AVAILABLE (FOR FUTURE USE)

IE
i 0,>
I£
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CHIRG YIL.PUD

LI 2-7
,-- --... _ _ -- _ _ _ _ _
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LEEN

APPARENT CRuATER RADIUS

1, o APPARENT CRA!CR DEPTH
APPARENT CRATER LIP MI

II1111 I 1 I 1111111 1 1 1111111 I 1 1111111 1 Inn

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151 5 1 51 3 1 SI1 51 1 51 S
,XIO I !XI ' I XIO I I (XII fX1 O %O 3 (X1O I3XIO I t1 3
zo CHARGE YIELD. POUND!
aAPPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

... I J
jjll fltl .J
)ijt11tjI lI II £13.J I
ILIl . lUW ll llt I 1I11L I llIt
I1 I I11111

6J I

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T CRATFR RDOIUS

o ITRUE CRATFR DEPTH

K.I-~ ~ lII1
5 SI I St SA 5 I 5 1 I SI

(XIO I (XIO I
I 'XO I (XI3 IXIO 4 ((XIO lO I(XI O ' (XIO I IXIO
CHiARUF YIELO. POUNO5
b. TRUE CRTERI DIMENSIONS VERPSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.72 Dimensins of craters in moist sardy silt for

-0.90 4 Z < -0.50 ft/1b ,Category 7 (sheet 1 of 2).
/M
 it -

3 5-

1 NO DATA AVAILABLE IFOR FUTURF USE)

5
a
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• LEG]END

x o APPARENT C' ,TER VOLUME

S r TRUE CRATER VOLUME

5 K.. F, ..

51 t 5 5 1 6 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 $ 1 5 1 51
i ) ) ) ) 4 ) ) ) )
IX10 I1 Il021 I0lO I1O ) JIl0ll (X10 I1 IXI08 I1

CHARGE YIELD, POUN DS

c. APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.72 (sheet 2 of 2).

I2(3
 I h. x I
0

E -

- ! a

SPPARENT . CRATER RADIUS

LEGEND

PC- W A~RENT CRATER DEPTH

-

e? *• APPARENT CRATER LIP HT

e
" 11I 11I
I II ~
I.I h ll I I I tfll 1 1 1 111111 1 l l l ljII I IIIii1 11. I
1l I.. l lUt111 1 I 1 2 111111 1 1 1 11111

1 51 11 5 1 51 51 51 St 51 S
1XID 1 (KIO I ( IDfI (XIO Ii I (lO 4 I( 0 I XIO
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CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS
a. APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSU CHAiGE'YIELD

a j )
NO DATA AVAILABLE (FOR FVURE USE)

• LEGEND
[ C o- TRUE CRAT1ER RADIUS
'' 5 '; RUE CRATER DEFT"

; I I iI I11111 I I|I !ll 11 1111fil I I 1111111 1I 1I1111111 I t 1II1II1 1 11l 11l11 1 IliIIU, l l lll I111
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(XIO 0 IXIO tii tXl
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CHARGE YIELU. POUNDS
., TRUE CRATER DIMENSRUS VESSUS CHARGE YIE US

"I it
Figue B73 Dimensions of craters in mist sandy silt for
i -1.10 < Z < -0.90 't/lb1 / 3 , Cv" gory 8 (sheEt 1 of.2).

21,1
 15

0K NO DATA AVAILABLi (FOR FUTURE USE)

.5
0

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2,5jLA~jlt I H111 UL-.UL--
1 5 1 15-5 1

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0 APPARENT CRATER DEPTH

S5' APPARENT CRATER LIP HT

6

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CHAfGr. YIELD. POUNDS

L APPARENT CRATER DIMZNSIONS VERSUS CHA.GE YIELD

-o
in o
L-O

Cr 5 LEGEND

a TRUE CRATER RADIUS

or 5I* v TRUE CRATER DEPTH

E L.= 9 L-jUjW---1. U L - ilu - 111111 1 11111111 1 11111111 I 1 112 I 11111

1 51 I1 51 51 51 1 51 51 51 SI
w oI ( XID ' (x1') (.'1031tx
OI I (X~0'I((0
1(( ~IO(1(10 3 XIO I I t10 'I

CHAPRGE YIELD. POUNDS

b. TRUE CRATER DIMEUSIONS VERSUS CHAflGE YIELD

Figure B.74 Dirtension;e of craters in moist sandy silt for

-2,00 < Z 4 -1.10 rtt/lbl/3, Category 9 (sheet 1 of 2).
I 276
 x

NO DATA AVAILASLE (FOR FUTURE USE)

C Y

ax
.5

:7 __ _ __ _

Fiur B-4 (het2o )

! - slLEGEND
x 0 APPARENT CRATER VOLUME
'277
5 V TRUE CRATER VOLUME

; CHARGE YIELD, POUNDS

i C. APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

" Figure B.Th (sheet 2 of 2).

!i 277
 -- j 50_..14,g604(4
. POIN S). . PPARENT CRATER
APPARENT RADIUS
CRATER -IP

S)
t APRPARfENT CRRTFR LF.PTHl

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1 I 1 |111Ll
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h. I (XiO 0) ) " )
mXO I 1 . DI I (.XIO 3 1 (XI0 I .Im O I XIO I) (IlO (XIO Il IXIO
CHARlGC YIELD. POUNDS
&APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CI ARGE YIELD

~NO DATA AVAILABLE (FOR FUTURE USE)

,..

a TRUE CRATER RAO:US

,', 5 TRUE CRATER 0DEPTH

S 1 5 t 5 1 5 1 S t1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 1
( XIO ) (XIO 11 (IlO I I (XlOl I I Q.YO 4 1 (Xto 'J I (KIO 0 1 IXIO I I (IlO 0 1 (XIO t
~CHARGE YIlELD. POUNDS

kkTRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS ve"Il CMARGE YIELD

Figure B.T5 Dimensions of craters in dry-to-moist sand for
0.50 < Z ft/ib I /3 , Category 1 (sheet 1 of 2).0
-. 78
II

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Ss~
o

I
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£ I -
V NO DATA AVAILAELE
w

I
0
N

LEGEND

• APPARENT CRATER VOLUME

- 49 TRUE CRATER VOLUME
I III
I IIIIMI 1 Itlii~* I IIII11K I 11111111 I Il1111l I IlIII llJll I 1II11IW
ll115 I IIIII11 111
I S I St St SI SI I II I a II
t I
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CHANGE YIELD, POUNDS

sAPPARENT AND TRUE CIIATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.75 (sheet 2 of 2).

279
 - -- - ~ --t ~~ '*:- - -

CLASSIFIED DATA AVAILABLE

-x

ul a

- -A
;'J pOINT) • PPRRENT LhATrR K O01uS
"..h_. .0 ... 3
W0. a APPARENT CRATER DEPTH
" APPPRENT CRATER LIP HT

| ! 1 II!
11 ~it ]I ! II till] t '=llfll
!IIL!lll I It illll t 11IVIll I IllI llI
f 1 111l|]1 1 II1,111

5 1 51 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 S 1 5
(XIO 0 (3
( I I EXO II (X1O I I (X3O ' 1 0I(0 '1 (XIO 1 txlo I I {XIO II(10 3I
CHARGE YICLD. POUNOS
a. APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

0 (3
Sx NO DATA AVAILABLE (FOR FUTURE USE)

a
I- -

6,

- LEG.END

o 1'TRUi
CRATER RAIUSlo

,, v 1RUE CRTFrR DEPTH

S 1 5 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 51 1
l
(XIO0 ) (XIO i)(XtO I I (XIO I J 1XIO 4!) ,XlO S I (XIO S I !X10 7 1 (XI0 ) ,XICI I I

CHAR.GE" YIE1.r' "OUN05

IL TRUE CRATER 01IMENSIOK.I VER;,W CHARGE YIELD

"Figuke B.76 Di)¢encions of craters in drzy-to-umoin= amid for

0.20 -eZ < 0.50 Ift,/lb 1/3 , Category/2 (sheet 1 of 2). (

0280
 2H*~; 1 WA ASiAILE DTAVLUE

x~
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S. A ,; D LfCAEn VL&
ODAiA AAN fii6W4EiiY

18
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0 3 y7WLEGEND
APPARENT CRATER RADIUS
x aAPPARENT CRATER OEPTK

IAPPARENT CRATER LIP HiT

LL tilI I LI uILUJ.WHil t I1111 1 11silIllUJ IJIJJLLLJ1 I'1LJWL.±. LJW

5 1I S S I S1 1 5 5 1 St 51 S1 51
(1(1 0 ! I ( 1 ( ,10 1 1 ( 3
X' 1 I .1(10 I I EXIl a I (1(10
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ChARGC YIELD- POUNDS

A.P
AflIEN7 CRATER DIMENSION~S VERSUIS CHARGE YIELD

LEEN

TRECAERRDU

CHRG YNt-PUD

b. RUECRTERDIENSONSVESUSCHRUE CRAERRAIU

Fiur DiReTERn ofcaer UC7

ndy-o i t ndfr
0.5 Z<02 t9'3 atgr set1o )
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|9 TRUE CRATER VOLUME

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(XI031 fXI04} 4X10sl (Il0s) mol0 4XIO )
1Xl09!
CHARGE YIELD. POtUNDS
W.APARENT AND TRUE 'RATER VOLUMECS VERSUS CHAR GE YIELD

Figu re B.7TT (sheet; 2 of 2).

:" 283
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£5.) LEGEND
, .4 . APPARENT CRATER RADIUS
0 NAPPARENT CRATER DEPTH
APPARENT CRATER LIP HT

II" I t I I 1 1 11 1 1 I I 5 1 11

0 9
(XIO * I lO I (XIO II (KID I CXIO 'I (XIO Il (XIO I (XIO 'i (XIO 1 (XIO I
CHARGE YIELD. POUN03
a. AFPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

61)

[IIISit4
kis LEGEND

TRUE CRATER RDPT

5. v TRUE CRATER DE.PTH

I k.L
.. I I j 11111I. I111, 1 1II1
111,111I f 5t1111
II I I:1 I 1111111 1I l 110 I lllU l
I SI 51 SI 51 51 51 1
.A10 I !XlO I .XO I (XI (KID I (IDX $I (XIO I)(KIO 1 (KIO1I ((Ia s i

CIHARSE YIELD. POUNDS

b. TRUE CRATER DIMCNSICNS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.78 Dimensions of craters in dry-to-moist sand for

-0.05 <Z < 0.05 ±t/1t 1 3, Category 4 (sheet 1 of 2 - )
2814
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x
Ii

I"

U-

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- | 9 TKJE CATER VOLUMRE

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fo )

CHARIGE YIELD, FOU/ND$

PPA'RNT AND
Ar, R-UE CRAER VOLUMES VERSUS CHAR~GE-YIELD

FiCure B.T8 (Sheet ? of 2).

5285
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0.11

,L APPARENT cRR!rR RAOIUS

APPARENT CRAT.R LIPThI

r AT PPARCNT CRATER LIP tI

L 1L I1111 I. I.J..
L iI
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$11.11.111 LI._, I IJ
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L APFARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

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CHRIiSi[ YIEO. POUNO.

b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CCAR,
YIELD

Figure
-0.20 13.79 Di~ensions
z < -0.05 ft/b I/3, Categoryin 5dry-to-moist
of' craters sand for
(sheet 1 of 2).

J286
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0 APPARENT CRATER VOLUME

9 TRUI CRATER VOLUME

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CHARGE YIELD, POIINDS
APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.79 (aheet 2 of 2).

C) 287

/ /
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ChiPRGE YIELO. FOUN05

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iiif
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IL TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.80 Dimensions of craters in dry-to-moist sand for

-0.50 < Z < -0.20 ft/lb 1 / 3 , Category 6 (sheet 1 of 2).

288
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S g TRUE CRATER VOLUME

(-I I I I LA I 1 . 1 2I I I

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1I 91 m ll m ll I lO I X lO O
mX I Xl 0 m ll X I0 I X I0

CHARG;E YIELD. POUNDS

eAPPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

F'igre B.80 2)."';

(sheet 2 of'

89
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DATAqN
AVAILABL
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b6 TRUEAl CRATER DIMENSONS VERSUSCHARGE YIELD

~ A.1POINT

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290

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CHRG YILD POND

C.T ACRATER AAPARAENT VOLUME

-II TRIUE CRATIER VLM

plu pIp§Im lSlum p Sin iil p $pI illm I laI I .IPiM pmmI

OIARqGE YIELD, FOU1*4

€. APPARE|NT AN4O TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VIERSUS I4ARGE YIELD

Figure B.81 (sheet 2 ot 2).

291
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I .R APPARENT C-A crPT

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Il ~i l

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CHRGEr YIELD. POUNDS,
SAPPARENT CRATER DIMENSION VERSUS CHARGE YIELD
o OIII EO KO1 EO'II~ RO XOI~I II

NO DATA AVAILAULE (FOR FUTURE USE)

" 5
p.-

.- I

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o TRUE CRATER RADIUS

5 TRUE CRATR DEPTH

I L I II111d I IM I I 1II1M I I11I

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CtIARGE YIELD. POUNDS
h. TRUE CMATIR OIMEONS
29 VTU CCART YIELD

Figure<_B.82 Dimensions cof craters in dry-to-moist )sandfor -i

-2.00 <Z < -1.10 ft/lb /3

Category 9 (sheet I of 2)
I

x
,I
oS i

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CL

S•APPAREN AD RU CRATER
ESSCAG
VOLUMES IL
K'tu' .2 (he t2 ,I':

Figure.5
B.82 (shet2of
AT9R
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SAPPARENT CRATER RADIUS

A r.PARE.NT CRATER DEPTH

0'~ I
ArPPARE.NT C.RATEfR LIP "I

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5
h.
5 5
I51 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1
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X 0 I x10l~OII

C'tqRSE T:[LO. P'OUNtOS

•APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIE£LD

I: S LE5ENO
RUEM CA7R RAIU
N
A v TPRUEJ CRATR DEPT

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1111U11 ILIU-SI u I Ilu
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C.-
C"AP&C YIELD. POUNDS
kPRETCRATER OMEPO VERSU CARE YIELD
N

-- v LCGEfNO

a TRUE CRATER AROIUS

Fiu oRraTER v TRUE OEPI

.1I Lllljl.
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I 1lil1ff I Il111111 I I 1111Uf I i 1ll11ff I IIug L
1 51 5 I S1 51 5t 51 51 51 51 51
(ElO I )10 ( sI Ei O 3i CEO 'I I (Kb 2 1K
(ll 3 )10i2 i)KWl 2)JlO 03 tll i3
CtIARGC YlEL., POLNDOS
S. TrWlq CRATER OIINS:OWS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.83 Dimensions of craters in viet sand for 0.50 < Z ft/lb1 / ,

Category 1 (sheet 1 of 2).

 I(S $.
o

I NO DATA AVAILABLE IFOR FUTURE USE)

* S.

a
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ODTAAA6AL FO UTUE USAE OLM

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c.o ADTU APPARENT CRATER
ESSCAG
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AIPPARENT CRATE'R RAOIUS

APPARENT CRATER DEPT"

S APPARENT CRATER LIP HiT

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1 1 UI.ILW
I St 5I 5 I 5I 5 1 ; : 5 St S I
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ChIARGE TIWLO. POUNO

& APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VIERSUI CHANGE YIELD

S
NO DATA AVAILAILE IFOR FUTUI USE)
I
'.5

hI N
h. t

,- N

LEEN

h ,i I
o TRUE: CRA!TER RADOIUS

'N 5 TRUE CRATER DEPTH

- I 111I11W 111
I1I1IUJ
IIMU6I I mI1l16Ilk 1l111 I lll11l I IlIII!I I IIIII1I I II1L1W IIII1
I S I S I S I S I S S I S I S I SI

.910 @1 (IO Ia (KtO#I I ' a Xt0 lto I $I I110

( I 1 1KW ' O0 0
ChARGE YIELD. POUNOS
k TRM CRATE DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHAI0! YIELD

Figure B.84 Dimensions of craters in vet sand for

0.20 < Z < 0.50 ft/b 1/ 3
, Category 2 (sheet I of 2). () "
296
(.

* S.
0

NO DATA AVAILABLE IFOR FUTURE USE)

.5 4

K
S

'a S
0 o ,
0
I I il

(-0 CHRG( YID POUNDS

f0
u B8
i297 K9/.
AS^Rh I!
AN TRUE CRATE R ESSCAG
VOLUMES IL
nj)

61

0i
'to LEEN

'3.

- I. 1 I$

- LEGfND
~ DAA ~~4+
/W~. . -A~OI."1
S*TRUE CRER RAO IS
f95
,, 0 LPTRUE CRATER OiTH

SSI $I SI 5 1 S I S I St
tXIO f ! I II(.
XlO I t I.1(0
C O 11 IO I I
EIo
ifo IXIO I
CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

a. TRU CRATER DIMENSIONS VEMSU CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.85 Dimensions of' craters in vet sand for."

0.05< / , CategorY .3
< 0.20 elr%'
lb/ (sh.et'l of 2). ( '
 at

'S

-I
.5$•%(ZIor$ (I PONT
*
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.5

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£• a
 141
$ISO
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r

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7 A PAR.NT CP.ATR RADIUS

1( u APPRENT CRAT.R DEPTH
APPARENT C,.mTER LIP "T
A

IL ... L L. III.! .I I llU I l I....I..LI

1I I
I1111111111 J111111
ll. I 11111 ! I IIjjjj_,jjj
I 51 51I 51 5 I 51! 51I 51 5 1i
7
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CHARGE rCItO. POUN05
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,,,

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{XIO I1 (XIO I ,X1O I (XlO
(XIO I ) (IO 4 ) (no0Sl{ I a I XIO I (XO (X )

6l
CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS LEGEND

b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS I/ERSkrQ CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.86 Dimensions of' craters !A wet sand for .

-0.05 . Z < 0-05 t/lbl / 3,
Cavegory 4 (sheet, I of" 2). () :!

300
 '-I
x

2E

II

t:U- .!I

£ 6E 9 RECATRVJ ,

t / "

- $ LEGEND

S APPARENT CRAITR VOLUME

I
-* 6 TNUE CRATER VOLUM

I
 9- --

h.IV

6 PITS EGN
APAETCATRRGU

~ 5 1LEGIND
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(U O1Ma t,( II XOIt1 *I I(I CRATER
IPARNRADIU I

CHARGE Y'IELD. PULNOS

aAPPARENT CRKATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

L*

S LEGEND
8 TRUE CRATER RADIUS

5I SI1 5 15 1 1 5 1I 5 1 SI SI SI
1(10D I I 'I (20 f I (KID I I (KID 3 (KID I ) t(10 I (230 I K I ( 11ID
K I
CH1ARGE YIELD., POUNDS
b. TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.87 Dimensions of craters in vet aand for

-0.20<Z <-.0.05 ft/lbl/3, Category 5 (sheet 1 of 2). (
302
(.

x
I

0
-'s
2
K
I

LGN

29

- S

a L EGENO

a APPARENT CRATER VOLUME

- 9 TRUE CRATER VOLUME

i |IgIIMW I SIll Iti p ly~ I IlI1|11 I JilIa. ~ ll llm llU . lll IIt
I SI 11 SI SI 51I IE SI S I 61 SI
+) )
1XlO*) 1XIO I X102 (I010 1I04O) (ItO (I0l4) mll (Ito) 1XIOS)

CHARGE YIELD, POUNDS

sAPPAENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHA.RGE YIELD

Figure B.87 (sheet 2 of 2).

303
 I

e1 5 '°
0

h,. -
ti PO

Ipl.1 64
Af , LEGEND
e * APPARENT CRATER RADIUS
N a APPARENT CRATER DEPTH
1."5 ' APPARENT CRATER LIP "T

-, 1 11110M I It 1111 I I |I ! I IU ! I Cl t I lll I IIIttnL I I 1I111H I 1111111

I 51 St 51 S 51 51 51 51I S S
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) (X I ) (XlO I I (XIO I (XIO I

CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

. APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

i ,.i
aN)
0

hi-

-o
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S LEGENO

a5 TRUE CRATEi RAOIUS

TRUE CRATER DEPTH

| I 111111I I Illll111 I ltllW i1I I11111 1 I I lllIII I IIIlIIIU I IIIIIIUi I III111ll I Ilil III 11 1119l
I 1 . S 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 S5 1 S I S I 5 1I S I
$
(XIO M)(XO
I I (XlOD (XIO I ) (XIO 4 1 (X(IO ) (XIO 0 1 (XIO I (XIO 0 1 (XIO a)
CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

Figure B.88 Dimensions of craters in wet sand for

-0.50 1 Z < -0.20 ft/ib I/ 3 , Category 6 (sheet 1 of 2).

3o4
 a,

"'

xi
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-'.
.00 .
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VOLUME ID

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APPARENT CRATER RAIU"

A. PRN CRATER_ DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

I~

do

LEGEND
SJ
x TRUE CRATER RADIUS

' TRUE CRATER DEPTH

(KID 0 1 (KID '2 (KID I I (KID I I (4 C1KID II(KID I ID 'CI (KID 6 1 (KID I
CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS
IL TRUE CRA TfE OIAIUNSIS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.89 Dimensions ot craters in wet sand for

-0.90 < Z < -0.50 ft/lbl/3 , Category 7 (sheet 1 of 2).

3o6
I 307
i oc ,
3g°

I i

' LEGEND

• APPARENT CRATE RVOLUME[

9 TRUE[ CPATER VOLUME

1XI08) moll* tX102) fX103 )

1X04) 1XI06 )
1XI041 1XI01) JXJ0s: (XI09)
CHARGE YIELD, PO0s
rAPPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VER.M CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.89 (sheet 2 of' 2). .'

307 o°
 0J

- I

W;
Fods

,-,.'N2 16 po"I

*. A 7ORM h(3

LEGE.ND
, APPARENT CRATE.R RADIUS

-- = APPARENT CRATER DEPT"

" 5 • APPARENT CRATErR LIP "it

5 1 IS 1 5 1 5 1 S 1 5 1 S I S I S I S
A., 1
(XiO) 0) 1XIO I I (XIO If I (XIO I I (XIO 4 1 txlO 9 1 1XiO a I XlO I I IiO 0 ) XIO I I
Ct.RGF YIELD. POUNDS

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xt

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IIXlO (XIO %I
CH9RGE YIELD. POUNDS
IL TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.90 Dimensions of craters in vet sand for

1.10 < Z < -0.90 ft/lb1 / 3 , Category 8 (sheet "Iof"2).
.- (
0308
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VOLUMES
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o I I I 1XIO0 o) (XIO I)

~CHARGE YIELD. POUNDS

; Ib, TRUE CRATER DIME SIONS VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.91 Dimensions of craters in wet sand for

-2.00 < Z < -1.10 ft/IbI , Category 9 (sheet 1 of 2). ("
310
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3°

.6
MIN

x-I

33
U IEY LPO

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K o
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a d. MM
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-o 8 . ,ZofINTmSI

6j I LEGEND
Cc T 5
43# APPARENT CRATER KAOIU3 i

- I - APPARENT CRATEA DEPTH

5 V APARENT CRATER LIP "T
o I_____

I SI 5 1 51 5 1 51i 51 Si S I S I
(Xl0 1 1X) (Xi0 tXI I (XI
I I (X I IC (XI
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CHARGE YIELO. FOUNMO

s. APPARENT CRATER DIMENSIONS VERSUM CHARGE YIELD

II

51 - '(3PO#fTI
.- S
I 4f,a Po 1y5)
'o

" -R5 LEGEND

a TRUE CRATER R IU5

"S TRUE CRATER DEPTH

I J.. L lw I I lltllH lU
I II1111w 1111
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tX1O 0 1 IXIO 1 ) (Xi0 1' IXIO I I IXIO 41) XIO I)I XI0 6) (XIO I I tXI0 0: (XIO 01J

CH'ARGE. YIELD. POUNDS

IL TRUE CRATER DIMENSIONS VERlSV3 04ARGE YIELD"

Figure B.92 Dimensions of craters in vet aand for

Z c -2.00 /lo Category 10 (sheet 1 of 2). ( -. "
312 1
 0-
- !

2E

Cg

(2
vtZPOINTS)

I v,(2 rOWIlS

•" S

LEGEP40

0 APPARENT CRAIER VOLUME

Sv9 TRUE CRATER VOLUME

5 1 1 1 $11 1 1 1 1 l 1 5 1 5
3 4 ) 7
(XlO0) XlIt)') (XIO'i 1X10 ) (XI0 ) (XIO0) (X1O4 I(Xl ) ) I IX1
CHARGE YIELD, POUNDS
c. APPARENT AND TRUE CRATER VOLUMES VERSUS CHARGE YIELD

Figure B.92 (sheet 2 of 2).

0
 II

I- ~LEGEND

.
W - 0 APPARENT CRATER RADIUS
APPARENT CRATER
DEPTH

IL

1 10
a x
0

- I I|llll 1111 I~i 11|ll1i1i I 1 l| |I 11111

Itn 111lll' I I11111! I 1III111l I |IIII1I....J.Zi A ll~l

I 1S 516 1 1 51 1 5 1 5 1 S 11
jX1061 (XIO;| IX102 ' ) (X1031 (X10 4 ) (X105 ) (X1O6} (XIO 7 ) jXt08 ) (XI09 )

CHARGE YIELD, POUNDS

Figure B.93 Apparent crater radius and depth versus charge yield for
hemispherical cha.'ges in sandy silty clay. Both curves are based upon
15 data points. The depth curve is epproximated; for jieelds up to
about 10,000 pounds, its equation is 0.20

031
 APPENDIX C
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This appendix contains a listing, generally in the order of intro-

duction in the text, of reference material which was drawn upon most
heavily to obtain crater data or to prepare the synopsis of cratering
research in Chapter 2 or the discussions in Chapters 5, 6, and 7. It
is divided into general fields of cratering subjects, and it will be
noted that a few entries appear more than once in this appendix or
appear both here and in the list of specific references.

BOMB/SHELL CRATERS
1. F. W. Anderson; "Crater Dimensions from Experimental Data";
FWE-18, September .1942 (TIS Issuance Date, October 1954); United States
Atomic Energy Commission, Oak Ridge, Tennessee; Confidential.
2. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Simu-
lated Artillery and Mortar Shell Tests 1967"; (unpublished); Conducted
at Fort Benning, Georgia, 196T; Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
3. B. B. Hoot; "Portable Bunker Tests and Eveluation"; Technical
( Report N-7l-6, June 1971; "Appendix B: Crater Analysis of Live- and
Static-Fire Tests", PNges 65-82; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
ment Stazion, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
4. U. Fano; "Weight of Materiel Required to Fill Bomb Craters
(Model Experiments)"; Report No. 488, September 1944; Ballistic Research
Laboratories, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland; Unclassified.

CRATERING BY HE SPHERES
5. T. J. Flanagan; "Project Air Vent, Crater Studies";
SC-RR-64-1704, April 1966; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico;
Unclassified.
6. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Anmonium
Nitrate Cratering Tests"; (unpublished); Vicksburg, Mississippi;
Unclassified.
7. L. J. Vortman and others; "Project Buckboard, 20-Ton and
1/2-Ton High Explosive Cratering Experiments in Basalt Rock";
SC-4675(RR), August 1962; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico;
Unclassified.
8. B. R. Redpath; "Project Trinidad: Fxplosive Excavation Tests
in Sandstone and Shale"; Technic&l Report E-71-1, January 'n73; U. S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Explosivw . avation
C.) Research Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
-
-1
 9. C. V. Fulmer; "Cratering Characteristics of Wet and Dry Sand";
D2-90683-1, October 1965; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington;
Unclassified.
10. R. Shnider; "Compilation of Crater Data from Surface and
Underground Explosions"; Technical Report No. USNRDL-TR-212, March 1958;
U. S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, California;
Unclassified.
11. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Crater-
Ing Effects of Surface and Buried HE Charges in Loess and Clay";
Technical Report No. 2-482, June 1958; Vicksburg, Mississippi; 2
Unclassified.
12. L. J. Vortman; "Cratering Experiments with Large High Explo-
sive Charges"; Geophysics, Volume XXVIII, No. 3, June 1963; Sandia
Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
13. D. Conant and J. Swineford; "Cratering in Sand from Spherical
Charges"; Report No. 669, May 1953; Ballistic Research Laboratories,
Aberdeen, Maryland; Unclassified.
14. R. A. Sager; "Craters Formed by Small Explosions in Dry oSand";
Miscellaneous Paper No. 2-524, September 1962; U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
15. C. A. Rappleyea; "Crater, Ejecta, and Air-Blast Studies from
Five High-Explosive Charges in a Horizontal Square Array"; SC-RR-66-480,
April 1967; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
16. G. H. S. Jones, N. Spackman, and F. H. Winfield; "Cratering by
Ground Burst TNT at Suffield Experimental Station, Ralston, Alberta";
Suffield Technical Paper No. 158, October 1959; Defence Research
Establishment, Suffield, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
17. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Crater-
Ing from High Explosive Charges"; Technical Report No. 2-547; Vicksbturg,
Mississippi; Unclassified.
a. R. A. Sager, C. W. Denzel, and W. B. Tiffany; "Compendium
of Crater Data"; Report No. 1, May 1960.
b. J. N. Strange, C. W. Denzel, and T. I. McLane; "Analysis
of Crater Data"; Report No. 2, June 1961.
18. L. J. Vortman; "Craters from an Individually Detonated Mul-
tiple Charge Array"; SC-RR-67-727, November 1967; Sandia Laboratories,
Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
19. L. J. Vortman; "Craters from Surface Explosions and Scaling
Laws"; Journal of Gcophysical Research, July 1968; Volume 73, No. 14,
Pages 4621-4636; American Geophysical Union, Richmond, Virginia;
Unclassified.
20. U. S. Special Engineering Division, The Panama Canal; "Crater
Tests in Basalt"; ICS Memorandum 284-P, April 1948; Canal Zone;
Unclassified.

316
 21. U. S. Special Engineering Division, The Panama Canal; "Crater
Tests in Cucaracha 3nd Culebra Formations"; ICS Memorandum 283-P, April
1948; Canal Zore.; Unclassified.
22. U. S. Special Engineering Division, The Panama Canal; "Crater
Tests in Gatun Sandstone"; ICS Memorandum 285-P, May 1948; Canal Zone;
Unclassified.
23. U. S. Special Engineering Di'ision, The Panama Canal; "Crater
Tests in Marine Muck"; ICS Memorandum 286-P, May 1948; Canal Zone;
Unclassified.
14. U. S. Special Engineering Division, The Panama Canal; "Crater
Tests in Residual Clay"; ICS Memorandum 287-P, May 1948; Canal Zone;
Unclassified.
25. U. S. Special Engineering Division, The Panama Canal; "Crater
and Slope Tests with Explosives"; ICS Memorandum 282-P, June 1948;
Canal Zone; Unclassified.
26. A. D. Rooke, Jr., J. W. Meyer, and J. A. Conway; "Dial Pack:
Crater and Ejects Measurements from a Surface-Tangent Detonation on a
Layered Medium"; Miscellaneous Paper N-72-9, December 1972; U. S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi;
Unclassified.
2T7. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and others; "Participation in Operation Dis-
tant Plain, Apparent Crater and Ejecta Measurements"; Miscellaneous
Paper No. 1-901, May 1967; U. S. Army Engineer W-tervays Experiment
Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
28. L. K. Davis and others; "Participation in Operation Distant
Plain, Project 3.01: Apparent Crater an4 Ejecta Measurements, Events 6A,
6, and IA"; Miscellaneous Paper N-71-1, January 1971; U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
29. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Effects
of a Soil-Rock Interface on Cratering"; Technical Report No. 2-h"8,
May 1958; Vicksburg, Missssippi; Unclassified.
30. C. W. Lampson; "Effects of Underground Explosions, IV, Influ-
ence of Variations of Soil Type and Depths of Charge and Gauge"; Report
No. 6301 (NDRC A-359), February 1946; U. S. Office of Scientific
Research and Development, Washington, D. C.; Restricted.
31. B. F. Murphey; "Explosion Craters in Desert Alluvium"; March
1961; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
32. L. J. Vortman; "Explosive Cratering Experiments"; SCR-406,
May 1961; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, Ntv Mexico; Unclassified.
33. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and L. K. Davis; "Ferris Wheel Series, Flat
Top Event, Project 1.9, Crater Measurements"; POR-3008 (WT-3008), August
1966; Defense Atomic Support Agency, Washington, D. C.; Unclassified
34. B. F. Murphey; "High Explosive Crater Studies: Tuff";
SC-457T4(RR), April 1961; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexic'o;
Unclassified.

317
 35. L. J. Vortman; "High Explosive Craters in Tuff and Basalt";
March 1961; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
36. B. F. Murphey; "High Explosive Crater Studies: Desert
Alluvium"; SC-4614(RR), May 1961; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New
Mexico; Unclassified.
37. L. J. Vortman; "Jangle True Crater Measurements"; SC-RR-64-19,
February 1964; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
38. D. C. Campbell; "Operation Jangle, Project 1(9)-3, Some HE
Tests and Observations on Craters and Base Surges"; WT-410, November
1951; Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, Washington D. C.;
Unclassified.
39. E. B. Doll and V. Salmon; "Operation Jangle, Project 1(9)-l,
Scaled HE Tests"; AFSWP-123, December 1952; Stanford Research Institute,
Menlo Park, California; Secret.
40. J. A. Bishop and F. E. Lowance; "Operation Jangle, Proj-
ect 4.2, Cratering and Missile Phenomena, Physical Characteristics of
Crater and Lip"; Wr-399 (in WT-375), May 1952; U. S. Naval Civil Engi-
neering Research and Evaluation Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California;
Unclassified.
43. L. K. Davis; "Mine Shaft Series, Subtask N123, Calibration
Cratering Series"; Technical Report N-70-4, February 1970; U. S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi;
Unclassified.
42. L. K. Davis; "Mine Shaft Series, Events Mine Under and Mine
Ore, Subtask N121, Crater Investigations"; Technical Report N-70-8,
March 1970; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE,
Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
43. L. K. Davis and B. L. Carnes; "Operation Mine Shaft, Cratering
Effects of a 100-Ton Detonation on Granite"; Miscellaneous Paper N-72-1,
February 1972; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE,
Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
44. R. B. Vaile, Jr.; "Small Explosion Tests, Phase I of Project
Mole"; AFSWP 288, December 1952; Stanford Research Institute, Stanford,
California; Unclassified.
45. D. C. Sachs and L. M. Swift; "Small Explosion Tests, Project
Mole"; AFSWP 291, Volumes I and II, December 1955; Stanford Research
Institute, Menlo Park, California; Unclassified.
46. F. F. Videon; "Project Palanquin, Studies of the Apparent
Crater"; PNE-904, July 1966; U. S. ArM Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group,
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
47. G. H. S. Jones and others; "Operation Prbirie Flat, Crater and
Ejects Study"; POR-2115 (TW-2115), December 1970; Defence Research
Establishment, Suffield, Ralston, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.

318
 48. R. W. Harlan; "Project Pre-Gondola I, Crater Studies: Crater
Measurements"; PNE-il0T, Part I, May 1967; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear
Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California;
Unclassified.
49. G. W. Christopher and J. E. Lattery; "Project Pre-Gondola I,
Crater Studies: Surface Motion"; PNE-l107, Part II, February 1969;
U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Lab-
oratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
50. R. H. Benfer; "Project Pre-Schooner II, Apparent Crater
Studits"; PNE-508, May 1967; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering
Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California;
Unclassified.
51. W. C. Day, editor; "Project Pre-Gondola II, Summary Report";
PNE-1112, February 1971; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group,
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
52. J. L. SPruill and R. A. Paul; "Project Pre-Schooner, Crater
Measurements"; PNE-502F, March 1965; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Crater-
ing Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California;
Unclassified.
53. "Railroad Vulnerability Program"; TM-21, August 1958; Case
Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio; Unclassified.
54. R. W. Henny; "Schooner Observations and Early Results"; Tech-
nical Report No. AFWL-TR.%9-l33, October 1969; Air Force Weapons Labo-
ratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico; Unclassifiei.
55. W. R. Perrett and others, "Project Scooter"; SC-4602(RR),
October 1963; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
56. L. J. Vortman and others; "Project Stagecoach, 20-Ton HE
Cratering Experiments in Desert Alluvium"; SC-4595(RR), May 1962; Sandia
Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
57. R. F. Bourque; "Summary of Explosive Cratering Pe-'formance
Tests Conducted at Site 300 During 1969"; NCG/TM 69-11, July 1970; U. S.
Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory,
Livermore, California; Unclassified.
58. "Underground Explosion Test Program, Grwsite and Limestone";
Technical Report No. 4, Volume I, August 1952; Engineering Research
Associates, Arlington, Virginia; Unclassified.
59. "Underground Explosion Test Program, Sandstone"; Technical
Report No. 5, Volume-I, February 1953; Engineering Research Associates,
Arlington, Virginia; Unclassified.
60. "Underground Explosive Test Program, Soil"; Final Report,
Volume I, August 1952; Engineering Research Associates, Arlington,
Virginia; Unclassified.

319 .
 61. "Undergrcund Explosion Test Program, Series I and Series II
Experiments"; December 1948; Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado;
Unclassified.
62. "Investigation of Charge Shape"; (unpublished); Tests con-
ducted at Fort Churchill, February-March 1957; U. S. Army Snow Ice and
* Permafrost Research Establishment, Wilmette, Illinois; Unclassified.
63. W. W. Johnson and D. L. Nelson; "Project Zulu II - Phase I,
Single-Charge Calibration Series"; Technical Report No. 3, November
1968; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.

CRATERING BY HE HEMISPHERES

64. C. H. H. Diehl, G. H. S. Jones, and J. E. Krohn; "Cratering

and Displacement Data for Three Surface Burst TNT Trials at SES (1963)";
Suffield Technical Paper No. 301, March 1965; Defence Research Estab-
lishment, Suffield, Ralston, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
65. C. H. H. Diehl, R. C. Wyld, and J. E. Krohn; "Cratering,
Ejecta, and Displacement Data for a 40,000 Lb TNT Surface Burst Charge
(1963)"; Suffield Technical Paper No. 300, November 1964; Defence
Research Establishment, Suffield, Ralston, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
66. G. H. S. Jones, N. Spackman, and F. H. Winfield; "Cratering by
Ground Burst TNT at Suffield Experimental Station, Ralston, Alberta";
Suffield Techni'al Paper No. 158, October 1959; Defence Research
Entablishment, Suffield, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
67. J. N. Strange and J. M. Pinkston, Jr.; "Crater Measurements
from a 100-Ton Surface Explosion"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 2-529,
October 1962; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE,
Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
68. J. N. Strange and R. A. Sager; "Crater Measurements from a
Twenty-Ton Surface Explosion"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 2-490, June 1962;
U. S. Army Engineer
Mississippi; Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg,
Unclassified.

69. J. N. Strange, W. L. Wallace, and W. E. Strohm; "Crater and

Permanent Displacement Measurements from a Five-Ton Surface 'Explosion,
U. S. Project 1.6, Canadian HE Test Program, 1959"; Miscellaneous Paper
No. 2-424, April 1961; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
70. C. V. Fulmer; "Cratering in Sand with One-Pound Hemispheres";
D2-84111-1, Febiuer.y 1966; The roeing Company, Seattle, Washington;
Unclassified.
71. L. J. lortnan; "Dimensions of a Crater from a 500-Ton TNT
Hemisphere Detonated on Rock"; SC-P-R-65-277, July 1965; Sandia Corpora-
tion, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unc'lassified.

320
 72. G. H. S. Jones and J. E. Krohn; "Ground Displac-ment near the
Detonation of a 40,000 Lb Hemisphere of TNT"; Suffield Technical Paper
No. 213, December 1960; Defence Research Establishment, Suffield,
Ralston, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
73. G. H. S. Jones and J. E. Krohn; "Permanent and Transient Dis-
placement Due to Five-Ton Surface Bursts"; Suffield Technical Paper
No. 178, March 1960; Defence Research Establishment, Suffield, Ralston,
Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
74. C. H. H. Diehl and G. H. S. Jones; "The Snowball Crater Pro-
file and Ejecta Pattern"; Suffield Technical Note No. 188, May 1967;
Defence Research Establishment, Suffield, Ralston, Alberta, Canada;
Unclassified.
75. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and others; "Operation Snow Ball, Proj-
ect 3.1, Crater Measurements and Earth Media Determinations; The Ap-
parent and True Craters"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-987, April 1968;
U. S. AraW Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, VicKsburg,
Mississippi; Unclassified.
76. R. H. Carlson and W. A. Roberts; "Local Distribuation of Ma-
terial Ejected by Surface Explosions: White Tribe Interim Report";
D2-6955-2, August 1961; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington; I
Unclassified.

CRATERING BY NUCLEAR E(PLOSIONS

77. W. J. Christensen; "Cratering from Atomic Weapons"; AFSWP-514,

June 1956; Headquarters, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project,
Washington, D. C.; Confidential.
78. H. L. Brode ana R. L. Bjork; "Cratering from a Megaton Surface
Burst"; RM-2600, June 1960; Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California;
Unclassified.
79. M. D. Nordyke, "Project Danny Boy, Crater Studies"; ITR-1816,
August 1962; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, Clifornia;
Unclassified.
80. J. L. Gaylord; "Operation Ivy, Photographic Crater Survey";
WT-618, November 1952; Lookout Mountain Laboratory, Los Angeles,
California; Unclassified.
81. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and J. N. Strange; "Crater Measurements,
Project 1.9, Operation Sun Beam, Shot Johnie Boy"; POR-2284 (WT-2284),
April 1965; Defense Atomic Support Agency, Washington, D. C.; Secret-
Formerly Restricted Data.
82. A. V. Shelton, M. D. Nordyke, and R. H. Goeckermann; "The
Neptune Event, A Nuclear Explosive Cratering Experiment"; UCRL-5766,
April 1960; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livemore, California;
Unclassified.

0
• " 321
 83. L. J. Circeo, Jr., and M. D. Nordyke; "Nuclear Cratering Ex-
perience at the Pacific Proving Grounds"; UCRL-12172, November 1964;
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
84. M. D. Nordyke and M. M. Williamson; "Project Sedan, The Sedan
Event"; PNE-242F, August 1965; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore,
California; Unclassified.
85. A. D. Rooke, Jr., L. K. Davis, and J. N. Strange; "Proj-
ect 1.9, Operation Sun Beam, Shot Small Boy, Crater Measurements";
POR-2208 (WT-2208), March 1965; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
ment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Secret.
86. M. A. Chaszeyka; "Studies of Surface and Underground Nuclear
Explosions (Analysis and Correlations of Nuclear and High Fxplosive
Detonations with Regard to Cratering), Phase Report VII"; ARF Project
4195, February 1961; Armour Research Foundation of the Illinois
Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois; Unclassified.
87. J. G. Lewis; "Operation Teapot, Project 1.6, Crater Measure-
ments"; WT-1105, July 1958; Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, Sandia
Base, Albuquerjue, New Mexico; Unclassified.
88. U. S' Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Project
Trinity"; (unpublished); Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.

88a. R. B. Vaile; "Operation Castle, Project 3.2, Crater Survey";

WT-920, June 1955; Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California;
Secret.

USSR CRATERING EXPERIENCE

89. A. N. Dashkov; "Formation of an Excavation by a 1009-Ton

Throw-Out Blaz:t"; UCRL-Trans-10138, October 1967; Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Livermore California; Unclassified.
90. 0. L. Kedrovskiy; "Prospective Applications of Underground
Nuclear Explosions in the National Economy of the USSR"; UCRL-Trans-
10477, July 1970; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermire, California;
Unclassified.
91. G. C. Werth; "The Soviet Program on Nuclear Explosives for the
National Economy"; UCRL-72573, November 1970; Lawrence Radiation Labora-
tory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.

EJECTA MEASUR S FROM HE SPHERES

92. R. H. Carlson and G. D. Jones; "Project Air Vent, Ejects Dis-

tribution Studies"; D2-90575, November 1964; The Boeing Company,
Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.
93. J. Wisotski; "Analysis of In-Flight Ejects from Photography of
a 100-Ton TNT Detonation on Granite"; DRI-2538, May 1970; Denver Re-
search Institute, Denver, Colorado; Unclassified.

322
 94. L. J. Vortman and others; "Project Buckboard, 20-Ton and
l/2-Ton High Explosive Cratering Experiments in Basalt Rock"; SC-4675(RR),
August 3)62, Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
95. C. A. Rappleyea; "Crater, Eje."ta, and Air-Blast Studies from
Five High-Explosive Charges in a Horizontal Square Array"; SC-RR-66-48O,
April 1967; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
96. E. B. Ahlers; "Crater Ejecta Studies, Air Vent, Phase I";
IITRI-Proj M6072, May 1965; IIT Research Institute, Chicago, Illinois;
Unclassified.
97. D. I. Fienstein; "Debris Distribution"; IITRI-Proj M6066,
March 1966; IIT Research Institute, Chicago, Illinois; Unclassified.
98. J. W. :.eyer; "Event Dial Pack, Project 3.01, Crater and
Ejecta Studies"; (unpublished); U. S, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
99. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and others; "Participation in Operation
Distant Plain, Apparent Crater and Ejecta Measurements"; Miscellaneous
Paper No. 1-901, May 1967; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Sta-
tion, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
100. R. W. Henny and R. H. Carlson; "Distribution of Natural Mis-
siles Resulting from Cratering Explosions in Hard Rock"; (unpublished);
October 1966; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.
101. A. E. Sherwood; "The Effect of Air Drag on Particles Ejected
( During Explosive Cratering"; UCRL-14974, June 1966; Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
102. R. H. Carlson, D. M. Young, and G. D. Jones; "Ejecta Distri-
bution from Cratering Events in Soil and Rock"; WL-TR-64-1ll, February
1965; Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico;
Secret.
103. W. A. Roberts and T. P. Day; "Ejecta Missile Environment";
D2-125515-1, February 1968; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington;
Secret.
104. R. H. Carlson and R. T. Newell; "Ejecta from Single-Charge
Cratering Explosions: Volume I"; SC-RR-69-1, June 1970; Sandia Corpora-
tion, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
105. X. V. Anthony and others; "Ferris Wheel Series, Flat Top
Event, Ejecta Distribution from Flat Top I Event, Project 1.5b";
POR-3007 (WT-3007), October 1965; The Boeing Company, Seattle,
Washington; Unclassified.
106. E. B. Ahlers and C. A. Miller; "Crater Ejecta Studies, Proj-
ect 1.5a, Flat Top Event"; POR-3006 (WT-3006), November 1966; IIT Re-
search Institute, Chicago, Illinois; Unclassified.
107. J. A. Bishop and F. E. Lovance; "Operation Jangle, Proj-
ect 4.2, and Missile Phdnomena, Physical Characteristics of Crater and
Lip"; Wr-399 (inWT-375), May 1952; U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Re-
search and Evaluation Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California; Unclassified.
323
/1
 108. L. J. Vortman; "Maximum Missile Ranges from Surface and
Buried Explosions"; SC-RR-67-616, September 1967; Sandia Corporation, )
Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
109. J. Wisotski; "Technical Photography of t 100-Ton TNT Detona-
tion on Granite, Mineral Rock Event"; DRI-2543, June 1970; Denver Re-
search Institute, Denver, Colorado; Unclassified.
110. J, W. Meyer and A. D. Rooke, Jr.; "Mine Shaft Series, Events
Mine Under and Mine Ore Ejecta Studies"; Miscellaneous PFper 1-69-2,
September 1969; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE,
Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified
111. R. W. Henny and R. H. Carlson; "Natural Missile Distributions
for High Explosive Craters in Hard Rock; Multiple Threat Cratering
Experiment"; Technical Report No. AFWL-TR-67-8, VolumeIII, June 1970;
Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico;
Unclassified.
112. W. C. Day, editor; "Project Pre-Gondola II, Summary Report";
PNE-1112, February 1971; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group,
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
113. S. B. Mellsen; "Correlation of Drag Measurements in Operation
Prairie Flat with Known Steady Flow Values"; Suffield Memorandum
No. 12/69, April 1969; Defence Research Establishment, Suffield, Ralston,
Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
114. S. B. Mellsen; "Development of the Free Flight Method for
the Measurement of Drag on Cylinders in Operation Prairie Flat";
Suffield Memorandum No. 119/68, January 1969; Defence Research Estab-
lishment, Suffield, Ralston, Alberta, Canada; Unclassified.
115. R. H. Carlson and W. A. Roberts; "Rayed Debris Distribution
Systems Associated with Explosion Craters"; D2-09151, March 1962; The
Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.
116. W. A. Roberts and E. N. York; "Outer Crater Lip Debris
Ejected by Scooter - A Buried High Explosive Cratering Shot"; D2-90086,
April 1962; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.
117. B. D. Anderson; "A Simple Technique to Determine the Size
Distribution of Crater Fallback and Ejecta"; Technical Report No. 18,
March 1970; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence
Radiation Laboratorl, Livermore, Californi&; Unclassified.
118. W. A. Roberts and J. A. Blaylock; "Distribution of Debris
Ejected by the Stagecoach Series of High Explosive Cratering Bursts";
D2-6955-1, October 1961; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington;
Unclassified.
EJECTA MEASUREMENTS FROM HE HEMISPHEES

119. R. H. Carlson and W. A. Roberts; "Eject& Study of 100-Ton

Suffield Explosive Cratering Shot"; D2-90203, September 1962; The
Boeing Ccmpany, Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.

324
S..
 120. R. H. Carlson and W. A. Roberts; "Local Distribution of Ma-
terial Ejected by Surface Explosions: White Tribe Interim Report";
D2-6955-2, August 1961; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington;
Unclassified.
121. K. Kaplan; "Techniques for Preventing Damage from Ejecta.
Missiles for a Test with a 500 Ton Hemispherical Cnarge"; Report
No. 655-81, December 1965; Defense Atomic Support Agency, Washington,
D. C.; Unclassified.
I
EJECTA MEASUREMENTS FROM NUCLEAR EXPt OSIOAIS

122. L. K. Davis and A. D. Rooke, Jr.; "Danny Boy Event, Proj-

ect 1.6, Mass Distribution Measurements of Crater Ejecta and Dust;
Volumetric Equalities of the Crater"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-754,
Appendix B, December 1965; U. S. Army Engineer Watervays Experiment
Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
123. E. B. Ahlers; "Danny Boy Event, Project 1.5, Th':owout Study
of an Underground Nuclear Detonation"- POR-1814 (WT-1814), February
19614; Armour Research Foundation of t. - Illinois Institute of Technol-
ogy, Chicago, Illinois; Official Use only.
12. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and L. K. Davis; "Danny Boy Event, Proj-
ect 1.6, Mass Distribution Measurements of Crater Ejecta and Dust";
POR-1315 (WT-1815), February 1964; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Ex-
periment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Official Use only.
125. G. P. Ganong and W. A. Roberts; "The Effect of the Nuclear
Environment on Crater Ejecta Trajectories for Surface Bursts"; Techni-
cal Report No. AFWL-TR-68-125, October 1968; Air Force Weapons Labora-
tory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico; Unclassified.
126. W. B. Wright, Jr.; "Fragment Size Distributions of Debris";
Memo RM-5698-DASA, June 1969; The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica,
California; Secret.
127. D. T. Hove and J. L. Farr; "An Investigation of the Effects
of Debris Size Distribution on the Depth of Debris Around a Nuclear
Crater"; DASA-2515, April 1970; Defense Atomic Support Agency, Washing-
ton, D. C.; Confidential.
128. A. D. Rooke, Jr., G. B. Clark, and J. N. Strange; "Operation
Sun Beam, Shot Johnie Boy, Project 1.5, Mass Distribution Measurements";
POR-2282 (WT-2282), February 1965; Defense Atomic Support Agency,
Washington, D. C.; Confidential.
129. G. L. Kruchko; "Operation Sun Beam, Shot Little Feller II,
ProJect 1.5, Debris Throvout"; POR-2262 (WT-2262), April 1965; Defense
Atomic Support Agency, Washington, D. C.; Confidential.
130. D. E. Stroberger; "Nuclear Weapon Ejecta Parameters";
D2-125955-1, November 1968; The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington;
Secret.

0 325
 131. J. Allen; "Project Sedan, Radioactive Pellet Trajectory
Study"; PNE-218F, July 1965; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore,
California; Unclassified.
132. R. H. Carlson and W. A. Roberts; "Project Sedan, Mass Distri-
bution and Throwout Studies"; PNE-217F, August 1963; The Boeing Company,
Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.
133. W. A. Roberts, R. H. Carlson, and G. L. Keister; "Elect&
Studies, Sedan Event"; D2-90296, December 1962; The Boeing Comp-,ny,
Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.

HE MULTIPLE-CHARGE ARRAYS

134. L. J. Vortman; "Crater Formed by Detonating a Row of Charges

Beneath a Ridge"; SC-RR-68-a.hg, September 1968; Sandia Corporation,
Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
135. V. A. Harris; "Craters Formed by Row Charges in the Vertical
Face of a 90-Degree Wedge"; SC-RR-66-477, November 1966; Sandia Corpora-
tion, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
.136. L. J. Vortman; "Craters from Rows of Charges Detonated One
at a Time in Permuted Sequences"; SC-RR-70-525, September 1970; Sandia
Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
13T. L. J. Vortman; "Craters from Row Charges interrupted by a
Dud"; SC-RR-67-3, February 1967; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New
Mexico; Unclassified.
138. L. J. Vortman; "Craters from Short-Row Charges and Their
Interaction with Pre-Existing Craters"; SC-RR-66-324, July 1966; Sandia
Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassiied.
139. L. J. Vortman; "Craters from a Single Row of Charges Buried
Beneath the Craters from Parallel Rows of Charges"; SC-RR-65-478,
October 1965; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
10. L. J. Vortman; "Dimensions of Craters Produced by Simulta-
neous Detonation of Two Parallel Rows of Charges"; SC-RR-70-492,
September 1970; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico;
Unclassified.
141. J. L. Spruill; "Project Dugout, Apparent Crater Studies";
PNE-601F, March 1965; U. S. Army Enaineer Nuclear Cratering Group,
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified. c,
142. L. J. Vortman and L. N. Schofield; "The Effect of Row Charge
Spacing and Depth on Crater Dimensions"; SC-4730(RR), November 1963;
Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
143. V. A. Harris; "Erplosion Craters with Flat Slopes in Alluvium
Using Two-Pass Triple Rows"; SC-RR-69-158, September 1969; Sandia Corpo-
ration, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.

326
 144. A. D. Rooke, Jr., and L. K. Davis; "Project Pre-Buggy, Em-
placement and Firing of High-Explosive Charges and Crater Measurements";
Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-663, February 1965; U. S. Army Engineer Water-
ways Fxperiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
145. J. %. Spruill and F. F. Videon; "Project Pre-Buggy II,
Studies of the Pre-Buggy II Apparent Craters"; PNE-315F, June 1965;
U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Labora-
tory, ivermore, Ca] ifornia; Unclassified.
146. U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radia-
tion Laboratory; "Summary of Raw Data Pre-Buggy II Chemical Explosive
Experiments"; August 1963; Livermore, California; Unclassified.
147. J. P. Cress; "NCG Pre-Go'hdola III Sixty-Four Pound TNT Flat-
Slope Experiments Conducted at Fort Peck, Montana"; NCG/TA 68-10, July
1968; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Livermoke, California; Unclassified.
148. M. K. Kurtz, Jr., and W. C. Day; "A Report of the Scope and
Preliminary Results of Project Pre-Gondola II, Row Charge Cratering.
Experiment"; NCG/TM 67-9, August 1967; U. S. Army Engineer NucLear
Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California;
Unclassified.
149. J. P. Cress and others; "Project Pre-Gondola III, Phase I,
Summary Report"; PNE-1114, April 1970; U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear
Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore, California;
Unclassified.
150. L. J. Vortman a,d L. N. Schofield; "Row-Charge Craters
-- ihrough Terrain with a Single Elevation Change (A Contribution $o the
Plowshare Programi"; SC-4922(RR), July 1963; Sandia Corporation,
Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
151. L. J. Vortman; "A Scale-Model Experiment of the Crater Pro-
duced Through Terrain of Randomly Varying Elevation by Row Charges";
SC-4T735(RR), November 1962; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New
Mexico; Unclassified.
152. L. J. Vortman; "A Small-Scale Investigation of Excavation
with Parallel Rows of Explos'.ons"; SC-'R-66-416, Part II,October 1966;
Sandia Corporation, Albuque! que, New Mexico; Unclassified.
153. L. J. Vortman; "A Small-Scale Investigation of the Possibil-
ity of Constructing Low-Relef Earth-Fill Dams Using Nuclear Explo.-
sives"; SC-RR-65-41, February 1965; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New
Mexico; Unclassified.
154. L. J. Vortman; "A Small-Scale Investigation of Excavation
with Parallel Rows of Explosions"; SC-RR-65-303, September 1965; Sandia
Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
155. L. J. Vortman and others; "Project Stagecoach, 20-Ton HE
Cratering Experiments in Desert Alluvium"; SC-4595(RR), May 1962;
I"
Sandia Corpox ition, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.

32..
 156. M. A. Novak; "Project ZULU II, Laboratory-Scale Row-Charge )
Cratering Series"; Technical Report No. 5, November 1968; U. S. Army
Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory,
Livermore, California; Unclassified.

HE ROW-CHARGE MEASUREMLNTS

157. U. S. Army Engineer Nuclear Cratering Group, Lawrence Radia-

tion Laboratory; "Buggy Crater Measurements"; (extract from unpublished
report); Livermore, California; Unclassified.

Canal 158.
Using L. J. Vortman;
Nuclear "Construction
Explosives"; of a ,Sea-Level,
SC-4929(RR) Transisthmian
February 1964; Sandia !
Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Unclassified.
159. G. W. Johnson; "Excavation with Nuclear Explosives";
UCRL-5917, November 1960; Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore,
California; Unclassified.

STEMMING

160. R. T. Allen; "The Effect of Stemming on Crater Formation at

Shallow Depths of Burial"; DASA-2184, October 1968; Defense Atomi:
Support Agency, Washington, D. C.; Secret.
161. H. L. Knudson and others; "Effects of Stemming on High-
Explosive Cratering"; Miscellaneous Paper N-72-6, May 1972; U. S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi;
Unclassified.
162. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Ef-
fects of Stemming on Underground Explosions"; Technical Report No. 2-J438,
January 1957; Vicksburg, Misissippi; Unclassified.
163. D. L. Martin and W. J. Hinze; "Energy Partition of Under-
ground Explosions"; AFSWP-789, March 1958; U. S. Army Engineer Research
and Development Laboratories, Fort Belvoir, Virginia; Unclassified.
164. H. Firstenberg; "An Investigation of the StemLing Effects on
Underground Nuclear Explosives"; NUS-346, April 1967; U. S. Arpy Engi-
neer Research and Development Laboratories, Fort Belvoir, Virginia;
Unclassified.
165. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Stition, CE; "Stem-
ming Effects for Certain HE Charges"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 2-192,
March 1957; Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
166. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, C:; "Study
of Energy Partitioning for Partially Confined Explosives"; Technical
Memorandum No. 2-422, November 1955; Vicksburg, ississippi;
Unclassified.

328
 oo. .

WATER-TABLE EFFECTS

167. L. K. Davis; "Effects of a Near-Surface Water Table on

Crate.- Dimensions"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-939. October 1967; U. S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi;
Unclassified.

UNDERWATER CRATERING

168. L. K. Davis And ;. D. Rooke, Jr.; "High-Explosive Cratering

Experiments in Shallow Water"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-946, December
1968; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg,
Mississippi; Unclassified.
169. U. S. Naval Weapons Laboratory; "Shallow Underwater Explosion
Tests"; October 1962; Dahlgren, Virginia; Unclassified.
170. J. E. Eldridge and P. M. Fye; "Underwater Craters Formed by
Explosions on the Sea Floor"; Report No. 6244 (NDRC A-366), November
19145; U. S. Office of Scientific Research and Development, Washington,
D. C.; Unclassified.
171. J. N. Strange; "Underwater Cratering"; Miscellneous Paper
No. 1-598, September 1963; U. S. Axai Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Confidential.

cl, REPEATED EXPLOSIONS ALONG A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS

172. J. N. Strange and A. D. Rooke, Jr.; "Craters Resulting from
Repeated Explosions Along a Common Vertical Axis"; Technical Report
No. 1-665, November 1964; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Sta..
tion, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
173. L. J. "ortman; "Craters from Repeated Direct Hits at the Same
Aiming Point"; SC-4760(RR), January 1963; Sandia Corporation, Altuquer-
que, New Mexico; Unclassified.
174. T. E. O'Brien and others; "Multiple Threat Cratering Experi-
ment, Volume I, Successive Cratering in Hard Rock"; Technical Report
No. AFWL-TR-6 -8, April 1967; Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air
Force Base, New Mexico; Unclassified.
175. B. Bennett; "Successive Cratering Shots Along the Same Verti-
cal Axis"; D2-90454, November 1963; The Boeing Company, Seattle,
Washington; Unclassified.

CUTERING IN ICE AND SNOW

176. R. A. Sager; "Crattring Data for 1960 Greenland Test Series
of High-Explosive Charges in Snow"; (unpublished); U. S. Army Lngineer
Waterways Ex-periment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Uncldsuificl.

329 ';
 I

177. J. A. Conway and J. W. Meyer; "Cratering in Greenland Icecap

Snow"; Miscellaneous Paper N-70-6, July 1970; U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
178. C. W. Livingston; "Fort Churchill Blast Tests, Blasts in
Frozen Glacial Till"; Volume II, September 1956; U. S. Army Snow, Ice
and Permafrost Research Establishment, CE, Wilmette, Illinois;
Unclassified.
179. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE; "Ex-
plosions in Ice"; (unpublished); Tests Conducted in Greenland in 1957;
Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
180. C. W. Livingston; "Explosions in Snow"; TR 86, May 1968;
U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire; Unclassified.

* I

XI
330
 APPENDIX D

COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR CRATER DATA

This appendix contains an annotated listing (Table D.1) of the com-

puter program developed to sort, analyze, and plot the crater data in
Appendixes A and B. The program is shown in this form in the hope that
it may be more understandable to the layman, while at the same time pro-
viding sufficient information from which a similar program could be
constructed if desired.
Note that the program is essentially in two parts--a main program
and a plotting subroutine. The computer language is FORTRAN 1 IV; the
program was run on a GE-400 Series computer at the WES. Plotting was
accomplished on a CalComp Plotter.

C|

Formula translation.

'
331 "'

.............. .
.......I
 BEST AVAILABLE COPY)
tateefl
w ~a, ard

Zirpla.NOLASEL
COI'N
S
DIMENSION JSUF(16001 A0)DIA2O~.NL(2O$)
..a.,(2Q)
DIMENSIONWODI 3erY20r(0)(00

DIMENSION MSR 4
cIM*MO% I (7~c)
05
(l5S)
-75y3(7$1.Y )Y(5y77$N~
6 COMMNIt 117)#j415l)

0 CAL LOTS(RBUtIl),i6oO.3i
RFWIND
14 rCALL PLOTC0.#.IO.,-3)
CALL PL0t5..ON EFFCTS
it
PRtINT 417 FET
12 L CAftES/53X,32N~UCLfAR WEAPON
VrapA?( .61K,I4wsENNY DATA
417 ttVISION/l5?X#23HCRAT6R COMPILAttON)
1313
1a 33 CONTINUE

4' 16 1 fOAMAT12A6.4X;4j)
IVIN.07.0) Go 70 51 -
A 17 fV(N.LI.01 0O TO 32
14
.4.
Go To I'
20 51 UO 1141IaION
15x. r. 1.xe1 ~ rN:
2? 2 lORAW5 I'l15.5. rrilTr.TI.BNt
23 ?cAD 3. DA( I.LI.~
24 3F0

PRINT 416# J2,2 ()RSCP

27
26 IS6 OHM1At H, 29X 1201)
2f PRINT 402 X#Ht7*yl
x..3toT,3.5NCOEFF.7Ee3N4EPo
30 402 ,ORNAT~tiq .36 X,.3NOIM, 2
P, 3t Moto
32 Do t0p J5210
- ..
. - .. --
34 flo'@
0
~ 34 Fli .

S 36 SUNV(L)20.
S 39 SKY(L)SO.-
S 40 SfuMX(LI'Q.
421 226 CONTINUE
43 PRINT 407# J T
HEIGN Or BURST C&IEONVA1
44 407 FORNATi" ,51X. 31H4SCALEV
46
.. ANO.j.E.?
GEZl)L.OA 0 002 O20
202
21 AND0JE Q GOT
47 lr(ct)LT.o P ANv;7t):G.O0
49

(Contnuid)(I of 7 sba..ts)
 TAB D. (CMMM) AVAILABLE rOPY
.BEST
Ixpla. Card Statement
nation 160.

so 1FT1.T;.5Z1.0;b2A0JE.F O 202
st . rtZ(I.LT.-0.2.ANO.Z(I).0E.-0.5.ANO.J.fo*4) 0 0 202
53 I7I(~j.LT..O.9,AND.ZcthGE.-l * .ANDJ.EQ~,& 00 TO 202
54 0 Ot 202
55 I7(Z(t).LT.-2.0.AND.J.JEO.lCO00O 0202
96 00 TO 201
57 202 NOsND*1 0T 1

i 0
J
SUY1zIMoiIT~TF -- -M

- l1 XY(1)'SXY(1).ALOO(CY( I)eALO0(RA(I))
63 SX2(1aSX2h1.*ALOGcCY~t))ALOO(CY(t))

j 0 Sx2C2)aSX22.ALOo:CYdI)OALOO(CYdI))
.- 75 .- Yf 7iTtUIP.Oo.) 00 TO 213
71 m(3)9MC3)*l
7-3 SEY(3)'SXYC3).ALO0(CY(I)).ALO0(HLt))
4 - suMix(3).sU'xt3~--f.LOThTF -*-
* 75 sx2t3)SX23.*ALOOC~t))ALOG(CYti,,
71 213-TTNWTII.EO.0.J 00 TO 214

)7 U- SXY(4)OSXY(4).ALOO(CY(I 33ALO6CRT(I))
61 SX2c4sBSX24)ALOOCCY(13)SALOO(CYCI))
WF14 IPI0,1114M..30 G u U
* 63 1

* 365676 - SXY(SUSXY 534ALO(CY(l)3eALO0(OT(I)3

SL'M(51SUMX(5iiLOQrCY*(D).--
sx1ZS)sSX2B3.0ALOO(CcYcI)*LOgCcjt
- .

-
of 2I1-~r A4~~f.tQ.)
00 TO ale

9 SXYC43aSXY'4)ALOI(CytI))eh0VA~v )- .l)
' ?SU14X(GIu3VRX(63ALOd(C~Y f

i bL
it-l~iSX2(*)gSX2(4).ALOOCy(lleALO0(CYgt))
21 FII4.E.. GO TO 217
W-gri~ $UV'UI i~~j'n- -- - - -*

go SK2(?l3SX2(7).ALO0(CY(Il)eAL0G(CY(I))
lug 1 COPITIMUS
l0t tV((LC.10.0.0, NUD9~0.061 ________-

103 Y3(N0s3Y;O)#O.79

(2 of 7 Mies)

0 333
 TOCOTIM)BES
D1 AVAILABLE COpy
nation 1(o.

TR~ TTI ( N uJ) g,,

*- lot -

- ~Y
1111 Y4(gO (aIO()* ). *

it? _y'flI)*ALOflhv( zrr17r-2.

.4115 YZ CNWY (N O).0.75-
- .

yl 402
) epiC
121 YI1tNO)8YI(6O)*.7S
123 x(No134L0010(CytI),
)-
V XN
G.
X NfI)
V a7
125
125 -IF1(NOEO0sGTa rcio
1~
S 127UE
20 1(N(LT)~ Toy
If3 44
131 E~lM tio.?s
137 DO W X81.7(g
- 133 Irc Uxtx yl To
.L .su Go y--
- --

413
1

-~ 147 CENuO1)X Ioo2~

(K)

143 ~~TrQ 4 0 0)g T 1

A 14516aM.

1331

153~. IX9I0
 SD.1 (COrMuro)
BEST AVAILABLE COPY
EZP2A- Card statmut
nation NO.

PRINT 2l9,JdO7W1(TgXhT
IS9 219 FORNAT(1N'.43X.P10.4.71O.S)
r6w - - G TO40
161 401 CONTINUE__________
d 162 PRIN? 411r hA nIJTrrTiu -IT

13PRINT 402 ___ ______ ____

164 04080
- ~165 00 TO 403
166 40W-CPTINUE
167 xlml,0_____________
7 ____
i6s PRINT' ~T~~ivK~.~K-
169 227 fORMAT(iM .33X#2t5.2OX~j7 1.VVi.Ief1s.,orIO.1
-170 -- ivsij oil,
171 tifCYLIK).o.S. YLCK)5.0
3 173 YS(K)8ALOIO(YsK))*2.O
17,
-176
YL(X~vALOl0410(K))#2.O
it ( 9 V011U-s C77 J
179 Y3409m(Alo01cys(N))!..p)qO.
1.61 -216 CONTINUE_____________ _________

i62 412CoNtINUE
S163 CALL CRATER
-168 - 103 CONTINU' __________________________
166 157 CONTNU~
1700 TO 53 ________________________ ___

169 CALL PLOT(15..0..99O)

(of 7 snet.)

335
 BES
.AVAILABLE COPY
110
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

I2 REAL LEG*.OENT

I _____________________________________

____ COMMO)-N S 'S".L?)f()

-II

12 XLIL(3)2 SHUNDS _______

14 CALL LGA~lSt0.*O#,YLlL##24..,T.,.OlI2.) _____

15 CALL FLp~j(.#4.5#3T_
_____ CALL PLOT(7.,4.9.2)
--- 17 - - CurPr 377. 021
to CALL 0 oI6--4
_G~SOo.X8#2#l

11 "-*-*CALL-PLOT( 4.-t-.33--'-
* 20 CALL PLOT4..1.6.2)
22 CALL PLOT(7.#0.3,2) ____

UCALLPCALPO4uI77 F

B-0- JINT t2)E48 CRATER

cl CINTT11EIEN
6 4
CALLSFNOL 0S...UN?;..2
W )

34 2DENT(318$NL1P MY
3$ CALL PONI42p,lS15.1..6)
36 CALL ON(...5306
40 l1(1.LT.,)0 00 TO 311

.42 CALL POINIM .#rfl.1.,o06

-4,3 3--nlrvftT2T;-4T;O*;l-GuTO-3t--- . -...
~44 IFlISII).GT.f) 00 TO 312
X46 312 jr(y31l)-LT.O.) 00 TO 301 ___

46 CALL PONT(X(t),YS1h.3.,O)
so tV(Y()l,S.0) 00 TO 220
93; I112121.0.51 GO IQ 2,10
Mg2 IUUlX111.0.091 Go TO 2201 ____

54 CALL PLOT(rev~L()s2)

336 ..
 Zk~S D I(C~rMID)BEST 'AVAILABL
COPY
55 220@CONTINUE.
ir(YSz 3l.LT..) 0 O 221
357
so1. .!(32)E.. 00 TO 221
Ist5
60
61 221 CONTINUE
CALL PLOT(0.,52).3)-------------
CALL PLOT(7.TL(2)#2I
4 62 trlS13.LT.O.0) 00 TO 222
IL-43- -- mric, GT.S.5) GOTO 2,2
Op:4lfEX(3).E0.0 O 00TO 222 -
135. CALL PLOT (0. YS3 ))
66 CALL OL OT(FeYL(3)j;)
- -. 67 222 CONTINUE--. .
66 CALR L?0.6,3
-. 70 CALL PLOT( ):,53) _______ ----
-7- CALL PO(i4%2
72 CALL PLOW '5.0.02)
73 -CALL LOAX ISt #'. .i-LjC;Z24;7 bI. 12p j - .

74 CALL PLO?(4.#0.3#3, ______

76 CALL PLOT(7. .0 .32)

76 CALL PLOT(4.#0.3#21
)1.. CALSMBOL (5.2, 13@.* "#197; 6

13 CALL SYMBOL (4; 9 ^ ;9;~7". EN;O;.2-

* 20.. ---
Clj 64 -IDENT(2)UINTER DEPT______ .. - . . -
Is IDENTCI3UII --
16 CALL SvMUOL(4.l.,9Og.j#O1 ENl#.,24)
$8CALL POINT:::!: ::;?:!:0"6IT .-- . . .
a6 302 1*17N0
"o0
go9 Iriy'~lT).04.I 4O TO J13 -
-91
92
94
i
-l
it(II'.too
(11 -6 6 d 313-
CALL POINT(ct.Y4(I).2,.,,
**~ lT1TYTT.LTQ.IGo id 404
If(Il(DI-GT,.) 00 TO 302
CALLI:W~cr~~T.~~-
:I ' 302* CONTINUE
---

Is ,,IP(R 4GT,1.9) 00 TO 223

G9 TU 22.3
toCALLPLOf(Q.#YS(4l.3) ____
-10--------CALCPLOW s.YLirIVr
-D--- -.-
SI102~ 23 CONTINUE
.1TTO lrtysr trerur --------. ---.--

297 Xsr%* .,5 00 TO i

106
1 __CALL_ PLOT(@..Y5(5)s3l
10 _226_CONTINUE

(6oof 7 Root) *

0~
337
 BEST AVAILABLE COPY
Expla- Card

CALL PLO14(U.S.,-JJ
~~114 CALL PLOT Oj;&.SP231
-. 1145 CALL- PLOT(7.54.2
I-.___ -. -

114 CALL LGAXKS(0.-0.,RL8L,.24#.1, to ~~l~l 2 1

III ALL FLU(4.0.304.1
ISO1 CALL PLOTt4.#1.l.2)_______
-0
TITCALC KT71t6Q
S120 CALL PLOT17..O.3.2)
11CALL'PLOl1;T 1--:0---
122 ___CALL SYMIOL(5.2.1.3,0.1,LfEG..6)
-~124 tOENT(Z"Si' CRATER ___
-12-J-- -- - - -- I DENT (---.------
126 CALL SvMIOL(4.G,0.9#0.1IDEN?*[email protected] ______
-~ ~ D17,ENTi11
ISHYMWrCfAg3
__ 126 JOENI(2)ITER VOLU
130 CALL SyH9OL(4.6.0.SvO.IdtDENT*@.,24)
132 CALL POINT(4.2,0.55#3o.06 -.
13" DO 303 1I1.NO
134 ItAl.T.)00 TO 3144
-. 136 CALL POINT(X(1.#YtI)PT,.0*)
'137-- 314 TV?. ;0rO33-
a136 !Vr(9tI).GT.0) 00 TO 303 _ __
13
--- _-CMP0TTTTI()3-17flT#3F--
1140 303 CON4TINUE
M, 114MMU.L1.0.01 ru Eu 22
14 TO 224
GoE6.T..)0 ___

S141.....1F-G)E1VOU'uZ2
14CALL PLOT(O.vYSf6)&33 _____

3 146 224 CONTINUE

146 I~f()G..)00 TO 225 ____ _____

IS0 CALL PLOT(0.,YS(P)#S)

- 5I~ -CALL POttEtl*#~2------
0_12 225_CONTINUE
CAL LOT (0 *.3.*3) ___

338 iF
 ° "
"A
'A4 i' - -- " " " " -~ " " - - " -.

C1 REFERENICES
1. R. A. Sager, C. W. Dcnzel, and W. B. Tiffany; "Cratering from
High Explosive Charges, Compendium of Crater Data"; Technical Report
No. 2-547, Report 1, May 1960; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
2. J. N. Strange, C. W. Denzel, and T. I. McLane; "Cratering from
High Frxlosive Charges, Analysis of Crater Data"; Technical Report No.
2-547, Report 2, June 1961; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
3. G. C. Werth; "The Soviet Program on Nuclear Explosives for the
National Economy"; UCRL-72573, November 1970; Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
4. R. H. Carlson and W. A. Roberts; "Project Sedan, Mass Distribu-
tion and Throvout Studies"; PNE-217F, August 1963; The Boeing Company,
Seattle, Washington; Unclassified.
5. A. J. Chabai; "Scaling Dimensions of Craters Produced by Buried
Explosions"; SC-RR-65-70, February 1965; Sandia Corporation' Albuquerque,
New Mexico; Unclassified.
6. R. H. Carlson; "Crater Scaling as a Function of Charge Burst
Depth"; D180-10100-1, February 1970; The Boeing Company, Seattle,
Washington; UnclassLfied.
7.L. J. Vortman; "Maximum Missile Ranges from Surface and Buried
(Explosions"; SC-RR-67-616, September 1967; Sandia Corporation, Albuquer-
que, New Mexico; Unclassified.
8. H. L. Knudson, J. W. Meyer, S. B. Price, and A. D. Rooke, Jr.;
"Effects of Stemming on High-Explosive Cratering"; Miscellaneous Paper
N-72-6, May 1972; U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE,
Vicksburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
9. L. K. Davis and A. D. Rooke, Jr.; "High Explosive Cratering
Experiments in Shallow Water"; Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-946, December
1968; U. S. Army EngIneer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg,
Mississippi; Unclassified.
10. A. D. Rooks, Jr., and L. K. Davis; "Project Pre-Buggy, Emplace-
ment and Firing of High-Explosive Charges and Crater Measurements";
Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-663, February 165; U. S. Arzy Engineer Water-
ways Experiment Station, CE, Vic7sburg, Mississippi; Unclassified.
11. G. H. Higgins and T. R. Butkovich; "Effect of Water Content,
Yield, Mediur, and Depth of Burst on Cavity Radii"; UCRL-50203, February
1967; Lawrence Radiatin Laboratory, Livermore, California; Unclassified.
12. B. R. Redpath; "A Concept of Row Crater Enhancement"; Pro-
ceedings of Symposium on Engineering with Nuclear Explosives, Las Vegas,
Nevada, January 1970; COCF-70010, Vol. 2; American Nuclear Society;
Unclassified.

-- 339
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TRW Systems Group, 600 E. Mill St., Bldg. 527, Room 710
San Bernardino, Calif. 92402
ATTN: Mr. Fred Pieper 1
Mr. J. Carpenter 1
Dr. Lieberman 1
Agbabian Associates, 250 N. Nash St.
El Segundo, Calif. 90245
ATTN: Dr. Jim Workman 2 0
Applied Theory, Inc., 1010 Westwood Blvd. 1
Los Angeles, Calif. 90024
ATTN: Dr. J. G. Trulio
Director, Institute for Defense Analysis, 400 Army-Navy Dr. 2
Arlington, Va. 22202
ATTN: Technical Information Office
The Rand Corporation
1700 MAin St., Santa Mnica, Calif. 90406
ATTN: Library 1
Dr. A. L. latter 1
Mx. W. B. Wright 1
Dr. C. C. Mow 1
R&D Associates, P. 0. Box 3580, Santa Monica, Calif. 90403 1
ATTN: Dr. Harold L. Brode
Systems, Science, and Software, P. 0. Box 1620 1
La Jolla, Calif. 92037
ATrN: Document Control
Weidlinger Associates, Consulting Engineers, 310 E,.st 59th St. 3
New York, N. Y. 10022 4 - ,
ATTN:> Dr. M. L. Baron'0

I s*44
 No. of

Address Pages

DOD Contractors (Continued)

Southwest Research Institute 1
8500 Culebra Road, San Antonia, Tex. 78228
ATTN: Dr. Robe.t C. DeHart
Dr. Olen A. Nance 1
South Lakeview Drive
Batun Rouge, La. 70810

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by A. D. Rooks, Jrg., 3. L.. Coas soi%2 L. K. Davu.
Vickobtrg, U. 8. Av Awginem Waemy bpriast
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