Environmental

Systems and Societies

for the IB Diploma
Second edition
Paul Guinness and Brenda Walpole

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Contents
Introduction v
Acknowledgements vii
How to use this book ix

Topic 1 – Foundations of environmental systems and societies 1

1.01 Environmental value systems 2
1.02 Systems and models 16
1.03 Energy and equilibria 24
1.04 Sustainability 31
1.05 Humans and pollution 39
End-of-topic questions 48

Topic 2 – Ecosystems and ecology 50

2.01 Species and populations 51
2.02 Communities and ecosystems 62
2.03 Flows of energy and matter 74
2.04 Biomes, zonation and succession 86
2.05 Investigating ecosystems 103
End-of-topic questions 116

Topic 3 – Biodiversity and conservation 118

3.01 An introduction to biodiversity 119
3.02 Origins of biodiversity 123
3.03 Threats to biodiversity 135
3.04 Conservation of biodiversity 147
End-of-topic questions 160

Topic 4 – Water and aquatic food production systems and societies 161
4.01 Introduction to water systems 162
4.02 Access to fresh water 171
4.03 Aquatic food production systems 188
4.04 Water pollution 198
End-of-topic questions 211

Topic 5 – Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and

societies 212
5.01 Introduction to soil systems 213
5.02 Terrestrial food production systems and food choices 223
5.03 Soil degradation and conservation 239
End-of-topic questions 254

iii
Contents

Topic 6 – Atmospheric systems and societies 255

6.01 Introduction to the atmosphere 256
6.02 Stratospheric ozone 265
6.03 Photochemical smog 279
6.04 Acid deposition 290
End-of-topic questions 298

Topic 7 – Climate change and energy production 299

7.01 Energy choices and security 300
7.02 Climate change – causes and impacts 317
7.03 Climate change – mitigation and adaptation 336
End-of-topic questions 348

Topic 8 – Human systems and resource use 349

8.01 Human population dynamics 350
8.02 Resource use in society 372
8.03 Solid domestic waste 389
8.04 Human population carrying capacity 402
End-of-topic questions 414

Answers to self-assessment questions 415

Answers to end-of-topic questions 433
Answers to case study questions 441
Glossary 449
Index 457

iv
Introduction
This book covers the syllabus for the IB Diploma Programme Environmental Systems and
Societies, which is offered at Standard Level only. Our understanding of the environment
and its importance to our lives has grown rapidly over recent decades and the Environmental
Systems and Societies course, which is a transdisciplinary subject combining the knowledge and
techniques associated with a group 4 science subject and the social and cultural aspects of the
more anthropocentric approach of a group 3 subject.
The book follows the sequence of the syllabus in terms of the eight topics and the sub-
sections within these topics. The overall objective of this book is to provide comprehensive
coverage of all the topics in the syllabus in an up-to-date and interesting format. Each topic is
covered in a separate section and the significant ideas and key questions are listed at the start of
each section. Case studies have been chosen to represent a wide range of geographical locations
and biological examples, so that as you read, you can reflect on the essential international element
of this course. Examples from across the environmental and economic spectrums highlight how
our impact on the environment is not just an issue for one country or section of society but
something important to us all. The book considers a range of environmental issues from small-
scale local events to large-scale global issues. The use of ICT and technology in general has made
all of us more aware than ever before of what is happening elsewhere in the world and of the
implications that changes in other parts of the world can have on us.
Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies explains the environmental value
systems that drive societies to protect and value the natural world. It outlines the essential
systems approach to the study of this subject, identifying some of the underlying principles that
can be applied to living systems.Your syllabus advocates a holistic approach to the analysis of
environmental systems so that you can arrive at informed personal viewpoints while being aware
of the values of others. The topic introduces important concepts of energy, sustainability and the
impact of humans on the environment.
Topic 2 Ecosystems and ecology presents much of the basic scientific knowledge and understanding
for the topics that follow. Techniques to measure and evaluate components of systems and
how they can change are central to this topic which also covers the key concepts of species,
populations, biomes and succession.
Topic 3 Biodiversity and conservation addresses issues of how biodiversity has arisen and how
it is now under threat, mainly because of human interference in natural systems. Humans are
attempting to redress the balance and some conservations options are covered here.
Topic 4 Water and aquatic food production systems and societies considers how access to fresh water
is crucial to the survival of all living things. Humans use aquatic systems to harvest and produce
food; as our population increases so do our demands on these resources. Fish farming and
aquaculture may help feed future generations. Pollution of water is a problem discussed here.
Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies provides detailed coverage of
the planet’s soils in terms of systems, structure, how they are used for human benefit, and how
their misuse is storing up major problems for the future. Understanding all aspects of soil systems
around the world is fundamental to ensure food security for present and future populations. The
topic begins with an introduction to soil systems, followed by consideration of terrestrial food
production systems and food choices, and ends with analysis of soil degradation and conservation.
Topic 6 Atmospheric systems and societies begins with an introduction to the atmosphere which
provides a basis for this topic and also for Topic 7. The three following sub-topics in Topic 6
consider major atmospheric issues which impact severely on people and the environment and
may cumulatively threaten the future liveability of the planet. This topic examines the extent of
these atmospheric problems and considers progress made in their management.
Topic 7 Climate change and energy production examines what is generally considered to be the
number one problem facing planet Earth. The opening sub-topic sets the scene by acknowledging
that production and consumption of energy are by far the most important factors in climate
change. The concept of ‘security’ again comes to the fore, as it also does in Topic 4 (water) and
v
 Introduction

Topic 5 (food). If significant further progress is to be made in tackling climate change, we will
need to be reliant on a higher level of international cooperation than has been the case in the past
along with significant advances in science and technology.
Topic 8 Human systems and resource use begins with an analysis of human population dynamics
which considers the models and indicators used to quantify human populations, and the range of
factors which affect human population growth. The topic then examines resource use in society,
solid domestic waste, and human population carrying capacity. The important concept of the
ecological footprint (EF) is discussed. The key concept of sustainability is central to this topic as it
is to the study of environmental systems and societies in general.
The phrase ‘Think globally, act locally’ was first used by Scottish town planner and social activist
Patrick Geddes, who wrote Cities in Evolution in 1915. It has since become a concept widely used
by environmentalists and taken into consideration by governments, educators and communities. It
is an idea on which we can all reflect in our daily lives and at the end of this book.
Full details of the Assessment Objectives and examination requirements for the Diploma
Programme Environmental Systems and Societies course can be found in the relevant IBO guide.
Paul Guinness
Brenda Walpole

vi
Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and
are grateful for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has not always
been possible to identify the sources of all material used, or to trace all copyright holders.
If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting.
p 374 text from www.rncalliance.org used with permission of the RNC Alliance; p381 ‘The
cultural value of forests’ by Lara Barbier, April 2011 from the TEEB website bankofnaturalcapital.
com; Figures 5.03 and 5.04 redrawn and reproduced with permission of Nelson Thornes Ltd
from Geography: An integrated Approach (4th edn), David Waugh, 978-1-4085-0407, first published
in 2009; Figure 5.20 adapted from figures by Floor Anthoni, seafriends.org.nz; p253−4 Table
5.05 from Soil Management and Agrodiversity: a case study from Arumeru, Arusha, Tanzania by
FBS Kaihura, M Stocking and E Kahembe, 2008; Figures 4.01 and 4.02 redrawn from Digby
et al: A2 Geography for Edexcel Student Book (OUP, 2009), reprinted by permission of Oxford
University Press; Figure 4.16 redrawn from GCSE Geography, Garret Nagle, Hodder Education,
Fig 22, p.148 reproduced with permission of Hodder Education; p144 extract from ‘The terrible
lesson of the bee orchid’ by Richard Mabey, published by The Guardian, copyright © Richard
Mabey, 2005 reproduced by permission of Sheil Land Associates Ltd; Figures 4.29 and 4.30
Citizen Monitoring Biotic Index data recording form and key reproduced by permission of the
Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System; Figures 8.21 and 8.22 from ‘Taking
out the rubbish: municipal waste composition, trends and futures’ by Resource Futures, 2009;
Figure 6.03 redrawn after Dr TR Oke, University of British Columbia in Atmosphere,Weather &
Climate, Routledge, 1998; Figures 6.07, 6.09 and 6.10 redrawn from Atmospheric process and human
influence, P Warburton, Collins Educational; figure 6.18 after Professor Richard Foust, Northern
Arizona University; Figure 6.27 ‘What are scientists dong to better understand acid deposition?’
© Ecological Society of America; Table 7.09, reproduced by permission of Phillip Allan Updates;
Figure 7.19 reprinted from The Lancet,Vol 367, Anthony J McMichael, Rosalie E Woodruff ,
Simon Heals, ‘Climate change and human health; present and future risks’, Figure 1, © 2006, with
permission from Elsevier; Figure 7.20 from Geography,Vol 96, Spring 2011 by permission of the
Geographical Association www.geography.org.uk; Figure 7.21 from ‘The IPCC messed up over
Amazongate’ by George Monbiot, guardian.co.uk, 2nd July 2010, copyright Guardian News &
Media Ltd 2010; Figure 1.01 adapted from Figure 10.1 ‘The Environmentalist objectives and strategies
in the seventies’, page 372, first published in O’Riordan, T Environmentalism, 1981, Pion Ltd,
London www.pion.co.uk/www.
Thanks to the following for permission to reproduce photographs
p1, chapter opening page SPL; p4l Bettmann/Corbis; p4r Ria Novosti/SPL; Daniel Beltra/
Greenpeace/naturepl.com; p9 Aslund/Greenpeace; p12t SPL; p12 SPLb; p14 George Holton/
SPL; p36 David South/Alamy; p37l Ron Nickel/Design Pics/Still Pictures: p37r Nazrul Islam/
Majority World/Still Pictures; p39r SPL; p41 Ria Novosti/TopFoto/TopFoto.co.uk; p47t
John Stanmeyer/VII/Corbis; p47b SPL; p50 SPL; p53t SPL; p53b SPL; p54 Bob Gibbons/SPL;
p56l SPL; p56r SPL; p60 Peter Bird, Dept of Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia/
PIRSA; p72 Topham/AP/TopFoto.co.uk; p78 NASA Goodard Space Flight Center; p85 SPL;
p88l SPL, p88r SPL; p90l SPL, 90r SPL; p91t SPL, 91m Gerry Ellis/Minden Pictures/FLPA, 91b
Beth Davidow,Visuals Unlimited/SPL; p97t Biosphoto/Cyrill ruoso/BIOSphoto/Still Pictures,
97b Geoff Dore/naturepl.com; p99 blickwinker/Alamy; p101lNick turner/naturepl.com, p67r
Robin Chittenden/FLPA, p67br Chien Lee/Minden Pictures/FLPA; p102l David R. Frazier
Photolibrary Inc/SPL, p102r Niall Benvie/naturepl.com; p106 David Hosking/FLPA; p109 Chris
Linder/Visuals Unlimited/SPL; p110 Art Directors & Trip/Alamy; p118 SPL; Francois Savigny/
naturepl.com; p124l SPL, FLPA/Alamy; p127t SPL; p128l © PR Grant and BR Grant; p138t
ARCO/naturepl.com, 138b Lynn M Stone/naturepl.com; p139 tl © Santiago Ron, p139tr Alex
Cortes, p139m zoonar.com/NicoSmit/zoonar.de Specialist Stock, p139b© D Hal Cogger; p140
Spencer Sutton/SPL; p141 Corbis; p142 SPL; p146 NASA EARTH Observatory/Jesse Allen/

vii
 Acknowledgements

Robert Simmon/NASA EO-1 team; p149 Prisma/Superstock; Alan Sirulnikoff/SPL; p154

Aaron Ferster/SPL; p163l Paul Guinness; p165 Paul Guinness; p173r and l Paul Guinness; p175l
Shutterstock, p175 www.wateraid.org; p177 Alamy; p179 Shut terstock; p189 SPL; p189 NASA/
Robert Simmon and Jesse Allen; p208l Ulrike Welsch/SPL, p208r SPL; pp213, 214 r and l, 216,
219, 220, 224l and r, 226, 240, 246r and l, 248, 250, 255, 259l and r, 261, 270, 282, 286, 287, 288,
292l and r, 301, 306, 309, 312, 313, 316, 322, 326, 327, 330l and r, 338, 347, 349, 356, 357, 359,
363, 365, 374, 378, 379, 380, 391, 397, 398, 406, Paul Guinness; p230 Bruce Davidson/naturepl.
com; p290 SPL; p350 Chris Guinness; p372 Mark Bowler/SPL; p375 Alamy; p375 James
Steinberg/SPL; p377 TopFoto/TopFoto.co.uk; p381 SumioHarada/Minden Pictures/Corbis;
p383 Topham Picturepooint/TopFoto/TopFoto.co.uk; p389 Photofusion Picture Library/Alamy;
p397t Silvere Teutsch/Eurelios/SPL; p403 TopFoto/TopFoto.co.uk.
Artwork on page 14r by John MacNeill; artworks on pages 13, 17, 82, 83, 94, 95, 106, 167,
181 and 185 are by Kathy Baxendale.
Abbreviations key: SPL= Science Photo Library; r = right; l = left; t = top; b = bottom.

The publisher would like to thank Dharmendra Dan Dubay of Shanghai American School,
Shanghai, Dr Andrea Peoples-Marwah of The Quarry Lane School, Dublin, California and
Anthony Brewer of Victoria Shanghai Academy, Hong Kong for reviewing the content of this
second edition.

viii
How to use this book
Introduction to Learning objectives and key
questions – set the scene of each

4.01 water systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
chapter, help with navigation
through the book and give a
reminder of what’s important
• understand that the hydrological cycle is a system of water flows and
storages that may be disrupted by human activity
about each topic.
• appreciate that the ocean circulatory system (ocean conveyor belt)
influences the climate and global distribution of water (matter and
energy).

KEY QUESTIONS
How does water flow and how is it stored in the hydrological cycle?
How do human activities impact on surface runoff and infiltration?
What impact does the ocean circulatory system have on the global
distribution of water?

Self-assessment questions -
check your own knowledge and
see how well you’re getting on by
answering questions. Each set of
self-assessment questions includes
1.02
Systems and models

a discussion point or research idea

offering the opportunity for more CONSIDER THIS
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.02.01
extensive investigation and group For many centuries, people
have discussed ideas of
Environment
a holistic view of the
work. Earth as an integrated,
living whole. In ancient
Community
Environment

Greek mythology, Gaia

was the goddess who health
personified the Earth. Economy Economy Community
James Lovelock, a scientist
and environmentalist, is
well known for proposing
the ‘Gaia hypothesis’. This
hypothesis proposes that The traditional approach The systems approach
the biosphere is self-
regulating and is able to Figure 1.06 The difference between the systems approach and the conventional
keep the Earth healthy by approach to the study of a system.
controlling the interactions
between the chemical and 1 Figure 1.06 outlines the difference between the systems approach and the
physical aspects of the conventional approach to the study of a society. What are the benefits of using
environmental system. the systems approach in the study of: a an ecosystem and b other subjects such as
Lovelock gave the name economics or engineering?
Consider this - particularly Gaia to his hypothesis
at the suggestion of
2 Construct a table to compare the exchange of matter and energy in open, closed and
isolated systems.
novelist William Golding.
interesting aspects of each topic Gea is an alternative
spelling for the name of
3 Discussion point: Do you think it is useful to have the concept of an isolated system
which does not exchange energy or matter with its surroundings?

are highlighted throughout the goddess Gaia that is

reflected in the prefix in
geology, geophysics and
each chapter, providing extra geochemistry. The Gaia
hypothesis became well
Transfers and transformations
known during the 1960s
opportunities for discussion at the time of the space
race between the Soviet
Transfers
Both matter and energy pass through ecosystems, and if their movement involves only a change
in class. Union and the USA, when
people first saw images
in location and does not involve any change of form (or state), the movement is called a transfer.
A trophic level is a group of organisms that are all the same number of energy transfers from the
of the whole Earth taken producer (plant) in a food chain or food web (see Topic 2). Energy flows through an ecosystem: as
from space.
biomass found in the bodies of organisms in one trophic level is eaten, so biomass and energy pass
to the next trophic level.
Some examples of transfers include:
• transfer of matter through a food chain as one animal eats another
Transfers involve flow through
a system and involve a change
• transfer of energy as wind carries heat energy from one part of the world to another
in location. • transfer of matter as water flows from a river to the sea.
Transformations lead to an Transformations
interaction within a system and
the formation of a new end
A transformation occurs when a flow in a system involves a change of form or state, or leads
product, or they may involve a to an interaction within the system. The evaporation of water from a river is an example of a
change of state. transformation, because water is changed in form from a liquid to a vapour in the atmosphere.
In ecosystems, energy is transformed from sunlight into chemical energy in the bonds of
molecules in plants during the process of photosynthesis. As organisms respire, chemical energy is
transformed into heat and kinetic energy.
Key terms - clear and Some examples of transformations include:
• energy to energy – light energy to electrical energy in a solar panel (photovoltaic cell)
straightforward explanations • matter to matter – decomposition of leaf litter into inorganic materials

of the most important words in

each topic.
20

ix
 How to use this book

Models involving flow and storages in a system

Theory of knowledge - allow you to reflect
on the central role of Theory of knowledge
Theory of knowledge 1.02.02
on our knowledge and understanding of
What aspects of the world should a model include?
Models are simplified representations of the world and present complex systems and situations to help
environmental philosophy. Each one asks you
us gain knowledge about them and understand them. One question often asked about models is how
useful they are. We must remember that knowledge and understanding are different. Knowledge to consider a question which could form the
is facts based on observation of the world, but understanding is comprehension of this knowledge.
Do models hinder our ability to collect new knowledge by making us blind to new possibilities? The
philosopher Karl Popper said, ‘Science may be described as the art of systematic oversimplification.’
basis of group discussion or a homework task.
A model is a simple, abstract view of a very complex system, particularly in natural sciences. If models
are too simple they may obscure the detail of what is going on. It is important to decide how much
simplification of a complex system can be justified, so that we come to understand how it works.

1 How can we know which aspects of the world to include in a model and which to ignore?
2 Are some models more objective than others?

CASE STUDY 1.02.02

Case studies - fascinating real-world settings
Comparing inputs and outputs of different ecosystems are described and discussed to illustrate
Figure 1.09 compares the inputs and outputs of an
agricultural ecosystem and an urban ecosystem. In the
with grazing animals require fewer human inputs
than crop ecosystems, because pasture is similar to a
environmental phenomena that are relevant
diagram, the arrows have been drawn so that their sizes natural ecosystem.
represent the sizes of the inputs and outputs of the two • Modern agricultural ecosystems need inputs from internationally. Questions allow you to check
systems. farm machinery, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and
irrigation. your knowledge and understanding.
• Intensive inputs increase the conversion of
sunlight energy to human food energy during
human products
photosynthesis, by providing the best conditions for
inputs plant growth (e.g. ample water and nutrients from
agricultural
ecosystem fertilisers) and excluding plants and animals such
natural waste as weeds or pests that compete for the ecosystem’s
inputs
production.
• Agricultural ecosystems contain non-living things
made by people, such as irrigation ditches and farm
equipment, which require maintenance.
human products • Intensive inputs to agricultural ecosystems depend
inputs
urban on large amounts of petroleum energy to produce
ecosystem fertilisers and pesticides and for transport.
natural waste
inputs • Water is a key input, and modern irrigation methods
need large amounts of water, sometimes from
hundreds of kilometres away.
• High inputs in agriculture produce high outputs and
high yields of crops or animals.
Figure 1.09 Comparing inputs and outputs of a small
agricultural and an urban ecosystem. • Outputs of modern agricultural ecosystems include
waste such as fertilisers and pesticides that can
Draw your own diagrams to compare the inputs and damage nearby ecosystems.
outputs in an intensive agricultural system that produces
wheat with those of a natural ecosystem such as a Questions
woodland or forest. 1 Can you suggest any other inputs that could increase
Use the following information to help you. the output from an agricultural system?
• Agricultural ecosystems use selected domesticated 2 List three disadvantages of a modern agricultural
plants or animals to produce food, fibre or fuel for system.
human consumption. 3 Compare the inputs and outputs in a modern
• Some agricultural ecosystems differ greatly from agricultural system with those of an agricultural
natural ecosystems; others do not. Pasture ecosystems system 100 years ago.

23

Extension - further information can be found

Extension using these links.
Ecological footprints http://footprint.wwf.org.uk

End-of-topic questions
1 Discuss the role of the albedo effect from clouds d How effective have international agreements been
in regulating global average temperature. [4] in reducing the emissions of ozone-depleting
substances? [4]
2 Look at Figure 6.1, which shows changes in ozone
concentration in the troposphere and stratosphere. 3 Apart from the release of large quantities of air
pollutants, what other factors contribute to the
a Describe the changes in ozone concentration
formation of photochemical smog? [4]
shown by the diagram. [2]
4 a What is acid deposition? [1]
b Why is the ozone layer in the stratosphere often
referred to as ‘good ozone’? [1] b What impact does acid deposition have
on forests? [3]
c How has human activity depleted the ozone
layer? [3]

298

End-of-topic questions - use the questions at the end of each topic to check
your knowledge and understanding of the whole topic and to practise answering
questions similar to those you will encounter in your exams.

x
Topic
1 FOUNDATIONS OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
SYSTEMS AND
SOCIETIES
 Environmental value
1.01 systems
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should be able to:

• define what is meant by ‘environmental value system (EVS)’

• outline the main factors that define different environmental philosophies
• describe the key historical influences on the development of the modern
environmental movement
• describe how these philosophies influence decision-making on
environmental issues
• justify your own view on environmental issues.

KEY QUESTIONS
How do historical events affect the development of environmental value
systems (EVSs)?
What other influences are important to the development of environmental
movements and EVSs?
What are the viewpoints of different EVSs?

1.01.01 Historical influences on the

modern environmental movement
There are many different environmental value systems (EVSs). Some of them consider humans to
An environmental value system be more important than ecology and nature, while others prioritise the rights of living things and
(EVS) is a particular worldview urge humans to behave more responsibly. Three examples of EVSs are described in this chapter.
or set of paradigms that
Any EVS is influenced by cultural (including religious), economic and sociopolitical contexts, for
shapes the way individuals or
societies perceive and evaluate
example whether individuals are from a less economically developed country (LEDC) or a more
environmental issues. economically developed country (MEDC), or a democratic or an authoritarian society. Historical
events also affect the development of EVSs and environmental movements in different societies.
Many of our current concerns for the environment have their origins in the reaction that some
people had to the growth of cities and industries from the mid-1800s onwards. Industrialisation
brought with it worsening air quality and pollution. During the 20th century, technology advanced
and human influence on the environment became more widespread as the world population
and industry grew. With improvements in communication, such as newspapers, television, the
internet and social networking, people have become more aware of environmental issues more
quickly. A number of significant milestones have punctuated the development of the modern
environmental movement, and the idea of human ‘stewardship’ of the natural world has developed.
One of the first pollution disasters that became well publicised was in1956 at Minamata Bay
in Japan. People living in the area were poisoned by mercury that was discharged into the bay by
a local factory.You can read more details about this in Topic 2, page 72. There have been other
significant events over the last 60 years which have also influenced the development of people’s
awareness of the environment. Some of these are described here, but there are many others.
Events like these have led not only to the formation of environmental movements and political
parties but also to the establishment of EVSs that define what people believe are the best ways for
2 us to live in harmony with our environment.
 Historical influences on the modern environmental movement

The environmental accidents and incidents that have occurred since the middle
of the last century have motivated politicians and members of the general population to
become more involved in environmental and conservation issues – that is, to develop their
own EVSs.

1962 – Silent Spring

Rachel Carson (1907–1964) was a US writer and ecologist who became concerned about the
overuse of synthetic chemical pesticides in agriculture. Her book Silent Spring, published in
1962, challenged modern agricultural practices and called for a change in the way the natural
world is viewed. She was one of the earliest writers to highlight the effects of bioaccumulation
of pesticides on populations of predatory birds (see Topic 2). Some dismissed her work as
alarmist but she continued to speak out. Silent Spring brought environmental concerns to public
attention, led to significant changes in policies towards pesticides, and later led to the ban on
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). The book was a major influence and is credited with
inspiring American environmental movements which eventually resulted in the formation of the
Environmental Protection Agency.

1975 – Save the Whales

Greenpeace, founded in 1971, is an organisation that campaigns for the environment and
conservation of natural resources.
In 1975, Greenpeace launched the world’s first anti-whaling campaign by taking direct action
against Soviet whaling ships in the Pacific Ocean. The voyage of its ship Rainbow Warrior sparked
an international outcry after pictures and videos taken by the Greenpeace crew shocked the
world. The campaign ‘Save the Whales’ was taken up in many countries. After nearly a decade
of intense lobbying the International Whaling Commission finally declared a moratorium on
commercial whaling in 1986.
Greenpeace followed this success with several campaigns against nuclear testing in the 1980s,
and the organisation is now recognised as a major player in the environmental movement.

1984 – Bhopal disaster

In 1984, a serious gas leak occurred at the Union Carbide pesticide factory in the Indian city
of Bhopal. Even today, it is often cited as the world’s worst industrial disaster. It is estimated that
more than 500 000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate and other chemicals from the
plant. Of these, nearly 4000 died within weeks and a further 8000 died soon afterwards. Many
thousands were partially or severely disabled, and since the tragedy as many as 25 000 deaths have
been attributed to exposure to the gas (see Image 1.01).
Since the Bhopal incident, the chemical industry has been put under pressure to
develop and implement strict safety and environmental standards to ensure that such an accident
never happens again. In Bhopal, 3 December, the day of the incident, is still an official day of
mourning.

1986 – Chernobyl disaster

The nuclear disaster at Chernobyl began during a routine test on a reactor at the plant. An
emergency shutdown failed and a sequence of events followed which resulted in explosions that
sent clouds of highly radioactive smoke into the atmosphere and destroyed one of the reactors
(see Image 1.02). The smoke was carried over the nearby city of Prypiat and extensive areas of the
western Soviet Union and Europe, which received high levels of radioactive fallout. More than
350 000 people had to be evacuated and resettled from the most severely contaminated parts of
Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.

3
1.01
Environmental value systems

Russian data has suggested that over 900 000 premature cancer deaths have occurred as a result
of radioactive contamination from Chernobyl. The accident raised concerns about the safety of
nuclear power all over the world, and the expansion of nuclear power plants in many countries
was halted or slowed.

Image 1.01 At the Bhopal factory, important Image 1.02 Explosions destroyed one
safety systems were not working on the night that of the reactors at the Chernobyl power
toxic gases leaked affecting the lungs and eyes of station. Eventually the plant was enclosed
thousands of people who lived nearby. in a concrete ‘sarcophagus’ that kept
dangerous radioactive material inside.

2006 – An Inconvenient
Truth
Promoted by former US Vice President Al Gore, the
film An Inconvenient Truth put the issues of climate
change (see Topic 7) at the front of the agenda for a
wide audience. Publicity by a well-known politician
and the accessible format of the film, produced by
Davis Guggenheim, brought information about global
warming to many and raised awareness of environmental
issues worldwide. The film was supplied to schools and
colleges, which also received additional material to help
teachers explain the ideas to young people.

2010 – Deepwater Horizon

oil spill
In 2010, oil poured out of a ruptured drilling rig deep
Image 1.03 Oil gushed from the Deepwater Horizon oil well into
below the sea in the Gulf of Mexico for almost three
the sea from 20 April 2010 until the well was finally capped on 15 months. It was the largest marine oil spill in the history
July 2010. of the petrochemical industry (see Image 1.03). The oil

4
 An outline of the range of environmental philosophies

caused extensive damage to marine and wildlife ecosystems, as well as

to fishing and tourism in the area. Attempts to contain and disperse the oil had limited
success.
A report into the accident concluded that reforms were needed in both industry practices and
government policy to prevent a similar event ever happening again. Images of the sea covered by an
oily floating mass and of seabirds with oil-covered feathers spread rapidly via the internet and news
media, and many environmentalists questioned the need to drill for oil in insecure or dangerous
locations.

2011 – Fukushima nuclear accident

The damage to the Fukushima nuclear power station in Japan caused the largest nuclear disaster
since Chernobyl. The power station was hit by waves of seawater almost 15 m high from a
tsunami that followed a severe undersea earthquake near the island of Honshu. The plant was
designed to withstand waves of 5.7 m but was overwhelmed by the ferocity of the tsunami. Japan
was well prepared with evacuation procedures, and nuclear fallout was limited by prompt action.
By the end of 2011, Japanese authorities were able to declare the plant to be stable, although
it may take decades to decontaminate the surrounding areas and to decommission the
power station.
As the disaster unfolded, it was watched on 24-hour news bulletins by millions of people
all over the world, which is a further example of the influence of media coverage on public
awareness of environmental issues.

1.01.02 An outline of the range

of environmental philosophies
EVSs are divided into three general categories which form a continuous spectrum
An ecocentric system is a
(see Figure 1.01):
nature-centred value system
• ecocentric(nature centred) that views people as being
• anthropocentric (people centred). under nature's control rather
than in control of it.
• technocentric (based on technology).
An anthropocentric system is
Ecocentrists are likely to distrust modern technology and large-scale production and prefer
a human-centred value system
to maintain natural environmental systems on a small scale. Ecocentrists view themselves as being that places humans as the
under nature’s control rather than controlling it. They foresee a limit to the Earth’s resources. central species and assesses the
Deep ecologists are extreme ecocentrists and include people who believe that nature has more environment from an exclusively
value than humanity. human perspective.
Technocentrists believe that the brain power and resourcefulness of humans will enable us
A technocentric system is a
to control the environment. Such people have an optimistic worldview. They consider that technologically-based value
natural processes must be understood to be controlled and that scientific research is important system that believes the brain
in policy making. power of humans will enable us
Anthropocentrists tend to include both viewpoints in their value system. to control the environment.

5
1.01
Environmental value systems

ENVIRONMENTAL

ECOCENTRISM ANTHROPOCENTRISM TECHNOCENTRISM

(nature centred) (people centred) (technology centred)

Holistic world view. Minimum People as environmental Technology can keep pace with
disturbance of natural processes. managers of sustainable global and provide solutions to
Integration of spiritual, social and systems. Population control given environmental problems. Resource
environmental dimensions. equal weight to resource use. replacement solves resource
Sustainability for the whole Earth. Strong regulation by independent depletion. Need to understand
Self-reliant communities within a authorities required. natural processes in order to
framework of global citizenship. control them. Strong emphasis on
Self-imposed restraint on resource scientific analysis and prediction
use. prior to policy-making. Importance
of market, and economic growth.

Deep ecologists Self-reliance soft ecologists Environmental managers Cornucopians

1 Intrinsic importance of 1 Emphasis on smallness of 1 Belief that economic 1 Belief that man can always
nature for the humanity of scale and hence growth and resource find a way out of any
man. community identity in exploitation can continue difficulties, whether
2 Ecological (and other settlement, work and assuming: political, scientific or
natural) laws dictate leisure. a suitable economic technological.
human morality. 2 Integration of concepts of adjustments to taxes, 2 Acceptance that
3 Biorights – the right of work and leisure through a fees, etc. pro-growth goals define
endangered species or process of personal and b improvements in the the rationality of project
unique landscapes to communal improvement. legal rights to a appraisal and policy
remain unmolested. 3 Importance of minimum level of formulation.
participation in community environmental quality 3 Optimism about the ability
affairs, and of guarantees c compensation of man to improve the lot
of the rights of minority arrangements of the world's people.
interests. Participation satisfactory to those 4 Faith that scientific and
seen as both a continuing who experience adverse technological expertise
education and a political environmental and/or provides the basic
function. social effects. foundation for advice on
2 Acceptance of new project matters pertaining to
appraisal techniques and economic growth, public
decision review health and safety.
arrangements to allow for 5 Suspicion of attempts to
wider discussion or widen the basis for
4 Lack of faith In modern large-scale technology and its genuine search for participation and lengthy
associated demands on elitist expertise, central state consensus among discussion in project
authority and inherently anti-democratic institutions. representative groups of appraisal and policy
5 Implication that materialism for its own sake is wrong and that interested parties. review.
economic growth can be geared to providing for the basic 6 Belief that all impediments
needs of those below subsistence levels. can be overcome given a
will, ingenuity and
sufficient resources arising
out of growth.

Figure 1.01 Categories of Environmental Value Systems showing the range of beliefs held by different groups.

6
 EVSs and the systems approach

Ecocentrism
Ecocentrism takes a nature-centred, holistic view of the world. It proposes that we know very
little about living things and their complex relationships, so we cannot have the ability to manage
the environment in the way that technocentrists suggest. Biocentric or life-centred philosophers
consider that all life is inherently valuable and is not simply for use by humans. They consider
that people should not harm any species, whether it is useful or not, and that we should preserve
ecosystems so that life will thrive. Humans are just one species which is no more important
than any other. Some ecocentrists stress the holistic nature of our ethical obligation to the Earth,
highlighting the need to limit our use of its resources.
One group of ecocentrists are the self-reliant or soft technologists, who believe small-scale, local and
individual actions, such as recycling, can make a difference. At the other end of the spectrum are deep
ecologists who value nature over humanity and believe that all species and ecosystems have values and
rights that humans should not interfere with.They believe that the human population should decrease
so that humans consume less of the Earth’s resources (see Theory of knowledge 1.01.02).

Technocentrism
Technocentrism proposes that humans and technology will always be able to provide a solution to
difficulties, whether they are scientific or political. In ecological systems, technocentrists believe
that technology will always be able to solve environmental problems, even when humans push
resources to the limit.
At one extreme of the range, some technocentrists, known as the cornucopians, view the world
as a place with infinite resources to benefit humans. They believe that growth will provide wealth
to improve the lives of everyone. They propose that a free-market economy can achieve this.
At the other extreme, another group – the environmental managers – see the world in terms
analogous to a garden that needs care and attention, or ‘stewardship’. They hold that legislation is
needed to protect the environment and that, if an environment is damaged, those who suffer should
receive compensation. They believe that, if humans take care of the Earth, it will take care of them.

Anthropocentrism
Anthropocentrism is the people-centred view of the world that includes viewpoints from both
ecocentrism and techocentrism. People living in MEDCs are more likely to have this world
view. Humans are viewed as a dominant species which manages the environment for its own
requirements. Anthropocentrists’ views include some of those of self-reliant soft ecologists and Society is defined as an
arbitrary group of individuals
some of those of environmental managers.
who share some common
characteristics such as location,
It is important to remember that an EVS is individual and it is impossible to say that any EVS cultural background, religion or
is wrong. Every individual and each society will have its own EVS. value system.

1.01.03 EVSs and the systems

approach
The EVS of an individual or society can be considered as a system because, like all other systems,
it has inputs such as education, experience, media influences and religious doctrines, and outputs
such as courses of action and decisions, which are determined by processing of the inputs.
Information flows to individuals in societies are processed into changes in perceptions of the
environment and changes in decisions about how to react to environmental issues. Some inputs
will have no obvious immediate effect on an individual or group, while others will lead to direct
actions (see Case study 1.01.01) in response to concerns about the environment. Information
comes from ideas in films, books, newspapers and so on. Some people liken those who originate

7
1.01
Environmental value systems

this information to the ‘producers’ in an ecosystem. Other members of

en KeyValue
society then become the ‘consumers’ of the new ideas.

e T
Th of the s
Ecological issues are rarely confined to local areas. Ecosystems often cross
international boundaries, so that differences in EVSs can lead to conflict.

Greens
ns
Whaling is an example of such a conflict. Nations with different EVSs
have very different perspectives on the exploitation and conservation of
whales (see Case study 1.01.02). Similarly, the importance of fishing and
conservation of fish stocks is viewed differently in societies in different parts
of the world (see Chapter 4.04).
Ecological Wisdom
Social Justice
Grassroots Democracy
Nonviolence 1.01.04 Politics and EVSs –
Decentralization
Community-Based Economics
the green revolution
Feminism
One way in which people can express their own EVS is through political
Respect for Diversity parties and discussion. The green movement is one EVS that encourages
Personal and Global people to influence decisions made about the environment. Green
Responsibility movements have been set up in many parts of the world. Green politics is an
Future Focus/Sustainability ecocentric ideology, and its aim is for an ecologically sustainable society that
protects the environment.
Green politics began in the 1970s. Among the first active green parties
Image 1.04 The key values of green politics was one in Australia that contested elections in 1972. In Europe, the Popular
are shared throughout the world. Movement for the Environment was founded in 1972 in Switzerland, and
the Green Party in the UK began to develop in 1973. There are now green
politicians who share similar values (see Image 1.04) in many countries throughout the world.
One important focus of green politics is to reduce deforestation, particularly in the rainforest,
and to support efforts to plant more trees. The Green Party in New Zealand called for a reduction
in the destruction of rainforest and drew attention to the loss of species in biodiversity hotspots.
It highlighted loss of homes and livelihoods of people who live in rainforests, and the impact of
deforestation on greenhouse emissions and climate change. The party called on the government
to stop the import of illegal and unsustainable timber products, and to ensure that all biofuel used
in the country was from sustainable sources.
In the UK, green campaigners have called for international agreement to stop global
deforestation in consultation with the local and indigenous communities so that traditional land
rights are recognised. It has also demanded a global moratorium on logging and burning of old
forests and ecological restoration of degraded ancient forests.
Many individuals and organisations support green issues, and publicity, petitions to
governments and political movements have helped raise awareness and educate more and more
people. Green parties encourage individual actions such as buying ethically produced goods. In
the last 40 years, most have tended to grow from small-scale, local beginnings. With more support,
they have gradually gained influence and now participate fully in the national politics of many
countries. Green movements are now firmly established in Europe, Australia and New Zealand, as
well as in the USA, Brazil and Colombia.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.01.01

1 How important is green politics in rainforest conservation?
2 Have green politicians overemphasised the threat to rainforest ecosystems?
3 Discussion point: Can you think of any examples of issues where green politics
influenced the EVS of people in your area?

8
 Politics and EVSs – the green revolution

CASE STUDY 1.01.01

Greenpeace – can direct action bring results?
Greenpeace is an ecocentric non-governmental Nature (WWF), has added its support to Greenpeace
organisation (NGO) founded by a small group of activists and, although it does not favour direct action, it has
in 1971, which now has a presence in more than 40 asked governments to handle Arctic development
countries. Greenpeace campaigns for positive change responsibly by:
through action to protect the environment. This action
• improving safety through the use of risk-lowering
takes many forms, from publicising environmental issues
technology and higher standards for spill prevention
and lobbying governments, to promoting environmentally
and cleanup
responsible solutions and taking non-violent direct action.
Greenpeace is funded by supporters who donate money • moving to renewable energy wherever possible
and sometimes take part in direct action themselves. • protecting valuable species and areas of biological,
economic and cultural importance.
In 2011, Greenpeace began a campaign to prevent
drilling for oil and gas in the Arctic, to protect the Nevertheless, oil companies are pressing for
environment and its wildlife. As climate change melts drilling permits and started drilling at test sites in
the Arctic ice, oil companies are investigating the summer 2015.
possibility of extracting fossil fuels from beneath the ice.
Greenland is considering opening up an untouched area Questions
of its north-eastern waters to oil companies. 1 This example of peaceful direct action allowed
Greenpeace maintains that above the Arctic Circle, Greenpeace to lobby industry leaders directly. Do you
freezing temperatures, a narrow drilling window and a think that the method used is an acceptable way to
remote location mean that an oil spill would be almost communicate an EVS?
impossible to deal with and would leave the habitat and 2 Environmental campaigns by Greenpeace and other
its wildlife under threat. Greenpeace took direct action organisations have not always been trouble-free.
to subvert a meeting of oil industry leaders which was In 1985, Greenpeace was involved in a campaign
being held to discuss the issue. Activists greeted the oil against nuclear testing in the Pacific Ocean. A
industry leaders with a red carpet drenched in oil, and Greenpeace vessel, Rainbow Warrior, was bombed
huge floating banners, one of which that read ‘Protect while in harbour in New Zealand. Can protests that
the Arctic: No License to Drill’ (see Image 1.05). Activists involve damage to property or that interrupt the
also gave delegates at the meeting their own alternative lives of ordinary citizens ever be justified?
presentation about drilling in the Arctic, in the same
3 Research other environmental campaigns that
building as the conference.
have featured either direct action, such as the
The campaign to prevent drilling in the Arctic continues. Greenpeace campaign, or lobbying, like the
Another ecocentric organisation, World Wide Fund for WWF approach.

Image 1.05 Greenpeace activists campaigning in 2011.

9
1.01
Environmental value systems

CASE STUDY 1.01.02

Whale hunting
Different nations and cultures have different views Japan cuts Antarctic whale quota after UN court ruling
on the hunting of whales, even though many whale ‘Japan has reduced the quota of whales it plans to catch
species are now endangered. Like all EVSs, these views by two-thirds after UN court called the controversial
depend on history and tradition. Nations that support “research whaling”’, programme a commercial hunt
whaling are likely to hold an anthropocentric viewpoint, masquerading as science.
whereas organisations that oppose it hold an ecocentric
viewpoint. Greenpeace has run its campaign ‘Save the The country now has a plan to kill 333 minke whales
Whales’ since the 1970s to protect whales. in the Southern Ocean next year as part of its push to
resume whaling following a legal setback instigated by
You can read more about the ‘Save the Whales’ Australia. The whales will be hunted in a vast sweep of
campaign on the Greenpeace website: www.greenpeace. Antarctic waters, including ocean claimed by Australia.
org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/fit-for-the-future/
whaling This figure is a sharp reduction in the previous quota
Japan awarded itself last year, when it aimed to take 855
Historical background minke whales, 50 humpback whales and 10 fin whales.
Japan ended up taking fewer than this due to the
By the 1930s more than 50 000 whales were being killed disruptive tactics of anti-whaling activists Sea
each year. The International Whaling Commission was set Shepherd.
up to protect the whales, and in 1986 commercial whaling
was banned in an effort to increase whale numbers. Today, Japan suspended its 2014 whale hunt after the ruling at
there are only three nations remaining with whaling the UN international court of justice. The case brought
industries: Norway, Iceland, and Japan, whose industry by Australia and supported by New Zealand successfully
is the largest, claiming up to 1000 whales annually (see argued that Japan’s program was not scientific and
Image 1.06). In the mid-1990s the International Whaling was simply a façade for commercial whaling. Japan has
Commission considered easing its ban on commercial indicated that it is committed to starting a new whaling
whaling to allow Japan to hunt whales off its coast, if programme in the Southern Ocean at the end of 2015.’
Japan promised to kill fewer whales in the Antarctic.
International reaction to that proposal was summed up by Questions
Captain Paul Watson of the Sea Shepherd Conservation 1 What do the newspaper articles tell you about the
Society, quoted in the Los Angeles Times on 27 January EVS of whaling nations and Australia?
2009: ‘It’s sort of like saying to bank robbers that you can’t 2 How are the EVSs of the different societies formed?
rob a bank in the city, but we’ll let you do it in the country.’
3 How important is international legislation in
upholding EVSs of the majority of nations?
The situation today
4 Discuss how important you think education and
The following article was published by The Guardian on
cultural influences are in forming a view on whaling.
18 November 2014.

Image 1.06 Most species of whale are listed on the WWF endangered list, but hunting
still continues in some parts of the world.

10
 Politics and EVSs – the green revolution

Theory of knowledge 1.01.01

The importance of religion

Religion has been a significant influence on ethics and how they are applied to the environment. The
concepts of ‘dominion’ and ‘stewardship’ are important in both Muslim and Christian belief systems. In
both faiths, humans are called on to act as stewards of nature in a way that emphasises human moral
superiority over non-human (biotic and abiotic) factors. The value of other species and objects is defined
by the pleasure and profit they bring to humans. This anthropocentric view is based on the external and
instrumental value of such factors for humans, and is known as the ethic of ‘instrumentalism’.

An alternative interpretation of the anthropocentric worldview is one that emphasises environmental

conservation for the benefit of humans and is based on our moral responsibility to ensure that future
generations inherit all possible natural resources. It has been suggested that this ‘conservation ethic’
was the dominant viewpoint held by delegates to the United Nations (UN) Conference on Environment
and Development (the World Summit) in Rio in 1992. The key aim of the conference was to preserve
world biodiversity, and the meeting influenced all subsequent UN conferences, which have examined the
relationship between human rights, population, social development, women and human settlements –
and the need for environmentally sustainable development.

1 To what extent do you think that a personal EVS is dependent on a person’s religious faith or other
strongly held view?
2 How important are events like the World Summit in informing and influencing a person’s EVS?

Theory of knowledge 1.01.02

Deep ecologists
The founder of deep ecology was the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss (1912–2009). Næss believed
that, if you do not know how the outcomes of your actions will affect other beings, you should not act.
People who adhere to the precautionary principle hold a similar view.

Deep ecologists are at one extreme of the range of the EVSs continuum. They believe that the world
does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans. The ethics of deep ecology hold that a
whole system is superior to any of its parts. Deep ecologists summarise their values with eight
key points.

• The well-being of human and non-human life on Earth has value in itself which is independent of
the usefulness of the non-human world to humans.
• The richness and diversity of life contribute to these values.
• Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital
human needs.
• For human life to flourish a substantial reduction in the human population is needed, and for non-
human life to thrive such a decrease is required.
• Human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the situation is becoming
worse.
• A substantial change in policy towards economics, technology and ideology is needed to change
the direction of human progress.
• Humans should appreciate the quality of life rather than always seeking higher standards of living.
People should understand the difference between ‘big’ and ‘great’.
• People who hold ecocentric views should do all they can to help make the changes necessary to
improve the well-being of the Earth.
1 Think about your personal viewpoint. How many of the values listed above do you share with deep
ecologists?
2 Can the actions of individuals lead to substantial changes in the policies of governments?

11
1.01
Environmental value systems

1.01.05 Decision-making
and the influence of
environmental philosophy
All decisions that are made about environmental issues are influenced by the philosophical
standpoint of those taking the decisions. It is important to evaluate the implications of different
viewpoints. Important environmental issues that are addressed in this course include acid
rain, use of water resources, fossil fuels, climate change and ecological footprints.You can read
more about all these issues in later topics of this book. All of them can be considered from
different viewpoints. Here we compare how people with an ecocentric view and people with a
technocentric view apply their different EVSs to aspects of the biosphere.

The demand for water resources

An ecocentric view of water management involves conservation and recycling so that water
can be used sustainably without harm to the environment (see Topic 4). An ecocentrist
would encourage the use of meters and monitoring so that water use was kept to a minimum
and used for essential purposes only. On the other hand, a technocentrist would seek to
provide water for the future by using technology and seeking new or innovative methods.
A technocentrist would use technology to limit water use in the home and in industry.
Technological solutions such as seeding clouds to produce rain, desalination of seawater
(see Image 1.07) and iceberg capture, or breeding and developing crops that can grow using
less water, would all be options that technocentrists would favour. Technocentrists would also
advocate greater use of purified wastewater and the extraction of water from sources deep
beneath the Earth.

Climate change
Technocentrists would favour plans such as the one devised by scientists at the
National Center for Atmospheric Research in the USA. Scientists here propose
using a fleet of unmanned, wind-powered ships to spray salt water up into
low-lying clouds through 20 m high cylinders (see Image 1.08).Tiny particles
of salt within each droplet act as centres of condensation, leading to a greater
concentration of water droplets within each cloud, and thus a greater albedo.
Clouds with increased albedo can cool the Earth by reflecting radiation back into
space.
Ecocentrists would prefer to see a limit on the consumption of fossil
fuels. They stress the need to modify farming methods and reduce human
dependence on livestock such as cattle which increase the level of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. They would favour replanting trees and increasing the
level of phytoplankton in the sea as a means to increase carbon dioxide uptake
Image 1.07 Desalination plants like this one by the environment.
on Lake Mead are very efficient at producing Ecocentrists favour the use of renewable and carbon-neutral sources of
drinking water from seawater. energy, such as biomass, solar and wind power.
(For more about climate change, see Topic 7.)

12
 Decision-making and the influence of environmental philosophy

Fossil fuels
Overuse of fossil fuels has caused environmental problems which
include pollution and global warming.
A technocentric or more extreme cornucopian solution would
call on science to refine and extend new technologies such as
alternative energy sources using wind, waves and hydrogen fuel
cells as a solution to the issue. Rather than changing lifestyles,
technocentrists would change technology to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions and use science to endeavour to remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere rather than reducing industry.
Carbon sequestration could provide a useful technocentric
solution (see Figure 1.02). Carbon sequestration involves the
capture and storage of carbon dioxide that would otherwise be
present in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide can be removed from
the atmosphere and retained by plants and the soil that supports
the plants. Alternatively, carbon dioxide can be captured (either
before or after fossil fuel is burnt) and then stored (sequestered)
within the Earth.
An ecocentric view would focus on the reduction in carbon
dioxide by limiting the emissions that industry is permitted to
make, even if this did limit economic activity and growth. Schemes
such as carbon trading, which would allow large companies, such as
airlines, a limited number of carbon ‘credits’, would be favoured by
ecocentrists. To exceed its allowance, a company would have to buy Image 1.08 Artist’s impression of proposed salt-spraying
additional credits from other organisations that were low-emitters vessel.
or used their credits more efficiently.
(Resource use is discussed in Topic 8.)

Ecological footprints
A society’s ecological footprint is the hypothetical amount of land that it requires to satisfy all
its need for resources and to assimilate all its wastes. Many societies now consume more than is
sustainable, and we are beginning to realise that this cannot continue. An increase in reliance on
fossil fuels and increasing use of technology all increase a society’s ecological footprint, whereas
actions such as recycling, limiting pollution and reducing the use of resources all reduce the
footprint (see Chapter 1.04). It is these actions that help reduce consumption that are being
encouraged today.

power station oil rig

methane CO2 CO2 CO2

oil
coal

saline aquifer

Figure 1.02 Carbon capture and storage involves capturing the carbon dioxide and
preventing it entering the atmosphere by storing it deep underground.

13
1.01
Environmental value systems

public transport financial

3% services
CONSIDER THIS 3%
home – gas, oil
In 2010, data showed clothes and 15%
that the United Arab personal effects
Emirates (UAE) had the 4%
world’s largest ecological recreation
footprint. Its population of food and drink and leisure
5% 14%
6.25 million people had an
average footprint of 10.68
global hectares per capita holiday flights
6% home –
(gha). The lowest footprint electricity
was found in Puerto Rica, 12%
car manufacture
where the population of and delivery
3.94 million had an average 7%
of 0.04 gha. share of
public services
house – buildings 12%
and furnishings
private
9%
transport
10%

Figure 1.03 This pie chart shows the main elements of a typical individual’s carbon footprint
in an MEDC. A carbon footprint is one aspect of the ecological footprint. It is an estimate
of the total greenhouse gas emission of this individual.

The idea of ‘ecological deficit’ is linked to the availability of a biologically productive area in
A carbon footprint is the total a country. When the ecological footprint of a society or country is greater than the biologically
set of greenhouse gas emissions productive area, it has an ecological deficit. An ecocentrist would argue that, if ecological deficit
caused directly and indirectly
happens, economic growth has caused the society to live unsustainably. Humans should therefore
by an individual, organisation,
event or product (UK Carbon change their lifestyle and reduce their demands on the land. A technocentrist would counter that
Trust, 2008). technology can solve the problems and, with economic growth, prosperity will help to redress the
imbalances and ensure that deficits are removed.
A typical carbon footprint for an individual in an MEDC is shown in Figure 1.03. How do you
think an ecocentrist would reduce this person’s carbon footprint?

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.01.02

1 Define an ‘environmental value system (EVS)’. How is this system similar to other
systems?
2 How does a technocentric worldview differ from an ecocentric view?
3 Discussion point: How do environmental philosophies influence the decisions which are
made about issues such as climate change and the use of fossil fuels?

14
 Your personal viewpoint on environmental issues

1.01.06 Your personal viewpoint on

environmental issues
Where do you stand on the continuum of environmental philosophies? Your
personal value system, influenced by your background, education, culture
and the society in which you live, will form your personal view of the world.
You will have your own attitudes to the environment based on the influences
you have had, the assumptions you have made and the conclusions you have
come to. These factors will help form your own EVS. Personal value systems
are principles that guide your behaviour and help you determine what is
meaningful and important to you. A personal value system helps you express
who you are and what you stand for. If you are unaware of your values, you may
end up making choices out of impulse or for instant gratification rather than
basing them on reason and responsible decision-making. This is why it is so
important to know what you value and what is important to you.
Knowledge of the environment and the problems it faces will help
you understand and become involved with environmental issues. You will
probably also be influenced by those around you; so, for example, you may
be more likely to join recycling schemes if your friends and neighbours do
so and encourage you to do the same. The seriousness of an environmental
problem and how close it is to you may also influence your behaviour. If
the coastline near where you live is polluted by plastic waste (see Image
1.09), you are more likely to consider your own use of plastic shopping
bags. Perhaps you are concerned about air pollution in your town; this
may influence you to cycle or encourage your family to buy a hybrid
car. Emotions also affect people’s behaviour, so that anger or disgust at
environmental damage such as burning forests or slaughtering whales can be
a strong influence on your EVS.
As people become more knowledgeable about the environment, their
awareness and sense of urgency of the need to deal with environmental Image 1.09 How does an image like this
problems also increases. More people realise that they can make a difference as influence your view of the environment and
individuals and that science can help to solve problems too. human activity?

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.01.03

1 Which factors in your own community have an influence on your EVS?
2 How does an EVS affect the way people respond to environmental issues?
3 Which of these human activities is most likely to have a negative impact on the stability of
global ecosystems?
A Decreasing water pollution levels
B Increasing recycling programmes
C Decreasing habitat destruction
D Increasing world population growth
4 Discussion point: The philosopher Socrates said, ‘Not life, but good life, is to be chiefly
valued.’ Discuss what this statement might mean today.

15
 Systems and models
1.02 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should be able to:

• outline the concepts and characteristics of systems

• apply the concepts of a system to a range of different scales
• define open, closed and isolated systems
• understand how the systems approach can help in the study of a complex
environmental issue
• understand how the systems approach enables us to take a more
holistic view.

KEY QUESTIONS
How does the systems approach help us study complex environmental
issues?
What are the key features of any system?
How are models used to help us understand how a system works?

1.02.01 The characteristics of systems

Our awareness of the impact of humans on the environment has grown over the last century as
urbanisation and the growth of cities have transformed the natural world. In the 1960s, people
became aware of the harm that pesticides could do. Since that time climate change, energy security,
water supplies and conservation of biodiversity have all been high on the international agenda. The
systems approach considers whole ecosystems and examines the best ways to protect our natural
The systems approach is a way heritage.
of visualising a complex set of The environmental systems that we are studying in this book are examples of the type of
interactions in ecology, society complex systems that can be studied using a systems approach. Others include biological systems,
or another system.
the systems that make up a society, transport systems and communication systems, or mechanical
A system is defined as an systems such as those in a bicycle. The systems approach looks at the environment or another
assemblage of parts and the complex system as a set of components that work together as integrated units. In ecology, we may
relationships between them study plants, animals or the atmosphere separately, but using the systems approach we consider
that enable them to work them together as components of the complex environments in which they are found. Using
together to form a functioning
whole.
this approach, we can obtain an integrated picture of the environment and the relationships and
interactions within it. Integrated study is what makes the systems approach very different from the
Biomes are groups of separate study of botany, zoology or geography. If we study a bicycle as a system, we can investigate
ecosystems with similar climates how the chain, pedals, wheels and frame work together, rather than studying each component
(see Topic 3). separately.

16
 The characteristics of systems

Systems may be living or non-living, large or small. A single cell, a whole body, an ecosystem, or non-
living examples, such as a banking system or a social system, are all examples of systems. In this course,
you will be studying natural systems which include individual organisms, ecosystems (communities
of organisms and their environment) and biomes.You will have the opportunity to examine the
interactions within systems, which are often represented as diagrams with inputs, flows and outputs.
All systems have components, which are represented in diagrams showing their
interconnections (see Figure 1.04). Components and their commonly used representations are
shown in Table 1.01.

carbon
dioxide

water water

oxygen waste

biomass to
nutrients
next trophic
from food
level

biomass to
decomposers

Figure 1.04 The systems approach can be used to consider an individual fish in a pond
ecosystem. A systems diagram can be drawn to show storages, inputs and outputs.

Component of system Shown as

storages (stores of matter or energy) boxes
flows (into, within and out of the system) arrows
inputs arrows into the system
outputs arrows out of the system
processes (which transfer or transform energy or labels such as respiration, consumption
matter from one storage to another) or photosynthesis

Table 1.01 System components and their representation.

The scale of a system

The scale of a system can range from a small part of a larger ecosystem, such as a tree in a forest,
to, on a larger scale, the whole ecosystem or, on a significantly larger scale, the Earth itself could
be regarded as a system. Whatever their size, all these systems have inputs, stores and outputs.
One example of a small-scale natural system is a pond within a woodland. The pond has inputs
which include the light energy, water and nutrients needed to sustain the system, and also outputs
such as the oxygen, decomposing material and nutrients which are generated in the pond. The
pond in turn forms part of the whole woodland ecosystem that also has inputs, stores and outputs.
On a much bigger scale, the woodland can also be thought of as part of an even larger system that
includes all the woodland biomes in different parts of the world. These woodlands share the same
climatic conditions and we can study them together as one large-scale system.

17
1.02
Systems and models

Emergent properties
Interactions within a system lead to the production of more complex emergent properties. To
Emergent properties are understand this, consider a single instrument such as a flute playing alone; it produces simple
features of a system that cannot tune. But if we add more instruments, such as violins and drums, to make an orchestra, the same
be present in the individual tune can be played in a far more complex way by the orchestra. We can think of the orchestra as
component parts.
a system, and the sound it produces as an emergent property. In a similar way, in natural science,
emergent properties appear when a number of simple components operate together to form
something more complex. For example, atoms combine to form molecules such as polypeptides
The biosphere is the part of the
Earth inhabited by organisms,
that fold to become complex proteins. These molecules interact to build cells, tissues and organs
and it extends from the upper of the body. On a larger scale, the behaviour of flocks of birds or shoals of fish shows emergent
atmosphere to the depths of properties, and all the biological communities in the world form the biosphere, and this produces
the Earth’s crust. many complex interactions and emergent properties

Theory of knowledge 1.02.01

Reductionist versus systems approach

A reductionist view of a natural system looks at a single object that can be clearly recognised and
Reductionist approach to a identified by its properties. The organisms found within a pond are individually described in reference
system reduces the complex books, which describe them in terms of the characteristics that they have, such as whether they are a
interactions within it to their plant or an animal. At the next level, animals may be described as invertebrates or vertebrates, and so
constituent parts, in order to on. This reductionist approach does not try to consider how the pond works as a dynamic system.
study them; whereas a systems A systems approach gives a holistic view of the pond. The reductionist view does not allow
approach considers the whole interconnections and interrelationships that go on in the pond to be taken into account. The
system and the interactions systems approach considers any system as a set of interrelated objects. In the pond, the most obvious
between the various interrelationship between the plants and animals is that some plants and animals are food for other
components. animals; this relationship is called a food chain and, without it, animals would die of starvation.
Imagining the pond system as flows of energy and matter (food) between objects (plants and animals)
means that a picture of the pond system’s structure (the objects and their relationships) and function
(the purpose of the various interactions) can be built up.

1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the systems approach compared with a reductionist
approach to the study of an ecosystem?
2 In science, the reductionist and the systems approach may use similar methods of study. What is the
most important difference between the philosophies of the two approaches?

Open, closed and isolated systems

Systems are divided into three types: open, closed and isolated systems (see Figure 1.05).
An open system exchanges Most living systems and all ecosystems are open systems which exchange energy, new
both matter and energy within matter and wastes with their environment. These open systems and the exchanges which take
its surroundings across the place can be seen in any living environment, even in remote locations such as Antarctica or
boundaries of the system.
tiny isolated islands.
A closed system exchanges In a woodland ecosystem, the main inputs include light and carbon dioxide, which plants use
energy but not matter across for photosynthesis. Further inputs come from woodland herbivores that return mineral nutrients
the boundaries of the system. to the soil in faeces, and bacteria in the soil that fix nitrogen from the air. Outputs may include
An isolated system exchanges water that is lost during respiration and transpiration, nutrients that flow away in waterways, and
neither energy nor matter with heat that is exchanged with the environment around the woodland.
its environment. In a closed system, energy but not matter is exchanged across the boundaries of the system.
Closed systems are very rare in nature. Most examples are used for experiments and are artificial.
A bottle garden or an aquarium can be set up so that light and heat are exchanged across its
boundaries but matter cannot be exchanged or leave the system. In most cases, these systems do
not survive, because they become unbalanced. Organisms may die as oxygen is depleted or as
food runs out or waste matter builds up to toxic levels.
No isolated system is known to exist, although some people regard the entire Universe as an
isolated system.

18
 The characteristics of systems

(a) Open system (b) Closed system (c) Isolated system

energy in energy out

energy energy

matter matter
(mass) in (mass) out

Figure 1.05 Open systems exchange energy and matter, closed systems exchange only energy, and isolated systems do not
exchange energy or matter.

CASE STUDY 1.02.01

Biosphere 2 – a model of a closed system
Biosphere 2 was an experimental system set up in
1991. Eight people were sealed into a 1.27 hectare
glass enclosure in Arizona (see Image 1.10). The aim
of the project was to test whether a small group could
live in a self-sustaining way inside the biosphere. It
was hoped that they could produce their own food
and recycle all their waste and water. But things
began to go wrong when, after about six months,
the inhabitants had lost a lot of body weight and
the oxygen levels inside the sealed system began to
fall. The inhabitants weren’t able to produce enough
food for their needs, partly because unusually cloudy
external conditions prevented crops from growing and
also because animals inside the biosphere were not
doing well. Hens were not producing enough eggs
and pigs were consuming too much food. Eventually Image 1.10 Biosphere 2 was set up as a closed
the animals had to be killed and the people began to system enclosed by sealed glass.
eat seeds that were supposed to be used for planting.
After 18 months, the oxygen levels fell to 14%, well
below the safe level of 195% for human breathing
Questions
and the people suffered breathing problems and 1 What were the inputs into the closed system of
lethargy. For medical reasons, air was allowed into Biosphere 2?
the biosphere, and thus the project to maintain a 2 What were the two main reasons for terminating the
completely closed system had to be considered a project after two years?
failure. 3 Research idea: Find out more about the current
Since the first experiments, Biosphere 2 has taken on research carried out in Biosphere 2.
a new role, not as a closed system but as a research A useful, interesting website for further reading: Jane
institute and visitor centre. Its aims are to study and Poynter’s discussion on Biosphere 2
teach about the Earth and its living systems, for
example how the water cycle is related to ecology, www.ted.com/talks/jane_poynter_life_in_biosphere_2
atmospheric science, soil geochemistry and climate
change.

19
1.02
Systems and models

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.02.01

CONSIDER THIS
For many centuries, people
have discussed ideas of
Environment
a holistic view of the Community
Environment
Earth as an integrated,
living whole. In ancient
Greek mythology, Gaia
was the goddess who health
personified the Earth. Economy Economy Community
James Lovelock, a scientist
and environmentalist, is
well known for proposing
the ‘Gaia hypothesis’. This
hypothesis proposes that The traditional approach The systems approach
the biosphere is self-
regulating and is able to Figure 1.06 The difference between the systems approach and the conventional
keep the Earth healthy by approach to the study of a system.
controlling the interactions
between the chemical and 1 Figure 1.06 outlines the difference between the systems approach and the
physical aspects of the conventional approach to the study of a society. What are the benefits of using
environmental system. the systems approach in the study of: a an ecosystem and b other subjects such as
Lovelock gave the name economics or engineering?
Gaia to his hypothesis 2 Construct a table to compare the exchange of matter and energy in open, closed and
at the suggestion of isolated systems.
novelist William Golding.
Gea is an alternative 3 Discussion point: Do you think it is useful to have the concept of an isolated system
spelling for the name of which does not exchange energy or matter with its surroundings?
the goddess Gaia that is
reflected in the prefix in
geology, geophysics and
geochemistry. The Gaia
hypothesis became well
Transfers and transformations
known during the 1960s
at the time of the space
Transfers
race between the Soviet Both matter and energy pass through ecosystems, and if their movement involves only a change
Union and the USA, when in location and does not involve any change of form (or state), the movement is called a transfer.
people first saw images A trophic level is a group of organisms that are all the same number of energy transfers from the
of the whole Earth taken producer (plant) in a food chain or food web (see Topic 2). Energy flows through an ecosystem: as
from space.
biomass found in the bodies of organisms in one trophic level is eaten, so biomass and energy pass
to the next trophic level.
Some examples of transfers include:
• transfer of matter through a food chain as one animal eats another
Transfers involve flow through
a system and involve a change
• transfer of energy as wind carries heat energy from one part of the world to another
in location. • transfer of matter as water flows from a river to the sea.
Transformations lead to an Transformations
interaction within a system and
the formation of a new end
A transformation occurs when a flow in a system involves a change of form or state, or leads
product, or they may involve a to an interaction within the system. The evaporation of water from a river is an example of a
change of state. transformation, because water is changed in form from a liquid to a vapour in the atmosphere.
In ecosystems, energy is transformed from sunlight into chemical energy in the bonds of
molecules in plants during the process of photosynthesis. As organisms respire, chemical energy is
transformed into heat and kinetic energy.
Some examples of transformations include:
• energy to energy – light energy to electrical energy in a solar panel (photovoltaic cell)
• matter to matter – decomposition of leaf litter into inorganic materials

20
 Models involving flow and storages in a system

• matter to energy – burning coal to produce heat and light

• energy to matter – light energy converted by photosynthesis to produce glucose molecules.

Flows (inputs and outputs) and storages

(stock) in a system
Energy and matter are the inputs and outputs that flow through ecosystems, but they are also
stored within the system as storages (or stock).
In an ecosystem, the energy input is sunlight, which is transformed into chemical energy in
the bonds of glucose formed during photosynthesis. Energy flows from one part of an ecosystem
to another as one organism eats another. Some energy is used to drive the life processes of these
organisms, and energy leaves the system in the form of heat which is released as a result of
respiration.
Matter flows from one trophic level to the next as plants or animals are eaten. Eventually,
matter is recycled through the decomposition and decay of dead organisms and of their waste
products. In any ecosystem, there are storages linked by different flows. Carbon and nitrogen
are two elements which are cycled around an ecosystem and pass between storages in living
organisms, the atmosphere and the land (see Topic 2).
As you saw in Table 1.01, storages are represented by boxes, which can be drawn to be
proportional to the size of the storage. Likewise, arrows that indicate flows between storages can
be drawn so that their width is in proportion to the size of the flow.

1.02.02 Models involving flow

and storages in a system
Environmental scientists use models to show the flows, storages and links within an ecosystem.
A model, in this case, is a diagram that uses different symbols to represent each part of the system.
Arrows are used to represent the flow of energy or materials, and different boxes are often used to
represent storages in producers, consumers and so on. Figure 1.07 illustrates the general flows and
storages in an ecosystem.
In Figure 1.08, the flow of energy is shown by the red arrows. The blue arrows show the
cycling of nutrients, and the boxes represent storages.
Models like these enable environmental scientists to draw comparisons between
different ecosystems by representing the different inputs, outputs and storages as boxes or arrows
that are in proportion to their sizes.

Evaluation of models’ strengths and weaknesses

Models are drawn to represent situations found in real systems, but in reality they can only
be approximations and predictions in most cases. Computer modelling and simulations are
used to predict outcomes such as the pattern of the weather and the likely course of climate
change.
Models have many strengths and weaknesses, and it is important to bear these in mind when
models are used. Computer modelling of climate change is a good example of how modelling
can lead to controversy as well as consensus. Not everyone agrees on the scale of projected
inputs and outputs, or on the interpretation of the models. Table 1.02 shows the advantages and
disadvantages of modelling.

21
1.02
Systems and models

atmospheric
gases heat heat

respiration
weathering
Sun producers consumers
feeding

plants animals
elements
absorb absorb
locked in
elements elements
rocks
from soil from plants
inorganic
nutrient decomposers
uptake gases pool
erosion
death and
rock decomposition
formation

minerals heat
in soils

Figure 1.08 Energy flow, red arrows, and nutrient

Figure 1.07 The biogeochemical cycle cycling, blue arrows, in a system.
showing flows (arrows) and storages
(boxes).

Advantages Disadvantages
Modelling allows complex systems to be Models may be oversimplified so that
simplified. accuracy is lost.
Modelling allows predictions to be made Models and predictions depend on the skills
about future events. and experience of the people making them.
Different scenarios can be considered by Models may be interpreted differently by
changing inputs and calculating likely different scientists.
outcomes. Different models may predict different
outcomes.
A model can form the basis for discussion Data may not be accurate and models can
and consultation with others who are be manipulated for financial or political
interested in the system being modelled. gain.

Table 1.02 Modelling – the pros and cons.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.02.02

1 What is the difference between a transfer and a transformation in an ecosystem?
2 Give one example of each of the following in an ecosystem: an input, an output, a
storage.
3 Give three advantages to drawing a model of climate change, and suggest three
weaknesses of the modelling process.
4 Discussion point: Why do you think that scientists are keen to use models to
communicate their ideas to the general public and politicians? What are the merits of
presenting information in this way?

22
 Models involving flow and storages in a system

Theory of knowledge 1.02.02

What aspects of the world should a model include?

Models are simplified representations of the world and present complex systems and situations to help
us gain knowledge about them and understand them. One question often asked about models is how
useful they are. We must remember that knowledge and understanding are different. Knowledge
is facts based on observation of the world, but understanding is comprehension of this knowledge.
Do models hinder our ability to collect new knowledge by making us blind to new possibilities? The
philosopher Karl Popper said, ‘Science may be described as the art of systematic oversimplification.’
A model is a simple, abstract view of a very complex system, particularly in natural sciences. If models
are too simple, they may obscure the detail of what is going on. It is important to decide how much
simplification of a complex system can be justified, so that we come to understand how it works.

1 How can we know which aspects of the world to include in a model and which to ignore?
2 Are some models more objective than others?

CASE STUDY 1.02.02

Comparing inputs and outputs of different ecosystems
Figure 1.09 compares the inputs and outputs of an with grazing animals require fewer human inputs
agricultural ecosystem and an urban ecosystem. In the than crop ecosystems, because pasture is similar to a
diagram, the arrows have been drawn so that their sizes natural ecosystem.
represent the sizes of the inputs and outputs of the two • Modern agricultural ecosystems need inputs from
systems. farm machinery, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and
irrigation.
• Intensive inputs increase the conversion of
sunlight energy to human food energy during
human products
photosynthesis, by providing the best conditions for
inputs plant growth (e.g. ample water and nutrients from
agricultural
ecosystem fertilisers) and excluding plants and animals such
natural waste as weeds or pests that compete for the ecosystem’s
inputs
production.
• Agricultural ecosystems contain non-living things
made by people, such as irrigation ditches and farm
equipment, which require maintenance.
human products • Intensive inputs to agricultural ecosystems depend
inputs
urban on large amounts of petroleum energy to produce
ecosystem fertilisers and pesticides and for transport.
natural waste
inputs • Water is a key input, and modern irrigation methods
need large amounts of water, sometimes from
hundreds of kilometres away.
• High inputs in agriculture produce high outputs and
high yields of crops or animals.
Figure 1.09 Comparing inputs and outputs of a small
agricultural and an urban ecosystem. • Outputs of modern agricultural ecosystems include
waste such as fertilisers and pesticides that can
Draw your own diagrams to compare the inputs and damage nearby ecosystems.
outputs in an intensive agricultural system that produces
wheat with those of a natural ecosystem such as a Questions
woodland or forest. 1 Can you suggest any other inputs that could increase
Use the following information to help you. the output from an agricultural system?
• Agricultural ecosystems use selected domesticated 2 List three disadvantages of a modern agricultural
plants or animals to produce food, fibre or fuel for system.
human consumption. 3 Compare the inputs and outputs in a modern
• Some agricultural ecosystems differ greatly from agricultural system with those of an agricultural
natural ecosystems; others do not. Pasture ecosystems system 100 years ago.

23
 Energy and equilibria
1.03 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should be able to:

• outline the laws of thermodynamics

• explain how laws of thermodynamics relate to environment systems and
govern the flow of energy in a system
• describe how a system can exist in alternative states of equilibrium
• describe how positive destabilising feedback mechanisms can drive a
system to a tipping point
• describe how negative feedback can stabilise a system.

KEY QUESTIONS
How do the laws of thermodynamics govern energy flow?
What is negative feedback?
How are stable systems driven to tipping points?

1.03.01 Laws of thermodynamics

and why they are relevant to
environmental systems
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can
CONSIDER THIS be converted from one form to another. Energy exists in the form of light, heat, chemical energy,
Claude Lévi-Strauss was a electrical energy, sound and kinetic energy. Different forms of energy are interconvertible but,
French anthropologist and in a living system, heat energy cannot be converted to other forms. (The most obvious
ethnologist who defined a non-living conversion of heat energy is seen in a steam engine when heat energy is converted
scientist as someone who to kinetic energy.)
asks the right questions,
In an ecosystem, useful energy enters the system as light energy, which is converted to
not someone who gives all
the right answers. chemical energy during photosynthesis and used to build the bonds found in plant biomass
(biological organic matter). This energy in plant biomass is passed along a food chain in a series
of transfers (see Figure 1.10) as organisms feed on plants and are themselves eaten. At each stage
in the transfer processes, some energy is transformed (see Figure 1.10) to other forms, including
heat, as organisms respire and use the energy from their food to fuel their life processes. Energy
leaves the system as heat, because heat energy cannot be transformed in a living process. In living
systems no new energy has been created, but the input energy has been converted from one form
to another.
Although the total amount of energy in the system does not change, the amount that is
available to living things gradually reduces as energy is used for growth, movement, reproduction
and other processes. Energy transfer and transformation are not very efficient in living systems,
and at each transfer there is less energy available after the transfer than at the start; less than 10
per cent of usable energy is passed from one organism to the next in a food chain such as when a
rabbit eats grass and is then eaten by a fox (see Figure 1.10).
24
 Equilibria

Second law of thermodynamics

In isolated systems entropy
fox
energy lost and unavailable tends to increase.

Entropy is a measure of the

evenness of energy distribution
rabbit in a system. It is also defined as
a measure of the disorder of a
system: the greater the disorder,
the higher the level of entropy.
grass

CONSIDER THIS
energy lost and unavailable It is generally accepted
that the biosphere is
getting more complex
Figure 1.10 Less than 10 per cent of the energy is transferred at each link in a food chain.
and organised (entropy is
decreasing), and this seems
The second law of thermodynamics states that, in isolated systems, entropy tends to increase to contradict the second law
with time because the system becomes disorganised. Entropy can be explained as the evenness of of thermodynamics. But if
energy distribution in a system. Energy is used to create order and hold molecules together. This we consider examples such
means that entropy (disorder) increases if less energy is available. As entropy increases, energy and as the production of cars,
clothes and chemicals, we
matter change from a concentrated to a more dispersed form. The availability of energy to carry
see that the entropy of this
out processes becomes reduced and the system becomes less orderly. part of a system is decreased
The most concentrated form of energy is that from the Sun, and the most dispersed form is as the components
heat. If the Universe is considered as an isolated system, the level of entropy is gradually increasing that make them up are
as energy is distributed within it. Eventually, in billions of years’ time, energy may run out. But organised. However,
unlike isolated systems, natural and environmental systems are never isolated. Living systems this decreased entropy
require a constant input of energy from the Sun to maintain their order and structure, and to (increased organisation) is
due to the manufacturing
replace energy that is lost.
system whose entropy is
increased as products are
Theory of knowledge 1.03.01 made. Thus, one subsystem
(the manufacturing system)
The laws of science, such as the laws of thermodynamics, can be said to be different from the laws is able to influence the
of other subjects such as economics. The reasons for this can be explained by examining how science entropy of another (the
is carried out, a process known as the scientific method. In most cases, scientific research leads to products). But eventually,
the development of a law a only after a rigorous process which can be explained as a series of steps. over time, the entropy
First there is a problem, which leads to a hypothesis, then a prediction followed by testing, review of the entire system
by others, and replication of an experiment or experiments. This process may lead to a theory and, will increase as stated
following any corrections or modifications, the formulation of a law. by the second law of
thermodynamics. The
Thus, science should provide a law based on impartial research backed by careful checking. Can this second law is true for a
process be applied to other subjects such as economics? If you don’t think it can be, explain why not. closed system, but the
biosphere is an open
1 Which aspect of our acquisition of knowledge in the sciences do you think is the most important subsystem that can
and why? exchange matter, energy
2 Is there a role for reason in the process of gathering knowledge in the sciences? and entropy with the rest of
the Universe, so there is no
contraction.

1.03.02 Equilibria
Equilibrium is a state of balance
Equilibrium is a state of balance that exists between the different parts of any system. As we have
among the components of a
seen, natural systems are open and most are in a steady-state equilibrium. There are fluctuations in system.
the system, but these are within narrow limits and the system usually returns to its original state
after being disturbed. Steady-state equilibrium (also
Regulation of body temperature in mammals is an example of a steady-state equilibrium. known as dynamic equilibrium)
is a stable form of equilibrium
If the temperature of a mammal rises above 37 °C, processes occur in the body to return the
that allows a system to return
temperature to normal. If the temperature falls, the processes are reversed to enable the body to its steady state after a
to warm up (see Figure 1.11). Another example of a steady-state equilibrium can be seen in a disturbance.

25
1.03
Energy and equilibria

population of animals that remains approximately the same size. Some animals may be born and
others may die, but if birth and death rates are equal, there is no net change in the population size.
At the level of the ecosystem, a steady state can be achieved after a disturbance either in the
short term, for example as a woodland recovers after heavy rainfall, or in the long term, as new
growth occurs to replace damaged plants in an area of the wood. If a tree dies or is felled, a new
area is opened up in the woodland and a phase of new growth can take place. New plants will
receive extra light, and young trees in the clearing can grow rapidly. After a long time, a new tree
will become established to replace the one that was lost. Eventually, the system will return to its
previous equilibrium.
Systems in static equilibrium are not living and they remain unchanged for long periods of
A static equilibrium is a type of
equilibrium in which there are
time. We can observe static equilibrium in a rock formation where the rocks do not move their
no changes over time because position or change their state over time. On a domestic level, objects such as a sofa or armchair
there are no inputs to and or a bottle placed on a table can be said to be in static equilibrium. A graph showing static
outputs from the system. equilibrium is given in Figure 1.12.
System state (body temperature)

System state
37 °C system state unchanged

Time Time

Figure 1.11 The body temperature of a human varies between Figure 1.12 Nothing changes in a static equilibrium.
36 °C and 39 °C but remains at an average of 37 °C. Small rises
and falls in temperature are corrected by processes such as
sweating or shivering so that a steady state is maintained.

Stable and unstable equilibria are situations in a system where change occurs but in each
A stable equilibrium in a system case the final result is different. In a stable equilibrium, the system tends to return to the same
is a state in which a system that equilibrium after a disturbance, while in an unstable equilibrium a new equilibrium is formed
is disturbed returns to its former
after the disturbance (see Figure 1.13).
position.
A pendulum swinging from a suspended string is said to be in stable equilibrium because, if
An unstable equilibrium is a it is pushed to the side, it will return to its original position. But a ruler balanced vertically on a
state of equilibrium in which finger is in unstable equilibrium – if it is disturbed, it will fall and continue to fall until it hits the
a small disturbance produces ground, creating a new and different equilibrium.
a large change and a new and
In natural ecosystems, which are open systems, there is normally a stable equilibrium. The
different equilibrium.
stable equilibrium may be a steady-state equilibrium, like the pendulum, or the ball shown in
Developing steady-state Figure 1.13, or it may be a developing steady-state equilibrium. If there is a disturbance to the
equilibrium is a steady-state steady-state ecosystem, such as a natural event like a storm, the system will be disturbed but will
equilibrium that is developing return to its equilibrium. A developing steady state occurs in an ecosystem that is changing over
over time (e.g. in a succession).
time. We can see this happening as a succession takes place in a newly colonised area
Feedback is the return of part of (see Chapter 2.04).
the output from a system as input,
so as to affect succeeding outputs.
Positive and negative feedback
Natural systems are able to regulate themselves through feedback systems. Information, which
may come from inside or outside the system, starts a reaction which affects the processes of the

26
 Equilibria

(a) Stable equilibrium (b) Unstable equilibrium

input output
ball bowl

bowl

ball

feedback

Figure 1.14 A feedback loop.

After a small nudge the A small nudge sends the
ball returns to the centre, ball away from the
the equilibrium point. equilibrium point.
system. Changes in these processes
lead to changes in the level of output,
System state

System state

and this in turn affects (feeds back) to

the level of input. This whole cycle
is known as a feedback mechanism
or feedback loop (see Figure 1.14).
Time Time
Feedback loops can be either positive
Figure 1.13 (a) The ball inside the bowl will return
or negative. Feedback can change a
system to a new state or maintain a
to its original position after a disturbance and
system at a steady state.
is said to be in stable steady-state equilibrium.
(b) A ball balanced on top of the bowl is in Positive feedback
unstable equilibrium because a new equilibrium is A positive feedback loop is Positive feedback results in
formed if it is disturbed. destabilising – it allows a system to a change in the system that
change rapidly (see Figure 1.15). One leads to more and greater
change. It amplifies or
example is the population growth of a plant, the water hyacinth, which has spread into new
increases change and leads to
environments from South America. If one water hyacinth is introduced into a large, uncolonised exponential deviation away
lake, the plant will reproduce exponentially: one plant divides to become two, two become four, from an equilibrium and thus
and so on. At first, the growth of the plants does not seem to be significant, but after about two destabilises the system.
years of unchecked growth the number of plants can reach 109 (1 billion). At this level, serious
Negative feedback tends to
problems occur for other species and for navigation across the lake. The plant prevents sunlight
damp down or counteract any
reaching the water, which is starved of oxygen; fish die and boats cannot move across the water. deviation from an equilibrium
The exponential growth of the water hyacinth population is a positive feedback relationship and promotes stability.
between the population size and the number of new organisms added to the population. The It stabilises the system to
greater the population, the greater the number of new additional organisms, so the faster the eliminate any deviation from
population grows (see Topic 2). the preferred conditions.
Other examples involving positive feedback include the increase in the Earth’s temperature
through global warming. Higher atmospheric temperatures increase the evaporation of water
from the Earth’s surface; this increases water vapour in the atmosphere and, because water vapour
helps to trap heat in the atmosphere, the outcome will be more heat trapped and a further
increase in atmospheric temperature. In addition, if higher air temperatures cause polar ice to
melt, the reflection of heat from the white surface of the ice will decrease. More of the Sun’s
energy will be absorbed and the temperature will increase still further.
Positive feedback must eventually come to an end, as the resources which allow the rapid
change will also come to an end. But there is no guarantee that the situation will revert back to
its original state. For example, lakes in many parts of the African continent remain covered with
the invasive water hyacinth.

27
1.03
Energy and equilibria

Not all examples of positive feedback cause an increase of a

factor in a system. If a change is downward, positive feedback
births
+ can make the downward change even greater. For example, if
the population of an endangered species becomes very small, it
is difficult for the animals to find mates. As a result, births are
fewer and the population decreases. This decrease in population
makes it even more difficult to find mates, and the population
population (n) decreases still further. Positive feedback causes population
+ decline, which leads to loss of biodiversity and extinction (see
Topic 3). Undesirable positive feedback like this leads to a
vicious cycle of events.
Negative feedback
account balance grows
Negative feedback works to counteract any deviation from the
stable state or equilibrium. It stabilises a system and allows it to
regulate itself and eliminates any deviation from the preferred
conditions.
In engineering, one of the first examples of negative
more interest earned
feedback was a device known as a governor, used by the
Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819), who incorporated
it into his steam engines in order to maintain their speed. If the
Figure 1.15 Exponential population growth is an example speed of the engine increased, the governor cut off the supply of
of positive feedback. A bank account earning interest is steam to slow it down to the correct speed. If the engine speed
another. decreased, the governor allowed in more steam, so that the
engine ran faster. In this way a constant speed was achieved. Another
(a)
body temperature rises body temperature drops similar example of negative feedback is the thermostat on a heating
system, which can be set to maintain a constant temperature. In the
human body, negative feedback helps to maintain a constant body
body sweats more temperature (see Figure 1.16).
Maintenance of a steady-state equilibrium involving negative
(b) feedback is vital to keep the internal conditions of animals’ bodies
conditions in the body
change from set point relatively constant. The temperature of a mammal’s body must be
maintained at about 37 °C so that life processes can take place in their
corrective mechanisms
change detected
optimum conditions. An increase in temperature leads to increased
switched off sweating and widening of the capillaries in the skin, so that heat is lost.
As the body is cooled by these processes, it returns to its normal
conditions returned to corrective mechanisms temperature. Many other body functions, including the regulation
set point activated of sugar in the bloodstream by the hormone insulin and the
maintenance of the correct level of water in the body, are controlled
(c)
by physiological processes that involve negative feedback.
corrective Stress or disturbance In an ecosystem, one example of negative feedback is the control of
action changes the internal the relative numbers of species in food webs (a food web is a complex
deviation environment.
from set return interacting set of food chains). If one species becomes too successful
point Change is detected
System state

toward and its numbers rise excessively, it will use up the resources it needs or
set point by receptors.
Corrective measures be overcome by its waste. Negative feedback ensures that its numbers
set point are activated.
stress (optimal fall back to sustainable levels.
conditions) Corrective measures
On a global scale, the increase in carbon dioxide released into the
corrective counteract the
action change back toward air from burning fossil fuels provides more carbon dioxide for plants,
set point. which can increase their rate of photosynthesis. As plants increase their
Time rate of photosynthesis, they remove more carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere; therefore, as long as there are sufficient plants, the system
Figure 1.16 Negative feedback is a regulating can be rebalanced.
mechanism in which a change in a variable results in a A French proverb has been used to summarise the process of
correction. If body temperature rises, the body activates negative feedback: Plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose (the more
cooling processes until the temperature returns to things change, the more they stay the same).
normal.

28
 System resilience

1.03.03 System resilience

As we have seen, feedback is the effect that change in one part of an ecosystem (or social system)
has on the same part after a series of events in other parts of the system. Negative feedback
provides stability, and all ecosystems have negative feedback loops that keep each part of the
system stable and within the limits needed to continue functioning efficiently. But positive
feedback stimulates change and is responsible for the sudden appearance of environmental
problems and other rapid changes in natural systems. Positive feedback is destabilising and tends
to amplify any changes that occur.
If we consider the example of water hyacinths (above), we can begin to understand how the
exponential growth of a population can outstrip the resilience of an ecosystem so that it reaches a The resilience of a system is
tipping point that will lead to the establishment of a new equilibrium. If the lake ecosystem where the tendency of a system to
water hyacinths were introduced had been resilient and able to resist the enormous growth of maintain stability and resist
tipping points.
the plants, it would have remained more or less unchanged. But because the numbers of water
hyacinths became so great, the ecosystem reached a tipping point and the original ecosystem was The tipping point is the
destabilised. Now many species have been lost, diversity has reduced and the lake ecosystem is minimum amount of change
significantly different from its original form. within a system that will
Exponential growth of the human populations in recent years (see Topic 8), plus the destabilise it and cause it to
reach a new equilibrium or
exponential growth in our use of natural resources and production of pollutants, may also test the stable state.
limits of resilience of our ecosystems.
The resilience or ability of a system to avoid such undesirable tipping points is influenced by
two key factors:
• the diversity present in the system
• the size of the storages the system contains.
A resilient system contains a wide diversity of organisms and large storages.
Humans can affect the resilience of systems by reducing either diversity or storages. An
agricultural system where crops are grown in a monoculture has few species and is unable to
resist changes such as drought or an attack of pests. A natural system, which has a much wider
diversity of species, is more resilient and, although parts of the system might be affected by such
changes, the system will usually be able to return to its stable equilibrium. If storages are depleted
by human interference, such as the excessive removal of trees from a forest or overfishing in the
ocean (see Chapter 4.03), the systems may be unable to recover, and a new equilibrium, without
the overexploited resource, may be the result.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.03.01

1 How does the first law of thermodynamics explain how energy moves through an
ecosystem?
2 What is meant by ‘entropy’ and how does it relate to a natural system?
3 Outline the difference between a steady-state equilibrium and a static equilibrium.
4 Research idea: The human population is growing at an exponential rate. Research the
possible consequences of this example of positive feedback.

29
1.03
Energy and equilibria

CASE STUDY 1.03.01

Predator–prey relationship
In an ecosystem, predation is a mechanism of population
control that involves negative feedback. If we consider the
relationship between a prey species such as a rabbit and a
predator species such as a fox, we can predict that, when rabbit
the number of foxes is low, the number of rabbits should
rise (see Figure 1.17). An increase in the number of rabbits
means that the foxes have more food and can produce

Population size
more offspring and may be able to change their hunting
habits. As the number of foxes increases, the number of
rabbits declines as more are caught and eaten. This results
in food scarcity for foxes, so that more starve and die or fox
fail to reproduce. Negative feedback balances out the two
populations and the cycle can begin again (see Topic 2).

Questions
1 Outline how negative feedback allows this system to
maintain a steady state. Time

2 How could the equilibrium in this example be

disturbed so that the steady state is not re- Figure 1.17 When the numbers of predators are
established? low, the prey species is able to increase in number.
3 Research idea: Investigate some strategies and As more prey animals become available, predators
adaptations of predator and prey species that enable increase in number and the population of prey falls.
them to either to catch prey or to avoid being eaten.

Extension
Rabbits and wolves
www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/RabbitsAndWolves

30
Sustainability

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1.04
• explain what is meant by sustainability and how it is possible to view a
system
• outline how sustainable development meets the needs of the present
without compromising the future
• describe what is meant by the terms ‘natural capital’ and ‘natural income’
• describe how environmental indicators and ecological footprints are used
to assess sustainability
• outline the concept of sustainability in terms of natural capital and
natural income
• explain the importance of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) in
sustainable development
• understand that biodiversity, pollution, population and climate can be
used quantitatively as indicators of sustainability
• describe how the ecological footprint is used to assess sustainability.

KEY QUESTIONS
What is sustainable development?
How are environmental indicators used?
Where and when are Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) used?

1.04.01 Sustainable systems:

natural capital and natural income
A sustainable system is one that remains diverse and productive. It will survive changes and
return to its natural state. Some good examples of ecosystems that are naturally sustainable
include wetlands and forests that have existed almost unchanged for long periods of time.
Humans need healthy environments and ecosystems to survive, and it is important that new
ways are found to limit the damage to ecosystems when we take resources from them, so that
they can maintain their sustainability. As you study environmental systems in this book, you
will discover that ecology, economics, politics and environmental values are all important for
sustainability.
Resources such as water, timber, animals and plants are used by humans and are described as a
system’s natural capital. We can think of natural capital as the stock in an ecosystem that provides Natural capital describes
a flow of valuable goods and services on into the future. (Natural capital is a way of extending natural resources that produce
the idea of capital in economics to goods and services from the natural environment.) Two a sustainable income of goods
and services.
examples of goods might be a forest of trees or a stock of fish that each provide a flow of new
trees or young fish. Mineral deposits and fertile soil are two other examples. These resources can
be indefinitely sustainable if they are used and managed wisely so that the ecosystems that contain
them will recover after some of the resource has been removed. 31
1.04
Sustainability

We define the yield from sources of natural capital, such as timber, fish or plants, as natural
income. If the amount of natural income reduces the ability of natural capital (the woodland or
Natural income is the yield the ocean) to continue to provide the resources at the same rate, then this is the point when
obtained from natural sustainability is no longer possible. But a supply of natural resources such as fish or timber is not
resources.
the only type of natural income; we know that a forest also absorbs rainwater, which controls
Sustainability is the use and flooding, provides a habitat for plants and animals, produces oxygen and is important in the water
management of resources so cycle. From this we can see that natural capital also provides services such as water purification,
that full natural replacement waste recycling, water catchment and control of erosion.
of exploited resources can take Ecosystem services are another form of natural income derived from the same natural capital
place.
of the forest that generates timber for economic use. Ecosystem functions like these have value to
Ecosystem services are a form us, and the ‘flow’ of these services depends on the fact that the system functions as a whole, so it is
of natural income derived from vital that the structure and diversity of the system is preserved.
natural capital. Any society that supports itself in part by depleting essential forms of natural capital cannot do
so forever, because this action is unsustainable. The rate at which natural capital is used should not
exceed the rate at which is it renewed. Sustainability means living within the means of nature. We
must do all we can to reduce the level of climate change, overconsumption of natural resources
and the amount of damage we cause that is likely to degrade the environment, if ecosystems are
to remain healthy and sustainable.

1.04.02 Sustainable development

The term ‘sustainable development’ was first used in 1987 and was defined as ‘development that
meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs’ (the World Commission on Environment and Development’s Our Common Future (1987),
also known as the Brundtland report).
The issue of sustainable development has been the subject of considerable debate. Some
traditional economists view sustainable development as a stable annual return on investment
whatever the environmental impact. In contrast, a now common environmental view sees it as a
stable return without environmental degradation. There can be little doubt that the latter view
has gained ground over the former.
The UN’s view on sustainable development encompasses:
• keeping population densities below the carrying capacity of a region so that humans do not
overwhelm an area
• doing everything possible to ensure the renewal of renewable resources so that systems can
recover
• conserving and establishing priorities for the use of non-renewable resources such as coal
and oil
• keeping the environmental impact below the level required to allow affected systems to
recover and continue to evolve.

Sustainability at different scales

The idea of sustainability can be applied to:
• The full range of scales, from the individual to the Earth as a whole: Increasingly, governments
are reminding individuals and households about their carbon footprints and how these can
be reduced at the domestic level, while tackling the problem at the national level. In many
countries, adults have been asked to think about reducing their daily driving distance and to
reuse plastic bags. At the largest scale, sustainability focuses on the total carrying capacity of
the planet.
• Different geographical environments, such as rainforests, temperate grasslands and urban areas:
Satellite photography has been a major advance in our ability to see what is happening over
large land areas. It has allowed short-term changes to be recognised quickly.

32
 Sustainable development

• Individual economic activities, such as tourism, agriculture and forestry: Each sector has
its own impact on the environment which can be modified by careful management
(see Topic 8.2).
Sustainability need not require a reduction in the quality of life, but it does require a change
in attitudes and values towards less consumptive lifestyles. These changes must embrace global
interdependence, environmental stewardship, social responsibility and economic viability.
Environmental sustainability in a country or region is difficult to achieve without economic and
social sustainability, because of the strong interconnectedness between these three vital spheres
of life (see Figure 1.18). Economic sustainability involves maintaining income and employment.
Social sustainability means maintaining social capital, including that devoted to health, education,
housing and the rule of law.You can study sustainability and economic growth in more detail
in Topic 8.2.

Social

bearable equitable

sustainable

Environmental Economic
viable

Figure 1.18 Social, economic and environmental sustainability.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is an international assessment of the effects of
human activity on the environment, which gave a scientific appraisal of the condition of the
world’s ecosystems. During its production, the term ‘ecosystem services’ was first used to describe
the benefits humans gain from ecosystems. The MA was launched in 2001, and more than
1300 individuals from 95 countries took part over a period of four years. Participants included
representatives from the UN, governments, NGOs, academics, business leaders and representatives
of indigenous peoples. The report concluded that nearly two-thirds of the services we derive from
natural systems that support life on Earth are in decline, and that environmental degradation is
already a serious barrier to reducing global poverty.
The statement below summarises ten important themes of the MA and the conclusions that
were drawn from it. It draws our attention to the areas where action is needed to conserve and
use ecosystems sustainably.
• Everyone in the world depends on nature and ecosystem services to provide the conditions
for a decent, healthy and secure life.
• Humans have made unprecedented changes to ecosystems in recent decades to meet growing
demands for food, fresh water, fibre and energy.
• These changes have helped to improve the lives of billions, but at the same time they have
weakened nature’s ability to deliver other key services such as purification of air and water,
protection from disasters, and the provision of medicines.
• Among the outstanding problems identified by this assessment are: the dire state of many of
the world’s fish stocks; the intense vulnerability of the 2 billion people living in dry regions to
the loss of ecosystem services, including water supply; and the growing threat to ecosystems
from climate change and nutrient pollution.

33
1.04
Sustainability

• Human activities have taken the planet to the edge of a massive wave of species extinctions,
further threatening our own well-being.
Theory of knowledge • The loss of services derived from ecosystems is a significant barrier to the achievement of the
1.04.01
Millennium Development Goals to reduce poverty, hunger and disease.
Nineteenth-century American • The pressures on ecosystems will increase globally in coming decades unless human attitudes
writers such as Henry David and actions change.
Thoreau and Ralph Waldo
Emerson did much to raise
• Measures to conserve natural resources are more likely to succeed if local communities are
environmental awareness given ownership of them, share the benefits, and are involved in decisions.
in the USA. Writers such as • Even today’s technology and knowledge can reduce considerably the human impact on
Rachel Carson and artists in ecosystems. They are unlikely to be deployed fully, however, until ecosystem services cease to
other countries have also done be perceived as free and limitless and their full value is taken into account.
much to raise appreciation
of the natural world. More • Better protection of natural assets will require coordinated efforts across all sections of
recently, writers and television governments, businesses and international institutions. The productivity of ecosystems depends
presenters such as the American on policy choices on investment, trade, subsidy, taxation and regulation, among others.
author Jared Diamond, who
has written popular science
More recently, a report produced by Foresight – Global Food and Farming Futures (2011) –
books such as the Pulitzer prize concluded that lack of sustainability is already causing problems. Examples the report describes
winning Guns, Germs and Steel include nitrogen pollution and food production’s contribution to greenhouse emissions. The
(1997), and also Collapse (2005) report proposed a range of actions that individuals can take to improve the situation, including
and The World Until Yesterday change of diet and reduction of food waste.
(2012), and the Canadian
broadcaster David Suzuki, who
presents the CBC Television
science programme The Nature SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.04.01
of Things, have continued to
publicise environmental issues 1 Define ‘sustainability’.
through the medium of the
creative arts. 2 Outline two problems relating to the protection of natural income.
3 Discussion point: How important do you think reports such as the UN’s Millennium
Some international Ecosystem Assessment are in raising awareness about sustainability?
organisations such as Julie’s
Bicycle, a global charity that
aims to highlight environmental
sustainability and the creative
arts, and the International
Federation of Arts Councils
and Culture Agencies (IFACCA)
1.04.03 Use of environmental
promote activities and policies
to integrate arts and cultural impact assessments
activities with environmental
issues.
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report will be prepared before a proposed large-scale
1 How important do you think project gets underway to assess the possible positive or negative impact that the project may have
such contributions from the on the environment. An EIA should include not only effects on the environment but also social
world of art and culture are and economic aspects. In some countries, an EIA is a rigorous process truly linked to sustainable
compared with the impact development, but in too many instances environmentalists claim that this is a cosmetic process
of scientific evidence?
where the profit motive dominates thinking. However, action by environmental groups and
2 Are popular writers
and presenters better
changing public attitudes have placed increasing pressure on politicians worldwide.
equipped to explain The purpose of the EIA is to ensure that decision-makers consider all the likely
difficult concepts to the consequences when they decide whether or not to proceed with a project such as a dam, road,
public than scientists are? forestry scheme or tunnel. EIAs were first used in the 1960s to help to remove personal bias
when decisions were made. EIAs became a legal requirement in the USA in 1969 and were
included in European legislation in 1985. Similar laws are now used in many countries around
Environmental Impact
the world. Figure 1.19 illustrates the stages that should be considered in assessing the sustainability
Assessments (EIAs) are
studies carried out before of development schemes.
a development project is An EIA considers advantages and disadvantages of a project and how the abiotic and
undertaken to assess the biotic environments would be changed if the project went ahead. The first step is a baseline
possible damage to the study which looks at potential changes to biodiversity, microclimate and amenities, as well as
environment. the potential effect on people in the area and changes to their community structure, livelihood
or health.

34
 Use of environmental impact assessments

Eco-friendly Social justice & equity

Promoting green growth Developing pro-poor
using eco-friendly strategies which provide
approaches in harmony with equity and justice for the
the environment such as world's poorest peoples and
ecosystem conservation. nations, e.g. Fairtrade.

Public participation
Developing strategies which
involve the community in
Futurity decision-making about their
Conserving vital resources future, i.e. bottom-up
for future generations by strategies involving capacity
using efficiencies of new building by NGOs, of local
people often using
technology, recycling, etc.
intermediate technology.

Figure 1.19 Assessing the sustainability of development schemes.

The baseline study monitors the aspects of the environment before the project so that they
can be reassessed and monitored afterwards. Species types, diversity and numbers, habitats and
soil characteristics are all recorded, and surveys of human populations, land use and hydrological
factors are carried out.
Following the baseline study, forecasts and predictions must be made about the likely
impact of the proposed project. These are difficult to do because so many variables are present
in a natural system, but if potential impacts are identified, the scale of possible changes can be
predicted with more certainty. Planners can then make changes to the proposal to limit the
effects to a reasonable level.
To summarise, an EIA should include:
• a baseline study to record the current situation
• a survey – a report to assess the potential impact of the project
• a prediction to indicate the importance of the likely impacts
• a summary to consider how the effects can be limited to reasonable levels.
After the project has begun, changes should be monitored both during and after the
development. An interesting example of an EIA is the one carried out for the Three Gorges Dam
project on the Yangtze River in China (see Case study 1.04.01).
Many people argue about the benefits of an EIA. They provide valuable information about
ecosystems, but a number of problems affect their effectiveness:
• Each country has different rules about the use of EIAs.
• There is no certainty that the proposals of an EIA will be implemented.
• Many socioeconomic factors influence the decision-makers, who may be influenced by local
opinions or lobbying.
• There is no standard training for those who prepare the reports.
• It is difficult to define the boundaries of an individual project, which may cover a large area.
• Often indirect impacts of a project, such as the influence on other areas, are not included.

35
1.04
Sustainability

CASE STUDY 1.04.01

Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River, China
The largest hydroelectric power generating dam in the identified was the increased risk of landslides due to the
world is located at Three Gorges on the Yangtze River steep sides of the river, which were already unstable. The
(see Image 1.11). It was completed in 2009 and has been risk of landslide was made worse by deforestation.
estimated to produce almost an eighth of China’s energy Increased chances of earthquakes due to the huge
needs. The EIA carried out before construction began mass of water held by the dam, which put pressure
considered the following factors: on the rock below, were studied. And, in addition,
• ecosystem destruction the problem of silt accumulation behind the dam
• population relocation and the social consequences and its potential to block the sluices of the dam was
• effect of sedimentation behind the dam due to considered, along with water quality downstream,
reduction in river flow where effluent flow to the sea and deposition of silt
are both reduced. The dam’s contribution to flood
• potential for landslides due to increased pressure on
control was also investigated. The reservoir’s storage
the land
capacity would lessen the frequency of severe floods
• possibility of earthquakes. downstream from once every ten years to once every
100 years, but the dam could not prevent floods on
downstream tributaries.
As a result of the EIA, the decision-makers concluded
that the social and environmental benefits of the
dam outweighed the negative impacts of the project.
The energy produced by the dam does not release
greenhouses gases, so air quality will improve with the
increased use of electrical power. The planners also
considered the positive benefits of reduced seasonal
flooding and increasing economic development along
the banks of the reservoir and river.
Some factors that could not be measured are those
that affected lifestyles and scenery which people have
traditionally enjoyed. The Chinese government took the
Image 1.11 Building the Three Gorges Dam created a view that people would be better off being resettled
in new homes. Nevertheless, a major problem has been
reservoir behind the dam almost 350 km long. Millions of
the lack of land: many farmers are now without land to
people living by the Yangtze have been affected.
cultivate and have been forced to adapt to new ways
The enormous dam stands over 1 km wide and 200 m of life and new forms of employment. In the past, the
high. It is a physical barrier which disrupts the river banks of the Yangtze River were lined by spectacular
ecosystem and fragments the habitats it contains. The cliffs and mountains which have been lost. Coffins used
EIA report identified 47 endangered species in the area, to hang in caves high up on the mountain cliffs, and
including the Chinese river dolphin and the Chinese there were ancient writings on the cave walls. Most of
sturgeon. Since the dam was built, the river dolphin these have been submerged under the dam reservoir,
has been declared officially extinct and fewer than and little was done to protect or preserve cultural relics
1000 sturgeon are thought to remain. The EIA report in the area.
identified and considered the impact that the dam
would have on spawning of sturgeon and other fish and Questions
balanced it against other potential benefits. 1 The dam has been operating since 2009, and as
The report also highlighted social consequences. The well as the extinction of the Chinese river dolphin
dam flooded 100 000 acres of fertile agricultural land as other environmental impacts have resulted from it.
well as 1600 factories and mines, 13 cities, 140 towns and Research some of these and try to assess the value of
1352 villages, and almost 2 million people were forced the EIA that was made.
to leave their homes and livelihoods along the river. 2 Summarise the environmental costs and social
Another major environmental impact identified was benefits of the Three Gorges Dam project. Evaluate
deforestation. Large areas of forest had to be cleared both the overall usefulness of the EIA.
for the construction of the dam and to provide homes and 3 Using this example, highlight and discuss the
farms for people who were displaced. A further impact strengths and weaknesses of EIAs.

36
 Ecological footprint

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.04.02

1 What is meant by ‘Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)’, and what is the purpose of
the assessment?
2 Suggest why EIAs may not be able to predict all the outcomes of a new project. Give an
example of a factor that was not predicted in the Three Gorges Dam assessment.
3 Discussion point: To what extent should environmental concerns limit development
projects?

1.04.04 Ecological footprint

The ecological footprint is a sustainability indicator that expresses the relationship between
a population and the natural environment. It considers the total use of natural resources by An ecological footprint is the
a country’s population. The concept of ecological footprints has been used to measure our area of land and water needed
consumption of natural resources, how it varies from country to country, and how it has changed to sustainably provide all the
resources at the rate at which
over time. The ecological footprint for a country is calculated by examining the cropland, grazing they are consumed by a given
land, forest and fishing grounds needed to produce the food, fibre and timber the country population.
consumes and to absorb the wastes it produces as it uses energy, and to provide space for homes,
roads and factories. Six components are used to calculate a country’s ecological footprint.You can
study the details of these aspects in Chapter 8.04: CONSIDER THIS
• Built-up land: the land area taken up by infrastructure, including housing, transportation and The idea of an ecological
industrial sites footprint was conceived in
1990 by Wackernagel and
• Fishing grounds: the estimated primary production needed to support the fish and seafood
Rees at the University of
caught (see Image 1.12) British Columbia.
• Forest: the total amount of lumber, pulp, timber products and fuelwood consumed
• Grazing land: the area used to raise livestock
• Cropland: the area used to produce food and fibre for human consumption, feed for livestock,
oil crops and rubber (see Image 1.13)
• Carbon uptake: the amount of forest land required to absorb carbon dioxide emissions from
burning fossil fuels, land-use change and chemical processes, other than the portion absorbed
by oceans.

Image 1.12 Fish being sold in Peru – the fishing Image 1.13 Market gardening in Bangladesh for both
grounds’ footprint is one of the six components of the domestic consumption and for export – cropland footprint
ecological footprint. is another of the six components of the ecological footprint.

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1.04
Sustainability

Different countries have different ecological footprints, and an individual person’s ecological
footprint depends on their country of residence the quantity of goods and services they consume
CONSIDER THIS and the resources used and wastes produced. Nations at different income levels have considerable
In many countries, the differences in their ecological footprints. Currently, the lowest per capita figures are attributed
carbon footprint is the to Bangladesh, Congo, Haiti, Afghanistan and Malawi. All these countries have an ecological
dominant element of footprint of about 0.5 gha. This means that, although these countries use few resources, they
the six components that may be unable to meet the basic needs of their populations for food, shelter, infrastructure and
comprise the ecological sanitation (see Chapter 8.04, Figure 8.31). Ecological footprint is influenced by the size of a
footprint. In others, such country’s population and its standard of living and how its people’s needs are met. It includes
as Australia, Uruguay and
Sweden, other aspects of
only the resources used and waste produced that can be replaced and removed, and so it is
the ecological footprint a clear indicator of sustainably. Ecological footprint calculations provide snapshots of past
are more important. In resource demand and availability and are vital to understanding whether the population is living
Uruguay, the demand on sustainably or not.You can read more about how ecological footprints are calculated for different
grazing land is by far the countries in Chapter 8.04.
dominant component of How big is your environmental footprint? The lifestyle choices we make contribute to our
the ecological footprint.
ecological footprint.You can calculate yours in just a few minutes on the WWF website.
In Sweden, the demands
on its forests comprise the
country’s major impact on
the natural environment. Extension
In general, the relative
For more information on ecological footprints, please access the website below:
importance of the carbon
footprint declines as the
Ecological footprints http://footprint.wwf.org.uk
total ecological footprint of
countries falls. In many sub-
Saharan African countries,
the contribution of carbon SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.04.03
to the total ecological
footprint is extremely low. 1 Briefly explain why built-up land is part of the overall ecological footprint.
You will discover more
about this in Chapter 8.04. 2 Has anything been done in your family, school or local community to reduce its ecological
footprint?
Knowing the extent of 3 Research idea: Visit an appropriate website to calculate your own ecological footprint.
human pressure on the
How does your ecological footprint differ from that of other people in your class?
natural environment helps
us to manage ecological
assets more wisely, both
as individuals and as
societies. It is an important
tool in understanding and
advancing sustainable
development. According
to the latest reports, the
global ecological footprint
now exceeds the planet’s
regenerative capacity by
about 30 per cent. This
global excess is increasing,
and as a result ecosystems
are being harmed and
waste is accumulating in
the air, land and water.
Unsustainable use of the
Earth’s resources leads
to deforestation, water
shortages, declining
biodiversity and climate
change, and puts the
future development of all
countries at risk.

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