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Mac 316

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MAC 316

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: MAC 316

COURSE TITLE: MASS COMMUNICATION AND NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

67
MAC 316 MODULE 3

COURSE
GUIDE

MAC 316
MASS COMMUNICATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Course Team Levi Chinaka Nwodu (Course Writer) -

Anambra State University
Mr. Adile Iroajugh (Course Editor) - Delta State
University
Chuks O. Enwerem (Course Coordinator) - NOUN
Dr. Jonathan E. Aliede (Programme Coordinator)-
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

68
MAC 316

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2013

Reprinted 2015

ISBN: 978-058-303-3

All Rights Reserved

69
MAC 316 MODULE 3

CONTENTS PAGES

Introduction.................................................................... iv
What you will Learn in this Course............................... iv
Course Aims................................................................... iv
Course Objectives........................................................... iv
Working through this Course......................................... v
Study Units..................................................................... v
Textbooks and References.............................................. vi
Assessment..................................................................... vii
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)................................ vii
Final Examination and Grading..................................... vii
What you will Learn in this Course............................... vii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials.................................... viii
Summary......................................................................... viii

70
MAC 316

INTRODUCTION

This course, MAC 316 Mass Communication and National

Development, is designed for undergraduate students of mass
communication. The course provides you with basic and applicatory
knowledge of the role of mass communication in national development.
At the end of this course, you are expected to have acquired sufficient
knowledge of communication skills and approaches for enhancing
development process. You will also learn the paradigms and theories of
development and their relevance in the study of mass communication
and national development.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

Precisely, as you go through this course, you are expected to have in-
depth understanding of the use of mass communication tools, skills and
strategies to promote, advocate and mobilise support for sustained
national development programmes in Nigeria. You are also expected to
acquaint yourself with mainstream literature in mass communication and
national development; the major discussion that embed the literature and
be able to apply the basic concepts of communication and development
in productive learning and conduct of successful case studies.

COURSE AIM

This course aims at giving you in-depth understanding of the use of

mass communication tools, skills and strategies to promote, advocate
and mobilise support for sustainable national development in Nigeria.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of communication

 discuss the various perspectives on the concept of development
 define urban, rural and national development
 state specific features for determining national development
 enumerate the basic distinguishing factors between developed and
developing nations
 dicuss development paradigms, models and theories
 explain the relevance of communication strategies to national
development
 analyse how the 5Ps of marketing can be applied in the process of
communication for development
 highlight national development challenges of Nigeria as a nation

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MAC 316 MODULE 3

 explain the relevance of research in communication process for

national development
 enumerate the various stages of research interests in
communicating for national development
 discuss briefly the history of mass media in Nigeria
 state the potentials of various organs of mass communication in
promoting national development
 highlight the limitations of each of the organs of mass
communication
 enumerate the specific areas each of the medium can be used for
national development

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

This course guide therefore, offers you informative insights into the
course contents. It also provides you with a list of relevant materials you
will need to gain adequate familiarity with an in-depth understanding of
the subject matter. The course design is structured in such a way that
would enable you gain far reaching insight into the course. It will
engage you into productive thinking through the underlying principles
and theories of issues you will study. It will also serve as a guide post to
effective management of social transformation campaigns during and
after the course of your study.

STUDY UNITS

This course is packaged in five modules of varying units and lengths.

The modules and the corresponding units are as follows.

Module 1 Getting Started: Conceptualising Mass Communication

and National Development

Unit 1 Meaning, Nature and Levels of Communication

Unit 2 Perspectives on the Concept of Development
Unit 3 Meaning and Essence of National Development
Unit4 Understanding the Fusion between Communication and
Development

Module 2 Overview of Development Paradigms, Models and

Theories

Unit 1 The Dominant Paradigm

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MAC 316

Unit 2 The Marxist/Socialist Paradigm

Unit 3 The Emancipatory Paradigm

Module 3 Communication Strategies for National Development

Unit 1 Patron-Client Model

Unit 2 ACADA Model
Unit 3 Social Marketing Approach

Module 4 Communication Research and National Development

Unit 1 National Development Challenges in Nigeria

Unit 2 Communication Research Interests in National
Development Challenges

Module 5 Mass Communication and National Development

Unit 1 An Overview of Media of Mass Communication in Nigeria

Unit 2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Media of Mass
Communication in Nigeria
Unit 3 Functions of Mass Media in National Development

It is important to note that every module offers you a listing of all the
units therein. Each unit also offers you the content outlines, introduction
and objectives with the main content preceding each unit. Self-
Assessment Exercises (SAEs) will be provided to enhance learning,
comprehension, internalisation and retention of what you read. To
further enhance learning and effectively monitor your progress on the
course, every unit will end with tutor-marked assignment which you are
to work on and submit for marking.

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Enormous effort was made to provide you with in-depth and useful
materials you need to pass this course. However, you will find at the end
of each unit, a listing of relevant reference materials you may consult at
your convenient time to enhance your understanding of the course. I
therefore, expect that you would make out time to consult as many of
the relevant reference materials as possible within the time available to
you even before attempting to do your exercises.
ASSESSMENT
To excel in this course, you would undergo two important assessments.
These are Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs) and Tutor-Marked
Assignment (TMA). Though you are not to submit the answers to SAEs
questions to your tutor, it is importance you take it serious as it would

73
MAC 316 MODULE 3

help you to assess your own understanding of the course. It would also
help you to identify the areas you need to improve on as the tutorials
progresses. The tutor-marked assignment should also be taken serious
and carefully answered. It should be properly filled in your assignment
file for submission and marking. Your performance in this exercise
counts a lot as 30% of your total score on the course depends on it. You
are once again encouraged to take it serious.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
You will find at the end of every unit, a tutor-marked assignment. I
expect that you will carefully answer the assignments and put them in
your assignment file for submission as instructed. Note that this course
guide does not contain any tutor-marked assignment questions. You will
find them in virtually all the units of every module in the main course
details.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

As a two-credit course, the final examination for this course will last for
two hours. The examination will count for 70% of the total course grade.
Note again that the tutor-marked assignment will be 30% of the total
grade. So, your score in the tutor-marked assignment plus your score in
the final examination will determine your final grade in this course. The
examination questions will reflect to a large extent, the SAEs and TMAs
which you are expected to have answered while studies on the course
last. I advise you make proper use of the time you have between the
completion of the units and the examination to revise the whole course.
You will find this exercise useful as it will help you to be familiar with
SAEs and TMAs before your final examination.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

To excel in this course, you will need to review your knowledge of
‘‘introduction to mass communication’’. This will certainly refresh your
mind on the meaning and levels of communication as well as the
importance of mass communication in any society. Although the main
course manual is well detailed and comprehensive, you will need to
purchase at least, two textbooks out of the number of textbooks
recommended to you. This will aid your mastery of the course. You may
also need to visit some websites for additional reference materials that
will facilitate your understanding of the course.

Also, you will need to visit institutional/organisational libraries,

particularly the ones owned by development intervention orientated
institutions/organisations like the World Bank, UNICEF, UNDP,
USAID, DFID etc. for additional insights into their communication
plans, strategies and actions in development process. Finally, you will
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MAC 316

need to cultivate quality time to rehearse what you learnt in the course
on weekly basis. This will further deepen your knowledge of the course.

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

Tutorials in this course will span 17 hours. The dates and locations of
the tutorials as well as the name and phone number of your tutor will be
communicated to you once you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor
will mark and comment on your assignments. Your tutor will also
monitor your progress in the course and will be able to assist with your
SAEs and TMAs. I therefore, encourage you to feel free to contact your
tutor in case of any difficulty and ensure prompt submission of your
assignments. Always attend your tutorials and on time. Also ensure you
always participate actively in class discussions.

SUMMARY
This course is both theoretical and practical. It requires in-depth
understanding of the theoretical foundations underlying it and the ability
to apply the theoretical knowledge to effective national development
process. You will therefore make the most out of the course if you
cultivate the right attitude of mind towards understanding how best
communication (particularly mass communication) could apply to the
business of positive national development and transformation. The
course is designed to equip you with rich conceptual and theoretical as
well as practical knowledge of mass communication and national
development.

At the end of your studies in this course therefore, you would have
learnt not only the conceptual/theoretical underpinning of the course but
also, the strategic and practical ways of using mass communication to
achieve national development. However, your success in this course will
depend more on the quality and quantity of time you put into your
tutorials; the efforts you put into solving your SAEs and TMAs as well
as your strategic planning for engaged studying and revising of the
entire course. I sincerely wish you successful journey through your
studies in the course and the entire programme.

75
MAC 316 MODULE 3

COURSE
GUIDE

MAC 316
MASS COMMUNICATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Course Team Levi Chinaka Nwodu (Course Writer) -

Anambra State University
Mr. Adile Iroajugh (Course Editor) - Delta State
University
Chuks O. Enwerem (Course Coordinator) - NOUN
Dr. Jonathan E. Aliede (Programme Coordinator)-
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

76
MAC 316

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2013

Reprinted 2015

ISBN: 978-058-303-3

All Rights Reserved

77
MAC 316 MODULE 3

CONTENTS PAGES

78
MAC 316

INTRODUCTION

This course, MAC 316 Mass Communication and National

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

COURSE AIM

This course aims at giving you in-depth understanding of the use of

mass communication tools, skills and strategies to promote, advocate
and mobilise support for sustainable national development in Nigeria.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of communication

79
MAC 316 MODULE 3

 explain the relevance of research in communication process for

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

STUDY UNITS

This course is packaged in five modules of varying units and lengths.

The modules and the corresponding units are as follows.

Module 1 Getting Started: Conceptualising Mass Communication

and National Development

Unit 1 Meaning, Nature and Levels of Communication

Unit 2 Perspectives on the Concept of Development
Unit 3 Meaning and Essence of National Development
Unit4 Understanding the Fusion between Communication and
Development

Module 2 Overview of Development Paradigms, Models and

Theories

Unit 1 The Dominant Paradigm

80
MAC 316

Unit 2 The Marxist/Socialist Paradigm

Unit 3 The Emancipatory Paradigm

Module 3 Communication Strategies for National Development

Unit 1 Patron-Client Model

Unit 2 ACADA Model
Unit 3 Social Marketing Approach

Module 4 Communication Research and National Development

Unit 1 National Development Challenges in Nigeria

Unit 2 Communication Research Interests in National
Development Challenges

Module 5 Mass Communication and National Development

Unit 1 An Overview of Media of Mass Communication in Nigeria

Unit 2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Media of Mass
Communication in Nigeria
Unit 3 Functions of Mass Media in National Development

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

81
MAC 316 MODULE 3

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

Also, you will need to visit institutional/organisational libraries,

need to cultivate quality time to rehearse what you learnt in the course
on weekly basis. This will further deepen your knowledge of the course.

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

83
MAC 316 MODULE 3

MODULE 1 GETTING STARTED:

CONCEPTUALISING MASS
COMMUNICATION AND NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1 Meaning, Nature and Levels of Communication

Unit 2 Perspectives on the Concept of Development
Unit 3 Meaning and Essence of National Development

UNIT 1 MEANING, NATURE AND LEVELS OF

COMMUNICATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Communication?
3.2 Levels of Communication
3.3 Definitions and Characteristics of Mass Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

I assume you have read the course guide for this course. I also assume
you are now familiar with the preliminary commentary on the course
guide. This unit is the first of the four units that make up this module.
The aim of this unit is to expose you the various levels and nature of
communication. The unit is very important to you in that it lays the
necessary background for the study of mass communication and national
development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of communication

 identify the levels of communication
 discuss the nature or characteristics of various levels of
communication.

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MAC 316

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is communication?
Communication, as a concept, derives from a Latin word communicare
which means make common. The import is to share. Today, the concept
has evolved to involve sharing of ideas either between oneself or
between one person and another person or group of persons. Regardless
of the form, communication involves designing and sending message;
receiving and interpreting message; and reacting to message so received.

Message of communication could be verbal, non-verbal or both. It is

verbal when words alone are used to make expression or share meaning.
On the other hand, communication is non-verbal when we use signs,
symbols and gestures to communicate. We can also, communicate with
words and signs at the same time to make meaning. In this case, the
verbal communication is reinforced with the non-verbal codes to achieve
emphasis and effectiveness.

The implication is that communication is a combination of verbal and

non-verbal means of sharing ideas, feelings, opinions and other vital
information between individuals, groups and varied audience members.
It is the transmission of a message from a message originator called the
source to a message receiver or group of receivers. Communication is a
process that pervades every aspect of human interactions and
development. Human beings therefore communicate continuously.

3.2 Levels of Communication

Human communication can take place at various levels- these are intra-
personal, interpersonal, group and mass communication. We shall
briefly discuss each of these levels of communication below.

1) Intra-personal communication

Everyone usually communicate within oneself. Often times, individuals

ponder over an issue that is of concern to them. An individual can think
or reflect upon an issue in order to arrive at a decision or solution to
his/her problem. The same individual can also talk aloud to his/herself
as is the case with soliloquy mostly over an issue that bothers him/her so
much. When such is the case, the individual is said to be engaged in an
intra-personal communication. It is called intra-personal communication
because the message source doubles as the message receiver. Intra-
personal communication therefore involves a sender who doubles as the
receiver; immediate feedback and highly personalised message.

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MAC 316 MODULE 3

2) Interpersonal communication

This is the kind of communication between two or more individuals. In

this case, the source of the message differs from the receiver or
receivers. The common features of interpersonal communication are: 1)
there is a sender who designs or encodes the message of communication;
2) There is a receiver or two receivers who differ(s) from the sender; 3)
the receiver(s) interpret(s) or decode(s) the message; 4) the feedback is
also immediate and the message is usually personalised between the
individuals involved in the communication. Through interpersonal
communication, we can influence others and be influenced by others.

3) Group communication

Two aspects of group communication exist. These are small group

communication and public speech. A group of individual numbering
between three and 15, usually, engages in small group communication.
Communication at this level, usually, centers on an issue of common
interest to members of the group. Group communication is characterised
by several senders but with one sender at a time; many receivers each of
which has the potential of being a sender at a point in the
communication process; communication is based on an issue of
common interest to the group; feedback is usually immediate; and the
message is highly depersonalised. In the case of public speech, the
receivers now become audience members which, in essence, are diverse
in nature and very large in number. The diverse nature of the audience
of public speech often affects the understanding and interpretation of the
message disseminated. However, public speeches are characterised by
the following- (1) one or more senders- as is usually the case with
crusade, political rally and public demonstrations; (2) receivers are
described as audience and are usually heterogeneous and very large in
number; (3) depending on the situation, the feedback can be immediate
or delayed; and (4) public speech has potential of transforming into mass
communication (that means it can be published or aired for wider public
consumption).

4) Mass Communication

This kind of communication usually gets to the audience via the

instrument of mass media (radio, television, cinema, newspaper,
magazine, book etc). Mass communication therefore is the process of
reaching out to wider society with mass mediated messages. Here
professional communicators take responsibility of packaging and
disseminating information designed to arouse special or intended
meanings in innumerable receivers called audience via an organ or
combination of organs of mass media. It involves use of advanced

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MAC 316

technological devices to gather, sift, package and disseminate messages

to diverse or heterogeneous audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify various levels of communication, stressing the unique

characteristics of each level.

3.3 Definitions and Characteristics of Mass Communication

There are several definitions of mass communication. We shall consider
three definitions out of the lot.

1. Mass communication is “a process whereby professional

communicators use the mass media to disseminate messages
widely, rapidly and continuously, to arouse intended meanings in
large and diverse audience in attempts to influence them in variety
of ways” (De Fleur and Denis, 1994).

2. Mass communication is “the process of creating shared meaning

between mass media and their audiences” (Baran, 1999).

3. Mass communication is “the process by which complex

organisation with aid of one or more machines produces and
transmits public messages that are directed to large, heterogeneous,
and scattered audiences” (Dominick, 2009).

These definitions show that mass communication is a process. They also

show that the process of mass communication involves continuously
creating and sharing of meaning with messages targeted at wider public
called audiences and transmitted through the mass media. Mass
communication is therefore, characterised by:

 enlarged sources which constitute a conglomeration of professional

communicators
 uncountable number of audience members who are usually
heterogeneous in nature and are hardly known to each other
 feedback can range from immediate to delay and can be quantified
or measured
 messages are disseminated through advanced technological devices
 message is to a large extent depersonalised.

The above characteristics or nature of mass communication clearly

shows that this level of communication is very crucial in disseminating
development information at the social level. Several scholarly
definitions of mass communication, such as the ones above, clearly
justifies that mass communication is an important tool of national

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MAC 316 MODULE 3

development. Since mass communication is directed at large

heterogeneous audiences, it is important that you study how the process
of mass communication could be effectively utilised to achieve national
development which is the intent of this course.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define and explain the concept of mass communication.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Our discussion so far shows that mass communication is very vital in
human relation and also vital to the process of development. In fact, no
meaningful development can occur in man’s social, physical and even
spiritual environment without communication. This has therefore, made
the study of mass communication as well as national development most
imperative.

5.0 SUMMARY
You have learnt in this unit various levels of mass communication. You
have also learnt the technical definitions as well as the characteristics of
mass communication. The conceptual discussion of mass
communication here lays the foundation for the study of mass
communication and national development.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Define “Mass Communication’’, and state how it differs from other
levels of communication.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Baran, S. J. (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication: Media
Literacy and Culture. California: Mayfield Publishing Company.

DeFleur, L. M. & Denis, E. (1994). Understanding Mass

Communication. Illinois: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Dominick, J. R. (2009). Dynamics of Mass Communication: Media in

Digital Age. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Ndolo, I. S. (2006). Interpersonal Communication: Selected Readings in

Relationship. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers.

Nwodu, L. C. & Fab-Ukozor, N. T. (2003). Communication Imperatives

for Development. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishing Company
Limited.

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MAC 316

UNIT 2 PERSPECTIVES ON THE CONCEPT OF

DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Economic Perspective of Development
3.2 Political Perspective of Development
3.3 Philosophical Perspective of Development
3.4 Socio-Cultural Perspective of Development
3.5 Holistic Sense of Development
3.6 Relationship between Communication and Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The word ‘development’ ranks among the most loosely used terms in
social science literature. For this reason, professionals in diverse fields
of learning tend to perceive development from their various narrow
professional points of views. This unit is therefore aimed at discussing
some of the different perspectives of development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the economic perspective of development

 highlight the political perspective of development
 discuss the philosophical perspective of development
 analyse the socio-cultural perspective of development
 describe the holistic sense of development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Economic Perspective of Development

As we noted in the introduction, development has been defined by

different professionals in different ways. In economic sense,
development has been defined, variously, as shown below.

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MAC 316 MODULE 3

1. It is economic change that realistically enhances people’s earnings

in addition to raising their living standards via large scale
production of goods and services (Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor, 2003).

2. It is the capacity of a national economy whose initial economic

condition has been more or less static for a long time, to generate
and sustain an annual increase in its gross national product at rates
of, perhaps, 5% to 7% or more (Todaro and Smith, 2003).

3. It is the maximisation of growth of the GNP through capital

accumulation and industrialisation (Meier, 1989).

The import of the above definitions is that development in economic

sense is all about growth measured in terms of gross national product
(GNP). A nation is therefore said to be developed if there is sustained
upward growth from original static condition to an appreciable increase
in the nation’s GNP. In this context therefore, the indices of
development are:

 growth in Gross National Product (GNP)

 equitable distribution of income/increased per capita income
 poverty reduction and increased output per man
 low rate of unemployment
 increase in industrialisation and productivity.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention and discuss the indices for measuring development and growth
in economic sense.

3.2 Political Perspective of Development

Development, in political parlance, is concerned with stable, inclusive

and integrative polity. It is all about the enthronement of a political
system that is all embracing and cohesive. Development is, therefore,
defined as conscious effort at building a virile nation. By implication
development equates nation building (Pye, 1962). In this context, the
indices of development are:

 peaceful process of power succession regardless of the pattern of

governance
 cultural and ethnic integration
 greater political tolerance
 greater citizen participation in political process and activities
 enormous respect for fundamental human rights.

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MAC 316

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is development in the context of political science?

3.3 Philosophical Perspective of Development

Philosophers are not really concerned with material aspect of

development. Their concern however, is on man’s mental health.
Development, therefore, is easily associated with the level of mental
alertness. The emphasis is on mental capacity to think right and ability
to properly adjust to societal norms and values. According to Nwodu
and Fab-Ukozor (2003), development in this context refers to “the
attainment of meaningful degree of mental alertness, and the
sophistication of human faculties to the level the individual in society
cannot only reason well but also, adopt a logical approach to issues
arising from human society”. This definition clearly shows that the
indices of development, in philosophical sense, are:

 possession of high mentality

 possession of highly developed faculties
 ability to reason well and adjust properly to the social
system
 ability to understand and interpret social trends.

3.4 Socio-Cultural Perspective of Development

The major concern here is on socio-cultural perspective of development.

Development in this context is concerned with conscious move away
from primordial and archaic cultures to a more cohesive, dynamic and
secular ones. The human society is said to be developed when such
society creates conducive atmosphere for:

 social mobilisation i.e. where the units of the society operate in a

social climate that encourages solidarity and the spirit of oneness
 cultural secularity i.e. where socio-political actions and activities
are based on high level of rationality and empiricism
 high prevalence of universalistic norms i.e. human conducts and
behaviours are guided by laws that are universal
 recognition of achievement over and above ascription i.e.
individuals occupy positions of authority on the basis of merit
rather than on basis of family status and other demographic factors.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain development from a socio-cultural perspective.

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MAC 316 MODULE 3

3.5 Holistic Sense of Development

We have taken a look at various dimensions of development from

different fields in social sciences. While it can be reliably said that all
the definitions are right in their respective narrow perspectives, it is
important to emphasis that none actually captured the true essence of
development in its entirety. This segment is therefore meant to look at
development not from a narrow professional perspective but from
holistic sense of it as a social science term or concept.

It is important to state here that we may not really capture the true
essence of development without examining few definitions from radical
modernistic thinkers. Let us therefore consider a few of the definitions
that tend to reflect broad sense of holistic development. Broadly defined
therefore, development is:

1. concerned with improving the human, cultural, socio-economic

and political conditions of the individual, and consequently, of
society (Moemeka, 1989).

2. multifaceted in process, in human society. At the level of the

individual, it implies creativity, self-discipline, responsibility, and
material well-being. The achievement of any of those aspects of
personal development is very much tied to the state of the society
as a whole (Rodney).

3.6 Relationship between Communication and Development

We have earlier defined communication as the process of sharing

meaning, opinions and ideas. We have also defined development as the
continuous process of positive change from one condition to the other.
The implication is that both communication and development operate as
processes, activities that are on-going. However, communication activity
or process will be meaningless if the message of communication is not
understood by the targets of communication. For this reason,
individuals, governments and organisation are always in search of better
and effective way of communicating with one another, citizens and
organisational publics.

Knowledge of development is therefore needed to improve upon

communication strategies and infrastructure to make the process of
massage sharing effectives. On the other hand, every development effort
needs effective communication to succeed. Since development agents
need to work closely with development targets in order to succeed, it
follows that both development agents and development targets must
understand each other to be effective. This understanding certainly

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comes from communication. The above clearly suggest that there is

strong interconnection between communication and development to the
extent there will be no meaningful development without communication.
Okenwa (2002) buttresses this point where he opines that
communication:

‘‘is central to the process of development to the extent

that the dependence of one on the other has virtually
been taken for granted. To properly understand this
relationship between the two concepts of
communication and development, it is important to put
in context the role of communication in the
actualisation of the process of development.’’

So, communication and development play complementary roles. While

communication facilitates understanding of and the support for
development process, development in turn leads to improved
communication skills and infrastructure. Communication and
development are interconnected to the extent they play complimentary
role to each other. Communication as a social interactive process plays a
number of roles in the business of development; these include the
following.

1. Communication creates conducive climate for participatory

development by serving as a social vehicle for sharing
development news and information with one another. It reduces
ignorance and increases awareness as it brings development
information to the people. So, through process of communication
people gain awareness of development opportunities around them
as well as what to do and how to benefit from such opportunities.

2. Through communication, people are encouraged to accept and

embrace positive changes that can enhance their lives.
Communication can change, modify and enhance attitudes and
behaviours as well as open people’s minds to embrace messages of
development.

3. Through communication, people are usually influenced to aim high

and desire good things of life. By communicating with others,
people usually develop new taste to the extent of asking questions
and getting answers as to what to do to achieve those tastes. This is
development.

4. Communication fosters a sense of belonging, and by extension, it

encourages concerted participation and greater involvement in
development. Participatory development is all involving.

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Participatory development, however, requires effective

communication to make it truly participatory and achieve common
frame of mind and/or understanding between development agent
and development targets.

5. Communication also helps people engaged in it to understand,

appreciate and support government policies and programme.
Without effective communication targets of development
programmes can ignorantly work against such programmes even
when the programmes were designed to better their lives.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the interface between communication and development.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Communication and development are, no doubt, interconnected.

Communication helps to bring development messages to the attention of
development targets and stakeholders. On the other hand, development
helps to facilitate the growth and effectiveness of communication
infrastructure and skill. It is on this note that we conclude that no
meaningful socio-cultural, political, economic and physical development
can occur in the absence of communication. It is also concluded that
there is element of development in our conscious effort to improve on
the quality and quantity of communication tools as well as the
effectiveness and credibility of our communication skill.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we discussed the interconnectedness between

communication and development. You have learnt the linkage between
the two concepts as well as the role of communication in development
process. You would have also learnt that communication facilitates
development and that development leads to the sophistication of
communication skills and media development.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Write and submit a two-page essay (A4, 11/2 spacing) on the centrality
of communication in development process and clearly state the roles of
communication in development.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Nwodu, L.C. & Fab–Ukozor, N.T. (2003). Communication Imperatives

for Development. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishers.

Okenwa, S. (2002). Communication and Development Process. Enugu:

Margnet Publishing Communication.

Nwosu , I. E. (1990). Mass Communication and National Development.

Aba: Frontier Publishers.

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UNIT 3 MEANING AND ESSENCE OF NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Urban, Rural and National Development
3.2 Essential Features of National Development
3.3 Differences between Developed and Developing Nations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In Nigeria today, pockets of urban cities like Enugu, Port Harcourt,

Kaduna, Kano, Lagos and Abuja abound. These cities, to some extent,
have essential infrastructures like good roads, functional and well
equipped hospitals and school, libraries, better power supply and pipe
borne water to the extent they are regarded as urban areas. On the other
side of the divide, you have numerous rural communities that grossly
lack basic necessities of life with very low or minimal opportunities to
earn a living. There is a misconception, therefore, that improvement on
the quality of life in the few urban cities easily translates to national
development. This unit is meant to clear that misconception. The
essence of this unit therefore is to explain what actually constitute
national development; the unit will highlight the characteristics of
national development and distinguish between developing and
developed nations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define urban, rural and national development

 state specific features for determining national development
 enumerate the basic distinguishing factors between developed and
developing nations.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Urban, Rural and National Development

Every nation state, regardless of whether it is developed or developing,

is usually divided into two - the rural and urban areas. Nigeria as a
sovereign nation is not an exception. Nigeria therefore has urban cities
(like Enugu, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Abuja, Kano, Kaduna, Ibadan and
Owerri). The country also has rural areas too many to mention.

Development in any area of these divides (urban or rural areas) does not
directly translate to national development. The emphasis here therefore
is to understand the meaning of urban, rural and national development
beginning with urban development. A defined area can be considered
urban if it undergoes continuous process of development. This is why
urban area means “an area of continuous development”. This perhaps
explains why there is heavy presence of basic necessities of life in
Nigeria’s urban cities while the rural areas remain in a continuous state
of lack.

In Nigeria today, urban development has received and is still receiving

greater attention than rural development. This is true to the extent that
rural development are merely enshrined in the nation’s development
plan while very minimal effort is usually made to extend indices of
development to the rural areas. Basic amenities like functional social
institutions (e.g. schools and hospitals), big businesses (e.g.
manufacturing companies, banks and other financial institution),
government agencies and corporations (e.g. NAFDAC and water
boards); recreation facilities (e.g. amusement parks and fast food
industries); and ICT resources (internet and its offerings) have become
common features of urban life in Nigeria.

On the other hand, Nigeria’s rural areas are afflicted with poor and un-
motorable roads, inadequately or non-existent potable water supply,
poorly equipped and poorly staffed schools, low commercial activities
and subsistent peasant agriculture that cannot produce enough food to
feed itself, how much more producing raw material for the industry
(Nkala;1999). Rural development therefore involves development
action plan that seeks to provide meaningful transformation of rural man
and his rural community. It entails physical, infrastructure and human
development at the rural setting.

Effective rural development should, therefore, aim at ensuring that

indices of physical, human and material developments which have
remained common features of Nigerian cities sufficiently trickles down
to the rural communities. There is no reason Nigeria’s rural communities

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should not enjoy constant and adequate power and water supply; good
motorable roads; mechanised agriculture; functional and well staffed
social institutions, and heavy investment on human capital development,
to mention a few.

From the above, it is clear that urban development is, strictly, concerned
with development occurring in urban centres. It is also clear that rural
development is concerned with the development of the rural
communities. The question then is- what is national development? Liuis
Ramiro Beltran, citied in Nwuneli (1985) broadly defined national
development as:

‘‘…a directed and widely participatory process of deep

and accelerated socio-political change geared towards
producing substantial change in the economy; the
technology, the ecology and the overall culture of a
country, so that the moral and material advancement of
the majority of its population can be obtained within
conditions of generalised equality, dignity, justice and
liberty.’’

You will notice from this definition that national development is deeper
in meaning and large in scope than urban and or rural development. It is
a development that embraces and encompasses the length and breadth
of a nation. This means that developing the urban cities in isolation of
the rural areas and vice verse can hardly pass for national development.
National development, therefore, is more of a whole system with rural
and urban development serving as the functional parts of the whole
system.

By implication, a nation is said to be on course for national development

when both the rural and urban areas of the nation are undergoing
continuous, and sustained quantitative and qualitative positive human,
material and environmental transformation. This is why Opubor (1985)
argues that “any notion or definition of development in Africa that does
not take into account fundamental change, for the better in the lifestyle
of the peasant farmer, the fishermen, the petty trader, the herdsmen or
the labourers are grossly inadequate”.

The emphasis here is on incorporating the urban areas and rural

residents into the national development action plan. This is why Nwodu
and Fab-Ukozor (2003) argues that “ a conscious effort to positively
transform few urban areas within a nation without transformation of
numerous rural communities cannot be equated to national
development. A true national development should, as a matter of

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necessity, involve the positive transformation of the overall nation’s

human capital, physical domain and material well-being.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Distinguish between urban, rural and national development.

3.2 Essential Features of National Development

In the above segment, I noted that urban development is not

synonymous with national development. I also noted that national
development should go beyond urban development and extend to rural
areas which Edeani (1993) argues, “holds the key to national
development”. The reasons according to Edeani are:

 because of the enormous size of the rural population as compared

to the small percentage living in the cities,

 because of the very large share of the country’s natural resources

are located in the rural areas

 because of the disproportionate role which the rural population

plays in the economic, social and political life of the nation.

The implication is that national development as stated earlier is an

integrated and accelerated development of the entire nation – the urban,
the slum, and the rural. It is on this strength that Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor
(2003) articulate the features of national development as:

 a widely participatory process that involves greater number of

people regardless of whether they live in a rural or an urban
setting.

 substantial economic, technological, political, cultural and

ecological transformation of a nation. Transformation here implies
gradual but sustained healthy movement from a poor to enhanced
state of living.

 steady growth in knowledge and the acquisition of esoteric skills

by the citizens to the extent the citizens become conscious about
their well-being and what to do to protect and preserve it.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain what you understand by national development with emphasis on

the features of national development.

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3.3 Differences between Developed and Developing Nations

We may not understand the differences between developing and

developed nation without first understanding the whole idea of branding
very few nations ‘developed nations’ and numerous others ‘developing
nations’. According to Abott (1967) ‘our world is full of sharp contrasts.
One of the sharpest is that between the poorest nations and richest
nations’. The implication is that of all the divides or contrasts that exist
in the world, the one between developing and developed nations seem to
be more pronounced.

Today, many nations of the world (ostensibly African, Latin American

and Asian countries) are described with terms like less developed
countries (LDC), underdeveloped countries (UDC), third world
countries or developing nations. In the same contemporary times, you
will still find few nations (largely in North American, Western Europe
and few Asian countries like Japan) that are branded developed
countries or advanced countries or even first world. You should note
that the basis for this categorisation lies on a number of factors which
include but not limited to the following.

i. The state of the nations’ economy

ii. The level of per capital income
iii. The living standard
iv. The adequacy and level of functional institutions
v. The stability or otherwise of the political system
vi. The magnitude of physical development
vii. The number of highly skilled manpower.

Developed nations, therefore, refer to the ‘countries with a per capital

annual income of more than $2000 and consequent higher standard of
living…’ (The Webster’s Dictionary, 1992). On the contrary, The
Webster Dictionary describes developing nations as ‘countries with a
commensurate poor standard of living among most of the population’.
Samuelson (1973) earlier observes, “a less developed country is simply
one with real per capita income that is low relative to the present day
per capita income of such nations as Canada, the United States, Great
Britain and Western Europe”.

Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) further submit that “some nations are
considered or termed developed because the living standards in such
nations are quite high when compared to the living standards in
developing nations’’. However, if you look at it critically there are great
differences between developing and developed nations. Table 3.1
therefore provides a clearer picture of the differences between developed
and developing nation.

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Table 3.1: Differences between Developed and Developing Nations

Developed Nations Developing Nations
1. High literacy level Low literacy level
2. High per capital income Low per capital income
3. High technological Low technological
breakthrough breakthrough
4. Adequate medical care Poor medical care
5. High employment rate High rate of unemployment
6. Availability of highly Limited number of highly
skilled human resources skilled human resources
7. Stable political climate Unstable political climate
8. Practice of mechanised Engage largely in subsistence
agriculture farming
9. High living standard Very low living standard
Source: Nwodu and Fab- Ukozor (2003)

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Developing and developed nations differ in many respects. Discuss.

4.0 CONCLUSION

National development is not limited to urban development. It is not also

limited to rural development. National development is simply an
amalgam of both rural and urban development. It is pertinent to
conclude therefore that national development entails positive
transformation of the entire nation with emphasis on improving the
nation’s socio-cultural, economic, political, ecological and human
capital domains.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit discussed the concept of urban, rural and national

development. The unit emphases that a nation is said to be developing
nationally when the entire nation (both rural and urban) is undergoing
continuous and sustained positive transformation.

6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the concept of national development and explain the differences

between developed and developing nation.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Nwodu, L.C. & Fab–Ukozor, N.T. (2003). Communication Imperative

for Development. Enugu: John Jacob Classic Publications
Ltd.

Nkala, N.C. (1990). “Traditional Channels of Communication and Rural

Development Policy Implementation: The Neglected Symbiotic
Relations.” In: I. E Nwosu, (Ed.). Mass Communication and
National Development Perspective on the Communication
Environments of Development in Nigeria. Aba; Frontier Publisher.

Nwuneli, O. E. (1985). Mass Communication in Nigeria: A Book of

Reading. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

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MODULE 2 OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT

PARADIGMS, MODELS AND THEORIES

Unit 1 The Dominant Paradigm

Unit 2 The Marxist/Socialist Paradigm
Unit 3 The Emancipatory Paradigm

UNIT 1 THE DOMINANT PARADIGM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Origin, Meaning of Dominant Paradigm
3.2 Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Societies
3.3 The Mechanic and Organic Model of Development
3.4 The Sequential or Growth Stage Theory
3.5 Need Achievement Theory
3.6 Model of Empathy
3.7 Mass Media and National Development Model
3.8 The Diffusion of Innovations Approach
3.9 Dominant Paradigm: A Critique
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUTION

Overtime, almost all the nations of the world have been in constant
search for effective approach to achieving human and material
development. In recent times this search seems to be more pronounced
in developing world. Ironically most early scholarly and professionally
articulated views, models, theories and postulations relating to the
development of developed world were Western-derived. This unit will
examine such exogenous theories and models with a view to pointing
out their relevance in Nigeria’s national development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to offer a clear explanation of the

diverse views that make up the dominant paradigm and their possible
relevance in Nigeria’s national development.

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At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the meaning of dominant paradigm

 enumerate various postulations that make up the dominant
paradigm as well as their proponent
 highlight the relevance or otherwise of each of the postulations to
Nigeria’s national development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Origin and Meaning of Dominant Paradigm

The term ‘dominant paradigm’ was first used by Lerner (1976) and later
described as “the supper paradigm’ by Moirtana and Wilson (1990).
According to Nwosu (1995) the term describes the “set of Western-
derived theories that are related to the social organisation of Western
Europe and the United States of America, and upon which national
development efforts in African and other underdeveloped regions have
been based for nearly half a century”. Dominant paradigm therefore, is
used to describe a web of early development theories developed by
Western scholars and prescribed as a therapeutic response to
development of African, Latin American and Asian countries. The
essence of this unit therefore is to acquaint you with major proposition
of the theories that make up the dominant theories pointing out how
each of them has been able to address or unable to address socio-
cultural, economic and physical development of the underdeveloped
nations, with particular reference to Nigeria. We shall therefore,
examine each of the theories below.

3.2 Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Societies

Developed by Ferdinard Tonnies, a German philosopher, the notion of

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft societies could be likened to a social
movement. At the level of Gemeinschaft society according to Tonnies,
people were at their traditional state. In this state, social order is
achieved on the basis of interpersonal relationship within given
communities and community members. With the dawn of industrial
revolution however, the emphasis began to change from traditional,
more personal bonding to what Tonnies called social bonding, a
situation that gave birth to Gesellschaft society. This society is rather a
complex one made possible by industrialisation. Unlike the traditional
society therefore, the Gesellschaft society acknowledges contractual
approach to relationship as a critical base for achieving social order.

Here, according to Nwosu (1995), people become dependent upon those

they know, and this dependence introduces a formal, impersonal,

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element into social relations. The social bonding theory, therefore,

presupposes that developing nations can achieve national development
by moving from the traditional state (Gemeinschaft) to a complex
industrial society (Gesellschaft) which will guarantee them speedy
development and good society.

3.3 The Mechanic and Organic Model of Development

This model was developed by French Philosopher, Emile Durkheim.

The model like Tonnies model also recognises that human society
should move from one stage to another to achieve even development.
The major difference is that while Tonnies advocated for a movement
from traditional to industrial society, Durkheim was concerned with
division of labour based on specialisation. The development target of
every society in Durkheim’s view should be a movement away from
mechanic solidarity stage (which is prevalent in developing nations) to
organic solidarity stage considered to be the highest stage of
development. At the organic solidarity stage therefore, individuals in
society will be actively engaged in services where they have reasonable
degree of expertise provided such engagement according to Durkheim
does not lead to ‘anomie’- where individuals in society begin to have
problem relating to one another.

3.4 The Sequential or Growth Stage Theory

This theory was propounded by an American economist called Walt W.

Rostow. Bearing in mind the developing nations of Africa, Asian,
Middle East and Latin American, Rostow was of the view that for
underdeveloped world to transform to developed stage and sustain it,
they need to pass through five stages of economic growth. These stages
which, in the thinking of Rostow, must be sequential are as listed below.

1. The traditional society which Rostow described as ‘pre-Newtonian

science and technology and pre-Newtonian attitude’. At this stage
the society is largely agrarian in nature and the inhabitants are both
ignorant and incapable of the use of scientific means to transform
their societies.

2. Pre-condition for take-off stage which is described as the level of

consciousness. According to Rostow, the society begins to realise
the need to employ modern scientific approaches to its agricultural
and industrial production which will in turn leads to greater
investment.

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3. Take-off stage- which signals the actual take-off action and or

process of effective socio-economic transformation from
traditional state to modern state.

4. Drive for maturity- which is the stage where the economy is said to
have matured to the extent it is capable of generating its own take-
off free from the original industry.

5. The age of high mass consumption- which is the stage where the
industries can comfortably produce durable and reliable consumer
goods and services to the extent there will be increase in real
income per head; greater demands for basic needs, rise in urban
population and availability of more skilled labourers.

Rostow, therefore, submitted that the reason nations have remained

underdeveloped is because their economies have not passed through
these five stages. The import in Rostow’s sense is that for a developing
nation like Nigeria to develop and sustain the gains of development,
there is need for the nation to pass through these stages sequentially.

3.5 Need Achievement Theory

This theory is called N-ACH and was developed by behavioural scientist

called David McClelland. N-ACH in McClelland’s own words means
the ‘desire to do well, not so much for the sake of social recognition or
prestige, but to attain an inner feeling of personal accomplishment’
(McClelland, 1961). He further argues that a nation thickly populated by
people with high need for achievement is likely to do things in
modernise way more than other nations. McClelland, therefore, posits
that a society with high achievement needs is more likely to innovate,
and demonstrate high entrepreneurial drive and by extension achieve
high economic development (McClelland, 1961; and Okere & Ekpe,
2002).

By implication, McClelland was concerned with the psychological

perspective of development since he emphasised the achievement of
accelerated economic development in the backward societies by
increasing their achievement motives. The main thrust of the theory
therefore is that developing nations are not as motivated to achieve high
socio-economic goals in life as people in advanced countries. As such,
the infusion of high need for achievement in third world development
programmes and communication will help to awaken in them the desire
to achieve greater heights and by extension lead to accelerated economic
growth.

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3.6 Model of Empathy

The model of empathy which was developed by Daniel Lerner was the
first major effort to develop a universal theory of communication and
modernisation as well as suggests a causal relationship between
communication and modernisation (Nwosu; 1995). The theory tried to
establish casual relationship between communication and social change/
transformation.

In Lerner’s sense, the traditional society is so inert and strictly confined

in nature. These factors therefore constitute a serious hindrance to the
development of the traditional society hence Lerner argues that
‘communication strategies therefore must create the appropriate
attitudinal environment for constructive activity” which can be achieved
by “expanding the imagination of traditional man, giving him high
capacity for identification with a new aspects of the environment”.

To Lerner therefore, possession of high empathic ability remains the key

to accelerated development and good life vis-à-vis society. As Nwosu
(1998) puts it, a mobile psyche creates a mobile individual and such is
the key requirement of modern industrial society. The role of mass
media here as enunciated by Lerner is to provide enlightened clue for
the spread or dissemination of idea, new customs and new practices
required for rapid social transformation of developing nations (Lerner,
1958). To modernise and develop the underdeveloped nations in
Lerner’s view, there is need for developing nations to be empathic of the
West. Empathy here means the ability to see things in the position of
another person who is higher in social, cultural, political and economic
level. Lerner therefore posits that developing nations can usher in
modern transformation of their societies by empathising with the
Western industrialised nations known for their highly empathic nature.

3.7 Mass Media and National Development Model

Schramm (1964) in ‘‘Mass Media and National Development Model’’

was concerned with the cost-benefit approach to communication and
development. Based on this utilitarian perspective, Schramm insists that
ownership and development of mass media instrument is the key to
national development. He argues that there is a link between the heights
of social development attained in a nation and ownership of mass media
facilities and concludes that accessibility to modern channels of
communication determines the level of individual modernity.

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3.8 The Diffusion of Innovations Approach

Developed by Everett Rodgers and Floyd Shoemaker (1971) diffusion of

innovation approach is concerned with ‘interpersonal interaction among
adopters of innovation within a specific social system, and the role
communication plays in the process’ (Nwosu, 1995). According to kartz
(1978), diffusion of innovation theory was ‘the first widely accepted
view of how agricultural development occurs and how it can be
promoted’. Initially the diffusion approach was concerned with the
stage or process farmers had to undergo in adopting new agricultural
ideas. According to Rodgers and Shoemaker (1971), adoption of
agricultural innovation demands that farmers should go through certain
stages which are:

a. awareness
b. interest
c. evaluation
d. initial trial
e. adoption or rejection of the innovation.

Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) posit that when a new idea is introduced,
all the targets hardly adopt the new idea at the same time. In other
words, the speed with which people adopt varies. The scholars therefore
categorised farmers introduced to agricultural innovation into:

a. innovators
b. early adopters
c. early majority
d. late majority
e. laggards.

It is important to note that this categorisation was based on how fast the
respective groups adopt the innovation. Nwosu (1999) submits that the
mass media role in the diffusion of innovation was to bring into
community ideas and information from outside - ideas and information
required to assist in promoting agricultural productivity.

3.9 Dominant Paradigm: A Critique

A number of criticisms have trailed the dominant paradigm with

reference to its import in the development of developing nation. Nwosu
(1995) categorises these criticisms as follows.

a. External and internal forces- which include the foreign policies of

leading industrialised nations (like U.S. and Germany), the policies
of transnational profit making firms (for example, IBM and

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Routers), international lenders (for example, Citibank, and Chase

Manhattan bank), inter government agencies (for example
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, also
called the World Bank, IMF, UNESCO, and the General
Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, GATT),and bilateral aid agencies
(for example, USAID). The snag here, however, is that the
influence of all these external forces on the development of nations
is too enormous, to the extent that ignoring them in development
plans of developing nations will make a mess of the whole
development process. For instance, the economic meltdown that hit
the US and other developed countries in 2009 affected Nigeria’s
economy, particularly the stock market, till date. In the case of
internal factors, Nwosu (1995) recognises the moribund domestic
economic, political and cultural structures of post-colonial Africa
as anathema to development plans and execution.

b. Philosophical concern which played up deficiencies in individual

orientation as a hindrance to individual and societal advancement.
Instances abound, as McClelland insists, that only N-ACH could
lead to economic growth while Rogers and Shoemaker identified
exogenous ideas that are emphatic could ginger revolution of rising
expectations. The dominant paradigm therefore emphases the use
of people with ‘cues’ form outside to develop less developed
countries. As Nwosu (1995) puts it, “the philosophical
understanding of the dominant paradigm rested on this superior-
subordinate, leader-follower, or master-servant relationship”. The
import is that the dominant paradigm is a highly problematic
approach to development of nations. The reason being that the
patron-client approach to development totally negates the principle
of participation and inclusion which are essential in development
process.

c. Another criticism of the dominant paradigm is that the proponents

were busy thinking for and not thinking with the people, even
when they lack clear understanding of societal context under which
the model was to operate. A development model or paradigm that
stresses industrialisation and behavioural change as a key to
developing underdeveloped nations requires in-depth
understanding of the nation’s socio-economic and cultural settings
and realities. This important fact was not taken into consideration
by the proponents of the dominant paradigm or the Western model
of development. While Nwosu (1986) argues that the dominant
paradigm failed in Africa because of lack of understanding that
“tradition is an integral part of national life”; Myren (1974) was
more blun. According to him, one of the:

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‘‘serious errors (with the psychological theories) has

been the way we have gone about testing overseas
generalisation based on research in the US. Several
years of elated reports and journals articles were
devoted to proving that the same generalisation
applied overseas. It was only when we found that we
did not have a body of useful knowledge for the
development goals at hand.’’

This perhaps explains why Rodgers (1976) modified his position to

reflect the “synchronisation of old and new” implying a blend of
traditional and modern ways of doing things, rather than insisting
on the abandonment of traditional life style as the only way of
doing things right in Africa.

d. The last major criticism against the dominant paradigm is that the
paradigm over relied on the mass media as the magic wand for the
development of poorly developed nations. The works of Lerner,
Rodgers, Schramm and Durkheim for instance claimed the social
consequence of industrial age is that it tended to dislocate,
disconnect and isolate the individual from the amorphous mass
society. Therefore mass media are needed to point the direction the
individual must follow for personal and by extension, social
transformation and advancement (Beltran, 1976).

This is the whole idea about the all powerful media effects which
pre-supposes that mass media have absolute power to change and
or reinforce opinions, attitudes and behaviours to the extent the
audience members respond to mass media directives hook, line and
sinker. This assumption has been widely criticised for ignoring the
fact that there are other intervening variables that can reinforce
mass mediated messages to be effective. While Katz and
Lazersfeld (1955) documented evidence of mass media limited
effects, Blumler and Katz (1974); Lometh, Reeves and Bybee
(1977); and Stromane and Becker (1978) among others have also
documented evidences of uses and gratifications as properties and
factors behind individual exposure and preference to specific mass
media content. All these show that mass media do not actually
possess all powerful effects. Starosta (1976) summarises the
criticisms this way:

‘‘Mass media do not and generally cannot persuade

anyone to adopt a new practice. While media energise,
stimulate, introduce, prod, implore, or create a climate
conducive to, they still reach primarily those groups

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high in media exposure and usually favourably

predisposed toward change.’’

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify and discuss the major criticisms experts hold against the
dominant paradigm of development.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit exposes you to the dominant paradigm of development. It

concludes that the application of dominant paradigm in the development
process of developing nations failed because of its over reliance on
outside ‘cues’ and mass media. The paradigm also failed because it
failed to recognise the traditional aspects of developing countries that
are germane for positive social development.

5.0 SUMMARY

Dominant paradigm is a collection of various early development

thoughts, theories and model. This term, dominant paradigm, is largely
anchored on western-derived theories (mainly from Western Europe and
America). Major propositions of the paradigm were that development
process in underdeveloped countries will thrive if:

a. societies move away from tradition-bound to a complex modern

one based on industrialization.

b. development of the underdeveloped nations follows a linear

sequential process from traditional society to pre-condition to take-
off stage to drive to modernity and finally the age of mass
consumption.

c. individuals in primitive society change or modify their orientations

and behaviour to suit that of individuals in advanced societies.
That if the individuals in less advanced societies willingly adopt
cues from outsiders (that is advanced nations of the west) while
abandoning traditional ways of doing things, the nation will
develop and modernised. Mass mediated messages should be
extensively utilised to fashion out new taste, attitudes and
behaviours which people in developing nations should follow to
achieve national development.

This unit also discussed the major criticisms against the dominant
paradigm which can be summarised as follows.

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1. The paradigm failed to take into consideration the external forces

like industrial policies of the West, policies of transnational profit
making firms and intergovernmental agencies which have strong
impact on the national development plans.

2. The proponents of the dominant paradigm lack proper

understanding of the social context under which the model was to
operate. The thinking that the mass media possess all powerful
effects to the extent of speeding up diffusion of innovations and
encouraging immediate behaviour change was a bogus claim by
the proponents.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGMENT

1. What do you understand by the term ’dominant paradigm’?

2. Discuss three aspects of the paradigm and offer informed
criticisms of the failure of the paradigm in gingering national
development in Nigeria.

7.0 REFERNCES/FURTHER READING

Anaeto, S.G. & Solo-Anaeto, M. S. (2010). Development

Communication: Principle and Practice. Ibadan: Stircing-Hordan
Publishers Ltd.

Beltran, L. (1976). “Alien Promises, Objects and Methods”.

Communication Research, 3, pp 107- 37.

Blunler, J. & Katz E. (Eds). (1974). The Uses Of Mass Communication:

Current Perspectives on Gratifications Approach. Beverly Hill,
CA: Sage Publications.

Katz, E. & Larzasfeld, P. (1955). Personal Influences: The Part Played

by People in the Flow of Mass Communications. Glencoe: Free
Press.

Kearl, B. (1976). ‘‘Communication for Agricultural Development.” In:

W.Schramm & D. Lerner, (Eds.). Communication and Change in
the Developing Countries. Honolulu: The University Press of
Hawaii.

Lerner, D. (1956). The Passing of Traditional Society. New York: The

Free Press.

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Lometh, G., Revees, B. & Bybee, C. (1977). “Investigating the

Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Research.”
Communication Research, (4) 321-337.

McClelland, D. (1961). The Achieving Society. Prinecton, New Jersy:

Van Nostrand Company Inc.

Myren, D. (1974). ‘Comments on the Beltran and College Papers’. In:

Proceedings on Communication Strategies for Rural Development.
New York: New York State College of Agriculture and Life
Sciences.

Nwodu, L.C. (2006). “Research and ICTs Relevance in Innovation

Diffusion”. The Nigeria Journal of Communications, Vol.4, Nos. 1
&2 pp. 100-108.

Nwosu, P. (1986). “The Dominant Paradigm and Social Change:

Toward a New Model of Mass Communication for National
Development in Black Africa”. M.A. Thesis, Towson State
University.

(1995) “Development Theory and Communication: An Overview.” In:

P. Nwosu, , C. Onwumechili, R. M’Bayo (Eds). Communication
and the Transformation of Society: A Developing Region
Perspectives. New York: University Press of America, Inc.

Okereke, O.O. & Ekpe, A. E. (2002). Development and

Underdevelopment: Politics of the North-South Divide. Enugu:
John Jacobs Classic Publishers.

Rodgers, E. (1976). Communication and Development: Critical

Perspectives. Beverly Hills, California: Sage.

Rodgers, E. & Shoemaker, F. (1962). Diffusion of Innovations. New

York: The Free Press.

Schramm, W. (1964). Mass Media and National Development. Stanford:

Stanford University Press.

Starosta, W. (1976). “The Village Level Worker as Rhetorician: An

Adaptation of Diffusion Theory”. Central States Speech Journal,
Summer pp. 144-150.

Stroman, C. & Becker, L. (1978). “Racial Differences in Gratifications”.

Journalism Quarterly, 55 pp.767-771.

Rostow, W.W. (1962). The Stages of Economic Growth. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

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UNIT 2 THE MARXIST/ SOCIALIST PARADIGM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Dominant and Marxist Paradigm Compared
3.2 Major Premise of Marxist Paradigm
3.3 Criticisms against Marxist Paradigm
40 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Marxist/socialist ideology like the dominant paradigm, influenced to a

large extent, the knowledge of national development. Any discussion on
development thoughts will be incomplete therefore without mentioning
the Marxist paradigm of development. This unit therefore is meant to
expose you to the Marxist paradigm.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the point of convergence and point of departure between the

dominant and the Marxist paradigm
 highlight the basic features or propositions of Marxist paradigm
 explain snag or failure of the Marxist paradigm, among others.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Dominant and Marxist Paradigm Compared

Overtime, the socio-political, economic and cultural environments of the

West (North America and Western Europe) has been at variance with
that of the Eastern Europe. While the West for instance, advocated for
private ownership of means of production and distribution, the Eastern
bloc preferred public ownership of same. These variations in ownership
of production and distribution also affected their approaches to national
development.

However, there are areas of commonality between the two paradigms.

These points of convergence which you should know are:
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1. Both paradigms recognise economic growth and material wealth as

the cardinal products of any development process. The implication
is that national development process must lead to economic growth
as well as create conducive climate for material wealth.
2. Both paradigms agree that communication is very crucial in any
development process particularly at the national level.

In spite of these areas of convergence, the Marxism/socialist paradigm

differs, significantly, from the dominant paradigm in terms of their
approach to or strategy for achieving and sustaining economic growth.
Thus, the dominant paradigm perceived development as a process of
change beginning from the top and trickle down, a sort of master-servant
approach to development. On the other hand, the Marxist viewed
development as a participatory process that should not only involve the
masses but also begin with them. Mowlana and Wilson (1990) vividly
describe development in the Marxist paradigm context as:

‘‘The process from below, where through an

elaborate feedback of political and economic
machinery, the masses can participate in the
production and distribution of cultural messages.
Consequently, communication can generate
awareness and help organise and mobilise the masses
for political change leading to economic and social
development.’’

3.2 Major Premise of Marxist Paradigm

The Marxist paradigm was, largely, influenced by the thinking and

writing of Marx and Engels. In their thinking, communication is an
essential tool for society’s development. It is for this reason that Marx
and Wilson, (1990) argues that “communication is nothing more, nor
nothing less, than the articulation of the social relations between people.
In a profound sense, communication is one of the most unique products
and producers of society’s development”.

According to Mowlana and Wilson (1990) communication in Marxist

sense becomes “a set of ideological formations that usually follow the
patterns of material production in the society, contributing a factor of
dynamism to the process”. The implication is that communication in the
context of Marxist paradigm is to a large extent, the major organ for
mobilising the masses towards mass participation in development
programmes. The over-emphasis placed on communication in this
development model clearly explains why the Marxist/socialist societies
operated a highly centralised mass communication model controlled by
the party hierarchy.

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The major premises of Marxist development model therefore lie on the

following socio-economic, political and cultural conditions.

1. Major policy decisions on any given development project should

be taken at the party hierarchy level. Note that the society operated
as one party state in which case voices of dissent are hardly
entertained but the party voice. In this case, the party voice easily
becomes the voice of the masses.

2. The instrument of mass communication should be highly

centralised and strictly controlled by the party hierarchy.

3. Specific development decisions taken at the party hierarchy should

be disseminated via the mass media and party officials using
propaganda, brainwashing, self-criticism and related techniques
considered highly effective for mass mobilisation.

4. The mass media disseminated messages should target a network of

groups based at local levels for effective implementation of the
programme.

3.3 Criticisms against Marxist Paradigm

According to Nwosu (1990) Marxist model of communication and

development planning “has found acceptance in a number of African
nations notably Tanzania, Angola and Mozambique”. Nwosu, further
observed that development programmes in such areas as agriculture,
politics, education and health were anchored on this development model.
Although this model of development recorded some success in Tanzania
(Nyerere, 1968), it is not without some criticisms. Thus, a number of
criticisms have trailed this model of development. Ugboaja (1986)
documented the major criticism against this model of development as:

1. one way directional approach to development originally from the

party hierarchy and communicated via the mass media to the
masses. Note that this top-down approach was one of the things the
proponents of Marxist philosophy hold against the dominant
paradigm.

2. the model is also non-democratic since it does not make room for
involving the people at the level of initiation and planning of
development programmes. The implication is that the model totally
negates the principle of participation and inclusion. The alienation
of the potential and or substantive development beneficiaries at the
very beginning of development conception is considered to be
grossly anti-development.

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3. the latest major criticism against Marxist model is that the

extensive use of propaganda, brainwashing, self-criticism,
misinformation, disinformation and sundry misleading information
is unacceptable as it can lead to mass action if the masses discover
their psyche were being manipulated in the name of development
(Nwodu,2007).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention and discuss the major pitfalls of Marxist paradigm of

development.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Marxist model of development originated from Eastern Europe. It was
the sole model of development in the then Soviet Union, China, Cuba
and some East Africa countries. The model emphases the use of party
hierarchy to make specific development decision while mass media
should be used to disseminate the development messages to the masses
for purpose of achieving mass mobilisation.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discussed the Marxist socialist paradigm of development.
Precisely, the unit discussed the similarities and differences between the
dominant paradigm and the Marxist paradigm. It also discussed the
major premises of the Marxist paradigm. The unit concludes with the
criticism against the Marxist model of development.

6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGMENT

In the Marxist/socialist context of development, centralised mass
communication system is considered the key to national development.
Discuss this with emphasis on the major premises of Marxist model of
development.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Mowlana, H. & Wilson, L. (1990). The Passing of Modernity:
Communication and Transformation of Society. New York and
London: Longman.

Nwodu, L.C. (2007). ‘Managing Development Communication

Campaign for Sustainable Human Development’. In: I. E. Nwosu, ,
N.T. Fab-Ukozor, & L.C. Nwodu (Eds). Communication for
Sustainable Human Development: A Multi-Perspective Approach.
Enugu: ACCE Enugu State.

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Nwosu, P. (1995). “ Development Theory and Communication: An

Overview”. In: P. Nwosu, C. Onwumechili, & R. M’ Bayo (Eds).
Communication and Transformation of Society: A Development
Region Perspective. Lanhane, New York: University Press of
America, inc.

Nyerere, J. (1968). Ujama Nairobo: Oxford Unversity Press.

Ugboaja, F. (1986). “Communication as Technology in Africa Rural

Development”. Africa Media Review, 1(1) pp 1-19.

Wilson, D. (2011). Communication for Social Change and

Development. Uyo: ACCE Nigeria.

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UNIT 3 THE EMANCIPATORY PARADIGM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Evolution of Emancipatory Paradigm
3.2 Emancipatory Paradigm and National Development
3.3 Criticism against Participatory Approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The search for a more pragmatic model that would drive national
development programme, particularly in developing countries like
Nigeria, has been a continuous one. The emancipatory approach is yet
another paradigm that differs from both the dominant and Marxist
paradigms. The essence of this unit is to discuss the emancipatory
paradigm. You are therefore expected to read this unit carefully so as to
understand what makes the paradigm different from the other paradigms
we have discussed already.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss the origin of the emancipatory paradigm

 enumerate the circumstances leading to the evolution of the
paradigm
 explain the differences between the paradigm and other paradigms
before it
 state the major premise of the emancipatory paradigm.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Evolution of Emancipatory Paradigm

Emancipatory paradigm is, largely, an intellectual product of developing

countries. The paradigm emerged in the development literature in the
mid 1970s and early 1980s. It is an endogenous development paradigm
which served as an alternative national development paradigm. It is
endogenous in the sense that the paradigm originated from developing
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countries as against the dominant/capitalist and Marxist/socialist

paradigms which were all exogenous thinking originating from the
Western Europe/North America and Eastern Europe/China. It is worthy
to note therefore that emancipatory paradigm as the name implies was
conceived as a response to the failure of both the dominant and Marxist
paradigms in providing practicable solutions to the development needs
of developing nations.

3.2 Emancipatory Paradigm and National Development

As noted earlier, this paradigm came into existence as response to the

failure of earlier paradigms of national development. The major concern
of the proponents therefore is on how to get the targets of social
development, the masses precisely, to be actively involved in the
development process right from the period of initiation to period of
implementation and evaluation. The proponents therefore argued that
though “economic and political development are important, they are not
the most important goals of development as the dominant or socialist
models perceive them’’ ( Nwosu, 1995). The paradigm is therefore
hinged on the following premises.

1. National development in developing nations should not be limited

to economic and political development. It should extend to
qualitative society-based growth which should lead to the
emancipation of the masses from all forms of poverty.

2. The process of national development should begin at the

community level, rather than from the centre or nation-state. The
emphasis here is on active participation and engaged dialogue
between change agents and the clientele or change beneficiaries at
every level of social change process.

3. The use of all forms of communication technology (traditional and

modern communication instrument) is very crucial for spreading or
disseminating development messages and goals.

The implication is that the emancipatory paradigm believes that people

in developing countries are in bondage of some sort and need to be
emancipated. The proponents were therefore of the view that the best
way of emancipating the clienteles from the shackle of poverty is to
engage them in participatory development process. Scholars like Woods
(1977), Moemeka (1985), Ugboaja (1986) Mody (1991), Nwosu (1990),
and of recent, Okunna (2002), Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) and
Nwodu (2007) have all documented evidences of effectiveness of the
participatory approach in social transformation of lives and
infrastructures in developing nations.

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3.3 Criticism against Participatory Approach

Although this paradigm sounded good and more real in addressing

social development in Africa, there is also a misgiving that the
implementation is fraught with some faults. According to Nwosu
(1995), “the problem…is that while several claims to involve the
citizenry in development projects and programmes, involvement or
participation has been only at one level - the level of project/programme
implementation”.

Nwosu (1990) had earlier pointed out that “involvement or participation

at the other level, i.e. in programme initiation and formulation has often
been ignored or overlooked”. This indeed is a major snag with the
emancipatory paradigm of development. Apart from this snag, the
paradigm has remained the most effective development paradigm for
Africa’s development. It is for this reason that Nwosu (1995) advocated
for “a dualistic participatory approach to communication and
development’’.

What this means is that the citizens should be involved from the level of
programme formulation to the level of implementation. Nwodu (2007)
reinforces this where he advocates for “multiple participatory approach”
as against the “dualistic participatory approach”. The multiple
participation approach according to Nwodu would aim at involving the
people at every stage of the development process beginning from the
level of initiation or ideation, to the level of crystallisation,
implementation and evaluation. His argument is that we may not clearly
ascertain the significant impact of development programme on the
beneficiaries without involving the beneficiaries who should actually tell
what they benefited from the development programme at the level of
evaluation.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain what you understand by emancipatory paradigm of development

stating clearly the circumstance that led to the evolution of the
paradigm.

4.0 CONCLUTION

Discussions in this unit clearly shows that exogenous ideas or ‘cues’

from outside can hardly provide realistic answers to social development
problems in developing countries. The major reason is that such ideas
hardly take into account the cultural realities of the developing nations.
So, neither the dominant (capitalists) paradigm nor the Marxist
(socialist) paradigm is fit to drive national development programmes in

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developing countries. This is why emancipatory paradigm based on

multiple participatory approach is recommend as the most effective and
realistic paradigm of development in Nigeria.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit discussed the emancipatory paradigm of development as an

alternative paradigm to dominant and Marxist paradigms of social
development. Thus, the how and why the paradigm evolved were
discussed in addition to understanding how the paradigm applies to
national development process. The unit was wrapped up with criticisms
against emancipatory paradigm of development.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the circumstance that led to the evolution of emancipatory

paradigm of development and state how the paradigm applies to
development process in developing nations.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Mody, B. (1991). Designing Massages for Development
Communication: An Audience Participation-Based Research.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Moemeka, A.A. (1985). “Communication in National Development: The

Use of the Mass Media in Rural Development.” Information
Yugoslavia 17 (1&2): 177-185.

Nwodu, L.C. (2007). ‘‘Managing Development Communication

Campaign for Sustainable Human Development.’’ In: I. E.
Nwosu,., N.T. Fab-Ukozor & L.C. Nwodu (Eds). Communication
for Sustainable Human Development: A Multi-Perspective
Approach. Enugu: ACCE Enugu State.

Nwodu, L.C. &Fab-Ukozor, N.T. (2003). Communication Imperatives

for Development. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishers.
Nwosu, P. O. (1990). “Communication and Agricultural Development in
Swaziland: Towards a Need–Based Integrative Model”. Ph. D.
Dissertation, Howard University, Washington, D.C.

Nwosu, P. O. (1995). “A Dualistic Participatory Framework for a Need-

Based Approach to Development Communication: Lessons from
Swaziland”. In: P. Nwosu,, C. Onwumechili, & R. M’Bayo (Eds).
Communication and the Transformation of Society: A
Development Regions Perspectives. Larnhan: University of
America, Inc.

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Okunna, C.S. (2002). “A Quick Look at Development Communication”.

In: Okunna, C.S. (Ed.). Teaching Mass Communication: A Multi-
Dimensional Approach. Enugu: New Generation Books.

Ugboaja, F. (1986). “Communication as Technology in Africa Rural

Development”. African Media Review, 1 (1) pp 1-9.

Woods, J. (1977). “Planned Development and Transfer of Technology”.

Bangkok: UNDP Working Paper, No. 3.

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MODULE 3 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES FOR

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1 Patron-Client Model

Unit 2 ACADA Communication Planning Model
Unit 3 Social Marketing Approach

UNIT 1 PATRON-CLIENT MODEL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Patron-Client Model
3.2 The Snag with Patron-Client Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You may have observed, from our discussions in module one and two,
that communication is an indispensable tool for national development.
The whole of this module will be devoted to exploring various strategic
ways of applying communication in national development process.
Precisely, this unit is concerned with exploring the earliest approach to
using communication for national development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the patron-client model

 explain the nature of communication flow under patron-client
approach
 analyse the burden or problem associated with patron-client
approach.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Patron-Client Model

Patron-client approach to managing communication for development is

about the earliest attempt to apply communication in development
process. It is a fall out of the dominant paradigm in which development
is viewed from exogenous (that is outside) idea and lorded over people.
It is also based on the earlier notion of bullet theory syndrome. In this
context, mass media contents were viewed as possessing magical
powers of shaping audience members’ attitudes and behaviours. In other
words, the audience members’ response to mass media contents as
intended by those who package the contents.

It is for this reason that earlier attempt at using communication for

development was hinged on the patron-client approach. This approach
therefore does not allow targets of development massages to participate
in the planning of development communications campaigns/messages
that affect their interest. The common assumption here is that the change
agent (or the communicator) understands perfectly well the needs of the
change beneficiaries (the audience). The patron-client model therefore
operates on the basis of using information from either foreign or urban-
centered mass media to mobilise the rural people for development
action. According to Nwosu (1990):

‘‘The communication media under this arrangement

were supposed to aid and abet this patron-client
relationship by emphasising the flow of most
development-orientated information from the patrons
(e.g. government health, agriculture and policy
agencies) located in the urban areas to the grassroots
people in the rural areas, supposed clients or
beneficiaries of development efforts.’’

The implication is that the primary development function of mass media

of communication under patron-client or master-servant approach is to
propagate or spread information from the patron who probably is not in
touch with the development problem and realities of the clients. In this
case, the inordinate ambition or interest of the patron (which could be
the governments, the rulers, the elites or the bureaucrats) supersede that
of the masses and the media role of championing true national
development projects (Nwosu, 1990) as well as the purveyance of basic
needs-information that flow from or are packaged mainly from the
perspectives of the patron to the clients or rural dwellers at the receiving
end of these development projects (Fair, 1987).

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3.2 The Snag with Patron-Client Model

Development communication literature is no doubt, replete with several

snags associated with patron-client approach to development. Majority
of literature also point to the fact that this approach was largely
responsible for the development failures of most developing nations of
which Nigeria is one (Nwosu, 1990; Nwosu, 1995 and Nwodu and Fab-
ukozor, 2003).

However, the major snag associated with the patron-client approach is

that it tends to alienate rather than integrate the clients who should be
the actual beneficiaries of development projects. Another snag is that the
approach uses arm-chair development experts and communicators who
sit at the comfort of their urban offices and homes and formulate as well
as execute national development policies.

True national development should therefore aim at involving the change

agents and the change beneficiaries in a healthy empirically guided
dialogue to understand the actual development problems facing the
change beneficiaries and how the problems can be effectively and
collectively tackled.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Patron-client model is certainly not a good approach to managing

communication for national development. This is because the model
does not make room for healthy interaction between the change agent
and the change beneficiaries. Again, the model does not create
conducive atmosphere for proper articulation of realistic development
problems facing the nation particularly at the rural level/settings.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, the patron-client approach to managing communication for

national development was discussed. Summary of the discussion is that
the model was anchored partly on the all powerful media effects model
and target on the dominant paradigm model. The major issues discussed
included the meaning and the criticisms against the dominant model.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGMENT

Discuss the meaning of patron-client model pointing out the major snags
associated with the model.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Fair, J. E. (1987). “The Role of the Media in Patron Relations: A

Preliminary Look”. Paper Presented at the Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC),
August 3-6.
Nwodu, L.C. & Fab- Ukozor, N.T. (2003). Communication Imperatives
for Development. Enugu: John Jacob Classic Publishers.

Nwosu, I. E. ( 1990) “Mass Media and Rural Development: An

Analysis of Some Basic Cases, Theories and Strategies”. In: I.E.
Nwosu (Ed.). Mass Communication and National Development.
Aba: Frontier Publishers.

Nwosu, P.O. (1995). “ A Dualistic Participatory Framework for a Need-

Based Approach to Development Communication Lessons from
Swaziland”. In: P.O. Nwosu,, C. Onwumechili & R. M’Bay, (Eds).
Communication and the Transformation of Society; A Developing
Regions’ Perspectives. Lanhan: University Press of American,
Inc.

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UNIT 2 ACADA MODEL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives.
3.0 Main Content.
3.1 The First A Component of ACADA Model
3.2 The CA Component of ACADA Model
3.3 The D Component of ACADA Model
3.4 The Last A Component of ACADA Model.
3.5 The Major Shortcoming of ACADA Model.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The concept of ‘ACADA’ is an acronym that represents integrated

communication activities for effective delivery of social change
campaign. The approach was developed by UNICEF. According to
Nwodu (2005) “ACADA model is an alternative development
communication planning model that emphases thorough, realistic,
practical and sustained communication approach to the evolution, design
and delivery of social change campaign”.

ACADA therefore stands for assessment, communication analyses,

design and action (UNICEF and Polio Partners, 2000). In this unit,
effort shall be made to explore how various components of ACADA
communication planning matrix or model applies to communication
action for national development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the full meaning of ACADA model

 discuss what should be done at each stage of the planning matrix
with vivid examples
 highlight the snag with the model.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The First A Component of ACADA Model

The first ‘A’ component of ACADA model stands for assessment. It

implies that before communication skills could be applied to any
development process, the development agents must first assess the
magnitude of the problem. Assessment therefore calls for the collection
of baseline information regarding the development problem. The
implication is that assessment is the very first step to understanding and
managing national development problem facing the citizenry.

The essence of assessment which is also called pre-project analysis in

some literature is to ascertain what constitute the actual development
needs or problems to and how best the needs or problems can be fixed.
Nwodu (2007) elaborates on this where he informs that assessment is
meant to collect via empirical means, baseline information regarding:

1. The nature and dimension of the problem or social issues for which
intervention programme is being planned.

2. Ascertain the very locality where the problem actually exist, which
segment of the population should be targeted and why.

3. Ascertaining existing physical infrastructure in the target area and

other facilities needed to facilitate healthy relationship and
interaction between change agents and change participants-cum-
beneficiaries.

4. Determining the major and minor partners that should support the
campaign for social change in terms of funding and helping to
influence others.

3.2 The CA Component of ACADA Model

The CA component of ACADA model represents communication

analysis. It serves as a follow up to problem assessment. At the level of
communication analysis, the change agent is expected to evolve a
realistic problem analysis with emphasis on determining aspects of the
problem communication is capable of solving. According to UNICEF
and Polio Partners (2000):

‘‘The problem identified during assessment may

not be problems in their own right but
manifestations, causes or explanations of the
main problems. It is important then to begin

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analysis with the development problem itself

rather than discussing which media to use or
what message to disseminate. Only after
painting a clear picture of the problem will it
become evidence which groups of people
needed to be involved in the communication
programme.’’

Proper assessment of the problem will make for easy articulation of

problem statement. A problem statement should therefore be succinct,
precise and perceivable. It should clearly indicate the location where the
problem is most prevalence; the magnitude of the problem expressed in
percentage(s); the segment of the population that is mostly affected; and
the period the problem usually manifested among others. Below is a
typical example of a problem statement:

Country X had low average, 35 per cent for measles and

45 per cent for Polio among children 0-5 years of age, in
the years of 1985 and 1986 (date recoded during routine
immunisations) resulting in increased incidence and the
absence of outreach service for populations in rural
regions and urban high-density areas (UNICEF and Polio
Partners, 2000).

Note that the above problem statement is very lucid and brief; it
summarises the outcome of the assessment by painting a vivid picture of
the situation on ground. However, communication analysis does not end
with the conceptualisation of problem statement. It also extends to
determining the aspect of the problem that communication can solve by
defining in concrete terms the communication objectives – that is. the
purpose the communication for development is going to serve. Nwodu
(2005) offers a typical example of how to state communication
objectives here:

‘‘By the end of 2006, over 75% of parents and guardian

will not only shun female genital mutilation (FGM) but
will also encourage relatives, friends and neighbours to
desist from such act as well as report any incident of
FGM to appropriate authority.’’

With a concrete communication objective such as the above-mentioned,

it is clear that communication will play a number of role in addressing
the already establish socio-cultural and health development problem
associated with female genital mutilation, now referred to as the Female
Genital Cutting (FGC). The role of communication includes among
others to champion campaign against the socio-cultural practice which is

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inimical to human health; expose the dangers associated with the

practice, mobilise support for the campaign and ginger advocacy even at
interpersonal levels that would reinforce the mass media campaign. It is
important to note that communication objectives must not be stated in
terms of what communication can do. It must be stated in terms of the
desired result the change agents expect to achieve at the end of the
campaign/project cycle.

Note also that a good communication analysis according to Nwodu

(2007) further involves developing participant’s profile; ascertaining and
blending participants’ media use pattern with available and accessible
media existing in the area, among others.

3.3 The ‘D’ Component of ACADA Model

This component which is the final step in analysis represents design.

Three things are most critical at this stage of analysis; and these-
according to UNICEF and Polio-Partners (2000), are as listed below.

a. Determining message concepts that will bring about the desired

behaviour change which should take into consideration the nature
of the change targets or development beneficiaries; the behaviours
to promote and factors likely to encourage the targets to adopt the
desired attitude or action.

b. Selecting the communication approach which could be any or

combination of these: informing, entertaining, persuading,
educating and empowering. Note that communication approach
should not be based on intuition or sentiment. Whichever approach
or combination of approaches to be taken here should depend
largely on the research-based and established communication
problems.

c. Choosing the message appeal and tone which should also be

anchored on research findings and the desired behaviour to
promote the message appeal and tone could be any or combination
of these: positive or negative; rational or emotional; mass or
individual; humorous or serious; one or two-sided; direct or
indirect; definite or open-ended; and from a peer or from an
authority.

To sum up, Nwodu (2005) adds that design involves developing plans
for message development, material development, dissemination, training
and plan of action.

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3.4 The Last ‘A’ Component of ACADA Model

Having assessed the development problem and analysis for

communication situation and design, the last step is to put plans into
action. The last A component of ACADA model therefore represents
action. This therefore is the stage of implementation. According to
Nwodu (2007), ‘‘this is the stage where the overall communication plans
for social development are put into action and monitored effectively
with right caliber of manpower and material resources for optimum
result”.

The communication for development planners should therefore develop

strategic plans of action for effective implementation of the development
programme. The plan of action must therefore indicate activities to be
executed on specific days or weeks or months. A diary or calendar
providing information on the delivery/implementation schedule for the
activities should be developed and followed religiously to be effective.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify and explain how various components of ACADA model apply

to the management of communication for national development.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The ACADA model, as you have seen from the above discussion is an
integrated communication planning matrix for social development.
Although the proponents of the model did not mention feedback which
is essential in communication action plan, the model has been proving to
be effective in the management of communication for development. One
major aspect of national development that the model applies mostly is in
the areas that concern behavioural change.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit discussed various dimension of ACADA communication

planning matrix as an effective strategy for managing communication
for national development. Thus, all the components of the acronym were
explained with fitting examples. Summary of the discussions showed
that effective communication for development should begin with
empirical assessment of the problem. This is preceded by
communication analysis and message design before the actual action
should commence.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Using one socio-cultural problem impinging on Nigeria’s development,

discuss how you can apply ACADA model in solving the problem. Your
answer must include well stated problem statement and communication
objective.

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING

Nwodu L. C. (2007). “Managing Development Communication

Campaign for Sustainable Human Development.” In: I.E. Nwosu,
N. T. Fab-ukozor, & L.C. Nwodu (Eds). Communication for
Sustainable Human Development: A Multi-Perspective Approach.
Enugu: ACCE, Enugu State.

Nwodu, L.C. (2005). “ACADA Model and Social Change Campaign in

Nigeria”. Journal of Media Studies; Vol.1, No.1.

UNICEF and Polio-Partners (2006). Communication Handbook for

Polio Eradication and Routine EPI. New York: UNICEF.

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UNIT 3 SOCIAL MARKETING CONCEPT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Evolution of 5Ps of Marketing
3.2 Application of Social Marketing Concept to National
Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The 5Ps of marketing is one of the effective models change agents now
being adopted in the management communication for national
development. This is because of its realistic application in
communication plans and actions for national development. In this unit
therefore, we shall discuss how various components of 5Ps of marketing
apply in the process of communication for development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss the evolution of 5Ps of the social marketing concept

 state the various components of the 5Ps of marketing
 analyse how the 5Ps of marketing can be applied in the process of
communication for development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Evolution of 5Ps of Marketing

The hallmark of marketing is to achieve maximum customer

satisfaction. It is on this premise that the social marketing concept was
developed as a customer-centered approach to the spreading of goods
and services. However, unlike the traditional goal of marketing which is
profit-oriented, social marketing concept operates on the basis of non-
profit making. The emphasis on social marketing therefore is on the
“propagation of social development values primarily as charitable and
non-profit making venture (Nwodu, 2007). According to Nwosu and
Uffoh (2005): “…social marketing is based on the new marketing
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concept’s insistence that we must be customer-oriented and customer-

driven in all that we do (e.g. decision planning and execution) in order to
give maximum satisfaction to his needs”.

The marketing concept was developed by McCarthy (1982). Then it was

the 4Ps of marketing which stands for product, price place and
promotion. However, the fifth P which stands for politics was added by
Nwosu (1993).

3.2 Application of Social Marketing Concept in National

Development

Any discussion on the application of social marketing in national

development certainly requires clear understanding of each component
of the 5Ps of marketing. It is necessary therefore to explore how each
component fits into communication activities for national development.
So the first “P” in marketing context stands for product. But in the
context of mass communication and national development, the product
becomes the national development project, idea or programme.
According to Nwodu (2007) products here “could be attitudes,
behaviours, practice or other cultural products development agents have
packaged for adoption or rejection by the beneficiaries”. By implication,
product could be national campaign for attitude change like the
‘‘Rebranding Nigeria Campaign’’. It could also be physical
infrastructure development like rural electrification project.

The second ‘‘P’’ which stands for price refers to the sacrifice which
development beneficiaries has to make to gain from the development
programme. According to Nwosu and Uffoh (2005), the price
component of social marketing concept represents “…such things as the
time, energy, habit change, efforts and the few sacrifices to be spent or
made by the members of the target population”. This requires that
communication planners for national development should of necessity
articulate the prices to be paid by development beneficiaries and where
possible quantify them in relation to what the target population would
gain in the process”. Physical development for instance will eat into the
arable agricultural lands of the beneficiaries and that becomes the price
they have to pay in order to enjoy better social infrastructure.

The third ‘‘P’’ represents place. The emphasis here is on physical

environment. In the context of national development, it refers to place of
contact for sharing of innovative ideas or distribution of materials that
can enhance the well-being of the beneficiaries with less friction. This
for instance may refer to where to distribute fertilisers or mosquito nets
to ensure it gets to the actual farmer or households in dire need of it. It
may also refer to determining the actual place where nursing mothers

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can obtain necessary information regarding effective exclusive

breastfeeding practice.

The fourth ‘‘P’’ represents promotion. This is where communication

plays key role. The emphasis here is on the use of appropriate marketing
mix to ensure wide spread of necessary information regarding the
national development project, programme and or idea. According to
Nwosu and Uffoh (2005) the elements of the promotional mix include
“such practices as advertising, event marketing/management, direct
mail, publicity etc (non-personal methods) and face-to-face, house to
house, telephone and other (personal methods)’. Buttressing this point,
Nwodu (2007:23) adds:

‘‘Promotion here therefore means sustained dissemination

of integrated Communication action or campaign for
effective mobilisation of the development target for active
participation in the intervention programme. The
promotion here is akin to use of multi-media approach in
mobilising target for participatory development.’’

The final ‘‘P’’ which was added in marketing literature by Nwosu

(1993) refers to politics. It entails clear identification and utilisation of
the political dimension of development. Again, politics here requires
that development agents should explore the potentials of the political
actors and actions to ensure successful implementation of development
plan/projects. Identifying with political actors and winning their support
and sympathy according to Nwodu (2007), will “influence the generality
of their followers and admirers to identify with, adopt and help
propagate the social development programme message to others”.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain how the components of social marketing concept help in

managing communication for national development in Nigeria.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Social marketing concept applies well in managing communication for

national development. Understanding its various components and how
they apply to communication action for national developments is
important. Potential and substantive development agents therefore need
this basic knowledge to help spread message of national development
within the respective locale.

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5.0 SUMMARY

This unit treated social marketing concept as a strategic means of

managing communication for national development. In essence, the
meaning and the origin of the social marketing concept were discussed
to provide background for the study. Also, the components of 5Ps of
marketing were discussed with emphasis on how they apply to mass
communication and national development.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain various components of social marketing concept stressing how

each component applies to communication for national development.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

MaCarthy, E. J. (1982). Essential of Marketing. Homewood; Illinois:

Richard. D. Irwin Inc.

Nwodu, L. C. (2007). “Managing Development Communication for

Sustainable Human Development”. In: I. E. Nwosu,, N.T. Fab-
Ukorzor & L. C. Nwodu (Eds). Communication for Sustainable
Human Development: A Multi-Perspective Approach. Eungu:
ACCE Enugu State.

Nwosu, I.E. (1993). ‘‘Disseminating Information on Environmental

Issues and Problems in Rural Africa: Towards an Integrated
Model”. In: S.T. Kwame Boafo (Ed.). Media and Environment in
Africa: Challenges for the Future. Narobi: ACCE Publications.

Nwosu, I.E. & Uffoh, V.O. (2005). Environmental Public Relations

Management. Enugu: IDS.

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MODULE 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH AND

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1 National Development Challenges in Nigeria

Unit 2 Communication Research Interests in National
Development Challenges

UNIT 1 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES IN

NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Economic/Political Development Challenges
3.2 Socio-Cultural and Health Development Challenges
3.3 Infrastructure/Physical Development Challenges
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

According to DFID (2004), “with per capita income falling significantly

to about $300 between 1980 and 2000 (well below Sub-Saharan average
of $450), approximately 90million Nigerian’s 133million people are
living in absolute poverty, on less than one dollar a day”. Nnamani
(2005) also added that:

‘‘The income of a community, which is subdivision

among families and kindred, is less than 40 percent of
the norm (living on one US dollar a day…and such,
which manifest more in poor infrastructure, poor
nutrition, poor self- esteem, low hygienic standard, low
intellectual development and lack of capacity to
articulate social, economic and political environment and
low per capita income.’’

The above expressions clearly indicate that Nigeria has a number of

development challenges. And the challenges touch virtually on all
aspects of the country’s lives. In this unit, we shall be discussing these
challenges using Nwodu’s (2007) broad categorisation of development
challenges and realities in Nigeria as frame of analysis.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the economic and political problems of Nigeria

 highlight Nigeria’s socio-cultural and health problems
 enumerate the infrastructural /physical development problems of
Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Economic/Political Development Challenges

Since 1962, Nigeria has had four distinctive national development plans.
A national development plan according to Ofoeze (2000) cited in
Akpara-Aja (2000) is “a conscious action of government aimed at
achieving a set of objectives- development- through specified means and
procedures”. The four development plans which Nigeria has had are as
follows.

1. The first developmental plan (1962-1968)- which failed to revamp

Nigeria’s economy as it recorded negative rate of 6.15%.

2. The second developmental plan (1970-1974) named “a plan for

rehabilitation, reconciliation and reconstruction” was meant to
reconcile the warring Nigeria’s ethnic nationalities and to re-build
all that were damaged by civil war. This period recorded 15.6%
positive growth rate because it fall within the period of ‘oil boom’
even when the development plan failed to lead Nigeria out of
economic wood due to mismanagement by the then national
government.

3. The third developmental plan (1975-1980) which relied solely on

crude oil revenue while utterly ignoring agriculture and non-oil
revenue recorded a sharp decline in the nations annual growth rate
from 15.63% to 2.75%.

4. The fourth developmental plan (1981-85) which was the worst of

its kind had the gross domestic product (GDP) recording 2.48%
negative growth rate.

The fourth national development plan was succeeded by the eight years
regime (1985-1993) of the self-styled President Ibrahim B. Babangida
which was characterised by increased external debt burden. Akpara-Aja,
(2000) reports that then the GDP fall sharply from 8.3% in 1990 to 4.6%

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in 1991 and maintained a downward slide into 3.6% and 2.9% in 1992
and 1993 respectively.

Abacha’s regime introduced the Budget of Sustainable Development

(1997) and later Vision 2010 which Nwodu (upcoming) describes as a
prelude to the present Vision ‘2020’. Over the years, the Nigerian
economy has been wobbling leaving successive government to grapple
with unfulfilled efforts to revamp the economy. A pragmatic attempt to
revamp the economy began in the year 2000 when the Federal
Government signed IMF stand-by agreement for debt restructuring.
Then Nigeria received $1billon dollar credit from IMF for the purpose
of effecting economic reforms. Although the GDP appreciated in 2011
recording 6.9%, the nation is still facing a number of economic burdens
like:

 high unemployment
 poor macroeconomic management
 poor standard of living occasioned by low per capital income
 over dependence on oil revenue.

On the political front, Nigeria has not had it so good. The pre-
independent and post independent political activities in the country were
marred by suspicion among major ethnic nationalities in the country.
This manifest lack of cohesion among the ethnic nationalities resulted in
a 30-month civil war which crippled economic and political activities in
the country. After the civil, the prolonged military intervention in the
political life of the nation has also affected negatively, the political
development of the nation.

In fact, Nigeria has witnessed about eight military coups which are not
healthy for the political stability and development of the nation. Even
the democratic experience in the country has often been marred with
poor and autocratic approach to governance, electoral irregularities and
post election violence. The import is that the present economic and
political realities in the country are worrisome to the extent they
challenge professional mass communicators to fashion out best strategy
for managing the problem. The major challenges which professional
journalists and mass communicators should use their skill to address are:

1. exposing sharp practices in governance

2. championing crusade journalism in favour of economic

diversification, political stability, national integration and cohesion
among ethnic nationalities in Nigeria

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3. providing adequate information to Nigerian citizens on how to

engage in genuine self-profiting ventures imperative for poverty
reduction and non-involvement in political violence.

3.2 Socio-Cultural and Health Development Challenges

According to the Nigeria Millennium Development Goals Report

(2005), corruption has been a major development challenge in Nigeria.
Continuing, the report says:

Government’s vigorous response has been to enact

and enforce an anti-corruption law, to establish a
powerful and effective Economic and Financial
Crime Commission (EFCC) as well as an
Independent Corrupt Practices and other related
Commission (ICPC), and also to institutionalise Due
Process to sanitise procurement process.

Although EFCC, ICPC, and ‘due process’ have been institutionalised in

Nigeria, corruption in high places has remained one of the endemic
socio-cultural and even economic development problems in the country.
Related to this is the high prevalence of harmful traditional practices like
Female Genital Cutting (FGC), widowhood practices, girl child
marriages, denial of right of inheritance to women; and domestic
violence as well as all forms of discriminations against women. Again
Nigeria at present is faced with other social/educational problems which
according to Nwodu (2006) included low literacy level, poor
technological advancement, limited number of highly skilled human
resources, increasing number of male dropouts from schools and high
cost of educational and social services.

The health sector is not anything better. In fact, Nigeria Millennium

Development Goals number four, five and six respectively bother on
reduction of child mortality; improve maternal health, and combating
HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. The fact that three out of the
eight goals bother on health is indicative of the fact that health related
issues are very serious development problem in Nigeria. Infants and
under-five mortality rate which were respectively 91 per 1000 and 133
per live births in 1999 rose to 100 per 1000 and 201 per 1000 lives in
2003 (NMDG and NPC, 2004 ). This situation is similar in the case of
maternal mortality and the contraction of HIV/AIDS and other related
diseases. However, studies reveal that of all these health problems,
attitudes to antenatal care, and the postnatal care and the quality of
health delivery are factors that greatly affect maternal morbidity and
mortality (NMDGS report; 2005). The communication challenges here
therefore has to do with how to generate enough media campaigns that

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can help to realistically address the knowledge gap, change or reinforce

or modify attitudes and behaviour towards healthy practices.

3.3 Infrastructure/Physical Development Challenges

Development process in Nigeria also suffers from infrastructure related

problems. Today achievement of safe portable water, accessible roads,
efficient medical services, functional power supply, and functional
institutions have remained tall dreams in both Nigerian rural and urban
cities. Also erosion menace, deforestation and desert encroachment
among others have crippled the rate of physical development even as the
environment suffers from all sorts of pollution arising from mining and
oil exploration.

All these challenges one way or the other rob negatively on national
development efforts. They also demand a lot from mass communication
practitioners whose responsibility is to report threats and incidence of
environmental problems, write editorials to advocate for greater
government concern to infrastructural/physical challenges facing
Nigeria and help mobilise citizens/government support for
environmental friendly programmes and or activities/actions.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Nigeria, no doubt has a number of national development challenges.

These challenges are so real that they impact negatively on national
development process. Mass communication practitioners can play a
number of roles in helping to cushion these challenges by drawing
constant attention to those development challenges, analysing and
interpreting programme and actions put up to solve the problems and
mobilising support for pragmatic effort aimed at solving the problems
posed by those actions.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit offered a quick insight into Nigeria’s national development

challenges. To this end, economic/political; socio-cultural/health; and
infrastructure/physical factors impinging on Nigeria’s national
development were discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

In spite of the concerted effort by successive governments in Nigeria to

enthrone enduring national development, the nation has grappled with
lots of development challenges. Identify and explain those national

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development challenges pointing out what knowledge of mass

communication can help in solving such problems.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpuru-Aja, A. (2000). “The Present Political Economy of Nigeria and

the Prospect of Vision 2010”. In: A. Akpuru-Aja, & A.C. Emeribe
(Eds). Policy and Contending Issues in Nigeria National
Development Strategy: Towards a Greater Nigeria in the 21st
Century. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishers Ltd.

DFID (2004). Country Assistant for Nigeria. Abuja: DFID Publications.

Nnamanni, C.O. (2004). Poverty in Nigeria: We are All in it Together.

Ikeja: Lions Club Annual Lecture Series.

Nwodu, L. C. (2005) Making Career in Development Communication”.

In: I. E. Nwosu, J. E. Aliede & I. Nsude (Eds). Mass
Communication: One Course, Many Professions. Enugu: Prime
Targets Ltd.

Nwodu,L.C.(2007). “Communication, Poverty Alleviation and

Grassroots Mobilisations for Sustainable Human Development”.
In: I.E. Nwosu, N.T Fab-Ukozor & L.C. Nwodu (Eds).
Communication for Sustainable Human Development: A Multi-
Perspective Approach. Enugu: ACCE Enugu State.

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UNIT 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH INTERESTS

IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preliminary Research
3.2 Message Design Research
3.3 Mobilisation Strategy Research
3.4 On-The Programme Evaluation Research
3.5 Performance Appraisal
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Experts have documented overwhelming evidence that campaigns meant

to achieve national development goals often fail because of poor or even
non-utilisation of research. A whole lot of times, the campaigners often
rely on intuitive knowledge to draft, package and deliver national
development campaigns and jingles that hardly appeal to the audience
let alone influencing them positively (Opubor 1986; Nwosu, 1990; and
Edeani, 1990). This explains the current emphasis on greater use of
communication research for social change and national development
(Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor, 2003; Nwodu, 2006; Anaeto and Solo-
Anaeto, 2010). This unit is therefore designed to expose you to stages of
research interests in managing communication for national development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the relevance of research in communication process for

national development
 enumerate the various stages of research interests in
communicating for national development.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Preliminary Research

In some communication literature, preliminary research is often referred

to as pre-project research or baseline research. The essence of
preliminary research is to accumulate baseline data needed for informed
communication for national development planning, strategy and
execution (Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor, 2003). Pre-project research,
therefore, enables development communication agents to understand the
people and their environment (Okunna; 2002). In conducting
preliminary research for national development therefore, three things are
usually involved, as shown below.

1. Target community profile which according to Nwodu and

Fab-Ukozor (2003) involves ascertaining the target
community’s name, location, population, system of
governance, religious belief, language and literacy level as
well as the available infrastructure and media channels
accessible to the community.

2. Ascertaining the cultural values with emphasis on the

customs, norms, mores, ethical orientations, taboos, social
control and ranking systems.

3. Ascertaining the target community’s ecosystem. Emphasis

here should be on finding out the community’s vegetation,
climatic condition, physical challenges and problems, animal
lives and sundry issues relating to the physical environment.
An understanding of this nature according Nwodu and Fab-
Ukozor (2003) “would help national development agents to
fathom appropriate development programme to introduce in a
given community; when, and how to introduce the
programme as well as determining the number and segment
of society that would benefit from such a programme.

Suffice it to say, in the words of Nwuneli (1985), that ‘‘programmes

that begun with the collection of baseline information on the target
population survive better than those that lack information on the life
expectations and ambition of the target audience”.

3.2 Message Design Research

Any form of communication for national development must address

specific audience need to be effective. This therefore requires that the

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message must not be vague. Message design therefore requires extensive

research to ascertain a number of issues which are:

a. message conception which calls for researching to ascertain a

concrete central theme of the message. This implies that
development communication agents should be able to come up
with a different message concepts all built around the central
theme of the communication problem.

b. message articulation: when several messages concept are

developed, the job of the researcher in this context is not over.
Therefore each of the message concepts needs to be properly
articulated. This involves determining the appropriate verbal and
non-verbal cues or codes that would best impress the target
audience. According to Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) the
research interest in this context is “to conduct a pilot study on these
codes with a view to ascertaining which of the codes or
combination of codes so developed are likely to make the highest
impact on the target audience.

c. message design which involves researching to determine the best

way to structure the actual message of communication for nation
development. Structuring or design here implies determining the
language of communication, the dialect, the choice of words and
the accompanying demonstration that could make the message
effective and highly impactful.

3.3 Mobilisation Strategy Research

According to Udoaka (1998) mass mobilisation involves the:

‘‘wakening or activation of the dormant consciousness of a

greater number of people with the use of new ideas for the
purpose of gaining their support for an action or inaction, it
is a process of creating new loyalties using new ideas and
appeals to reason and sentiment at appropriate time.’’

Mobilisation therefore entails rallying development agents around for

active participation in national development programme. It is all about
building healthy alliance between change agents and change
beneficiaries in a way that would enhance the change target’s unalloyed
support for and active participation in development programme.
Research in this regard should therefore address three core issues as
itemised below.

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1. Determining who should participate in the national development

programme and who should benefit from the programme.
Programmes like exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) for instance
should target nursing mothers as the participants while the actual
programme beneficiaries are the infants. The essence of this
research therefore is to ascertain who should actually be mobilised
for the national development programme.

2. Determination of communication strategy which entails

determining between different modes of communication (e.g.
interpersonal, group, public or mass communication) should be
more appropriate in mobilising support for the national
development programme.

3. Determination of period of exposure which involves determining

the particular period when development targets are more likely to
turn out en mass or show greater participation for the programme.
As Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) pointed out, it would amount to
colossal waste of time, energy and resources to mount a morning
adult education programme for a predominantly agrarian
community particularly when the programme is coming up at the
peak of planting season.

3.4 On-The-Programme Evaluation/ Performance Appraisal

This is also called “continuing evaluation” (Okunna, 2002) or exit

interview (UNICEF and Polio Partners, 2000). Whatever is the appeal,
the essence of research effort here is to determine through a quick rapid
assessment how development targets are responding to an already on-
going programme. The primary motive here is to find out “what
adjustment needs to be made or what is to be sustained to be effective
while the development programme or project last” (Nwodu and Fab-
Ukozor, 2003).

Every national development effort certainly requires healthy advocacy,

social mobilisation and programme communication components of
development process. In depth knowledge of communication research is
therefore needed to accumulate sufficient data regarding development
target’s mores, behaviours, needs and aspirations, among others.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit efforts were made to isolate and explain various stages of
research interest in communication for national development. Precisely,
pre-project research, message design research, on-the-project
programme evaluation and performance appraisal were discussed
extensively.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Mention and discuss various stages of communication research interest

in national development process.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Anaeto, S.G. & Solo-Anaeto, M. (2010). Development Communication:

Principles and Practice. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd.

Edeani, D. O. (1990). “The Impact of Ownership on Nigerian

Newspaper Coverage of Mass Mobilisation Campaign”. Nigerian
Journal of Mass Communication, Vol. 1, No 1.

Nwodu, L.C. (2006). “Research and ICTs Relevance in Innovation

Diffusion’’. The Nigerian Journal of Communications, Vol.4, Nos
1 & 2 pp. 100-108.

Nwodu, L. C. & Fab-Ukozor, N. T. (2003). Communication Imperative

for Development. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishing Company
Limited.

Okunna, C.S. (2002). ‘‘A Quick Look at Development

Communication.’’ In: C.S. Okunna, (Ed.). Teaching Mass
Communication: A Multi-Dimensional Approach. Enugu: New
Generation Books.

Opubor, A. E. (1985). “Mass Communication and Modern Development

in Nigeria.” In: O. E. Nwuneli (Ed.). Mass Communication in
Nigeria: A Book of Reading. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.

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Udoaka, N. (1998). Development Communication. Ibadan: Stirling-

Horden Publishers.

UNICEF & Polio Partners (2000). Communication Handbook for Polio

Eradication and Routine EPI. New York: UNICEF Publication.

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MODULE 5 MASS COMMUNICATION AND

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1 An Overview of Media of Mass Communication in Nigeria

Unit 2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Media of Mass
Communication in Nigeria
Unit 3 Function of Mass Media in National Development

UNIT 1 AN OVERVIEW OF MEDIA OF MASS

COMMUNICATION IN NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 History of Mass Media in Nigeria
3.2 Structure of Mass Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Mass media according to Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) are modern

channels of mass communication used for the dissemination of news and
information to heterogeneous large number of people simultaneously.
Implicit in this definition is that mass mediated messages are usually
directed at heterogeneous audiences, living in diverse geopolitical areas,
and who receive sender’s messages simultaneously.

From the above definition, it is obvious that these media of mass

communication exist in appreciable magnitude in Nigeria. Our concern
in this unit therefore is to discuss the mass media landscape in Nigeria.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss briefly the history of mass media in Nigeria

 highlight the structure of mass media in Nigeria
 expatiate on media localisation for national development.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Brief History of Mass Media in Nigeria

The history of mass media in Nigeria began in 1859. Then, a European

missionary named Rev. Henry Townsend published the first newspaper
in Nigeria called Iwe Irohin. This was followed by the Anglo-African
newspaper published by Robert Campbell between 1863 and 1865 in
Lagos. Over time, newspaper titles like The Nigeria Pioneer published
by Kitoye Ajasa 1914-1937, The African Messenger first published in
1921 by Ernest Ikoli, The Lagos Daily Mirror founded by Obademi and
popularised by Herbert Macauley in 1927, and The West African Pilot
published by the great sage Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe emerged in the Nigeria
mass media landscape. See Odusanya (1976); Omu (1978), and Okafor
(2002) for detailed history of Nigeria press.

However, unlike the print media that started early in Nigeria, the
electronic media did not start at the same period. Thus, the history of
radio in Nigeria began in 1932. Then the colonial masters chose Lagos
as one of the centres among British colonies where radio signals were
received and re-transmitted to Nigerian audience via re-diffusion
method. According to Okunna (2006):

‘‘….between 1932 and 1950, the BBC monitoring station in

Lagos was developed into an extensive radio distribution
service (RDS) to cater for some dense population centres of
the colonial government through re-diffusion stations located
in Ibadan, Abeokuta, Ijebu Ode, Kano, Kaduna, Enugu, Port
Harcourt, Calabar, Jos, and Zaria; these were converted into
fully operative radio stations by the Federal Government to
form the media of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS)
which was established in 1951.’’

It is pertinent to note that NBS later changed to Nigeria Broadcasting

Cooperation (NBC) which later metamorphosed into the present day
Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) in the year, 1978.
Presently virtually all the 36 states of Nigeria and the capital territory
Abuja now have radio stations. And with the deregulation of the
broadcast industry in Nigeria in 1992, private radio stations now operate
in the country.

In the case of television, the history started in 1959 with the

establishment of the Western Nigeria Television (WNTV). The reason
television started from the region was attributed to the pre-independence
politics which placed more emphasis on regional rather than national
development (Okunna, 1993). So with the establishment of WNTV in

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1959, other regions began to establish their own television stations.

Therefore, in 1960, the Eastern Nigeria government established Eastern
Nigeria Television (ENTV). This was followed by the Radio Television
Kaduna (RTK) in 1962 which functioned as an arm of Broadcast
Corporation of Northern Nigeria. In 1977 the federal government
established the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA). NTA was then
given exclusive right over television broadcasting in the county until
1979 when any state government wishing to operate television stations
were empowered to do so. Today private investors have joined the
league of television broadcasting in Nigeria following the deregulation
of broadcasting in 1992.

The case of film/cinema in Nigeria is also of interest here. Thus, the

history of film/cinema in Nigeria began with public film exhibition. The
first cinema experience in Nigerian soil began in August 12, 1903 as
cinema exhibition at the Glover Hall, Lagos. The film was exhibited
then by Messer Baboa of Barcelona, Spain at the instance of Herbert
Macauley (Mgbejume, 1982, Owen-Ibie, 1983 and Nwodu, 2011). From
Lagos, the cinema exhibition spread to other major towns of Nigeria like
Enugu, Port Harcourt, Calabar, Ibadan, Kaduna and Aba. The essence of
the cinema exhibition by the colonial masters was to reach the country
side with what the colonial administration described as social education
(Jengo, 1977 and Nwodu, 2011).

The first Nigerian film was produced by Tai Obe under the aegis of
Film Health Department (Balogun,1987).The Nigerian film industry
suffered a number of setbacks among which are the civil war, high cost
of film stock, and strenuous man-hours expended in the production of a
film. Today the use of video production and improved technology has
combined to make film production less expensive and far less strenuous.
It is not in doubt that the contemporary film industry in Nigeria
produces over 2500 film titles annually earning over N25b even as it
employs over 125000 Nigerians (New Age, 2005; Nwenwene, 2006;
Alawode, 2007; Eze, 2009 and Nwodu, 2011).

3.2 The Structure of Mass Media in Nigeria

Mass media structure here pertains to the operational base vis-à-vis the
impact of such base on mass media uses for national development
(Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor, 2003). Presently, the Nigerian mass media
environment is replete with so many newspaper and magazine titles;
several government and privately-owned radio and television stations
and uncountable video titles. In view of the population of mass media
organs in the country therefore, it is safe to say that Nigeria has more
than enough mass media to achieve greater social development of the
nation.

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However, rather than contribute effectively to the social development in

both the urban and rural Nigeria, the mass media have remained an
urban phenomenon. Virtually all the national newspaper and magazine
titles in the country have their headquarters either in Lagos or Abuja
with branches in other urban cities across the country. Also, all the radio
and television stations are located in the urban cities. The snag with the
present over-concentration of mass media of communication in the
urban areas include the following.

1. Development activities in the urban cities are usually given wider

and more prominent attention than development issues affecting
the interest of rural areas where greater percentage of the citizenry
live.

2. Rural residents are often alienated in the fashioning of

development programmes and news about them which denies them
of sense of belonging.

3. Development information and news from urban-situated mass

media often come to the rural residents as novel ideas thereby
inhibiting proper innovation diffusion.

The situation is made worse by the fact that presently, true community
press and community radio do not exist in Nigeria. According to Nwodu
and Fab-Ukozor (2003), “the current situation whereby community-
based radio, television, film viewing centres, and news papers have
remained tall dream is not good enough for effective and even mass
communication-assisted national development”. The way out according
to MacBride et al. (1980), Opubor (1985) and Nwosu (1990) is to
decentralise the mass media organs in the country. Mass media
decentralisation can be done in three distinctive ways which, as Nwodu
and Fab-Ukozor (2003) put it, are as follows.

1. Physical decentralisation which emphases situating mass media

organs in the rural areas from where they will operate.

2. Media content decentralisation which involves the inclusion of

greater rural social realities in mass media content as well as
fashioning out ‘”a strong feedback mechanism to guarantee
interaction between media users and media operators”(Okenwa,
2000).

3. Media reach decentralisation which requires designing a functional

strategy that will ensure that many areas in the country (especially
those living at the periphery) are reached with specific
development messages regardless of wherever they may be
located.

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SELF-ASSESMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the development problems associated with the over-

concentration of mass media organs in urban areas of Nigeria and state
how you think the problems can be solved.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Effective utilisation of mass media to achieve accelerated national
development requires drastic restructuring of the mass media organ in
the country. Mass media operators in the country should of necessity
therefore, give priority attention to the present structure of mass media
in the country and restructure the system in a manner that would
encourage greater presence of rural realities and challenges in the
nations’ mass media.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discussed the history of mass media of communication in
Nigeria. It also considered the structure of mass media in Nigeria with
particular reference to the implication on Nigeria’s development. It
criticised the present structure of mass media in Nigeria as being
inimical to national development and calls for media decentralisation as
solution to the problem.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Mention and discuss the advantages radio has over other media of mass
communication in Nigeria’s national development.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alawode, S. O. (2007). “Nigeria Environment in the Eye of Nigeria
Home Video.” Journal of Communication & Language Arts. Vol.
2, 2007 pp.62-81.

Balogun, F. (1987). The Cinema in Nigeria. Enugu: Delta Publications.

Eze, C. (2009). ‘‘The Theatre in an Emergent Information Society: A

Nigerian Approach.” In: D. E. Konkwo (Ed.). Mass
Communication in Emergent Information Society. Owerri:
Alphabet Nigeria publisher.

Jengo (1977). “Mass Media and Black Civilisation: The Tanzania

Experience.” Second World Black and Africa Festival of Arts and
Cultures, Lagos, 15 January – 12 February 19977.

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MacBride, S. et al. (1980). Many Voices, One World; Ibadan: Ibadan

University Press.

Mgbejume, O. (1989). ‘‘Film in Nigeria: Development Problems and

Promises.’’: African Media Review Series, No 7. Nairobi.

New Age Newspaper, Friday 18th February, 2005; p.4.

Nwenwene, T. A. M. (2005) “Nigerian Nollywood Film: Problems,

Perspectives and Prospects.” In: I. E. Nwosu; J. E. Aliede & I
Nsude (Eds). Mass communication in Nigeria: One Course, Many
Professions. Enugu: Prime Targets.

Nwodu, L. C. (2011). “Nigerian Cinema: Past, Present and Future

Directions for Nigeria’s Socio-Cultural and Economic
Development.” Paper presented at A 3-Day Conference on
Articulation of Memory on Film Held at University of Canada,
Ottawa; September 2-4.

Nwodu, L. C. (2003). Communication Imperative for Development.

Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishing Company Limited.

Nwosu, I. E. (1990). Mass Communication and National development.

Aba: Frontier Publishers.

Okenwa, S. N. (2002). Communication and Development Process.

Enugu: Magnet Publishing Company.

Omu, F. (1978). Press and Politics in Nigeria: 1880-1937. Ibadan:

Longman.

Opubor, A. E. (1985). “Mass Communication and Modern Development

in Nigeria”. In: O. E. Nwuneli (Ed.). Mass Communication in
Nigeria: A Book of Reading. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.

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UNIT 2 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF MEDIA

OF MASS COMMUNICATION IN NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Electronic Media: Strengths and Weaknesses for National
Development
3.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Print Media in National
Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Our study of mass media landscape in Nigeria showed that both

electronic and print media abound in appreciable quantity in Nigeria. As
effective tools of mass dissemination of news and information therefore,
it is expected that these mass media tools would contribute effectively to
national development. This unit is therefore designed to examine the
strengths and weaknesses of some of these media of mass
communication considered to be most relevant to national development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the potentials of various organs of mass communication in

promoting national development.
 highlight the limitations of each of the organs of mass
communication
 enumerate the specific areas each of the medium can be used for
national development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Electronic Media: Strengths and Weaknesses for National

Development

The major concern here is on radio, television and film. The reason is
that they are the predominant electronic media modes that are mostly

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employed in communications for national development in Nigeria. Let

us therefore begin with radio. According to Onyekwere (1990), “with
the exception of radio which has been found to be effective in reaching
the rural Nigerian masses other channels of mass media of
communication have been found to be relatively less effective”.
Reinforcing this, Ansah (1991) agrees that “of all the mass media
generally available to Africans, radio is the most widespread and
accessible”. The implication is that radio by its nature has some
potential that make it the most effective media tool for national
development. Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) articulate those potentials
as follows.

1. Appeals to illiterate audience as development news and

programmes can be broadcast to the audience within their language
and dialects.

2. Breaks distance barriers as its reach is amazingly wide and highly

penetrating.

3. Relatively cheap to procure compared to other channels of mass

communication.

4. Breaks the barrier of power outage as it can easily be operated

using dry cell batteries. To this Nwodu (2007) adds that with
enabled GSM hand set, people now access development messages
on radio without really going to buy conventional radio set.

5. Appeals to audio sense in which case one can easily get exposed to
it while doing other things.

6. Has power of on-the-spot live transmission of events thereby

keeping people living at the periphery adequately and timely
informed about government polices actions and inactions as well
as providing information about people living in other lands.

7. Highly miniaturised to the extent users can conveniently carry it

about while listening to development news and other contents.

On other hand, television seems to be the most least applied electronic

medium to national development especially as it concerns reaching the
rural masses. However, television has some potential that make it an
effective medium of national development some of which include:

1. appeals to senses of audio-visual which is crucial for

demonstrations
2. also breaks language and illiteracy barriers
3. encourages group viewership good for advocacy and mobilisation.

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Although television promises to be an emerging potent medium of

national development the medium suffers a number of limitations which
according to Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) are as follows.

1. It has an acute limited reach.

2. It is to date a highly urban affair.
3. It is relatively costly to afford.
4. It requires constant power supply to functions.

Another electronic medium that is worthy of discussion here, is

film/cinema. Ogbuoshi (2002) defines film ‘‘as a transparent flexible
material in stripes or sheets of celluloid covered with an emulsion which
is sensitive to light, used in taking photographs, or making motion
pictures”. Although Jimadu (1970) argues that film is ‘‘under-utilised
medium for development massages for most parts of Africa” Nwodu and
Fab-Ukozor (2003) articulate the advantages of film/cinema in national
development process as follows.

i. Helps to break literacy barriers via indigenous films.

ii. Helps to create a feeling of empathy among the target audience,

thereby motivating them to be desirous of development
programmes.

iii. Aid in skill acquisition and training. The audio-visual power of

film can often re-awaken a feeling of curiosity among the viewers.
This stimulates sense of loyalty among viewers who can now learn
new ideas, taste and ideals through exposure to the film.

iv. Promotes spirit of oneness, peace and communalism among the

audience as people come together to watch there is always a force
of social cohesion which, could lead to greater understanding and
social harmony among the target groups.

Film also has its snags in national development process. The weaknesses
of film/cinema in development process are as follows.

i. Films cost a lot to produce and the cost intensive nature of film
often discourage Nigeria development agents from considering
film in their media planning for national development.

ii. Film as a medium of development has a number of distribution

problems in Nigeria. According to Jimadu (1990:82) ‘‘there are
inadequate mobile film vans to go round the villages.’’ Today, it is
in doubt whether mobile film vans are in existence in most states
of the federation. Again the activities of pirates have not
encouraged increase in the production and distribution of film for
development.
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iii. The dominance of foreign films in Nigeria’s social environment

often make Nigeria viewers to contextualise development in terms
of foreign culture (Jimadu.1990) even the emergence of home
video has not helped matters.

This is because scenes that promote foreign cultures and orientations

abound in great proportion. According to Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor
(2003) ‘‘not until Nigerian film begins to address the socio-cultural,
political and economic realities of the masses, it cannot effectively bring
about the desired social transformation.”

3.2 Strength and Weakness of Print Media in National

Development

Print media (newspaper, magazine, book and posters) industry in

Nigeria is a robust industry. Our discussion here is limited to newspaper
and posters which have proved to be more potent in national
development. Newspaper, particularly rural newspaper has the potential
of contributing to national development. The strength of newspaper
therefore lies in the following.

i. Newspaper has enough space for in-depth reportage of

development issues, news and information.

ii. It has the potential for informed interpretation and analysis of

issues thereby helping to put issues in proper perspectives.

iii. It has the advantage of place and time of exposure and flexibility
which ensure easy comprehension and retention of media content.

iv. Ensure easier storage and retrieval of development information and

news.

v. Encourages mass education and literacy by motivating or

encouraging readership habits among illiterate and new literate
ones.

The above strengths do not however detract from the fact that newspaper
has a number of limitations which include the following.

1. Regardless of whether a newspaper is vernacular newspaper or not,

it requires some level of literacy to appreciate the contents.

2. The visually impaired are often cut off from development news
and information from the mass media.

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3. Newspaper medium is largely an urban phenomenon and hardly

circulate to the hinter land due to bad road and low readership.

4. Newspaper is capital intensive to establish.

Next in our discussion of strength and weakness of print media uses for
national development is poster. Poster is worth discussing here because
according to Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003) it wields powerful
influence in the awareness generation and diffusion of development
information. Its strength lies on the following:

i. Well designed poster easily attracts and compels attention.

ii. Poster uses illustrations and few vernacular words to make

important development message impactful.

iii. It serves as effective tools in attitude and behaviour change.

iv. To some extent, it breaks literacy barrier as those who cannot read
the contents can easily grasp the message from the illustrations.
(Nwodu, 2007).

However, poster, like other forms of print media is limited by the fact
that the visually impaired cannot effectively get exposed to it. Again,
though illiterate audience may understand the illustrations, they hardly
have full grasp of the meaning of the message as they are incapable of
reading the written words that go with illustrations.

4.0 CONCLUSION

All the media of mass communication discussed have strengths and or

weaknesses peculiar to each of them. National development agents need
to understand these strengths and weaknesses in their media plans and
utilisation in propagating national development objectives.

5.0 SUMMARY

We discussed in this unit the strengths and weaknesses of various media

of mass communication in Nigeria. Attention was therefore given to
electronic media particularly (radio, television and film) and print media
(exclusively newspaper and posters). The reason is that these channels
of communication have been found to be more relevant in national
development programmes particularly among the rural residents.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Of all the media for national development in Nigeria, radio has remained
the most effective. Discuss this with particular reference to the strength
of radio over other mass media organs in Nigeria.

7.0 REFERNCES/FURTHER READING

Ansah, P. (1991). “Broadcast and National Development.“ In: Module

on Development Communication 2. Nariobi: ACCE.

Jimadu, U. (1990) “Documentary Film as a Medium of Development

Communication in Nigeria.” In: I. E. Nwosu (Ed.). Mass
Communication and National Development: Perspectives on the
Communication Development Environments of Development in
Nigeria. Aba: Frontier Publishers.

Nwodu, L.C. & Fab-Ukozor, N.T. (2003). Communication Imperatives

for Development. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic Publishing Ltd.

Nwodu, L.C. (2007). “Managing Communication for Sustainable

Human Development in Nigeria.” In: I. E. Nwosu; N. T. Fab-
Ukozor & L. C. Nwodu (Eds). Communication and Sustainable
Human Development. Enugu: ACCE: Enugu State.

Ogbuoshi, L. O. (2002). The Techniques of Film Production. Enugu:

Magnet Publishing Company.

Onyekwere, E.O. (1990). ”The Roles of Communication in Rural Social

Development.” Nigeria Journal of Mass Communication, Vol.1,
No.1.

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UNIT 3 FUNCTIONS OF MASS COMMUNICATION IN

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mass Media Ownership in Nigeria
3.2 Mass Media Functions in National Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Mass media of any nation, no doubt contribute a lot to the nation’s

development. How well or otherwise the mass media contribute to
national development depends essentially on the nation’s media system.
In some nations, the media operators enjoy greater freedom. In some
other nations, the freedom to own and operate media organisation
suffers one form of restriction or the other. In other nations also, media
practitioners are integrated into the ruling class as way of making them
less critical of the political system and government actions. The
emphasis in this unit is the patterns of mass media ownership in Nigeria
and the functions of mass media in national development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the patterns of media ownership in Nigeria

 state the functions of mass media in national development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Mass Media Ownership System in Nigeria

Nigeria’s landscape as we earlier pointed out is replete with abundant

radio and television stations; newspaper and magazine titles; and
flourishing movie industry. However, we may not really understand how
these media organs can contribute to national development without first
understanding the mass media ownership structure in Nigeria. There are
three major patterns of mass media ownership known in communication
literature. These are as follows.
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1. Public ownership in which organs of mass media are owned and

controlled by the members of the public.

2. Government ownership in which the national or state (regional)

governments establishes, owns and control the mass media.

3. Private ownership in which private investors (usually an individual

or group of individuals) own and operate mass media organs
(Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor, 2003).

The question at this juncture is: where does Nigerian belong in all these?
The mass media ownership in Nigeria could better be described as a
mixed system. The reason is because ownership of mass media in
Nigeria is a mixture of government and private ownership. By
implication, the mass media organs are not solely owned and operated
by the government. The law permits individuals to also own and operate
mass media organisations. Thus while some are owned by the federal
and state governments, others are owned by individuals with the federal
government providing the legal framework guiding the operations of the
media organisations.

It is important to note that before now, the federal government has the
exclusive right of ownership and operations of broadcast media in
Nigeria. Later, the regional (and now the state) governments were
permitted to participate in the ownership of broadcast media. Then,
individuals or private investors were not permitted by law to own and
operate broadcast media until 1992 when the industry was deregulated.
Following the deregulation of the industry, privately-owned broadcast
stations like Ray Power FM, AIT, Silver Bird, Orient FM(now extinct) to
mention a few emerged in Nigerian mass media landscape. As it is now,
privately-owned radio and television stations like the ones mentioned
above now operate in Nigeria within the legal conditions prescribed by
Nigerian Broadcast Commission (NBC).

Also, print media titles like The Guardian (owned by the late Chief
Ibru), Vanguard (owned by Sam Amuka), The Champion (owned by
Chief Emmanuel Iwuanyanwu), Thisday (owned by Nduka Obaigbena)
and Newswatch (established by Late Dele Giwa, Ray Ekpu and others)
now operate and flourish in the country alongside with government
owned newspapers like The Tide, New Nigeria, National Light and
Nigerian Statesman. The implication is that there is no public media
ownership in Nigeria. What obtains is a situation where government
owned media corporations operate alongside with private owned media
organisations with the central government providing the regulatory
framework that guide the operation of mass media organs in the country.

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As it is often said, that he who pays the piper dictates the tune, the
nature of a mass medium ownership influences the medium’s position
on national development issues. So, while government owned mass
media have been found to support government actions and inactions, the
privately-owned media organisations tend to be more critical of
government actions (Edeani, 1991). In spite of this manifest differing
stand on issues affecting government interest, mass media organisations
in Nigeria have been contributing immensely to national development.
We shall examine more of this in the next segment of this unit.

3.2 Mass Media Functions in National Development

As rightly observed earlier on, the Nigerian mass media have been
contributing to national development. In discussing the functions of
mass media in national development therefore, we will rely on earlier
categorisation by McQuail (1987). This resolve is supported by the fact
that “all mass media, whether in the developed countries or less
developed countries (LDC) serve the same function” (Onwumechili and
M’Bayo, 1990). The functions as articulated by McQuail (1987) are as
shown below.

1. Information
a. Providing information about events and conditions in society
and the world.
b. Indicating relations to power.
c. Facilitating innovation, adaptation and progress.

2. Correlation
a. Explaining, interpreting and commenting on the meaning of
events and information.
b. Providing support for established authority and norms.
c. Socialising.
d. Coordinating separate activities.
e. Setting orders or priority and signaling relative status.

3. Continuity
a. Expressing the dominant culture and recognising sub-cultures
and new cultural developments.
b. Forging and maintaining commonality of values.

4. Entertainment
a. Providing amusement diversion, as a means of socialisation.
b. Reducing social tension.

5. Mobilisation
a. Campaigning for societal objectives in the sphere of politics,
war, economic development, work and sometimes religion.

164
MAC 316

To drive the point home, Nwodu (2005 provides seven nuggets of mass
media functions in Nigeria’s national development as follows.

1. Encouraging Nigerian citizens to engage in meaningful activities

that can enhance their overall economic well-being.

2. Enlisting the support of and encouraging political leaders to

enthrone and embrace true democratic pattern of governance that
will guarantee better life for all Nigerians and by extension
inculcate in them the spirit of nationalism, as well as participating
actively in the nation’s political process.

3. Enlisting the support of various levels of government and donor

agencies via persuasive editorial and other persuasive contents, to
help create enabling environment for fighting the social problems
enumerated above.

4. Winning the sympathy of the tradition-bound peripheral dwellers

to join the crusade against harmful cultural practices that impinge
on overall mental and physical development of Nigeria citizens.

5. Providing adequate information on how to avoid the spread of

HIV/AIDS, breast cancer, and sundry health problems ravaging the
citizens, particularly in the rural areas.

6. Drawing adequate attention to the ecological problems and threats

confronting the nation, especially in the rural areas.

7. Sensitising industries to operate in a socially responsible manner

that would make their very presence a blessing rather than a curse
to their host communities as well as providing a healthy platform
for the production of goods and services.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Mass media of any nation certainly play significant role in national

development of that nation. For instance, the mass media have been
active in informing, educating, entertaining and mobilising the audience
members for national development.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit examined the nature of mass media ownership in Nigeria. It

also examined the functions of mass media in national development. To
sum, mass media provide information, entertainment for escape from the
ordinary, education, social mobilisation and advocacy for support of
national development cause.

165
MAC 316 MODULE 3

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the patterns of mass media ownership in Nigeria, pointing out

how such ownership impacts on mass media roles in national
development.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Edeani, D. O. (1990). “The Influence of Ownership on Mass Media

Coverage of MAMSER.” Nigerian Journal of Mass
Communication, Vol.1 No.1.

MaQuail, D. (1987). Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction.

Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Nwodu, L. C. (2005). “Making Career in Development

Communication.” In: I. E. Nwosu, J. E. Aliede & I. Nsude (Eds).
Mass Communication: One Course, Many Professions. Enugu:
Prime Targets Ltd.

Onwumechili, C. & M’Bayo, R. (1990). “Structure and Functions of

Mass Media in National Development in Africa”. In: P. O. Nwosu,
C. Onwumechili & R. M’Bayo (Eds). Communication and
Transformation of Society: Developing Regions Perspective.
Lanhan, NY: University Press of America, Inc.

166

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