CHAPTER 5 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Controllers 5.1 INTRODUCTION Fluids, either liquids or gases, are the most versatile medium for transmitting signal and power, Liquids and gases can be distinguished basically by their rela- tive incompressibility (gases are compressible while liquids are incompressible) and the fact that liquids may have a free surface, while gases expand to fill their volume. In engineering terms, fluid systems that use liquid are termed hydraulic, and those systems that use gas are termed as pneumatic. Hydraulics has become an integral part of a wide variety of industrial and mobile equipment. It forms the subsystem of many machines deployed in agri- culture, material handling, machine tools, construction, defence, aerospace, ro- botics, and other industrial applications. Hydraulically operated controllers for industrial process control provide great power and positive action, since they employ high-pressure oil as auxiliary power. The disadvantage with the hydraulic systems is that their behaviour is nonlinear. But, sometimes, it is possible to linearize certain nonlinearities and permit solutions which are sufficiently accurate. Three areas of control employed in hydraulic system are: Pressure control: Regulating energy transfer by adjusting pressure level Flow control: Regulating the rate at which energy is transferred by adjusting the flow rate Directional control: Regulating the direction of distribution of energy There are numerous factors that account for the widespread use of hydraulics: in industrial operations. The plus points that attribute to the popularity of hydraulic circuitry are: positiveness, accuracy, flexibility, high power-to-weight ratio, fast starting, smooth and precise stopping and reversal, availability of both linear and rotary actuators, and simplicity of operations,plications trot Principles andl App a Corr ‘ontrol”, one fj 122 Proces nd Control”, nd on “asec al 8core”, jarines ¢ ere pret re t ame fae of pneumatics’ var esi ', “pneumatic Process ale a O8 ji . iy vt" “pneumatics 1 digita indicate that pneumatics js try; fs not dead yet o", These s finding ways wed time nd it is and ee ans apis pe felt in ind its presence lic systems, pneumag tetanoe A edi Ait as medi mh ere es in special situations) as 7 use air (or other gase nost Negligible visog f being noninflammable; and it has almo advantage of pared igh ids which varies consid draulic fluids WI the viseosity of hydr ne \ A re, ibs ; marked effect on perfor temperature, v capal Pneumatic systems have proved to be caps ble and reliable in contro} a r of contamination ang clear of con should be kep\ ciently. The inherent 'e supply pipelines s! efficiently. ‘erent rat Wk the ets Saeahee response, Often the me : gystems slows sociated with pneumatic syst or essure) converters are equi Gicsets aevikina! output, so I-P (current to pres le 5.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF HYDRAULIC CONTROLLERS Most of the advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic ae eee from Properties of hydraulic fluids, so let us fe sous aac thei erties. The most d hydraulic fluids are , Properties. The most commonly use: i ra " Water emulsion, water glycol, Phosphate ester ete, The choice of hydraulic fluid isa Significant factor in hydraulic controllers. Desirable Properties of Hydraulic Fluids * It should have low compressibility to transmit the force a Within the system to some other location as * The operating fluid should be Piston valves, and thin enough ny ae » ipplied at one end efficiently as possible, r thick enough to seal the close tolerances of ‘o flow freely within the system, * It should have good thermal conductivity to carry the heat away. * It should provide lubrication to minimize friction in the bearing and be- tween sliding parts, Advantages of H. lydraulic Controllers * High rv, ine of operating pressures (1-35 MPa) * High speed of response * Power gain is very high © Self-lubricatin lg Property of the and life working fluid results in better performance * High concentration of pow. * Availability of both linear ‘er within a small dimension and rotary actuators which gives flexibility in design * Can be operated under continuous, ditions without any 4 intermittent, reversing, lamage and stalled con-Hytrese ad Premmmate Cortcoters 123 + Comparatively senall sire hydreulic sttuators can develop large forces oF torques e Hydraulic power is not available readily and is costly. + There exist fire’ and explosion ligrards, uniews fire-resistant fluids are used + Contaminated oi! may cause failure in proper functioning of the hydraulic system, so filters are required. e Hydraulic controllers have to be checked periodically for oil leaks and worn hoses. ¢ Nonlinear and other complex ics are involved in hydraulic sys- tems which make design of sophisticated hydraulic systems quite compli- cated Hydraule circuits in general have poor damping characteristics. Improper design may render the system unstable. Electrohydraulic systems efficiently use the muscle power of hydraulics and the precision of electrical systems. The advent of miniature, reliable, and inex- pensive electronic devices, combined with the industrial demand for automation has led to an unprecedented growth of hydraulic devices and technology. 5.3 BASIC UNIT OF HYDRAULIC CONTROLLER Hydraulic circuits are capable of producing many different combinations of mo- and force. All these forces are fundamentally the same, regardless of the application. Hydraulic systems consist of four main components: 1. Reservoir to hold the hydraulic fluid 2. Pump to force the fluid through the circuit 3. Valves to control the fluid pressure and flow 4. Actuators to Convert the hydraulic energy to mechanical energy The most extensively used valves in the hydraulic systems are the Sliding Spool Valves. A sliding spool four-way valve which is the basic unit in hydraulic controller 1s shown in Fig. 5.1. It is also called pilot valve. The spool may be shifted to either direction. If shifted to the right, as shown in the figure, port 4 will be open to drain and port B will allow high pressure oil entering through port Pw move the piston of power cylinder to the left. The exact opposite event takes if the spool is shifted to the left. 4 simple relationship between the flow rate Q and the displacement y can be derived by utilizing basic laws of physics. More is the opening of ports A and B, more would be the oil flow into the power cylinder which will increase the speed at which the piston of power cylinder moves. Flow rate Q is proportional to displacement x of spool valve, hence can be written as: Q = kx, where k is a constant of proportionality. The cross-sectional area of the power cylinder is 4 The speed of piston of power cylinder is proportional to flow rate Q.ml Therefore, y= K[xdt, where K For a particular x, y is an integral of x. Here, x may remepent error, While y represents controller output. Hence, this basic unit functioning In open-loop con. figuration acts as an integral controller. 5.4 HYDRAULIC PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER an integral controller can be modi- The basic unit of a hydraulic system acting as fied by including feedback, which transforms it into a proportional controller. The left side of pilot valve is joined to left side of power piston by a floating link. Figure 5.2 depicts the functioning of a hydraulic proportional controlller. If x moves to the right, valve B is uncovered, and the master piston moves to the left to move pilot piston to left. This action continues till pilot piston again covers both port A and port B. The block diagram of this system is shown in Fig. 5.3. K re eee ee iG Boose a a+b||1+GH Sla+bFig. 5.3 Block diagram representation of hydraulic P-controller G is the forward path transfer function (-4) and H is the feedback path a transfer function | = a+b Under normal operating conditions GH > 1, 26) . 5 _ x E(s)_ a ’ The controller sensitivity XK, can be adjusted by changing the ratio (da), 5.5 HYDRAULIC Pi CONTROLLER P[ mode can be realized by putting a spring-damper in the feedback path as shown in Fig. 5.4. Block diagram of this system shown in Fig. 5.5 has an extra block consisting of spring and dashpot (also called damper) in the feedback path. Spring force is proportional to relative displacement, while damping force is proportional to relative velocity. The force balance equation at point z is: By - Bz =K,z Taking Laplace transform, Bs ¥(s) = K, Z(s) + Bs Xs)K Ns) Ba) b x) K ath 1) | _Bs a 1 ath Bs + Ky Fig. 5.5 Block diagram of hydraulic PI controller 2s) ___ Bs Ys) Bs+K, K Oana Bs) lard} fa PK] os *la+d s || Bs + K, Assuming GH > 1, ¥(s) _[_b [ot] | E(S) |atbjL a Bs 2) 5,8) E(S) a\ Bs. i 4 which is an equation for PI mode with K, = © and K, = Ke . Integral gain a can be adjusted by adjusting the damping coefficient B and spring stiffness K,, while proportional gain is adjusted by changing (a/b) ratio.Hydraulic and Preumatio Controllers 127 5.6 HYDRAULIC PD CONTROLLER The schematic diagram of pp _ and restrictions, Pneumatic bellows side walls of bellows are as shown in Fig, §.7 Th increase in pressure withi between the input and Output surfaces, troller is shown in Fig. 5.6. It contains bellows The force acting to separate the two surfaces = (AP) A where A is the area of each flat Surface; and AP is the differential pressure (internal pressure ~ external Pressure), ‘The force opposing the separation = K (Ax) where K is the stiffness of the bellows, and Ax is the displacement of movable surface from the reference, Drain P, Drain Valve 1 Drain P Drain Fig. 6.6 Hydraulic PD controllerications 128 Process Control: Prneinies and fore, at equilibrium state, K (0) = (AP) A 4 ei avis) . A — c Sy Ooi RPO Goce One can find the relation between P, by making electrical analogue of ,, (hq O Fig. 5.7 Preumatic bellows 4 ic system tion and bellows, Bellows and restrictions in a ail snalogue gu capacitors and resistors in an ¢l im! Meuit lectrical sys ‘ 7 bellow and restriction arrangemen A $8. 2 1 is shown in Fig: ah a Pressures are equivalent to potentials. Resistance in hydraulic line ig equi to resistor in electrical circuit. Bellow in Valen, hydraulic system is equivalent to i to current. ci. tor and fluid flow in hydraulic system is equivalent Hag ruil V(s) RCs+1 HO ales P(s) RCs+1 where 2 is the resistance of the valve and ( Figure 5.9 is the block diagram representation 0! shown in Fig. 5.6 In Fig. $.8(a), In Fig. 5.8(b), Cis the capacitance of the bel}, f the hydraulic PD contre (a) Electrical system (b) Hydraulic system Fig. 5.8 Electrical analogue of bellows and restriction ms) £0) | Pas) tH ‘a 20)[ x, |) Ky | birdy Se 1 ab 1 + RCs| byte Fig. 5.9 Block diagram representation of hydraulic PD controllerHydrautie and Pneumatic Controiers 129 Assuming GH 1 for both the loops, Ys). Gb KiAy FU) a\bKyA Ces ty “KAN + Tay This is transfer fiction Of PD comtrotter wig, K,= WAKA snd Ky T,= RC ” ayb)KyAy 5.7 HYDRAULIC PID CONTROLLER This mode can be yealized by adding a spring and a damper in the feedback path of valve 2 of the PD controller. Now, the controller is nothing but a combination of PD and PI controller; the resultant is a PID conmoller as shown in Fig. 5.10. The block diagram representation of the hydraulic P/D controller is shown in Fig. 5.11 Assuming GH > 1 for both the loops: Drain P, Drain e fe x Valve t a u- Ay Ky s Po Pe. Drain Pi Drain ¥ ‘ br Valve 2 B fi y Pe | Fig. 5.10 Hydraulic PID controller Ms) Peis) ay i Me) Ky [YO K, kl * s Us) — Pols) an 7 by i Bs 4 NG oe \by+by Bs +K, | lar +aal | Ky | he RCs Fig. 6.11 Block diagram representation of hydraulic PIDanc Apencation® 190 Process Controt prncipiee . s comparing with ro ebtauncrsft) e PID manets Fis) ahKa ts nck, , &) equati ay by Ay{ ace 145 Bs a by Ky A kK, > Ky= ND HYDRAULIC N PNEUMATIC Al 5.8 COMPARISON BETWEE! SYST is ereas in hydraulic The fluid generally found in pneumatic systems Re i Bees tes pt tems, it is oil. The different properties of the fluids 1m characterize the differences between t pr > Air and gases are compressible, whereas oil } © Air lacks lubricating property and contains W2 as a hydraulic fluid as well as lubricator © The normal operating pressure of pneumatt lower than that of hydraulic systems. . s poor at low velocities whereas be kept at a satisfactory level at all | is incompressible. er vapour. Oil functions ic systems is very much ® Accuracy of pneumatic actuators 1 accuracy of hydraulic actuators may velocities. © Output power of pnet hydraulic systems. © In pneumatic systems, extemal leakage is permissible to a certain ex- tent, but internal leakage must be avoided because the effective pres- sure difference is rather small. In hydraulic systems, internal leakage is permissible to a certain extent, but external leakage must be avoided. * No retum pipes are required in pneumatic systems when air is used. In contrast, hydraulic systems do require return pipes. © Normal operating temperature for a pneumatic system is 5~60°C. The pneumatic system can be operated in 0-200°C range. Pneumatic systems are insensitive to temperature changes in contrast to hydraulic systems in which fluid friction due to viscosity depends greatly on temperature. Normal operating temperature for hydraulic systems is 20-70°C. umatic systems is considerably less than those ofHives ved Wr nrinten tinrmvemiars N09 + Preninatie evatene are fe m travwwe bry Aomutie wylenaeaane Ani wapilemien preet, wherene hy’ © Preuiatio ayetenie are eltiple, eaey to matte 6.0 BASIC UNIT OF PNRUMATIO SYSTEM) FLAPPER HOZZLE Hopper valve ot Mapper niente slverwn im Pig 9.1.2 bo an bryveontant cement of pneumatic evatenie. The pawver eenirwe ie the eupyply af mir at eevrmetant prenmur® Hreseurived alt is fed through the aFifiee and is ejected from the noncle wr warts the Happer The flapper is pritioned agminet the ruvarte opening. are! ve nogele back pressure / ia controlled by the neasle Mapper dimtanee, «Ae the Happet appronches the nozzle, resietanee to airflow through the muzzle ineremeer Whe the flapper blocks the nosvle completely, 7%, becuenes equal lo thet euppty pressure 7 Tithe flapper moves away from the nuzzle, reaistanee t witflerw decreases IF the Novzle-Happer distaree ia liege, then there is practically ne restriction (6 alfflow, and the hozete back piremsure tikes cr a Frriniimern vatiw close to the ambient pressure, Meetrioal equivilent eirenit of the Nepper nezcle (shows In Fit 9-1) could he A apply Voltage ¥, eanineeted iis werion with w fixed roaistor A, and a variable resistor , Air eupply, orifice, and Mapper nezzle epers ing are analogous 16 voltage supply, fixed resistor, and variable rewiatinee Freeper tively Without fled resittor, there would be no change acrows the varable revietor (that explains the importance of orifice) The voltage across A, can be written a: a olega Ren " K+ RK, on a IDK, © 0. 1.0, flapper is fir away from nozzle, then ¥,* OV And if R, ©, Le, Mapper is covering the nozzle, then VK Thus, the flapper valve converts small changes in flapper position inte larger changes in the back pressure, A typical curve relating /j, and x is shown tm Vig. 5.14. The linear part of the curve is utilized in the valve operation. Nogzle Orifice + i wy, watt tronman won: Pres arn AA _ vor die perenne Femien, 6 tan, ' fey funetiott ot the valve ie Linen ert £5 ‘ ae i (Heer a5 yy AO ok (Kip % AAW) Vp, ‘ wit the linear part of the eurve) 4 coreg ha ob Den op call Ms A) (at by lo) nerensen, Conte | K <0. As error (flapper maves away from norte) y AMMO output decreanen, Note V6 Air in boing consumed continuously except i pla coal covered, The nozzle diameter is made anal (0 ae tha rensurenien, fos bp of air, and also to ascertain that the flapper moves IY ce deruiecionane he no7s the leaking air, The orifice diameter ix sralter than 1 the et drop in pressure, Hut, if the orifice is made too ornall, then there ig 4 slew | Jine, vasiblity of i yetting plugged up by dust particles in air supply line, i; Typical pi Aa nozzle and orifice are 0.025 be ie ‘ma 0.010 inch (0.25 mm) respectively. Air supply pressure usually ee poi. The sensitivity of the aystem is very high, A change of about 0,0001 inch in flapper movement changes the back pronsure by 1 pai, When the gap between nozzle and flapper (baffle) is 0,006 inch, the back pressure reduces o 1 psi A valve operated by this mechanism will essentially be either in open or in closed position, Pneumatic Relay (Power Booster) 4 For the flapper valve, it is necessary to restrict the range of flapper displacement to a very small value so that the linearity of operation is maintained, In linear range of operation, the change in output pressure is very small; therefore, a pneumatic amplifier has to work in cascade with this device, This pneumatic amplifier is commonly known as “Pneumatic Relay”. A typical combination of flapper valve and pneumatic relay is shown in Fig, 5.15. A ball is attached to the lower surface of the bellow, When the ball rests on its upper seat, the atmo- spheric opening is closed and the output pressure P becomes equal to the supply pressure P,, When the ball rests on its lower seat, it blocks the air supply and the output pressure drops down to ambient pressure, The output pressure can thus be made to vary from ambient to full-supply pressure. The movement of the flapper away from the nozzle causes P, (back pressure) to decrease, thus the bellows contract, moving the ball upwards, As a result, the atmospheric opening closes partially and the output pressure increases. When the flapper moves towards the nozzle, back pressure increases and output pres- | sure decreases. It is thus observed that an increase in separation between theFs Ball Fig. 5.15 Pneumaticrelay nozzle and flapper brings the back pressure down in a flapper valve, whereas the same setting boosts the output pressure when used in combination with a pneu- matic relay, The transfer function of the combination is, therefore: AX(s) Irrespective of ball position, excluding when the ball is at the top, the pneu- matic relay is bleeding air to the atmosphere, so it is also called as “bleed relay”. K, K>0 5.10 PNEUMATIC PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER Figure 5.16 shows the schematic diagram of a pneumatic proportional controller. ‘The nozzle-flapper amplifier constitutes the first-stage amplifier where nozzle back pressure is controlled by the nozzle-flapper distance. The pneumatic relay constitutes the second stage amplifier. The nozzle back pressure determines the position of the diaphragm valve for the second-stage amplifier which is capable of handling a large quantity of airflow. ‘The operation of the pneumatic proportional controller is as follows. The input signal to the two-stage pneumatic amplifier is the actuating error signal. Increasing the actuating error signal moves the flapper to the left. This move will in turn increase the nozzle back pressure and the diaphragm valve moves down- ward, This results in an increase of the control pressure, This increase will cause bellow feedback F to expand and move the flapper to the right, thus opening the nozzle. If the feedback element was absent, then it would have acted as on-off controller, The feedback element bring about a gradual, rather than abrupt change in back pressure. For proper operation of the controller, the motion of flapper by the feedback bellows should should be less than the motion by the measuring action. The relation between P, and x is linear, i,e., P, = K xeo . Nozzle a Pneumatic relay Fig. 5.16 Schematic diagram of a pneumatic proportional controller A a Fi 7 pobidel aa ‘or the flapper movement, we have, (25 (5) The bellows acts like a spring and the following equation holds true: AP.=K,y (K, is the spring stiffness of the bellows) ‘The transfer function between P. and E is given by FAO eed Mites East E(s) [a+b if a iA 14K) |] > a+b||K, Normally, the loop is so designed that GH >> 1. Under this assumption, P(s) E(s) Bs) |b Xs) Ps) | Gb gor |ar Wrepmsnos [ts Mery A @+s [— Zit Fig. 5.17 Block diagram representation of pneumatic proportional controllereae Hydraulic and Pneumatic Controtiers 195 | 5.11 PNEUMATIC PD CONTROLLER The addition of a restriction in the negative feedback path will modify the propor- tional controller to a proportional-plus-derivative controller, commonly called as pp controller. Consider the pneumatic controller shown in Fig. 5.18. Assuming again small changes in the actuating error, nozzle-flapper distance and control pressure, the operation of this controller can be summarized as follows: + For a small step change in e, the change in control pressure P will be instantaneous, which will affect control valve position. + The restriction R will momentarily prevent the feedback bellows from sensing the pressure change P_. + Thus, the feedback bellows will not respond momentarily, and the pneu- matic actuating valve will feel the full effect of flapper movement. As time goes on, the feedback bellows will expand or contract. | ! «At steady state, the feedback bellows acts like an ordinary feedback mechanism. | A block diagram corresponding to this pneumatic controller is shown in Fig. 5.19. K is a constant relating P_ (control pressure) and x is distance between nozzle and flapper, A is the area of the bellows, and K, is the equivalent spring constant of the bellows. The transfer function between P_ and ¢ is obtained using the block diagram. Ps) -( 6 } K 0 Ghd Tae a+b)\K, \ RCs+1 Assuming GH > 1 Eo) E(s) bK, = 2. S£(RCs+1 aor #2) >Fig. 5.19 Block diagram Ky and Ky= RC aA 1 ct the transfer function (RCs+1) inthe into a proportional-p} Thus, the delayed negative feedback or feedback path modifies the proportional controller 1 Tivative controller. 5.12 PNEUMATIC P/ CONTROLLER Considering small changes in variables, we can show that the addition Of a de. layed positive feedback will modify the proportional controller (shown in Fig. $29) to a proportional-plus-integral controller, commonly called as PI controller, The operation of this controller is as follows: © The two bellows (denoted by I and II) are connected to the control pressure source; bellow I without any restriction, and bellow II through a restriction, © Let us assume a small step change in the actuating error in left direction, © An instant change in control pressure P, follows the change in back pres. sure. Negative feedback action of bellow I is providing proportional control, ex yk T Bellow! Bellow II Fig. 5.20 Pneumatic PI controller‘orate and Preumatic Controtars 137 # Due to the restriction in by bellow 11 in the same de Plow Il there will be a delayed action tO rr OF tectuating error (positive feedback) direction of the orignal displace.” PPE by an additional amount in the The integral action of py bes Controller slowly the proportional action. If the Cancels the feedback generated by identical stiffness, then all the feeyn wea Ris ote end oe we reduc rero, jucing Introduct controller into an on-off controller, | ic the feedback - ion of R allows slow canceling of A block diagram of Pneumatic p; 1 variations in the variables, is shown Pig bo under the assumption of small ig. 5.21. b avd Xe) Pas) I RCs+1 Psd od Fig. 5.21 Block diagram of pneumatic PY controller added through two summers, K is a constant, is the equivalent spring constant of the bell controller is given below Ais the area of the bellows, and K, lows. The transfer function of this Ris) __b kK E(s) > (Assuming GH >> 1) Oe ee Sonera een a+b K, 1+ RCs p 20 7 eee bK,(1 " “ES (ala) Ree aes) ox This is the governing equation of PI controller with K,= Ly and T, = RC a 5.13 PNEUMATIC PID CONTROLLER A combination of the three pneumatic controllers (P, PI, and PD) yields a pro- portional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controller, commonly called as PID con- troller. Figure 5.22 shows the schematic diagram ofa PID controller and Fig. 5.23 shows the block diagram representation of the same under the assumption of small variations in the variables. Note that the feedback is delayed due to the integral RC path, so the error is effectively added through two summers. On the other hand, the feedback is accelerated due to the derivative RC path, so the error is effectively subtracted.— Fig. 5.22 Pneumatic PID controller Pas) 2) Z xX) 3 5 + ol 1 (RCs +1) [ale] Rey) Fig. 5.23 Block diagram of pneumatic PID controller, The transfer function of pneumatic P/D controller is: Ps) _ 1 Ieee eee (RERE IS P(s) 1+RjCs 1#RCs (RK, Cs+1)(R,Cs+1) Assuming GH >> 1, 2) = E(s) Rey oa FOy Els) «|! ea rs| 4) (RCs +1) (RCs +1) (R, = Ry )Cs bK, R +R, RRC Pe LT (Rit R, a BRT Bi Ry) Coad Ty= where K, =example 51 Consider the the preuime as . the two bellows are assumed assumed to be Iron ost win fg | stern «ane a which acne Dini Geese i suton oie etn tc it an Rac ong input pressure with the output Relate Pa) Stina a aan of ranster function step change in input pressure? i £ (steady state) For the valve and bellows 1, we can write, (8) ___1 (E5.1.1) Pls) R, Cs+1 Similarly, for the valve and bellows2, wecan write, 2) — _! es. 4.) RG) BGs Movement (X) of the bellows is given by: AP, —P)=KX (K = constant of proportionality) Or, A (P,(s) — P,(s)) = K X(s) (ES.1.3) Substituting Eq. (E5.1.1) and (B5.1.2) in Eq. (ES.13): 1 1 A -~ a Man Reni" KX) o, + 24) Sepa " B(s) KL (R\Cs-+1)(R, Co 1) For — P(s) = Is Xx) = 4 Ks (Ry = RCs (R,Cs + 1)(R, Cs +1)140 Process Contrat Principtes and Applioations | Vinal value is riven by Neamaynce * Xpee * 1 Mae * 0 The above result can be easily viewalized, At steady state, pressures the two bellows (P, and 7) became equal, and bellows being identicn), the agp Mechanical forve is zero, 80, Xl) © 0. Example 5.2 Se ee fuetion 5) eye Rw) 2 ’ ‘4 ky Pyne a F ‘ ‘a Fig. 66.2 Bollow system ‘ ‘Solution For the bellows with resistance R and capacitance C, the relation between Py and P, can be written as: h, \ 521 A RCS +1 Characteristic equation of the bellow is: P\A = (K, + Ky) X where K, is stiffness of spring and K;, is stiffness of bellow. Or, Pym Cente xk = (E5.2.2) A Substituting Eq. (85.2.2) in Eq, (B5.2.1) X(K, + Ky) 1 AP, RCs +1 re 1 Or, x ! x Po RCs+1” (K, + Ky) x 1 A |K’ ae where K’ = K, + K, and T= R Bo OTs+1(K,+K,) 1+TsLL : REC APIT Hydraulic and Pneumatic Controllers 144 ; ULATION EN In engineering terms, fluid Systeme 1 systems that use gay are termed pne Pressure Control, fluid control systems, hat use liquid are hydraulic, and those umatic, » and directional control are used in hydraulic The salient ady, bil hi ante, Systems are; Ppositiveness, accuracy, flex- ibility, high Power-to-weight ratio. fast starting, smooth and precise stopping and reversal Availabilit i : E 2 Y of both 2 implici operaenn lier and rotary actuators, and simplicity of Combinations of feedback different types of controlle: Basic unit of pneumatic to provide amplification, bellows, bellows with restriction, dashpots provide TS, ystem is flapper-nozzle; it is used with pneumatic relay Pneumatic systems are intrinsi of medium, and have higher Combination of bellows, and resistrictions providing immediate and delayed feedback are instrumental in different type of controllers, cally safe, provide less power, can allow leakage Operating temperature range. i EXERCISES be) Review Questions 1. 4. Draw the basic flapper nozzle System. What. is the need of fixed orifice in a flapper nozzle system? Compare pneumatic controllers with hydraulic controllers in terms of speed, power output, safety, and effect of temperature variations. Compare the properties of pneumatic and hydraulic system arising due to the medium they use. Explain the functioning of pneumatic relay with the help of a diagram.