Herpetological observations from field expeditions to North

Karnataka and Southwest Maharashtra, India

TODD R. LEWIS 1,6*, STEVEN PIGGOTT2, ROWLAND GRIFFIN3, PAUL GREIG-SMITH4,

GERALD MARTIN5, GREG BARRETTO5, KAUSHIK BAJIBAB5, JOHN THORPE-DIXON,
PETER PRODROMOU, MICHEAL FORDHAM, DAVID WILLIS, JACQUI TURNER,
ADAM RADOVANOVIC, DANIEL HOLLOWAY, REECE WOOD, NIGEL HAND,
STEVE LLOYD, MICHAELA CLAPSON, JAMES HENNESY and GREG OLDHAM
1 Westfield, 4 Worgret Road, Wareham, Dorset, BH20 4PJ. UK.
2
92 Northfleet Road, Peelgreen, Eccles, Manchester, M30 7PQ. UK.
3 Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, 655a Christchurch Rd, Bournemouth, BH1 4AP. UK.
4 Partnership Travel Ltd, Whitelion House, 64A Highgate High Street, London, N6 5HX. UK.
5 C/o Agumbe Rainforest Research Station, Suralihalla, Agumbe, Thirthahalli Taluk, Shivamogga

Karnataka 577411, India. www.agumbe.com and www.gerrymartin.in

6 Corresponding author: [email protected]

* The above authorship is open and its order does not denote authority.

ABSTRACT - The Western Ghats of India are one of the 34 global hotspots of biodiversity. They are
one of the most important large natural areas in the world and are fast becoming recognised for their
biological importance. The herpetofauna of the Western Ghats is hugely diverse, with many species
exhibiting rare, endemic styles of autecology and niche preference that could equal that of countries
such as Borneo and Madagascar. In this report we detail 18 amphibian and 37 reptile species from
eight sites following three expeditions to the Western Ghats from 2007-2009. The report details
species descriptions, habitat, ecology and conservation to alert the herpetological community to the
importance of future research to address the lack of knowledge in species ecology. It also presents new
information on species distribution and behaviour.

of significant biological importance. In this study

T HE Western Ghats are an expanse of hills along
the south western side of peninsular India.
They extend approximately 1600 km from the Tapti
we surveyed the following nine locations over two
years;
River south to the Arabian Sea. They rise from a
narrow coastal strip and form a barrier between the Kadamane Estate, Sakleshpur, north
Deccan Plateau and the coast. They cover 4.8% of Karnataka – This estate, located 7-800 m ASL,
India’s land mass (160,000 km2). The mountainous is comprised of 7000 acres of Tropical Moist
forests have two gaps which divide its description Evergreen forest (Holdridge, 1967). One thousand
and habitats into northern and southern types. The acres of the estate are monocultures of tea (Fig.
northern section, in which most of this study was 3). The estate is located centrally in the Western
conducted, is distinct in character and is named Ghats. Annual temperatures vary between 14-
Sahyadris (Kadur & Bawa, 2005). 30°C. The Western Ghats receive the brunt of the
The highest point across the Sahyadris range southwest monsoon rains as they arrive from the
is 2695 m ASL and elevation averages 1200 m. Indian Ocean. During monsoon up to 2000 mm
The northern section is 700-1000 m. As most of rain can fall and temperatures are lower than in
herpetofauna is found between 0-1200 m in the the dry season. The southwest monsoon typically
ranges, with the greatest diversity between 800 lasts through October with the northeast monsoon
and 1000 m, the majority of the Western Ghats bringing dry cool winds from the end of October/
provide amphibian and reptile montane habitats November until February/March. Natural habitats

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

on this estate were characterised by high canopy area has been managed as a reserve since 1972 and
tree species with patchy understorey pools. The is a major migratory bird passage (IUCN, 2005).
Kadamane estate was visited in June 2008. The habitat of the area is ‘Indomalaya Riparian
Ecozone’. Typical habitats include riverine reed
Agumbe Rainforest Research Station (ARRS), beds, broadleaf forests with Arjun Tree (Terminalia
Agumbe, north Karnataka – This privately owned arjun), Pandanus spp., Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia
biological station was set up in 2002 by Romulus spp. The rare endemic lily Iphigenia mysorensis
Whitaker following years of renowned research (Colchicaceae) also grows here. The reserve was
on Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra) that led to visited in February and September 2009.
successful televised portrayal of the species for
National Geographic. The reserve comprises eight Hongod Farm, near Nagarahole National Park,
acres at 700 m ASL that is bordered by primary Mysore, Karnataka – This relatively small farm
tropical deciduous rainforest (Fig. 1). Agumbe covers ten acres and is surrounded by reserve
boasts a similar climatic regime to the Kadamane forest. The farm grows Banana, Rice, Groundnut,
Estate with temperatures between 14-35°C and up Mango, Coconut and Cashew. The surrounding
to 4000 mm of rainfall p/a. Agumbe was visited in forest is primarily thorn scrub and Bamboo with
June 2008 and September 2009. dry deciduous forest toward the core of the national
park. Within these areas, there are ravines that
Devbagh Island Resort, Karwar – Devbagh is a are filled by rainwater runoff. These ravines hold
jungle lodge island resort two hours drive from Goa, puddles of water through the dry season. The farm
north Karnataka. It is off the mainland of Karwar. was visited in February and September 2009.
Devbagh is accessible from Karwar by boat.
Karwar lies on a strip of tropical sand bounded by Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Kodagu district
the Western Ghats on its east and the Arabian Sea (near Irrupu falls), Coorg, Karnataka - This
on its west. Its forests comprise secondary coastal sanctuary is approximately 950 m ASL. It has
forest, pine plantation and mangrove. Devbagh evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, as well as
was visited in June 2008. Shola-grassland habitat (Fig. 4). The Sanctuary
is bordered by agricultural fields and coffee
Hunsur Farm, Rathnapuri – This quiet and plantations. The eastern tip of the Sanctuary at
picturesque farm in Hunsur covers ten acres that Nagarahole National Park is separated by coffee
is mostly cultivated land. Crops include Mangoes, plantations. The sanctuary derives its name from
Arecanut, Sapota, Rice, Corn, Tomatoes and the Brahmagiri Peak (1607 m). Temperatures range
Coconut. The farm overlooks a large ephemeral from 5-32°C and mean annual rainfall varies from
lake that is a migratory passage for wading birds. 2500-6000 mm. The Sholas are made up of dwarf
The lake is also home to various raptors including evergreen trees or 'Krummholz' that are stunted
Indian Buzzards (Buteo buteo) and Brahminy Kites from strong winds. The part of sanctuary we visited
(Haliastur indus). Wild scrub covers one acre and was last felled more than 80 years ago. The forest
Bamboo groves cover half a further acre. We visited comprised dry to moist deciduous forest with
in February and September 2009. Bamboo and hardwood species. Numerous lianas,
tree saplings (< 2m), shrubs (< 1m) and grass
Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary, Mandya, species (Graminae) were also present. Decaying
Karnataka – This small reserve (0.67 km²) logs were liberally scattered across the forest floor.
comprises six islets on the Kaveri River. The islets We visited in February 2009.
formed when a dam across the Kaveri River was
built in the 1700s. The ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali Wildernest Lodge, Chorla Ghats, Goa – This
discovered the islets' importance for nesting ground small and beautifully presented eco-lodge is
birds and persuaded the Wodeyar Kings of Mysore nestled in the Swapnagandha valley among forest
to declare the area a wildlife sanctuary in 1940. The at 800 m ASL. Its forests consist of deciduous,

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

Figure 1. Primary tropical deciduous

Rainforest bordering ARRS. Photograph by
Todd Lewis 2008. ▲
Figure 2. Semi-evergreen forest habitat
at Wildernest. Photograph by Steve Lloyd
and Michaela Clapson 2008. ▲ ►

Figure 3. Tea plantation with mixed forest. Figure 4. Montane evergreen forest with and Chorla grassland habitat.
Photograph by Todd Lewis 2008. ▲ Photograph by Rowland Griffin 2008. ▲

secondary semi-evergreen and wet deciduous types education. It has a plantation that is forested with
(Fig. 2). The Nature Conservation Facility has native trees and intercropped organic Cardamom,
been established at Chorla Ghats to assist research Coffee, Black Pepper, Vanilla, Kokam, fruit trees
and long-term monitoring of the Western Ghats and spices. Mojo Plantation was founded in 1996
of the Sahyadris region. The project is providing by Drs. Sujata and Anurag Goel and provides
a platform for ecologists and wildlife biologists opportunity for research and ecotourism. The eco-
working in the Chorla Ghats and is a fully equipped lodge was visited in September 2009.
field station. Wildernest was visited in June 2008.
SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS
Mojo Rainforest Retreat Madikeri, Karnataka –
AMPHIBIA
The Rainforest Retreat at Mojo, 10 km northwest of
Madikeri is a sustainable eco-lodge. Its plantation ANURA: Bufonidae
is a unique project that combines eco-tourism Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider 1799).
with sustainable agriculture and environmental Common or Indian Toad. - This medium sized toad

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

(measured at 76.2 mm SVL) (Daniel, 2002) was Fejervarya rufescens (Jerdon, 1853). - Another
found in wet grassland areas at Agumbe and on a non-descript Fejervarya frog with a brown
concrete bridge on Hongod farm. Specimens had granulate body. The genus as a whole is suspected
red, yellow and tan mottled dorsum with cream/ to be paraphyletic. However, too few species are
white ventral coloration. The skin was tuberculate sufficiently documented to draw a clear taxonomic
with black tipped warts. Specimens had large boundary at present. The dividing line runs
glands on the nape. Juveniles of < 20 mm SVL mostly between South Asian and Southeast Asian
may be mistaken for other Bufonids due to a lack species, but there are molecular anomalies (e.g. F.
of cranial ridging (Daniel, 2002). This species is nicobariensis) (Islam et al., 2008). The widespread
very common and ubiquitous in India. F. limnocharis has been suspected to be a cryptic
species complex and a number of populations have
Dicroglossidae undescribed species (Islam et al., 2008). Kuramoto
Fejervarya cf brevipalmata (Peters, 1871). - F. et al. (2007) proposed Minervarya as a synonym
brevipalmata is a small brown leaf-litter frog with of Fejervarya based on previous molecular work
a pointed snout and well developed toes that are by Kurabayashi et al. (2005). Kurabayashi et al.
almost entirely webbed. The frog is distinguished (2005) included species from Southern India and Sri
from other Fejervarya spp. by prominent sub- Lanka for the South Asian clade of Fejervarya but
articular tubercles and an oval shaped metatarsal did not include Minervarya sahyadris (previously
tubercle. Males have two internal vocal sacs. This Fejervarya). If phylogeny proposed by Kuramoto
species is prominent across the Western Ghats in et al. (2007) is confirmed then this small frog will
wet evergreen forest where it breeds in temporary change its terminal position in the phylogenetic tree
ponds (Biju et al., 2007). Some limb abnormalities and may influence other Fejervarya taxonomy.
have been recorded, possibly in relation to chemical In the Fejervarya-Minervarya complex, frogs
agriculture (Gurushankara et al., 2007). Specimens appear almost miniaturized with stumpy body
were seen at Agumbe in 2008 and 2009. proportions. This physiological modification is
a manifestation of niche driven adaptation. This
Fejervarya kudremukhensis Kuramoto, Joshy, factor supports an argument for distinct generic
Kurabayashi & Sumida, 2007. - Like F. allocation. Also, their choice of habitat, cryptic
brevipalmata this species has a brown/grey non- coloration and behaviour may cause them to be
descript body that is granulate. Its nose is typically mistaken in identity of larger common species’
pointed. This species is not as common as other progeny (Clarke, 1989). Minervarya sahyadris
Fejervarya spp. We found specimens at Agumbe was misidentified as Fejervarya syhadrensis,
among evergreen wet forest in 2008. a sympatric small sized species (Kuramoto &
Joshy 2001; Kadadevaru et al., 2002; Daniels
Fejervarya caperata, Kuramoto, Joshy, 2005). It is possible therefore that Minervarya
Kurabayashi & Sumida, 2007. - F. caperata spp. might be present in other populations in India
(previously F. limnocharis) was encountered in and misidentified as young Fejervarya. Future
Kunupatti in natural and man-man water bodies. researchers in India should be attentive in the field
This small (20-22 mm SVL) frog had a warty, where the Fejervarya-Minervarya complex exists
light mottled grey/brown dorsum with dark brown as new species may await discovery (Ohler et al.,
stripes on its limbs and digits (Fig. 6). F. caperata 2009; Radhakrishnan, 2009).
can be distinguished from other Ranids by half
webbing on the toes and by the first three phalanges Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin, 1803). Indian
that are free of webbing (Daniel, 2002). During Bullfrog. - The H. tigerinus we encountered was a
the breeding season males can be distinguished juvenile (89 mm SVL). It was mottled brown with
by a black vocal sac. Populations of F. caperata black and tan patches and flashes of bright green on
are threatened by pollution from pesticides in tea the dorsum. Adults have either a smooth dorsum or
plantations (Daniels, 2003). longitudinal glandular folds and vary from brown

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

to olive. The snout is pointed and the tympanum was mottled tan/brown with a stout body and short
distinct. Toes are webbed. H. tigerinus is found rounded snout. N. major has large prominent eyes
throughout India and Sri Lanka from 0-2000 m indicative of its nocturnal habits (Gururaja et al.,
(Daniels, 2002). The juvenile was encountered in 2003). It can be confused with N. humayuni but
Kunupatti in a shallow paddy field. The specimens is distinguished by its circum-marginal grooves
we encountered were at Brahmagiri in June 2008 in (Daniel, 2002). N. major ranges from Kerala to
an open field on the periphery of secondary forest. the Kalakkad forests in Tamil Nadu. It is becoming
rare from habitat reduction (Gururaja et al., 2003).
Microhylidae The specimens we found were in a trickling stream
Kaloula taprobanica Parker, 1934. Painted Kaloula. at Brahmagiri in February 2009.
- This medium sized frog (40 mm SVL) has distinct
dilation of the toe ends into discs. It has a small Ranidae
rounded snout, stubby head and distinct canthus Clinotarsus curtipes (Jerdon, 1853). Bicoloured
rostralis. The toes have developed discs, which are frog. - C. curtipes has a distinctive light grey/brown
webbed. K. taprobanica has a black/brown and red dorsum and black belly with dorsolateral folds.
patched dorsum (Fig. 10). Breeding males have This medium sized frog (74 mm SVL in females)
black throats. It is found in Bihar, Tamil Nadu, has smooth skin, a pointed snout, and depressed
Sri Lanka, Karnataka, Gujarat, Assam and Bengal head with canthus rostralis. It has a concave loreal
(Daniel, 2005). We found individuals in coastal and its first digit is longer than the second (Daniel,
plantation forest on Devbagh in June 2008. Several 2005). C. curtipes is found in Karnataka, Malabar,
specimens were observed at perch heights of 2.0 Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Papanasam and Tirunelveli
m in tree crevices. The tree the frogs had climbed (Daniel, 2002). We encountered a number of
had limited footholds and we surmise that the frogs specimens at Brahmagiri in June 2008. Tadpoles
may have crossed the canopy as well as moving were well developed, large (up to 70 mm TL), and
between trees terrestrially. K. taprobanica is a strong swimmers that frequented nearby streams.
fossorial species, but is recorded as scansorial and
a good climber (Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, Hylarana aurantiaca (Boulenger, 1904).
1996). It is found hear human settlement, rice fields Trivandrum Frog. - H. aurantiaca (previously
and water storage ponds. Mating begins when the Rana) is endemic to the Western Ghats. It has a
rains start and males call in aggregations. Eggs golden brown dorsum with light flecks and a cream
float in a single layer on the surface of ponds. The underside. It has a light coloured mask through the
tadpoles are black. This species is nocturnal and eye and a distinct light coloured lip. This species
feeds on insects (De Silva & De Silva, 1995). is gracile with long legs and a pointed snout. It
typifies a Ranid body type and has prominent
Ramanella triangularis (Günther, 1876). Malabar dorsolateral folds. It is a semi-arboreal and semi-
Narrow-Mouthed Frog. - One specimen was found aquatic frog, associated with wetlands in tropical
at Brahmagiri in February 2009. It was excavated moist, swamp, and coastal forest regions. In India,
from a hole behind a large stone. This species is larvae are reported from streams. Adults can also
a small, plump frog with a short, rounded snout. be found in tea and coffee plantations, but only at
The specimens we found measured 25 mm SVL. the forest edge. We found several individuals at
They had a black dorsum with two wide irregular Agumbe during rains in June 2008.
dorsal stripes. The forelimbs had orange blotches.
R. triangularis is rarely encountered at Brahmagiri Hylarana temporalis (Günther, 1864). Bronze
(G. Martin, pers. comm.). Frog. - This ranid has a bronze dorsum and a cream
venter. It has a white dorsolateral stripe, and a dark
Nyctibatrachidae brown lateral wash. Adults have a depressed head
Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger, 1882. Wrinkled with an elongate snout, and a white upper labial.
Frog. - This small species of frog (25.4 mm SVL) A specimen (50 mm SVL) was encountered in a

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

rock pool bordering a river in Brahmagiri Wildlife 2005; Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi,
Sanctuary in February 2009. 2005; Gururaja et al., 2007a; 2007b).

Ranixalidae Polypedates maculatus (J. E. Gray, 1830). Chunam

Indirana beddomii (Günther, 1875). Leaping Frog. or Indian Treefrog (Fig. 5). - P. maculatus is found
- This fairly abundant frog is found in the northern throughout India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and
Western Ghats and Tamhini areas (Dahanukar & parts of Bangladesh (Daniels, 2005). It has been
Padhye, 2005). It has a dark mottled brown body reported up to 1,500 m ASL. It is a welcome
with black horizontal lines on limbs and digits, indicator of a near-pollution free habitat. The
short stout body (38.1mm SVL), large head and species frequents communal day roosts with
prominent glandular folds on the dorsum. The both adults and sub-adults. The call is a sudden
specimens we found were on the edge of a shallow short and rapid series of rattling rat-tats. When
river, in a pool between rocks at Brahmagiri in temperatures are high it secretes moisture from
June 2008. I. beddomii populations are seriously the skin, pants and adopts lighter skin colours.
threatened by pesticide use (Daniels, 2003). It has been recorded from tropical dry and moist
forests, grasslands, agricultural areas, and human
Rhacophoridae habitation. It is largely arboreal, although can be
Philautus wynaadensis (Jerdon, 1853). - This small found in walls and under rocks and leaves. Males
yet vocal species has exhibits variation in colour have been reported calling from the ground. It
from light to dark greys, browns, and caramel. breeds in temporary pools and paddy fields.
Although widespread in the Western Ghats it
is an endangered species threatened by habitat Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870. Malabar
degradation and conversion (Biju et al., 2009a). Gliding Frog. - R. malabaricus is a large Tree-frog
We found and heard a variety of Philautus spp. (67-78 mm SVL), endemic to the Western Ghats
at every site visited in all years but were unable to (Kadadevaru & Kanamadi 2000; Daniels, 2002).
identify most to species. Most were small bodied The dorsum is bright green with black and white
(< 3.9 cm) shrub dwelling frogs with grey/brown dots (Fig. 8). The ventral surface is white. The toes
bodies and small toe-pads. Nearly all were found are yellow and have bright red/orange webbing
at perch heights of > 1.0 m among edge and (Kadadevaru & Kanamadi, 2000; Daniel, 2002).
deep forest. Some Philautus spp. are considered R. malabaricus has a short sharply pointed snout,
extinct by IUCN, while others are widespread obtuse canthus rostralis and a concave loreal region.
and abundant, such as the recently-described P. R. malabaricus was encountered at Kadamane (N =
abundus, named for this fact. The taxonomy of 3) and Agumbe (N = 4) in June 2008. All specimens
the group is unclear and many species are poorly were found on the edge of small running streams
described (Karthikeyan Vasudevan et al., 2007). among overhanging tree branches. The species is
Recently, Biju et al. (2009b) revised much of the known for its gliding escape behaviour.
genus with new species. The genus is unique due to
direct development of young inside the egg and no GYMNOPHIONA (APODA); Caeciliidae
free swimming tadpole stage (Biju, 2003) (similar Gegeneophis cf. danieli Wilkinson, Gower, Giri
to Eleutherodactylines in South America [Savage, 2003. Amboli or Daniel's Caecilian. - G. danieli
2002]). Some species have been found to bury their is a recently discovered species first documented
eggs in soil, although adults are generally arboreal, from near Amboli, in the Western Ghats of
and others attach their eggs to leaves (Bahir et al., Maharashtra (Giri et al., 2003). It is distinguished
2005). Philautus continues to inspire herpetologists. from other Indian caeciliids in having more
With over 145 species and new species being numerous secondary annuli that are not restricted
revised, discovered and rediscovered it will likely to the posterior. Within the genus, G. danieli has
remain one of the most speciose amphibian genera the most externally visible eyes and is postulated
in Asia (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, to live in the surface soil due to enhanced eyesight

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

Figure 5. Polypedates Figure 6. Fejervarya caperata. ©

maculatus. © Jacqui K.V. Gururaja 2006. ▲
Turner 2008. ▲

Figure 7. Gegeneophis
cf. danieli. © John
Thorpe-Dixon 2008. ►

Figure 8. Rhacophorus
malabaricus. © Todd
Lewis 2008. ►

Figure 9. Ichthyophis beddomei. © Steve Lloyd & Figure 10. Kaloula taprobanica. © Steve Lloyd & Michaela
Michaela Clapson 2008. ▲ Clapson 2008. ▲

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

Figure 12. Geckoella deccanensis. © Rowland Griffin

2008. ▲

Figure 11. Hemidactylus maculatus hunae. © Jacqui Turner &

Rowland Griffin 2008. ◄

Figure 13. Calotes versicolor. © Steve Lloyd & Michaela

Clapson 2008. ▲

Figure 14. Eutropis macularia © J.M. Garg 2008. ▲

Figure 15. Draco dussumieri. © Paul Greig- Figure 16. Hemidactylus maculatus. © Jacqui Turner and David
Smith 2009. ▲ Willis 2008. ▲

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Figure 17. Trimeresurus malabaricus. © Steve Figure 18. Hypnale hypnale. © John Thorpe-Dixon 2008. ▲
Lloyd & Michaela Clapson 2008. ▲

Figure 19. Ahaetulla nasuta. © Steve Lloyd & Michaela

Clapson 2008. ▲

Figure 20. Lycodon

aulicus. © Rowland
Griffin 2008. ◄ ▲

Figure 21. Calliophis

bibroni. © Daniel
Holloway 2008. ►

Figure 22. Amphiesma

beddomei. © Rowland
Griffin 2008. ◄

Figure 23. Ophiophagus hannah. © Todd Lewis 2008. ▲

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

(Giri et al., 2003). It is generally a grey to REPTILIA

lavender colour in life, however our specimen was CROCODILIA; Crocodylidae
almost dark blue-purple in shade on the underside Crocodylus palustris Lesson, 1834. Mugger
(Fig. 7). The specimen we found was resting Crocodile. - This relatively large crocodilian
under a rock next to a pathway around the (4.0-4.5 m TL) has an olive dorsum, with black
Wildernest hostel. speckles. The ventral colour is cream/yellow. The
back of the head has four raised post-occipitals.
Ichthyophiidae Protective scutes are present on the dorsum and the
Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879. Nilgherries toes are webbed (Daniel, 2002). This is a widely
or Beddome’s Caecilian. - This caecilian has a distributed and recognizable crocodile in India and
dark violet-brown body. There is a yellow lateral it inhabits many rivers and tributaries. C. palustris
stripe from head to tail tip (Fig. 9). Its upper lip occurs from 0-600 m. It is found from Baluchistan
and lower jaw are also yellow. Eyes are distinct. to Assam (west to east) of India and from Nepal to
Its tentacles are placed very close to the lip and Tamil Nadu (north to south). It is often confused
almost equidistant from eye and nostril. Nostrils with C. porosus (Estuarine or Salt-water Crocodile)
are positioned at the tip of the snout but visible and although hard to distinguish they are rarely
from above. The upper jaw slightly overhangs the present together. One female and two male C.
lower jaw. I. beddomei reaches 17.0-24.9 cm. This palustris were encountered in a small river in the
species is widely distributed in the Western Ghats Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary in February 2009.
(Bhatta, 1998). We found two specimens at ARRS
in a small, shallow, babbling stream on the fringe LEPIDOSAURIA; Agamidae
of an area of secondary forest. Calotes ellioti Günther, 1864. Elliot's Forest
Lizard. - This typically shaped agamid has an
Ichthyophis longicephalus Pillai, 1986. - I. olive/brown lichenous pattern with darker chevron
longicephalus reaches 270 mm when adult. This markings along the spine. It has keeled dorsal
caecilian has 438 primary and secondary annuli, scales and a black triangular mark behind the ear.
with eight of these on the tail (Pillai, 1986). It has In the breeding season males change colour and
long, conical tentacles with the aperture close to are somewhat blackish with patches. It also has
the lip (Bhatta, 1998). Its nostrils are terminally strong oblique fold or pit in front of the shoulder
positioned and can be seen from above (Bhatta and a transverse gular fold that distinguishes it
1998). The snout extends slightly further than from other Calotes spp. C. ellioti is endemic to
the mouth, giving them the long head referred to the Western Ghats. It is an arboreal lizard found
in its name ‘longicephalus’. The second collar in forest glades up to 1800 m ASL. We found this
has two incomplete dorsal folds (Bhatta 1998). species on the edge of tea plantations and evergreen
The tail is short and pointed, and the vent forest at Agumbe and Devbagh in 2008.
longitudinal with a white spot (Bhatta 1998).
Dorsal coloration is a uniform dark violet brown. Calotes versicolor Daudin, 1802. Oriental Garden
A yellow lateral stripe runs from the edge of Lizard (Fig. 13). - This agamid is famous for being
the second nuchal collar (Bhatta 1998). These polychromatic. The dorsum ground-colour is
caecilians are thought to be endemic to the generally a light brownish olive, but the lizard can
Western Ghats in wet evergreen forest habitat change it to bright red, black and a mixture of both.
(Pillai, 1986; Bhatta, 1998; Pillai & Ravichandran, During the breeding season the male's anterior turns
1999). Three other small bodied species of bright orange to crimson and his throat black. Males
caecilian were also discovered in the Chorla also turn red-headed after a successful battle with
Ghats, near Wildernest but were unidentifiable, rivals (Tiwaru & Schiavina, 1990). This species is
even to genus, in the field. They were found in the widely distributed from Afghanistan to China and
same habitats as giant centipedes and scorpions Thailand. It is mostly insectivorous but has been
(Mesobuthus tamulus). known to eat small rodents and lizards. Males

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

become highly territorial during breeding season. Geckoella deccanensis Günther 1864. Deccan
They discourage intruding males by brightening Banded Gecko (Fig. 12). - Two nominal species of
their red heads and performing "push-up" displays. Indian geckos, G. deccanensis and G. albofasciata,
Each tries to attract a female by inflating the throat. appear similar and have previously been regarded as
About 10-20 eggs are laid and they hatch in 6-7 conspecific. The two forms differ in dorsal scalation
weeks. Progeny are able to breed at approximately and juvenile colour. G. deccanensis has large,
one year old (Asana, 1931). We found this species flattened, juxtaposed dorsal scales and a series of
around the lodges at Devbagh in 2008. yellow cross-bands on a dark body. G. albofasciata
has smaller, heterogeneous, conical dorsal scales.
Draco dussumieri Duméril & Bibron, 1837. Its juveniles have a white dorsal trunk bands and a
Western Ghats Flying Lizard (Fig. 15). - D. yellow nape band (Bauer & Giri, 2004). We found
dussumieri is endemic to southern India and is the G. deccanensis at Wildernest lodge in June 2008
sole representative of the genus west of Assam among a pile of cut tree branches. The species is
in India. The recorded range of D. dussumieri also found at Bhimashankar Wildlife sanctuary,
shows a wide distribution along the Western Phansad Wildlife sanctuary and a few other select
Ghats in the states of Goa, Karnataka, Tamil forests in Maharashtra.
Nadu and Kerala (Daniels, 2002). It occurs in
a diverse range of habitats including evergreen Hemidactylus frenatus Dumeril & Bibron, 1836.
forests, moist and dry deciduous forests as well Southern House Gecko. - The four specimens of
as teak, coconut and arecanut plantations (Smith, this small and vocal gecko (ca. 63 mm SVL) were
1935). The species is characterized by a lateral found at Hongod Farm (near Nagarahole National
wing-membrane (patagium) formed by the skin, Park) in February 2009. H. frenatus is mottled
which is supported by the last five to seven brown/grey in coloration. The tail is striped with
elongated ribs. The patagium enables gliding for large lateral tubercles. This species has a large,
up to 20 m (Herre, 1958). D. dussumieri also triangular head and variable toe webbing (Das,
possess an elongate dewlap. Interestingly males 2008). Even though this species is known to
and females are dimorphic with respect to dewlap frequent manmade structures three of the four H.
length and colour of the patagium. Habitat frenatus we found were behind peeling tree bark at
fragmentation in the Western Ghats has had a approximately 75 cm perch height in forest.
negative impact on populations of this species
(Ishwar et al., 2003). Hemidactylus maculatus Dumeril & Bibron, 1836.
Rock Gecko (Fig. 16). - The three specimens we
Gekkonidae found (76-101 mm SVL) had cream/grey bodies
Cnemaspis littoralis Jerdon 1854. Coastal Day with parallel black dorsal spots. The toes of this
Gecko. - A small bodied gecko with a mottled species are clawed with small pads. All three
brown dorsum and tan specks. Three tan lines specimens were found on scrubland among short
are visible from cheek to nape with a triangular grass close to Hongod farm in February 2009. H.
pointed snout. C. littoralis has reduced toe maculatus is well distributed in southern India,
pads, reduced webbing and circular pupils but is restricted to the foothills of the Western
(Rösler, 2000; Manamendra-Arachchi et al., 2007). Ghats (Daniel, 2002; Das, 2008). At Kadamane in
The ventral scales are hexagonal, imbricate and June 2008, we also encountered the sub-species
smooth. C. littoralis is distributed from Malabar, H. maculatus hunae (Giant Leaf-toed Gecko)
Nilambur, Nellakota and on the west side of the (Duméril & Bibron) (Fig. 11). These were large (up
Nilgiris (Smith, 1935). It is an uncommon species to 11.0 cm SVL) and had a golden yellow dorsum
usually found on trees in dry teak forests. One with contrasting white spots. H. m. hunae also has
individual (63.5 mm SVL/350-400 mm TL) was granular scales and a distinctive golden iris. The
encountered at Brahmagiri in February 2009 in a 'hunae' race is only found in India at Malabar,
rotting log. Tirunelveli, Salem and Madras.

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

Scincidae species can look similar to Saw-scaled Vipers and

Eutropis macularia (Blyth, 1853). Bronze Grass the adults can be mistaken for Russell’s Vipers and
Skink (Fig. 14). - This small bodied skink had a Whitakers Boas. G. conicus is nocturnal (Whitaker
light bronze dorsum and cream imbricate ventral & Captain, 2004). One specimen was encountered
scales. The dorsum scales of this species has 5-9 at Agumbe in late 2009.
keels (Daniel, 2002; Das, 2008). E. macularia
(previously Mabuya) is characterized by two Colubridae
symmetrical dark brown stripes from the nape to Ahaetulla dispar (Günther, 1864). Günther’s Vine
the tail. The specimen we encountered was found Snake. - A. dispar is a medium sized, rear-fanged,
at Hongod Farm in February 2009 among low- arboreal snake (78 cm TL). It is endemic to the
lying Horn Scrub and short grass. E. macularia is southern Western Ghats and restricted in range
widely distributed in India and mainland Southeast to hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Whitaker &
Asia (Das, 2008). Captain, 2004). It has a long slender body with a
pointed elongate head. The eyes, which are large
Lygosoma punctata (Gmelin, 1799). - This small with horizontal pupils, face forward following a
bodied (< 4 cm SVL) species is found in India pre-ocular groove to the snout which gives this
and Sri Lanka. It has a brown body with a dark genus its characteristic look. Ahaetulla spp. appear
basal spot on each scale. It also has a yellowish similar to the neotropical genera Oxybelis and
dorsolateral streak. Juveniles are recognized by Xenoxybelis (Savage, 2002; Duellman, 2005). This
their bright red tails (a feature lost in adulthood). snake can be green or brown and is distinguished
We encountered specimens at Devbagh in June from A. nasuta by its shorter snout. One individual
2008 among leaf-litter near the lodges. was found at Kadamane Tea Estate in June 2008.

SERPENTES; Boidae Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacepède, 1789). Common Vine

Eryx whitakeri Das, 1991. Whitaker's Boa. - This Snake (Fig. 19). - This large arboreal snake (max.
sand boa, named after Romulus Whitaker, is a 2 m TL) is widespread throughout India, excluding
medium sized snake (79 cm TL). It has a brown the extreme north. It has a long slender body with
body with dark brown blotches. E. whitakeri a pointed elongate head. The rostral scale extends
resembles Gongylophis conicus. It differs by beyond the mouth which distinguishes it from A.
having a smooth scaled body, whereas G. conicus dispar. This species is uniform bright green with a
has prominent keels (Whitaker & Captain, 2004). yellow stripe separating the lateral from the ventral
The behaviour and natural history of E. whitakeri scales. A. nasuta was the most abundant snake
is poorly known, but it seems to be an excellent encountered in June 2008, with multiple specimens
climber and is nocturnal (Whitaker & Captain, found at every site except Devbagh. Only recently
2004). E. whitakeri is restricted to coastal areas has ARRS observed its ophiophagus habits.
of the Western Ghats, Kerala, Maharashtra and
Goa, from 0-60 m. One specimen was encountered Amphiesma beddomei (Günther, 1864). Bedomme’s
climbing up a wall in daylight at the Kadamane Tea or Nilgiri Keelback (Fig. 22). - This ornately
Estate in June 2008. marked, medium sized, snake (70 cm TL) has a
slender body and keeled scales. Adults have a
Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801). Rough brown ground colour. The first third of the body
Scaled or Common Sand Boa. - G. conicus is found has a chequered pattern of alternate black and white
throughout India. It is a medium sized snake (50- squares both laterally and on the dorsum. It has a
100 cm TL), with a body that is short, cylindrical dark postocular stripe and white labials with black
and thick. The tail is short and ends with an acute stripes. A. beddomei is endemic to the Western
point. The dorsum colour can vary from brown/ Ghats and prefers riparian stream edges where it
black to red/brown, with irregular dark brown/black is a significant predator of anurans. One individual
body blotches in a zigzag pattern. Juveniles of this was encountered at Wildernest in June 2008.

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

Amphiesma stolatum Linnaeus, 1758. Buff-Striped two subspecies C. helena helena and C. helena
Keelback. - This Keelback is widespread in India. monticollaris. The species is medium sized (700-
It is slender bodied (40-80 cm TL), with strongly 1680 cm TL) with a relatively slender body. Scales
keeled scales (Whitaker & Captain, 2004; Das, are smooth anteriorly and weakly keeled posteriorly.
2008). The dorsum colour is brown/grey with two The dorsum colour is light or dark tan with two
longitudinal yellow stripes running from the neck prominent black lines on the neck that becomed
to the tail. The anterior third of the body has black/ chequered. The anterior pattern smoothly leads into
brown spots or bars. The head is light yellow/olive, two large brown or black lines that reach the tip of
and the throat, lips and snout are orange/yellow. the tail (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004;
Three black stripes are present on the supralabials. Abyerami & Sivashanthini 2008; Das, 2008). C. h.
A. stolatum is diurnal and found within bushes, helena is active both diurnally and nocturnally and
thick grass, paddy fields and ponds (Whitaker is common throughout India from as far north as
& Captain, 2004). One specimen was seen at Jammu and Kashmir. C. h. monticollaris is endemic
Kadamane in 2008. to the Western Ghats (Das, 2008).

Boiga beddomei (Wall, 1909). Beddome’s Cat Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758). Common Wolf
Snake. - This arboreal cat snake has chevron shaped Snake (Fig. 20). - Wolf snakes are aptly named
brown/black body markings on a toffee brown because of their fierce dentition. Lycodon spp. have
background. It has bulging eyes and nocturnal enlarged upper front incisors. L. aulicus is a small
vertical pupils. Its body is laterally compressed (adults to 80 cm) snake with an ox-blood ground
with enlarged vertebral scales. Most specimens colour and narrow white dorsal bands that widen
have a dark postocular stripe. Average lengths are ventrally and blend into a white underside. Its head
120 cm. B. beddomei is rear fanged and has a mild is slightly flattened and broader than the neck. This
venom. The species appears similar to neotropical species is often mistaken for Bungarus spp. L.
Imantodes spp. (Savage, 2002; Duellman, 2005). Its aulicus is strictly nocturnal and often found around
diet consists mainly of lizards (Whitaker & Captain, houses, walls, stone piles and hollows of trees.
2004). It is found mostly in the Western Ghats in It lays a small clutch of 5-7 eggs in December/
India. Two individuals were encountered in June January in Chennai region but lays in March-July
2008, one at Kadamane and one at Wildernest. in northern India. It is ubiquitous across India. Care
must be taken when handling because of its nervous
Boiga ceylonensis (Günther, 1858). Ceylon/Sri disposition and potential to cause bad lacerations
Lankan Cat Snake. - This long species (132 cm when it bites. One individual was encountered at
TL) has a laterally compressed body with smooth Devbagh Island resort, Kawar in June 2008.
body scales and a long tail. Dorsum coloration is a
light tan to grey with dark brown/black patches in Lycodon travancorensis (Beddome,1870).
series down the vertebral line. The head has a black Travancore Wolf Snake. - This small (74 cm) Wolf
streak on the nape and a postocular stripe. This Snake has a dark brown/black ground colour with
species is found in the west of India including an iridescent sheen. It has thin (two scale rows)
the Western Ghats and Tamil Nadu. It looks yellow bands that separate into two ventrally
very similar to B. beddomei but is differentiated along the entire body. These bands can appear
by ventral (214-235 B. ceylonensis/248-266 B. white in the beam of a flashlight at night and
beddomei) and sub-caudal scalation (98-108 B. lead to confusing this species with Bungarus spp.
ceylonensis/113-127 B. beddomei) (Whitaker & (Whitaker & Captain, 2004). L. travancorensis is
Captain, 2004). endemic to India and has a disjunct and limited
range. We encountered this species under a plank
Coelognathus helena helena (Daudin, 1803). of wood at Wildernest in June 2008. The species
Common/Indian Trinket Snake. - C. helena was also encountered in September 2009 at the
(previously Elaphe) is currently recognized as Mojo Rainforest Retreat, Madikeri.

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802). Common Kukri Lycodon spp. (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain,
Snake. - O. arnensis can be distinguished from 2004; Das, 2008). B. caeruleus is a medium sized
other Kukri Snakes by the divided anal shields and snake (100-170 cm TL), with a slightly broader
from other Indian plain snakes from the 17:17:15 head than the neck. It has smooth glossy black,
scale rows (Daniel, 2002). This relatively small blue/grey or brown/black dorsum scales, with white
snake (35-66 cm TL) has a depressed head with a bands that are usually paired to the tip of the tail.
short blunt snout. Three distinct dark brown/black It is mostly nocturnal and encountered throughout
‘V’ shaped markings are present on the head. The India up to 1700 m ASL. B. caeruleus is highly
dorsum is brown with 10-20 dark brown/black venomous and one of India’s most dangerous
bands. O. arnensis is found throughout India, snakes. Its venom causes serious morbidity and
Pakistan, Sri Lanka Nepal, with the exception of fatalities within India and has a high affinity for
the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. It can be mistaken pre-synaptic neuromuscular receptors. However,
in the field for Bungarus spp. (Whitaker & Captain, the bite is not painful like other elapid and Viper
2004). We found this species at Devbagh in 2008 bites (Bawaskar & Bawaskar, 2004; Whitaker
on the edge of a shallow lake in 2008. & Captain, 2004). This species was found near
Agumbe and Hunsur Farm in September 2009.
Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758). Common Indian
Rat Snake. - This species has a bronze/brown Calliophis bibroni (Jan, 1858). Bibron’s Coral Snake
ground colour, though it can vary from yellow to (Fig. 21). - C. bibroni is a coral snake endemic to the
black. The species has large eyes and round pupils Western Ghats. It is dark purplish above with black
with vertical black lines that separate the lip scales. bands that continue onto the ventral region which is
Adult P. mucosa can resemble Naja naja (Spectacled bright coral red. This species is small (up to 64 cm)
Cobra) and Argyorena fasciolata (Banded Racer). It and terrestrial in habit. It prefers moist deciduous
is distributed throughout Southeast Asia and can be forests at 900-1000 m ASL. Its distribution records
found up to 4000 m ASL (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker are fragmented from four localities; Muthanza,
& Captain, 2004; Das, 2008). P. mucosa has been Wyanad wildlife sanctuary, Kannur district - Silent
seen at Kadamane and Agumbe on all expeditions. Valley, and Agumbe - Karnataka. The IUCN status
for this species is Endangered (EN). The Indian
Xenochropis piscator (Schneider, 1799). Chequered Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, lists the species
Keelback. - X. piscator is a medium sized and in Schedule IV (Anonymous, 2001). This species
robust species (60-170 cm TL) with strongly is known from the Western Ghats as far north as
keeled scales. It can be identified by 19 costals Coorg (Smith, 1943). Shankar & Ganesh (2009)
at mid body, supralabials touching the eye and produced the first known photographs of the
undivided anal shields (Daniel, 2002). The head species. Although not encountered as part of the
is broad, slightly rounded and has prominent eyes investigations herein, we were privy fortunate to be
with circular pupils. The dorsum colour is olive shown a rare specimen at Agumbe in June 2008.
brown/green, grey or black and can sometimes
show some yellow. The chequered body pattern Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802). Indian Coral
is produced by rows of black spots covering the Snake. - This relatively small species (35 cm TL)
body, which become less conspicuous toward the has an extremely slender, smooth scaled, brown
tail. X. piscator is a common water snake in India. body with two distinct black rings. It is blue on the
It was encountered at Kadamane and Agumbe in underside. The colour of the head is jet black with
2008 and 2009. white or yellow spots haphazardly arranged on the
head and nape. The dorsum colour is light brown
Elapidae and the ventral scales are bright red. C. melanurus
Bungarus caeruleus Schneider, 1801. Indian Krait. can be mistaken for Sibynophis subpunctatus
- B. caeruleus is identified by enlarged hexagonal (Duméril’s Black-headed Snake) (Whitaker &
vertebral scales. This feature distinguishes it from Captain, 2004). Information on this species is

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

meagre and its distribution has not been clearly fortunate to see two specimens at Agumbe in 2008.
defined. There have been records from Tamil Nadu, The first was a female that had been rescued nearby
West Bengal, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra from persecution. We released it at Agumbe. The
(Whitaker & Captain, 2004). This species was second, a male, was a specimen that was part of
found at Agumbe in 2008. a radio-tracking study undertaken by researchers
at ARRS. During our stay at Agumbe in 2008 the
Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758). Spectacled Cobra. male was found and then tracked visually from
- N. naja is a relatively large snake (100-200 cm approx. 10 m for about 1 minute before it retreated
TL) and is one of the big four venomous snakes into undergrowth. The specimen was possibly 12
in India. This species is identified by the famous feet with a healthy girth. Recently, ARRS presented
spectacled marking on the hood. The dorsum video footage of a King Cobra tracking down and
coloration can vary considerably, but browns, preying on a Trimesurus malabaricus (Malabar Pit-
dark yellows, greys and blacks are most common viper). The selected prey species was a first for O.
with a speckled or a banding pattern. The hood is hannah and the predation was observed for over an
produced from the elongation of the ribs from the hour. The specimen had followed a scent up a tree
third and the following 27 vertebrate and markings and chased the viper where it fell to the ground.
on this can vary. This is a common snake found The cobra continued to follow it, temporarily
throughout mainland India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, slowing down when the viper entered a stream. It
Bangladesh and Pakistan (Whitaker & Captain, then followed the vipers trail exactly and even tried
2004). This species has many look-alikes which attacking a small rock, which the viper had rested
include Argyrogena fasciolata (Banded Racer), on, acting upon its olfactory senses. It eventually
Ptyas mucosa and Coronella brachyuran (Indian found the viper's and consumed it. The viper's
Smooth Snake) (Whitaker & Captain, 2004). N. attempt to defend itself proved futile.
naja can be distinguished from these species by
the presence of a small ‘cuneate’ scale between the Viperidae
fourth and fifth infralabials and the presence of the Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797). Russell's
hood (Daniel, 2002). We found specimens at all Viper. - D. russelii is a robust snake with a short,
locations except Devbagh. thin tail (120-150 TL), triangular head and strongly
keeled body scales. It has a slightly elevated
Ophiophagus hannah Cantor, 1836. King Cobra snout and the head has dark triangular postocular
(Fig. 23). - O. hannah is the third largest snake in markings. The dorsum colour is light brown or grey
India and is the largest species of venomous snake with a series of dark brown or black oval markings
in the world (558 cm TL) (Daniel, 2002; Das, 2008). with white margins that run longitudinally on the
The colour within this species can vary from black/ body. The fangs of D. russelii are the biggest of the
olive green, to brown, with 32-43 stripes of white/ Indian vipers but this species will only strike when
yellow (Daniel, 2002). Hatchlings emerge with aggravated. Cases of bites occur more frequently
bluish black coloration and pure white banding. than for Cobras. Ariaratnam et al. (1999) showed
The head is relatively flat, with the hood being less that up to 73% of all bites in Anuradhapura were
profound and longer than cobras of the genus Naja. by Russell’s Viper. They are found throughout
The venom of O. hannah is not as toxic as N. naja India up to 2700 m ASL (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker
but the volume of venom injected during an attack & Captain, 2004; Das, 2008). D. russelii was found
is considerably more (approx. 7 ml). Attacks on near Hongod Farm and Agumbe in 2009.
humans are very rare. Antivenom for O. hannah is
manufactured only in Thailand. O. hannah can be Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801). Saw-Scaled
found in the Western Ghats, Goa, Utter Pradesh, Viper. - E. carinatus is one of the leading causes
West Bengal, and in the northeast Indian province of snakebite morbidity and mortality in the world
of Arunachal Pradesh and as far as the Philippines (Warrell et al., 1974). It is a relatively small species
(Whitaker & Captain, 2004; Das, 2008). We were (30-100 cm TL). The head is slightly broader than

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

the neck with large eyes and vertical pupils. It has 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). The neck of this
a stout body with a short tail. Several colour forms species is constricted giving the appearance of a
are present within the species. The general dorsum lance shaped head. This species has heat sensitive
colour can range from light or dark brown, grey pits between the nostril and eye and a prehensile
and brick reds, with distinctive zigzag patterns. tail. The dorsum is bright green with a light brown/
The head is usually marked with a distinct arrow yellow irregular line running down the vertebrae.
shape. E. carinatus is one of the big four venomous The labial scales are yellow and it has a dark
species in India. Its vernacular name is given from postocular stripe. T. gramineus is endemic to India
the rasping sound produced by scraping its highly and is found within the Western and Eastern Ghats,
keeled scales together when acting defensively. E. with northern limits of its range extending to the
carinatus has a boisterous temperament and is quick Dangs in Gujarat. It is sedentary and remains in
to strike. The species has a wide distribution that the same bush for several months during the dry
includes Africa, the Middle East, India, Pakistan season (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004).
and Sri Lanka (Warrell et al., 1974; Daniel, 2002; The bite of T. gramineus can cause swelling and
Whitaker & Captain, 2004; Das, 2008). Two pain. One specimen was seen at Agumbe in 2008.
specimens were encountered on a high plateau
close to Wildernest in 2008. Interestingly, it is only Trimeresurus malabaricus (Jerdon, 1854). Malabar
Northern Indian specimens of E. carinatus that can Rock Pit-viper (Fig. 17). - T. malabaricus exhibits
reach sizes of 1 m (G. Martin pers. comm.). As yet great variation in marking both ontogenetically
there are few explanations for this but it is possibly and between individuals. Adults have weakly
a prey related phenomenon. keeled body scales, a strongly lance shaped head
and short prehensile tails. They have prominent
Hypnale hypnale (Merrem, 1820). Hump-Nosed zigzag patterns of green, browns and olive with
Pit-viper. - This nocturnal snake (28-55 cm TL) has dark and/or yellow dorsal spots. Two specimens
a lance shaped head with a pointed snout. The head we found at Brahmagiri were encountered within a
is reddish brown with a dark brown or black jaw deep, narrow valley. A juvenile was coiled in a tree
that is separated by a thin white line (Fig. 18). It sapling approximately 2 m in perch height. The
has a stout body and often a brown/reddish dorsum second specimen, an adult female, was found next
with black triangles or circles on the flanks. Ventral to a streambed, sheltered between two rocks. The
scales can be yellow, grey or even light brown. The habitat of this species varies considerably from
tail is short and white in juveniles and used as a deep forest to edge vegetation. The neotropical
caudal lure (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, Bothriechis schlegelii (Eyelash Viper) also exhibits
2004; Das, 2008). This species has heat-sensing pits such variability in habitat and trophic layer
situated between the nostril and the eyes. H. hypnale (Savage, 2002). It is possible that habitat selection
is found in India only in the Western Ghats from in T. malabaricus, like B. schlegelii, is based upon
300-600 m ASL. It is moderately venomous when prey availability (Seigel et al., 2002). Further
compared to Daboia russelii and Naja naja. The behavioural study may reveal this. T. malabaricus
bite of H. hypnale causes acute pain and swelling is a species of medical significance and has been
but is rarely fatal. Only two reports of mortality recorded to cause 500 bites per annum (Simpson &
exist from H. hypnale bites (Premawardena et al., Norris, 2007). It is endemic to the Western Ghats.
1998). The individual of this mostly terrestrial In June 2008 T. malabaricus was one of the most
species was encountered at Agumbe in June 2008. frequently observed snake species with multiple
Unusually it was found in scrub at a height of 1 m. individuals encountered at Kadamane, Agumbe
and Wildernest.
Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802). Bamboo
Pit-viper. - This medium sized snake (40-110 cm Uropeltidae
TL) can be distinguished from other green pit- Uropeltis ellioti (Gray, 1858). Elliot’s Shield-tail. -
vipers by differences in the costal scales (Daniel, This small snake (25 cm TL) has a slender smooth

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 Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

scaled body, narrow head and sharp pointed snout. shallow, mud-bottomed stretches of streams and
It has a short tail that is slanted, appearing identical rivers. It is sometimes maintained in tanks within
to the head. The tail has two spines at the end. cities and villages. Possibly two clutches of round,
Dorsum and ventral scales are a gloss brown with hard-shelled eggs (29.8-31.1 mm) are laid each
small yellow spots. Yellow lines are present on the year (Das, 1995). Its diet comprises worms, snails,
head and tail. U. ellioti is endemic to India, being prawns, crabs, fish, and tadpoles, but also some
present within the Western and Eastern Ghats, plant material (Das, 1995). We found multiple
with some records from Gujarat, Maharashtra, specimens in a shallow lake in Devbagh in 2008.
Bangalore, and Madhya Pradesh (Whitaker &
Captain, 2004). This species is semi-fossorial and DISCUSSION
was encountered during a travel break on the main In 1992 India was identified as one of the 12 global
road near the city of Mysore in 2008. mega bio-diverse countries at the Convention of
Biological Diversity. The same convention led the
TESTUDINES; Geoemydidae Indian Government to classify the Western Ghats as
Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger, 1812). Indian a ‘Biodiversity Hotspot’ in June 1999 in its policy
Black Turtle. - M. trijuga is an abundant and document. This document also recognised the
widespread freshwater turtle in India (22-38 cm need for education and development to conserve
carapace length). The carapace in juveniles is a biodiversity.
light brown, which darkens and then becomes The increasing population of India has produced
almost black in adults (Daniel, 2002; Das, 2008). increased development and road networks that have
The plastron is bordered by yellow which is more brought worrying pressure on populations of flora
prominent in juveniles. The head is grey or olive, and fauna in its biodiversity hotspots. The Western
with yellow or pink reticulation. The carapace Ghats has experienced massive changes over the
is only slightly convex and has one median and last century with the development of plantations
two lateral keels. The margin of the shell flares and towns. This has led to increased vehicle
outwards as it progresses to the hind limbs and traffic and the subsequent increase in mortality of
curves inwards laterally and behind. The tail of M. reptiles and amphibians on roads (Vijayakumar
trijuga is short and the skin of the head is divided et al., 2001). The Western Ghats are also under
into large shields (Daniel, 2002). We saw a number threat from habitat loss and fragmentation, as well
of specimens at Devbagh in 2008 and 2009 among as intensive harvesting of non timber products,
vegetation and around a shallow lake. hunting, invasive species and grazing by livestock
(Vasudevan et al., 2001; Davidar et al. 2007;
Trionychidae Gunawardene et al., 2007). Between 1973 and
Aspideretes leithii (Gray, 1872). Leith's Softshell 1995 the Western Ghats suffered a 25.6% loss of
Turtle. - This Softshell Turtle has an oval to forest cover (Gunawardene et al., 2007).
rounded carapace (to 63.5 cm) with olive/yellow A number of new initiatives are being tried
vermiculations in adults. In juveniles four to six in India to engage its local population and
dark-centered, light-bordered ocelli are present international visitors in ecological education. The
on the grey carapace, but these fade with age. Indian Wildlife Institute has launched a number
Juveniles have several longitudinal rows of of sustainability and research projects that span
tubercles on the carapace. The skull has a narrow the length and breadth of the country and include
pointed bony snout that is longer than the diameter programmes for many taxa. Many of the national
of the orbit. The outer surface of the limbs is green universities also have environment related degree
and its underside cream. Males have long, thick programmes and a wealth of professionals
tails with the vent near the tip; females have short contributing to herpetological research. Private
tails. A. leithii occurs in the Bhavani, Godaveri, research stations like ARRS and eco-lodges are
and Moyer rivers of peninsular India (Moll & also playing a valuable part in the process. What
Vijaya, 1986). This turtle lives in reservoirs and will be important for these in coming years is

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Herpetofauna in Karnataka and Maharashtra, India

the correct and sustainable use of eco-tourism aspects of fieldwork, and for teaching us about
to support changes that local people make in venomous and non-venomous snakes of India.
conversion from agriculture. We believe it is Kaushik Bajibab (Wishbone Conservation) and
vital for international visitors to be careful about Greg Barretto (Indian Herpetological Researcher)
their choice in following only sustainable and provided strong field support, logistical action,
conscientious eco-tourism programs that promote species identification and language translation.
sustainable values for local people. In a generation Mark Wilkinson (British Museum Natural History,
where eco-tourism is a dominant source of income BMNH) and David J. Gower (BMNH) helped
in a number of tropical countries we, as researchers to decipher species identification of caecilians.
and visitors, must choose an ethical tour operator Dr. K.V. Gururaja (Indian Institute of Science),
or scientific research direction. J.M. Garg and Rowland Griffin (Amphibian and
Currently only 9% of the Western Ghats are Reptile Conservation Trust) reviewed taxonomy,
protected (Gunawardene et al., 2007). In 2006 draft manuscripts and generously granted use of
an application to UNESCO was made by the photographs. We thank Romulus Whitaker and the
Nature Conservation Foundation and the Ashoka staff of ARRS for a friendly welcome, generous
Trust for Research, Ecology and Environment hospitality and sumptuous meals. We thank
that proposed to designate a chain of sites across Nirmal Kulkarni (Director of Ecology, Wildernest)
the Western Ghats as of World Heritage Status for the essential off-road transport and for
(WHS). Although UNESCO entered these sites wonderful food in an idyllic setting. We thank
onto a ‘tentative list’, the Western Ghats have yet Partnership Travel and Pioneer Travel for their
to be confirmed as a WHS. The Western Ghats contacts and organisation. Thanks also to the
has already been recognised as one of the Worlds many drivers, cooks and entourage who
biodiversity hotspots due to its extensive endemic accompanied our groups. Importantly, our final
biota. Approximately 75% of amphibians that are thanks are to the Irula Tribes who gave freely their
endemic to India are found in this region (Oommen knowledge and assistance in finding many of the
et al., 2000). As scientific interest in the Western species in these expeditions.
Ghats grows, so does the number of newly described
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