FISH 2 -AQUATIC RESOURCES AND ECOLOGY

FRESHWATER: LAKES, PONDS, SWAMPS,

RESERVOIR AND MARSHES
Two types of inland waters:
1. Lotic- running water series (ex. river)
- continuous and with a definite direction.
Sequence: brook creek river
2. Lentic- standing water series
Sequence: lake pond swamp

• LAKE – body of water occupied in a basin and lacking continuity with the sea. It has a
considerable area and deep enough to stratify.
• POND – small shallow body of water with extensive occupancy by higher aquatic plants
are common.
• SWAMP – small shallow body of water smaller than a pond occupied by rooted vegetation
whose stalks extend to the air.
SOME IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN LAKE SCIENCE
Catchment basin
Lakes formed in depressions (called lake basins) in the landscape. The depression is
surrounded by a watershed and an airshed.
Watershed is the drainage basin or catchment basin surrounded by a ridge, or drainage
divide. The divide marks are the boundaries of a watershed.
Surface water in the water shed flows into the lake as overland flow or thru entering
rivers. Groundwater also contributes to the lake.
The airshed is the part of the atmosphere that contributes precipitation.

Longevity
- Most lakes are young < 15,000 years
- Lakes are born to die because of sediment traps. They begin filling up with sediments
upon formation
- Solutes and particulate, organics and minerals accumulate in the lake
- Origins could be ALLOCHTHONOUS (originating from the outside) from the airshed
or watershed or AUTOCHTHONOUS (self-formed or formed in place) from the lake
itself (through photosynthesis, mineral precipitation).

ORIGIN OF LAKES
1. Glacial Lakes – associated with glacier
Pingo lakes – formed near glaciers
2. Tectonic lakes – formed by earths crustal movement.
a. Graben lakes – formed between faults and adjacent highlands.
Ex. 1. Lake Bycal of Siberia – deepest lake in the world
2. Lake Tahoff – California
3. Lake Tanganyika – East Africa, 2nd deepest lake.
b. Uplift lakes – result of epeirogenesis
Epeirogenesis – wide reaching tectonic events that raise large crustal blocks and
sometimes bring about the formation of enormous basins.
Ex. Caspian Sea
c. Earthquake lakes – water is spilled through a series of earthquake events forming
lakes.
Ex. Reelfoot lake – United States: spilled from the Mississippi River.
3. Landslide lakes – formed from the impoundment of stream valleys by rock slides, mud
floods and other mass movements of rocks.
4. Lakes formed by volcanic phenomena
Crater lakes
Lakes in lava depressions
Caulee lake – magma hardened and formed a basin.
5. Solution lakes – lakes in carbonic substrates
- lakes in salt collapsy bases
6. Lakes of eolian origin – formed due to the erosive force of the wind.
7. Fluviatile lakes – formed by founding of deltas.
a. Levee lakes – shallow, elongate, parallel to stream
b. Oxbow lakes – formed by isolated loops of meandering mature streams
- crescent shaped
8. Shoreline lakes – formed by wave actions in the shoreline
Ex. Beach pools
9. Lake basins impounded or excavated by organisms
Ex. Beaver

WORLD’S LARGEST FRESHWATER LAKES

LAKE SURFACE AREA (km2) MAXIMUM DEPTH (m2)
Superior (America) 83,300 307
Victoria (Africa) 63,800 79
Huron 59,510 223
Michigan 57,850 265
Tanganyika (Africa) 34,000 572
Baikal (Siberia, Russia and China) 31,500 730
Malawi (Africa) 30,800 273
Erie (Canada) 25,820 64
Winnipeg (Canada) 24,530 19
Ontario (Canada) 18,760 225

MAJOR LAKES IN THE PHILIPPINES

Laguna de Bay 89,076.30 ha.
Lanao 33,999.70
Taal 24,356.40
Mainit 17,430.20
Naiyan 7,899.50
Buluan 6,134.20
Bato 3,792.50
Pagusi 2,531.50
Laabas 2,140.80
Lumo 1,192.00
Buhi 1,105.80

Parts of a lake
1. Limnetic zone – open water zone
- region of shore and bottom lessened influence
- habitat of planktons
- photosynthesis prevails during daylight hours
- it is where the trophogenic zone occurs
* synthesis of organic carbon occurs
- largely defined by the epilimnion
2. Littoral zone – shore region
- subject to fluctuating temperature and erosion of shore materials through wave
actions
- sediment is coarse
- unprotected shores, shallow water depth, well lighted, it’s a bond from shoreline to
the depth where aquatic plants disappear.
- great diversity and high annual production of many species
- wave action is extreme
3. Sublittoral zone – sediments are finer grained
- dimly lighted
- lacking benthic macroflora
- usually well oxygenated
- sublittoral fauna contains lesser species than littoral assemblage
- cemetery of all dead aquatic organisms from the littoral area.
- also known as shell zone
4. Profundal zone – cold region
 - current minimum
- reduced light
- temperature nearly uniform
- oxygen scanty, depleted
- methane and carbon dioxide abundant
- hydrogen concentration is high because of the presence of carbonic acid.
- decomposing, decaying matter
- found in the hypolimnion
- sediments are fine particles
- benthic organisms dominate

Compensation point depth – between epilimnion and hypolimnion where photosynthesis

equals respiration.

Morphometry – method of measuring and analyzing the physical dimensions of lake.

- use to determine some indices of productivity.

LIGHT AND THE LAKE

Solar radiation – fundamentally important

- Plankton production – photosynthesis (day)
- Respiration (night)
Metabolism of the lake – controls the ecosystem
Ozone and oxygen – absorb ultraviolet rays
Vapor, Ozone and carbon dioxide – absorb infrared light

FACTORS INFLUENCING LIGHT PENETRATION

1. Latitude
2. Season
3. Angle of contact of light rays at water surface
4. Time of the day
5. Degree of cloudiness or clearness of the sky, presence of fog, smoke, dust or other
atmospheric conditions.
6. Dissolved ions – diminish light absorption
Traces of ammonia, proteins and nitrates in solution still reduce transparency of water to
Ultraviolet light
7. Suspended materials – composed of organic or inorganic materials
They screen out the light (ex. Phytoplankton, clay particles and abiotic materials)
8. Presence of ice or snow cover – more light is reflected
Isothermal – describe a body of water with unvarying temperature

THERMAL STRATIFICATION
– the presence of different temperatures in a body of water
- Occurs in deep bodies of water
- Sometimes, it also occurs in shallow ponds

CAUSES
1. density differences
2. Turbidity – turbid water absorbs more heat in a warm sunny day
3. no water inflow
DE-STRATIFYING FACTORS
1. Cooling the surface through evaporation
2. inflow of cold water rain
3. Strong wind action – cause water turbulence
4. use of mechanical aerators
5. Disappearance of heavy phytoplankton blooms

Biological effects of temperature

1. Decomposition increase from 5o to 35oC
Q10 temperature increase of 10oC often doubles the rate of decomposition and O 2
consumption
2. Metabolism – higher temperature, higher or faster rate of metabolism
temperature increase of 1oC increases the rate of metabolism of about 10%
3. Distribution of animals
Stenothermals – thrive in narrow ranges of temperature
Eurythermal – thrive in wide ranges of temperature
Use a light photometer – register light incidence in a certain depth

Use of Secchi Disc Visibility Depth – rough estimate of natural food production

Pond = 2 x SDV depth = photic depth

Lake = 4 x SDV depth = photic depth
In tilapia, < 30 cm. – favorable or ideal
>30 cm. – low plankton, low dissolved oxygen and needs pond fertilization.
Submerged macrophytes cannot grow at depth greater than twice the SDVD in ponds
Light incidence (the amount of penetrating light)
If less than 1%, photosynthesis will not proceed
If 1%, it means that photosynthesis is equal to respiration

CLASSES OF LAKES ACCORDING TO ANNUAL CIRCULATION PATTERNS

1. Amixis – amictic lakes never circulate

- permanently covered with ice
- immune to the strong effects of wind
- Northern Greenland
2. Holomixis – holomictic lakes have wind-driven circulation
a. Oligomictic lakes – warm-water at all depths are subjected to very little seasonal
change
b. Monomictic lakes – one regular period of circulation occurring sometime within the year
c. Dimictic lakes – two mixing periods each year
d. Polymictic lakes – continuous mixing throughout the year influenced by changing
temperature rather than seasonal change
3. Meromixis – circulation at times but are incomplete – the entire water mass does not
participate in the mixing
- caused by salinity differences
- bottom is anaerobic
Parts of a meromictic lake
1. Epilimnion – upper warm region, mixed thoroughly by wind to a more or less uniform
temperature
2. Hypolimnion – colder region of heavier water, little affected by wind action and,
therefore, traditionally considered stagnant
 3. Metalimnion – an intermediate zone separating the epilimnion and hypolimnion
where temperature drops rapidly with depth

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LAKES, RIVERS AND RESERVIORS

Reservoirs are not lakes and differ from them in many respects. They are
impoundments of formerly free- running stream
They are lotic habitats converted to lentic. They have the characteristic of both.

LAKES – deepest near the middle

- current is usually negligible
- dominated by vertical gradients of temperature, DO, light, nutrients and productivity.

RIVERS – long, shallow, narrow

- strong current
- longitudinal gradients in velocity, transparency, productivity, plankton, depth, width,
bottom composition

RESERVIORS – hybrids, deepest at one end

- have vertical and longitudinal gradients
- have three successive zones established by the currents
Riverine zone – upstream end
Transition zone – deeper, wider, lower current velocity
Lacustrine zone – down lake, near the dam, deep and wide, current velocity very
low.

DEAD SEA

Dead Sea, salt lake in southwestern Asia. Bounded on the west by Israel and the West
Bank and on the east by Jordan, the Dead Sea forms part of the Israeli-Jordanian border. The
surface of the Dead Sea, 408 m (1,340 ft) below sea level as of 1996, is the lowest water
surface on earth. The lake is 80 km (50 mi) long and has a maximum width of 18 km (11
mi); its area is 1,020 sq km (394 sq mi). The Dead Sea occupies a north portion of the Great
Rift Valley. On the east the high plateau of Moab rises about 1,340 m (about 4,400 ft) above
the sea; on the west the plateau of Judea rises to half that height. From the eastern shore a
peninsula juts out into the lake. To the south of this peninsula the lake is shallow, less than
6 m (less than 20 ft) deep; in the north it reaches its greatest depth of 399 m (about 1,309
ft) below surface level, and 799 m (about 2,621 ft) below sea level.

The Dead Sea is fed mainly by the Jordan River, which enters the lake from the north.
Several smaller streams also enter the sea, chiefly from the east. The lake has no outlet, and
the heavy inflow of fresh water is carried off solely by evaporation, which is rapid in the hot
desert climate. Due to large-scale projects by Israel and Jordan to divert water from the
Jordan River for irrigation and other water needs, the surface of the Dead Sea has been
dropping for at least the past 50 years.

Nearly seven times as salty as the ocean, the Dead Sea contains at a depth of 305 m
(1,000 ft) some 27 percent solid substances: sodium chloride (common salt), magnesium
chloride, calcium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium bromide, and many other
substances. Because of the density of solids in the water, the human body easily floats on the
surface. The lake contains no life of any sort except for a few kinds of microbes; sea fish put
into its waters soon die.
 The Dead Sea is economically important as a source of potash, bromine, gypsum, salt,
and other chemical products, which are extracted inexpensively. The shores of the Dead Sea
are of growing importance as a winter health resort. The lake is closely associated with biblical
history; the sites of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are believed to lie beneath the lake.

Appreciating Wetlands

Swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, known collectively as wetlands, are ecosystems that
straddle the boundary between land and water. Irrespective of its vegetation, every wetland
overlies a substrate that is either saturated with water or entirely flooded for at least part of
the year. Wetlands occur within all types of ecoregions. Most aren't large enough to be
indicated on small-scale maps, but some are quite extensive.

Because wetlands are intermediate between land and water, and because their aspect
may differ radically from season to season, they are not always easy to distinguish. A meadow
grades into a marsh, and a marsh into a pond, which is a shallow, water-filled basin vegetated
across its entire bottom with plants that are entirely submerged or have leaves that float at
the surface. A marsh, bog, or fen may be invaded at its margins by trees and may evolve in
time into a swamp, and later, perhaps, into an upland forest.

Particularly in industrialized countries, wetlands have historically been considered

impediments to development, to be drained, filled, and converted to a “useful” condition.
More enlightened attitudes now prevail, and the enormous value of wetlands—from providing
natural flood control and water filtration services to supporting populations of fish and wildlife
on which people depend for food, employment, and recreation—is increasingly appreciated.

Swamps : wetland, an area of land, usually fairly large that is always wet and is overgrown
with various shrubs and trees

Swamps are simply flooded forests or woodlands. Freshwater swamps may line the banks
of rivers or grow in their floodplains. Swamps are dominated by trees or shrubs and occur in
a variety of flooding conditions. Standing water can be present in swamps during all or just a
small part of the year. Water chemistry in swamps can vary greatly, depending on the water
source. Swamp soils can be rich or poor in nutrients and vary in mineral or organic content.
Swamps often occur along river floodplains, in shallow, quiet waters of lakes, and along
subtropical to tropical coasts.Others may stand at the margins of lakes or in the basins of
former marshes or ponds that are in transition to dry land. Examples of major swamplands
are the flooded várzea and igapó forests of the Amazon region, the Okefenokee and Big
Cypress swamps and the Mississippi River bottomlands of the United States, and the swamps
of the Congo Basin and the Niger Delta in Africa.

Mangrove swamps grow in estuarine or coastal situations, so it is brackish or salty water

that inundates the roots (and sometimes the trunks and crowns) of the trees at high tide. The
species of mangroves belong to a number of different families, but all have evolved to tolerate
growing with their feet in salt water. Mangrove swamps are widespread in the tropics and
subtropics, where they are best developed in river deltas, in the lee of coral reefs or islands,
and along broad and gently sloping shores. A significant mangrove swamp is the Sundarbans
of Bangladesh, where the Ganges River empties into the Bay of Bengal. Other major mangrove
belts are in the Philippines, New Guinea, and Belize.

Marshes: soft wet ground, an area of low-lying waterlogged land, often beside water, that is
poorly drained and liable to flood, difficult to cross on foot, and unfit for agriculture or building.
 In marshes, the dominant vegetation is herbaceous rather than woody. If a swamp is a
flooded forest, then a marsh is a flooded grassland. Freshwater marshes fringe the shores of
many lakes and streams, and may form in any shallow depression in which water collects.
Marsh vegetation is emergent—the stems and leaves of the plants stick out above the water
surface. Perennial marshes remain wet through the year, but other marshes are ephemeral,
flourishing during the season when water is available and then drying up. The Sudd of
southern Sudan is an enormous marsh, as are the Okavango Delta in Botswana; the llanos of
Venezuela; the Pantanal of Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay; and the Everglades of southern
Florida in the United States. The northern Great Plains in Canada and the United States are
freckled with prairie potholes, the marshes of which are the breeding grounds for most of the
continent’s ducks.

Marshes are periodically or continually flooded wetlands characterized by nonwoody

emergent plants, plants that are adapted to living in shallow water or in moisture-saturated
soils. Different species of emergent plants often occur in zones within a marsh; zones are
determined by the elevation of the soil surface relative to the water level. Water chemistry in
marshes depends on the water sources and varies from salt water (from incoming and
outgoing ocean tides) to mineralized fresh water (from groundwater, streams, and surface
runoff) to poorly mineralized fresh water (mostly from precipitation). Marshes often have
mineral soils. Coarser soils such as sand are found in areas subject to waves or flowing water;
in more protected areas, silts and clays accumulate with dead plant matter to form organic
soils. Examples of marshes include the Everglades in south Florida; the prairie potholes of
central North America; numerous coastal areas along the Great Lakes; and salt marshes along
middle- and high-latitude ocean coasts around the world.

Just as swamps may develop in salty or brackish water, so too may marshes. The salt
marshes of the temperate zone replace the mangrove swamps of the subtropics. These
marshes are among the most productive ecosystems on earth. Their influence is far-reaching:
Coastal food chains are based on organic detritus from the marshes, and many of the fish and
shellfish nourished offshore will return to the marshes to breed. Most salt marshes are situated
along coasts, but some develop inland, especially in desert areas. The marshes of The Wash
in eastern England, the Camargue in southern France, and the Coto Doñana in southwestern
Spain are extensive, as are those of Chesapeake Bay in the United States.

Bog: area of marshy ground: an area of wet marshy ground, largely consisting of
accumulated decomposing plant material. It supports vegetation such as cranberries and
moss and may ultimately turn into peat

Bogs and fens—together called mires—are wetlands that develop over peat, the partly
decomposed remains of mosses and other plants. In contrast, the soils on which swamps and
marshes develop are composed of minerals, with more or less organic humus mixed in. Peat-
based wetlands are especially widespread in cool, damp boreal regions with a high water table
and poor drainage. In bogs, sphagnum and other mosses are the dominant vegetation.
Because they are watered principally by rain, which is low in nutrients, bogs are infertile
places, and some species of plants supplement their diets by trapping and digesting insects.
Fens, in which sedges, grasses, and rushes dominate, are kept wet by seeps, springs, or
streams, and are more fertile than bogs. The Atlantic heath region of the British Isles and
Scandinavia is famous for its blanket bogs, but it cannot compare in extent to the vast
peatlands of western Siberia.

In peatlands, plants are produced more quickly than they can decay, and partially
decomposed plant material, called peat, accumulates. Peat provides an organic soil that
influences plant growth. Water chemistry often determines which plant species grow in a
peatland. Peatlands with groundwater sources (known as fens) often have more mineralized
water and are dominated by sedges, grasslike flowering plants. Peatlands that receive water
only from precipitation (called bogs) have poorly mineralized water and are usually quite
acidic, especially if sphagnum mosses are abundant. Peatlands are more common in northern
regions. Examples of peatlands include the Red Lake Peatlands in Minnesota; those of the
Hudson Bay Lowlands in Canada; and extensive areas of Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and
western Siberia.

WETLAND ECOLOGY

The existence of all types of wetlands, as well as many of their biological characteristics,
is determined by water: the amount that flows into and out of wetlands and the amount that
is stored there. For example, in freshwater marshes, large emergent plants such as cattails
can form dense stands that shade out other plant species. If periodic high-water years occur,
the large, dominant plants are killed, providing openings where seeds from other plants can
germinate and grow during low-water years. When water levels remain low, the dominant
plants grow also, eventually shading out the smaller plants again. This cycle maintains
diversity, both in the species of the plant community and in the habitat provided by mixed
stands of large and small plants.

Diverse habitats benefit fish that require different conditions for spawning, feeding, or
seeking shelter from predators. These habitats provide the combinations of open water and
protective emergent plants that are preferred by waterfowl, and they provide a variety of food
and cover for the smaller organisms that are used as food by many birds and larger animals.

Swamps along river floodplains are affected by the distribution of water in a different
way. Rivers often meander across the floodplain. Sediments flowing with the river water are
deposited on the inside of the river bends. During floods, a river may form a new channel that
takes a shortcut between bends and leaves the original bend abandoned. Both of these
processes change the shape of the floodplain and create new, diverse wetland habitat.

Rivers may also build up banks that isolate the river from the floodplain. Periodic flooding
then causes water to overflow the banks and deposit nutrient-rich sediments onto the
floodplain, where they nourish the trees of the floodplain swamp. The timing of floods also
influences the use of the swamps by fish and wildlife, especially for spawning and waterfowl
migrations.

Water influences peatlands in still other ways. The moist conditions created by
precipitation or groundwater that flows into a peatland promote plant growth and also slow
the decay of dead plant matter. If groundwater rich in minerals flows into a peatland, the
chemistry of that water can affect which plant species grow there. If precipitation supplies
much of the water to a peatland, sphagnum mosses often grow. Sphagnum makes the water
more acidic, limiting the species of plants and animals able to grow there.

Plant and Animal Adaptations

Other plants and animals have special adaptations suited for living in a wet environment.
Most emergent plants have air spaces in their stems that enable oxygen to be transported to
roots that grow in sediments with no oxygen. Some of the trees that grow in swamps form a
set of roots above the soil surface or above the water that allows them to get oxygen to the
lower roots. In saltwater wetlands, specialized cells can limit the amount of salt that enters a
plant, or specialized organs can excrete salt from the plant.

Microorganisms often have adaptations that allow them to live in water or wet soil without
oxygen. Some larger aquatic animals, such as certain species of crab, have specialized gills
or other organs to increase the uptake of oxygen from water or to use it more efficiently;
other animals may reduce activity to minimize the need for oxygen when concentrations are
low. In saltwater wetlands, animal cells either can be adapted to survival in salt water or they
can regulate the amount of salt that passes in and out of them. Wetland animals may also
have specialized ways of reproducing and feeding. Some animals affect the water distribution
of a wetland in special ways: beavers build dams that may flood large areas, and alligators
dig holes that retain water during the dry season.

ROLE OF WETLANDS

Because they have both land and aquatic characteristics, wetlands are some of the most
diverse ecosystems on earth. The different plant species of a wetland provide habitat for
varied animal communities. In addition to microorganisms and invertebrates, reptiles, such
as turtles, snakes, and alligators, are common in wetlands. Many amphibians—frogs,
salamanders, and toads—live in wetlands during at least part of their life cycle. A large number
of fish species require wetland habitat for spawning, feeding, or protection from predation.
Birds are attracted to wetlands by abundant food resources and sites for nesting, resting, and
feeding. Many breeding and migratory birds, especially waterfowl, are associated with
wetlands, as are mammals such as muskrats, nutria, mink, raccoons, and beavers. About
one-fourth of the plants, one-half of the fishes, two-thirds of the birds, and three-fourths of
the amphibians listed as threatened or endangered in the United States are associated with
wetlands.

Inland wetlands may help control floods by storing water and slowly releasing it to
downstream areas after the flood peak. Wetlands can reduce wave action and slow down the
flow of water, lessening erosion and causing sediments to settle out of the water. This
improves water quality, as does the removal of nutrients and contaminants from the water
by growing wetland plants and by chemical processes in wetland sediments. Wetlands may
also serve as sites where surface water can seep into the ground and replenish the
groundwater.

Wetlands provide many opportunities for recreational activities, such as bird-watching,

hunting, fishing, trapping, and hiking, and they provide educational opportunities for nature
studies and scientific research. Some North American wetlands are of archaeological interest
because Native American settlements were located near them. Peatlands in Denmark and
England have yielded human fossil remains from about 2000 years ago, well preserved by
acidic and anaerobic (low-oxygen) conditions. Wetlands are also valuable for the food and
timber harvested from them.
 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
The Water Molecule

Water despite its simple chemical composition, is a complex substance with truly
remarkable physical properties.

1. Boiling and melting point is relatively higher compared to other hydrogen compounds,
thus, making water the only substance in the Earth’s surface to coexist in solid, gas,
and liquid form.
2. It has high heat capacity (quantity of heat that can raise temperature of 1 gram of
substance by 10 C); this explains why so much energy is needed to convert water into
gas.
3. Great solvent power- water is known as the ‘universal solvent’. And can dissolve
almost everything; this is due to its dipole structure caused by the asymmetrical
orientation of the hydrogen molecules against the oxygen molecule.
4. Another unusual property of water is its density. It reaches maximum density at 3.98O
C and temperature lower than that makes water behave usually as it starts to have a
lesser density as temperature decreases. (Water molecules are arranged hexagonally
to form ice, thus increasing the volume of the water molecules eventually decreasing
the density)

The Water Mass

Water mass is a large volume of seawater having a discrete identifiable characteristic

(temperature and salinity) that moves through the ocean. Water masses form at the ocean
surface and temperature and salinities reflect surface conditions.

If water mass is denser than surrounding waters, it sinks to a level determined by its
density and density distribution in the nearby ocean. they move with sub-surface currents
often for thousands of kilometers before returning to the surface to exchange gases with the
atmosphere.

Densest water masses in the ocean form where waters of relatively high salinity are
intensely cooled at the ocean surface (usually Polar Regions). If they are dense enough, they
flow through the ocean floor.

Heating and Cooling

Heating occurs in the daylight and the warmest is during the late afternoon. The amount
of energy the ocean absorbs depends on local cloud cover and the sun’s altitude.

The earth is heated by the sun in the tropics and sub-tropics and cooled by radiating
energy primarily from polar and sub-polar regions. These processes result to thermocline
and consequently halocline.

The Seawater

The seawater is a mixture of water and many dissolved salts (Chlorine, Sodium,
Sulfate, Magnesium, Calcium, and Potassium). These ions define the salinity of seawater.
Salinity – total mass (in grams) of all substances dissolved in 1 kg of seawater when all
Calcium Carbonates are converted into oxides and all bromine and iodine have been replaced
by Chlorine and all organic compounds have been oxidized at 4800 C.

- simply, the total weight (in grams) of all dissolved salts in 1 kg of seawater expressed
in parts per thousands (O/OO).

Three Major Water Mass Types

a. Central Water Mass

b. Intermediate Water Mass
c. Deep and Bottom Water Mass

The Principle of Constant Proportion

The principle of proportions states that the ratio of two major salt constituents in the
oceans water is constant and is independent of the salinity which eventually leads to the
measurements of salinity thru the proportion of the Chlorine ion. (However, because elements
in the halogen family are hardly distinguishable, scientists used to measure chlorinity.)
Chlorinity then is the amount of halogen dissolved in water.

To convert chlorinity to salinity, the following formula applies.

Salinity (O/OO) = 1.80655 x chlornity (O/OO)

Effects of Salinity

1. Addition of salt lowers the freezing point for seawater. (A 35 O/OO will freeze at -1.91
O
C)
2. Because solutes have greater atomic mass, salinity increases the density.
3. Vapor pressure drops with salinity (Freshwater evaporates faster than Seawater).

The Coastal Environment

The coastal area is the area of the land that continuously touches the sea. It accounts for
about 12.5 % of the Earth’s surface or about 4 % of the ocean volume.
It also serves as the catch basin for industrial wastes coming from factories and human
wastes.
There are two major divisions of coastal area according to origin or process of formation.

1. Formed by marine processes such as wave erosion, sediment deposition or effects of

marine plants and animals.

2. Formed by processes acting on land such as coasts formed by volcanoes, uplift of land
due to earthquakes.

The coastal area is very prone to many different processes affecting the earth as a whole.
One of which is the change in sea level. Sea level has been slowly rising since the last glacial
period and it has been rising for centuries. With greenhouse effect, more rapid increase is
expected.
Characteristics of the Coastal Environment

The coastal environment responds to processes acting on it from few hours to few weeks
and even few hundreds of years.

The coastal environment also serves as obstruction to cause upwelling. Without it,
upwelling will only be possible in the surface area.

See figures for further information.

The Major Subdivisions of the Coastal Environment

The coastal environment is further subdivided into six zones. These are the nearshore,
breaker, surf, swash, offshore, and the backshore. See figure for the divisions.

1. The nearshore zone extends from the breaker zone across the surf zone to the swash
zone.
2. The breaker zone is where the waves begin to break.
3. The surf zone is where most of the wave energy is expended.
4. The swash zone is the area covered and uncovered by the water at each wave surge.
5. The offshore zone is the open water that lies seaward of the nearshore zone.
6. The backshore zone is the land that adjoins the nearshore zone.

Circulation in the Coastal Environment

Circulation in the coastal area happens in the surf zone. This is the area affected
the most by waves.
Most of the waves approach the shoreline at an angle. This direction generates a refracted
wave. Refraction occurs when wave crests bend and become nearly aligned to the contours
of shallow water or sea bottom.
In very shallow regions, the waves become overstepped and collapse as breakers. There
are three types of breakers.

1. Spilling
2. Plunging
3. Surging.

As waves strike the beach and release energy, they generate currents in the shoreline. It
is called the longshore currents. The greater the angle of wave approach, the stronger the
longshore current. The direction of this current is dependent on the angle of the wave
approach.

However, if the wave crest is parallel to the shore, a long shore current is still developed
because of the wave set-up even in theory there must be no such current can be produced.
See figure for further information.

The accumulation of this water result to wave set up. Wave set-up is a process that creates
piles of water in the surf zone, usually where breaking waves are the largest. High water
elevations occur where breakers are large and low water elevations where breakers are small.
This characteristic generates a slope. These slopes create a pressure gradient creating
diverging longshore currents. Some longshore currents are created by refraction as discussed
earlier.

If the beach has a variable wave set-up, a nearshore circulation system will develop
consisting of series of diverging and converging longshore currents. These longshore currents
converge where breakers are smallest thus forcing water seaward and generate the swift, rip
currents.

Sediments in beaches and nearshore zones are continually moved by longshore and rip
currents.

The Sand Budget

Sand budget is the estimate of principal sand sources and sand loses for a stretch of
shoreline. The equilibrium states that inputs plus outputs is equals to zero.

Inputs + Outputs = O (Steady State)

Longshore transport Longshore transport Accretion

(towards the area) (away from the area) Erosion

River supply Offshore transport

Cliff/erosion Wind transport

Onshore transport

Barrier Islands

Barrier Islands are areas where sand supplies are abundant and sea floor slopes gently.
These islands are large deposits of sand that are separated from the mainland by water of
estuaries, bays, and lagoons.

These islands are continually affected by wave actions. They originate from a sand ridge,
a low lying area where increase of sea level resulted a lagoon, and continuous accumulation
of sand later created a barrier island.

Cliffed Coasts

Cliffed coasts are areas where waves exert powerful forces resulting to the compressing
of air and later rapid expansion and eventually shattering or breaking a cliff material. It is
also created by impacts of stones and gravels, which wears the rock. It can also be created
through dissolution of rock materials such as in the case of limestone cliffs.

Deltas

Delta is a build up of sediment occurring at the river mouth. It is usually triangular, thus,
the name delta (Δ).
 Deltas normally occur when the rate of sediment supply exceeds the rate of sediment
removal by waves and tidal currents.

Deltas are divided into three zones.

1. Delta plain – It is flat lowland that lies at or above sea level. It is dominated by
network of distributaries’ channels. It may be vegetated, flooded or ponded.

2. Delta front – shoreline and broad submerged front of the delta. Typically, submarine
canyons are found here.

3. Prodelta – offshore bottom with deposits of inner continental shelf.

There are three types of delta.

1. River-dominated – waves and tides are ineffective in shaping the delta.

2. Wave-dominated – wave energy is relatively high compare to the supply of river

sediments.

3. Tide-dominated – large tidal ranges overshadows river and wave effects.

 THE OCEANIC ENVIRONMENT
The Oceanic Environment

There are two major subdivisions of the oceanic environment. These are the following:

1. Benthic Province – sea bottom

2. Pelagic Province – water column

These divisions further subdivides organisms found in the ocean into benthic organism
(bottom-dwelling) and pelagic organism (water-dwelling). It can be further subdivided into
different zones in relation to depth and illumination, which directly and indirectly affect the
distribution of organisms.

The Pelagic Province

1. Neritic Zone – It encompasses

shallow waters that overlies the
continental shelves. Light
penetrates up to the sea bottom.
2. Oceanic Zone – Deep waters in
the open sea beyond the shelf
break.

The Oceanic Zone can further be

subdivided into the following regions or
zones.

a. Epipelagic Zone – Area from the

surface to 200 m. usually
illuminated in all depths.
b. Mesopelagic Zone – underlies the epipelagic zone from 200 m to 1000 m. There is a
hard trace of sunlight in this zone.
c. Bathypelagic Zone – area from 1000 m to 2000 m.
d. Abyssalpelagic – from 2000 m to 6000 m. This is the most dominant marine
environment in terms of area.
e. Hadalpelagic – this accounts for area with depths 6000 m or deeper.

Please refer to the figures for further information and overview of this subdivision.

The Benthic Province

1. Sub littoral zone – the floor of the continental shelf from the beach to the shelf break.
2. Inter-tidal Zone (Littoral zone) – landward side
3. Bathyal Zone – from 200 m to 2000 m. It represents the sea bottom that underlies
the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones of the pelagic environment.
4. Abyssal Zone – sea bottom underlying the abyssal pelagiczone.
5. Hadal Zone – beneath the hadal pelagic

This depth terms corresponds grossly to physical locations such as:

 ➢ sublittoral – continental shelf
➢ baythyal - continental slope and rise
➢ hadal - deep sea trenches
Division of the Coastal Environment
(Thru illumination)
1. Photic Zone – well lit, plant photosynthesis possible during day time. They usually
attain depth of 100 m.
2. Dysphotic Zone – otherwise known as the “twilight zone”. Only 5% of the light is
absorbed by these area.
3. Aphotic Zone – total darkness

The Open Ocean

Oceanic processes in the

open ocean are dominated by
incoming solar energy and by
winds. Specifically, Light,
Temperature and Salinity
control the behavior of the ocean
waters. Their distribution results
from absorption of incoming
solar radiation. Absorption of
incoming light is called
“insolation”.

Insolation at the ocean

surface causes a three-layered
structure in the open ocean.
These include the following:

1. The Surface
2. Pycnocline
3. Deep Zones

The surface temperature changes due to seasonal variations in heating, cooling,

evaporating, condensation and precipitation. It contains less dense water. The thickness of
the surface zone reflects the depth of mixing, caused primarily by the winds It is often called
“the mixed layer”.

The pycnocline (pycno = density and cline = slope) is where water density changes
abruptly in relation to depth. It acts as barrier to vertical water movement and serves as base
to surface circulation. It acts as ceiling to the deep zone and prevents deep ocean waters from
readily mixing with the surface waters. In higher latitudes such as the polar regions,
pycnocline is absent.
 Immediately below the epipelagic lies the mesopelagic, or “middle pelagic,” zone where
there is still some dim light, but not enough for photosynthesis and the deep sea where there
is no sunlight at all.

Primary characteristics: lack of primary production of food by photosynthesis. Without

primary production to support the rest of the food web, most of the communities beneath the
photic zone depend for food on organic material produced in the surface layers of the ocean.

Great ocean conveyor: deep circulation of the oceans, this circulation constantly
replenishes the oxygen supply to the ocean depths.

EPIPELAGIC ZONE

The epipelagic realm is the layer of the ocean from the surface to a depth of 200 m. It
is divided into neritic waters, which lie over the continental shelf, and oceanic waters beyond
the shelf. The epipelagic is similar to the photic zone, the layer from the surface to the depth
where light limits photosynthesis.

Organisms of the epipelagic

❖ Epipelagic ecosystems differ from many shallow-water ones in that nearly all
the primary production takes place within the epipelagic system itself. Coastal
ecosystems often receive large amounts of food from elsewhere BUT the pelagic
realm, far from the shore and bottom, gets almost no external input of organic
matter.
❖ The epipelagic does supply food to other communities. Large amounts of
organic matter sink out of the epipelagic to feed the organisms below. Ocean
currents carry epipelagic plankton into shallow water, where it is consumed by
a profusion of suspension feeders.
❖ Because there is no bottom where organic-rich sediments can build up, the
epipelagic lacks deposit feeders. Suspension feeders, on the other hand,
abound.
A. Phytoplankton – main producers in the epipelagic
Epipelagic: no place to attach - large producers like seaweeds and
seagrasses are largely absent.
 Perform more than 95% of the photosynthesis in the ocean. This amounts
to nearly half the world’s primary production and produces nearly half the
oxygen in our atmosphere.
Cyanobacteria are the most abundant picoplankton and account for at least
half the ocean’s total primary production. The single-celled Prochlorococcus, is
the most abundant of all marine phytoplankton and is especially dominant in
nutrient-poor tropical and subtropical waters.
Diatoms have density close to water but their cell walls often contain large
amounts of silica as a result they tend to sink.
Flagellates lack heavy cell walls and the accompanying tendency to sink,
instead they use flagella to propel themselves to get them out of a zone of low
nutrient concentration into one with higher concentration
B. Protozoan Zooplankton
The tiny picoplankton and nanoplankton are too small for most multicellular
animals to catch and eat. Protozoans, however, can catch them.
Without protozoans, much of the primary production in the epipelagic would
go unutilized. The most important of these protozoans are various flagellates.
C. Copepods
Dominate the net zooplankton. Main herbivores in the epipelagic and are by
far the most abundant group of zooplankton
D. Nekton
Large, strong swimmers
Practically all nekton are carnivorous. Planktivorous nekton, those that eat
plankton, include small fishes like herrings, sardines, and anchovies. They also
include the world’s largest fishes, the whale shark (Rhiniodon typus) and
basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus)
Long lived and slow growing vs plankton

Living in the epipelagic

Physical features in the epipelagic are not very stressful and require special adaptations
that center around 2 main needs:
1. The need to stay in the epipelagic – staying afloat
a. Increasing water resistance so that they sink slower
High surface area (small organisms) –high resistance against sinking
Flat shape, long projections or spines, chain conformation – slower sinking
b. Increased buoyancy
Store lipids (oils or fats) in the body i.e. enlarged livers; blubber under the skin;
pockets of gas – tiny gas bubbles or vacuoles inside their cells, swim bladders; sharks
have large, stiff fins and asymmetrical tails that provide lift as long as the shark is
swimming; by controlling the composition of body fluids - excluding heavy ions, like
sulfate and magnesium and replacing them with lighter salts (anmmonium chloride)
Floaters: neuston – surface dwelling organisms, live right at the very surface of
the ocean – have some sort of gas filled structure to provide buoyancy.

2. The need to eat and avoid being eaten

a. Sense organs - vision is important to many epipelagic animals since there are no
solid structures that can be used for concealment. Epipelagic animals have well-
developed sense of vision and have remote sensing systems – lateral line in fishes,
echolocation in cetaceans.
b. Coloration and camouflage – protective coloration (camouflage), to be
transparent, laterally compressed bodies reduce the size of silhouette whether
viewed from above or below, countershading, silver sides that reflect light, vertical
 bars or irregular patterns that help break up their outline, flying fishes burst out of
water and glide through the air on their enlarged pectoral fins
c. Swimming – nekton who must move through the water, have adaptations to reduce
drag:
Streamlined bodies, no bulging eyes, long spines or projections that would increase
resistance and slow them down, smooth body surface (small scales to none at all) to
help them slide through the water.
Firm and muscular bodies, stiff fins which gives them strength to provide
maneuverability and lift at high speed, high amounts of red muscle and myoglobin
Muscle tends to work more efficiently at warm temperatures so they have rete
mirabile “wonderful net” – system to conserve the heat generated by their muscles
and keep their internal temperature above that of surrounding water. Body heat being
carried outward in blood is transferred to inward flowing blood and taken back into the
body
d. Vertical migration – zooplankton stay below the photic zone during the day. At
night they migrate to the surface to feed. They do this to 1) avoid predation, 2) slow
their metabolism and conserve energy by spending part of their time in the deep
water, which is cold and reduces their body temperature, 3) avoid toxins produced by
some phytoplankton during the day.

Epipelagic food webs

Epipelagic food chains tend to be long and complex because they contain many species
and many epipelagic animals feed at different trophic levels
The transfer of energy between trophic levels is more efficient than in many other
ecosystems. The epipelagic is an exception to the rule of thumb that only about 10% of
the energy contained in one trophic level is passed on to the next. Epipelagic herbivores
convert more than 20%, on average, of the energy derived from phytoplankton into
growth. Epipelagic carnivores, too, are more than 10% efficient, though not as efficient
as the herbivores
Microbial loop: has a critical function – regenerates the microbial elements in the organic
matter. Without this loop, energy in DOM would go largely unused. As much as half of the
primary production in the epipelagic is channelled through this loop
Detritus may be in the form of:
1. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) – “live” – released by phytoplankton, macroalgae
and aquatic plants to surrounding water. Organic compounds that pass through
0.45µm. Released during messy feeding (grazers may break or crush algal cells or
tissues, releasing fluids into the water. Simply leaks out of phytoplankton cells. Can
aggregate into amorphous particles such as marine snow.
Better food: 1) made up of aggregated smaller molecular weight compounds
– more assimilable than the large polymers (that remain in the cells and
tissues), 2) lower content of detrimental or inhibitory secondary compounds
than morphous detrital particles.

2. Morphous detritus – fragments of dead producers, fecal pellets released by

zooplankton – poor nutritional quality
➢ Bacteria and fungi are the principal regenerators of the nutrients that were
sequestered in the organic matter synthesized by primary and secondary
producers.
 ➢ In microbial loop, bacteria are directly eaten by ciliates and small fauna. The deeper
the water column, the greater the importance of bacteria, since phytoplankton
production would occurs only near the surface. More zooplankton near the surface,
high organic matter reaching the sea floor, higher benthic community which can be
supported. Protozoan grazers play an important role in channeling the production of
primary producers in the nanoplankton up in the food chain
➢ Primary production by phytoplankton is the base- the abundance of animals greatly
follows the pattern of primary production. Two requirements:
1. Light limitation
Epipelagic represents the sunlit layer of the ocean, but there is not always enough
light for photosynthesis.
At high latitudes, phytoplankton may be light-limited during winter, when the days
are short and the sunlight weak. Also, primary production is light limited during cloudy
days, when water is murky or when self-shading happens (phytoplankton on the
surface cut down available light to deeper living phytoplankton).
Photo-oxidation is the opposite such that high amounts of light intensities are
available in the water surface. This causes
destructive reactions by light that cannot be absorbed by
photosynthetic apparatus, as well as damage by
accompanying UV radiation

2. Nutrients

Nitrogen in the form of nitrate, phosphorus in the form

of phosphate.

Because many organic particles sink out of the epipelagic

before the nutrients they contain are regenerated, surface
waters are poor in nutrients, and phytoplankton growth is
often nutrient-limited. Deep waters are high in nutrients
because of the rain of organic particles from the surface.

The phytoplankton that support epipelagic food webs,

then have a problem: At the surface there is sunlight but
hardly any nutrients, whereas in deep water there are
plenty of nutrients but not enough light.

Neritic (Coastal) phytoplankton have it somewhat easier

than oceanic forms. Neritic areas are relatively shallow, so
the bottom traps sinking organic particles and some of the
regenerated nutrients are returned to the water column.
This is one reason the continental shelves are highly
productive. Another reason is that rivers bring in fresh
nutrients from land.

For primary production to occur in oceanic areas, the

nutrients contained in the deep water must somehow get
to the surface. The only effective way for this to happen is
for the nutrient-rich deep waters move to the surface,
carrying the nutrients along with it.
 Thermocline, a zone of transition, lies between the warmer, less dense layer at the surface
and the colder, denser layer below. When there are strong waves or when the surface waters
becomes colder (due to winter), overturn occurs such that the cold water sinks and the
nutrient-rich deep warmer waters move to the surface, carrying the nutrients along with it.

3. Seasonal patterns
Oceanic waves at high latitudes are highly
productive because winter overturn and mixing
(due to strong winds and large waves) bring
nutrient-rich deep water at the surface.

At high latitudes (temperate waters), primary

production shows a seasonal cycle. During winter,
phytoplankton production is light limited, but
overturn and wind mixing bring nutrients to the
surface. In spring, increased sunlight allows the
phytoplankton to use the nutrients and a spring
bloom occurs. During summer, production is
nutrient limited because the phytoplankton used
up the nutrients and stratification prevents
mixing. A fall bloom occurs if stratification breaks
down while there is enough light for
photosynthesis

In warmer (tropical) waters, such seasonal

variation is relatively minor. The water column
remains stable throughout the year, restricting
the transport of deep nutrients up into the photic
zone where sunlight is available.

Cold polar waters may not become stratified at

all and may continue to produce at very
high levels throughout the short summer when
the sun shines most of the day

4. Upwelling and productivity – causes large amounts of nutrient-rich deep water

to move up to the surface resulting in high
primary production. The waters off the coast of
Peru normally are an area of upwelling, and
support one of the world’s largest fisheries.
Every three to seven years, warm surface
waters in the Pacific displace the cold, nutrient-
rich water on Peru’s shelf in a phenomenon called
El Niño.
El Niño results in a major change in fauna on
the shelf and a great reduction in fishes. This can
lead to mass starvation of organisms’ dependent
upon the fish as their major food source.
Coastal upwelling – occurs when winds cause
the Elkman transport of surface water offshore -
wind driven vertical transport.
 Equatorial upwelling – caused by divergence of equatorial surface currents

Global Patterns of Productivity

Primary productivity varies from 25 to 1250 gm C/m2/yr in the marine environment and
is highest in estuaries and lowest in the open ocean:
1. In the open ocean productivity distribution resembles a "bull’s eye" pattern with
lowest productivity in the center and highest at the edge of the basin.
2. Water in the center of the ocean is a clear blue because it is an area of downwelling,
above a strong thermocline and is almost devoid of biological activity.
Although rate of productivity is very low for the open ocean compared to areas
of upwelling, the open ocean has the greatest biomass productivity because of
its enormous size.
In the open ocean the food chains are longer and energy transfer is low, so
fish populations are small.
3. Continental shelves display moderate productivity between 50 and 200 gm C/m2/yr
because nutrients wash in from the land and tide- and wave- generated turbulence
recycle nutrients from the bottom water.
4. Polar areas have high productivity because there is no pycnocline to inhibit mixing.
5. Equatorial waters have high productivity because of upwelling.

THE TWILIGHT WORLD: MESOPELAGIC ZONE

Immediately below the epipelagic lies the mesopelagic, or “middle pelagic,” zone where
there is still some dim light, but not enough for photosynthesis and the deep sea where there
is no sunlight at all.

Primary characteristics: lack of primary production of food by photosynthesis. Without

primary production to support the rest of the food web, most of the communities beneath the
photic zone depend for food on organic material produced in the surface layers of the ocean.

Great ocean conveyor: deep circulation of the oceans, this circulation constantly
replenishes the oxygen supply to the ocean depths
 Absence of light marks its bottom: extends from about 200 m to 1000 m deep; zone
where the main thermocline occurs.
Supports a rich and varied community of animals called midwater animals:
1. Zooplankton – same as in epipelagic: kills and copepods are generally
dominant. Common adaptation: photophores or light organs – specialized
structures that produce living light “bioluminescence”
2. Midwater fishes – bristlemouths and lanternfishes
Adaptations of midwater animals:
1. Feeding and food webs – limited food supply in the mesopelagic. Small
size (less food needed), large mouths, hinged and extendible jaws with needle
like teeth (broad diets and can fit anything into their mouths – can eat a wide
range of prey).
Stay in the mesopelagic (non-migrators) – filter out detritus and small
amount of phytoplankton that sinks out of the photic zone. Sit and wait predator
that lurk in dim light, gulping down anything that comes in range. Flabby
muscles allow them to float at constant depth without wasting energy
swimming.
2. Vertical migration and deep scattering layer – swim up at night and
feed in the rich surface layer and during the day ascend to depth of several
hundred meters. Have well developed bones and muscles, wide temperature
tolerances and swim bladders.
3. Sense organs – large, light sensitive eyes to help them see
in dim light. They have well developed, longer and more sensitive
lateral lines. Zooplankton from the deeper parts of the
mesopelagic are typically orange, red or purple. These colors are
conspicuous at the surface but colors change underwater. Since
red light does not penetrate to the mesopelagic depths, these
organisms are inconspicuous gray or black in their natural
habitat.

4. Bioluminescence – counterillumination: bioluminescent

photophores mostly on their underside produce light that helps
the animal blend in with the background light filtering down form
the surface. Bioluminescence is used in counterillumination to
mask the silhouette, to escape from predators, to attract or see
prey, and perhaps in communication and courtship.

5. Oxygen minimum layer

Deep Sea
The deep sea includes the bathypelagic, from 1,000 to 4,000 m; the abyssopelagic, 4,000
to 6,000 m; and the hadopelagic, 6,000 m to the bottom of trenches. The physical
environment in these zones isquite constant. The deep sea also includes the deep-sea
floor.
Characteristics:
1. Lack of food - Deep-sea pelagic fishes are typically small and black, with small
eyes, large mouths, expandable stomachs, flabby muscles, weak bones, and poorly
developed swim bladders. These fishes float in the water column, expending as little
energy as possible, until a meal comes. Bristlemouths and anglerfishes are the most
common.
 2. Sex in the deep sea - Finding mates, a problem for deep-sea animals, is eased by
the use of bioluminescent and chemical signals and by the development of
hermaphroditism and male parasitism (male fuses to the female to ensure that the
male is always available to fertilize the female eggs)

3. Living under pressure - Hydrostatic pressure is great in the deep sea and partially
controls the depth distribution of deep-sea organisms. Deep-sea organisms have
molecular adaptations that allow their enzymes to function at high pressure

Deep ocean floor – benthos: bottom inhabiting organisms of the deep sea – entirely
dependent on rain of organic matter from above
❖ Feeding - although pelagic animals may get first crack at food sinking out of
the photic zone, benthic animals have much more time to find and eat it.
Baitfalls – large pieces of food that sink rapidly, like the dead bodies of large
fishes. The deep-sea benthos is dominated by deposit feeders. The dominant
animal groups are the meiofauna, polychaete worms, crustaceans, bivalve
molluscs, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and sea stars. Meiofauna (tiny animals
that live among the sediment particles) play a major role in making the energy
in bacteria and DOM available to larger benthic animals.
❖ Nature of life in deep sea - low temperature and high pressure slow down
the processes of life in the deep sea. Deep-sea animals need to live a long time
to store up enough energy to reproduce. Deep-sea animals tend to produce
large eggs, with enough yolk to see the larva through its early stages without
eating. It takes a lot more energy to produce a large egg than a small one, so
deepsea animals produce only a few eggs.
❖ Bacteria in the deep sea – pressure slows down bacterial growth and most
shallow water bacteria cannot grow at pressures of the deep sea. Deep sea
bacteria can take up to 1,000 times longer to decompose organic matter that
shallow water bacteria
❖ Abundant and rich deep-sea communities form around volcanic vents on
the crest of mid-ocean ridges, such as the Galapagos Ridge.
❖ Water heated by magma flows through a fracture, and leeches metals from
the basalts. Later, when the water cools, it precipitates sulfide and sulfate
minerals, forming chimneys. Bacteria from the vents perform chemosynthesis,
oxidizing hydrogen sulfide and using the energy released to synthesize food.
Filter-feeding invertebrates around the vent depend on chemosynthetic
bacteria for food.
❖ Hydrothermal vents - Deep-sea hydrothermal vents harbor rich
communities. The primary production that supports these communities does
not come from photosynthesis but comes from microbial chemosynthesis
(bacteria use the energy contained in hydrogen sulphide molecules to make
organic matter)
❖ Cold water seeps - places, mostly along continental margins or in sediment-
rich basins like the Gulf of Mexico, where hydrogen sulfide and methane
produced by the decay of organic matter seep out from the sea floor.

The Ocean Climate

The ocean climate is subdivided into four regions. These are the tropical, sub-tropical,
sub-polar, and polar.
 1. Tropical Regions – It is located near the equator. There is only a slight temperature
changes. There is a large excess of precipitation and pycnocline is shallow.

2. Sub-tropical Regions – from 300 N and 300 S. Trade winds are continuously blowing.
Evaporation exceeds precipitation. This area is the major source of water vapor. Large
seasonal temperatures changes ranges from 60 to 180 C in surface waters. The changes
are greatest in the Black Sea. Thermocline is very deep.

4. Sub-polar Regions – There is an excess precipitation and this area lie in the belt of
strong winds. A well developed halocline forms following high rainfall. Thermocline
develops during summer.

4. Polar Regions – Influenced by seasonal freezing and thawing of sea ice. Some
convective mixing usually occurs in this region.

TIDES
Tide is the daily rising and falling of sea level. The wave height of a tide is referred to as
the tidal range.

Three Categories of Tides

1. Diurnal – period is one day

2. Semidiurnal – two period daily
3. Mixed tides – irregular, high and low of unequal range daily

When tidal records are examined over a month, the phase of the moon affects the tides.
This effect classifies two major types of tides. When tidal range is at its maximum (highest
high tide and lowest low tide), this type of tide is called the spring tides. When tidal range
is at its lowest (lowest high tide and lowest low tide), the tide is called neap tides. Spring
tides happens every new moon and full moon while the neap tides during the quarters.

The Equilibrium Model of Tide

Tide equilibrium occurs when the following assumptions are met.

a. Earth’s surface is completely covered by seawater to an infinite depth so that tides are
unaffected by sea bottom.
b. Waves assume to be progressive waves
c. Water is assumed to be in equilibrium with the tide generating forces (gravity and the
centrifugal force)

Tidal Currents
There are two basic types of tidal currents.

a. Flood Currents – transfer of water towards the coast

b. Ebb Currents – away from the coasts
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
a. Aerobic respiration – gaseous oxygen is the hydrogen acceptor. It is the reverse of the
‘regular‛ photosynthesis. Respiration yields CO2, H2O and cell material.

b. Anaerobic respiration – gaseous oxygen not involved. An inorganic compound other than
oxygen is the electron acceptor. This is restricted to saprophages (bacteria, yeast, molds,
protozoa), although it occurs as a dependent process within certain tissues of higher animals.

The methane bacteria is a good examples of obligate anaerobes which decompose

organic compounds with the production of methane (CH4) through reduction of either organic
or carbonate carbon. The methane gas known as ‚swamp gas‛ rises to the surface where it
can be oxidized and may catch fire.

c. Fermentation – also anaerobic but an organic compound is the electron acceptor. Yeasts
are well known fermenters. They are not only commercially important to man but are
abundant in soils where they can play a key role in the decomposition of plant residues.

PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS PERTAINING TO ENERGY IN

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The behavior of energy is described by the
following laws:
a. First Law of Thermodynamics – states that energy may be transformed from one type
into another but is never created or destroyed. For example, light energy passes to heat
energy of the land to kinetic energy of moving air which accomplishes work of raising water.
The energy is not destroyed by lifting of the water, but becomes potential energy.

b. Second Law of Thermodynamics – deals with the transfer of energy toward an ever less
available and more dispersed state. As far as the solar system is concerned, the dispersed
state with respect to energy is one in which all energy is in the form of evenly distributed heat
energy.

i. All energy where it undergoes a change of form will eventually tend to be

transformed into the form of heat energy distributed at uniform temperature.

ii. When the sun energy strikes the earth, it tends to be degraded into heat energy.
Only a very small portion of the light energy absorbed by green plants is transformed
into potential or food energy; most of it goes into heat, which then passes out of the
plant, the ecosystem, and the biosphere.

iii. All the rest of the biological world obtains its potential chemical energy from organic
substances produced by plant photosynthesis or microorganism chemosynthesis. An
animal, for example, takes in chemical potential energy of food and converts a large
part into heat to enable a small part into heat to enable a small part of the energy of
new protoplasm. At each step in the transfer of energy from one organism to another
a large part of the energy is degraded into heat. This second law of thermodynamics
is related to the stability principle. Based from this concept, any naturally enclosed
system with energy flowing through it, whether the earth itself or a smaller unit, such
as a lake, tends to change until a stable adjustment, with self-regulating mechanisms,
is developed.
CONCEPT OF PRODUCTIVITY
The basic or primary productivity of an ecological system, community, or any part
thereof, is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producer organisms (chiefly green plants) in the form of organic
substances which can be used as food materials. It is important to distinguish between the
four successive steps in the production process as follows:

a. Gross primary productivity – is the total rate of photosynthesis, including organic matter
used up in respiration during the measurement period. This is also known as ‚total
photosynthesis‛ or total assimilation.
b. Net primary productivity - is the rate of storage or organic matter in plant tissues in
excess of the respiratory utilization by the plants during the period of measurement. This is
also called ‚apparent photosynthesis‛ or ‚net assimilation‛.

c. Net community productivity - is the rate of storage of organic matter not used by
heterotrophs (that is, net primary production minus heterotrophic consumption) during the
period under consideration, usually the growing season or a year.

d. Secondary productivities – are the rates of energy storage at consumer levels. Since
consumers only utilize food material already produced with appropriate respiratory losses,
and convert to different tissues by one overall process, secondary productivity should not be
divided into ‚gross‛ and net‛ amounts. The total energy flow at heterotrophic levels which is
analogous to gross production of autotrophs should be designated as assimilation‛ and not
production‛.

PRODUCTIVITY
In all these definitions, the term ‚productivity‛ and the phrase ‚rate of production‛ may be
used interchangeably.

a. Biological productivity thus differs from ‚yield‛ in the chemical or industrial sense. In the
latter case, the reaction ends with the production of a given amount of materials; in biological
communities, the process is continuous in time. So that it is necessary to designate a time
unit.

b. In general, productivity of an ecosystem refers to its “richness”.

c. Standing biomass or standing crop present at any given time should not be confused with
productivity.

PRODUCTIVITY OF AN ECOSYSTEM
It refers to the ability of any trophic level to produce biomass. The productivity of the
various trophic levels are usually positively correlated, since the lower trophic levels form the
food base for the higher trophic levels.

FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND TROPHIC LEVELS

A. Food Chain
Food chain refers to the transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series
of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten.
 At the each transfer a large proportion, 80 to 90 per cent of the potential energy is lost as
heat. Therefore, the number of steps or links in a sequence is limited, usually to four or five.

The shorter the food chain (or the nearer the organism to the base of the chain), the
greater the available energy.
B. Food Web
Food Web = set of interconnected food chains by
which energy and materials circulate within an
ecosystem. The food webs are made up of
individual food chains.
The sun is the original source of energy in all
ecosystems.
Producers (plants) convert the light energy
into chemical energy, storing it in their cells.
When primary consumers (herbivores) eat
the producers, the energy changes into a form
that can be stored in animal cells.
Secondary consumers (carnivores)
transform the energy once again.
Decomposers may occupy several positions
in the pyramid, both receiving energy from
decaying plants and animals and supplying it to
detrivores and fungus-eaters.

C. TROPHIC LEVELS
The food web can be viewed not only as a network of chains but also as a series of trophic
(nutritional) levels such as;
Green plants, the primary producers of food in most terrestrial food webs, belong to the first
trophic level.
Herbivores, consumers of green plants, belong to the second trophic level.
Carnivores, predators feeding upon the herbivores, belong to the third.
Omnivores, consumers of both plants and animals, belong to the second and third.
Secondary carnivores, which are predators that feed on predators, belong to the fourth trophic
level.
As the trophic levels rise, the predators become fewer, larger, fiercer, and more agile.
At the second and higher levels, decomposers of the available materials function as herbivores
or carnivores depending on whether their food is plant or animal material.

ENERGY FLOW
The behavior of energy in ecosystems is termed as the energy flow because energy
transformations are one-way‛ in contrast to the cyclic behavior of materials. Through these series
of steps of eating and being eaten, the energy flows from one trophic level to another.

Green plants or other photosynthesizing organisms use light energy from the sun to manufacture
carbohydrates for their own needs.
Most of this chemical energy is processed in metabolism and dissipated as heat in respiration.
Ultimately, this material, which is stored energy, is transferred to the second trophic level, which
comprises grazing herbivores, decomposers, and detrital feeders.
Most of the energy assimilated at the second trophic level is again lost as heat in respiration; a
fraction becomes new biomass.
Organisms in each trophic level pass on as biomass much less energy than they receive. Thus,
the more steps between producer and final consumer,
the less energy remains available.
Eventually, all energy flowing through the trophic levels is dissipated as heat.
The process whereby energy loses its capacity to do work is called entropy.

METABOLISM AND SIZE OF INDIVIDUALS

a. The standing crop biomass (expressed as the total dry weight or total caloric content of
organisms present at any one time) which can be supported by a steady flow of energy in a
food chain depends to on the size of the individual organisms.
b. The smaller the organisms, the greater its metabolism per gram (or per calorie) of
biomass. Consequently, the smaller organism, the smaller the biomass which can be supported at
a particular trophic level.
c. Conversely, the larger the organism, the larger the standing crop biomass. Thus, the amount of
bacteria present at any one time would be very much smaller than the ‚crop‛ of fish or mammals
even if the energy utilization was the same for both groups.
d. Metabolic rates are usually greater at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures.\

TROPHIC STRUCTURE AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

a. The interaction of the food chain phenomena (energy loss at each transfer) and the size-
metabolism relationship results in communities having a definite trophic structure, which is often
the characteristic of a particular type of ecosystem (lake, forest, coral reef, pasture, etc.).
b. Trophic structure may be measured and described either in terms of the standing crop per unit
area or in terms of the standing crop per unit area per unit of time at successive trophic levels.
c. Trophic structure and trophic function may be shown graphically by means of ecological pyramids
in which the first or producer level forms the base and successive levels the tiers which make up
the apex.

ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

A. Based on their position in the food chain
Autotrophs - producers which comprise the aquatic plants, macro algae and plankton
Phagotrops – macroconsumers animals such as the larvae, insect, crustaceans, fishes, etc.
Saptrotrophs – microconsumers or decomposers. Comprise theaquatic bacteria, flagellates and
fungi

B. Based on size
Macroplankton – greater than 1 mm
Net plankton – caught in fine mesh net (< 1 mm)
Nannoplankton – too small to be caught in a net (1-80 um)
Ultraplankton - < 5 um
Nekton – bigger swimming animals such as fishes, crustaceans, mammals that move
independently of water currents
Neuston – minute organisms that float or swim on the water surface
Pelagic (marine waters) – all life in the open water

C. Based on their mode of life

Plankton: important group of weakly swimming, free-floating biota. Classified as
phytoplankton (plant), and zooplankton (animal) and ultraplankton (photosynthetic bacteria).
Nekton: strong swimmer, without having to depend in water current and possess of locomotion
to enable them more or less independent of drifting effects of water movement. Includes fish,
turtles, whales, etc.
Benthos: bottom dwellers (barnacles, oysters, lobsters, crabs, etc).
Decomposers: breakdown organic compounds (mostly bacteria).

TYPES OF INTERACTIONS THAT COULD BE OBSERVED IN AN ECOSYSTEM

a. Competition – an interaction between two organisms having the same requirements and needs
such as food, light and space
b. Mutualism – an interaction between organisms whose presence are beneficial to both.
c. Commensalism – an interaction where in only one benefits from the relationship and leaving
the other unharmed (e.g. shark and remora)
d. Predation – a relationship wherein one organism should kill the other for nourishment
e. Parasitism – a relationship in which the parasitic organism spends part or all of its life cycle on
or within the host organism and uses the host materials for food
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION AND ADAPTATION

The process by which organisms occupy a site and gradually change environmental conditions
so that other species can replace the original inhabitants is called ecological succession or
development.
Primary succession occurs when a community being to develop on a site previously
unoccupied by living organisms, such as on Island, a sand or silt bed, a body of water or a new
volcanic flow.
Secondary succession occurs when an existing community is disrupted and a new one
subsequently develops at the site. The disruption may be caused by some natural catastrophe,
such as fire or flooding, or by a human activity, such as deforestation, plowing or mining
Both forms of succession usually follow an orderly sequence of stages (called sere) as
organisms modify the environment in ways that allow one species to replace another.
Eventually in either primary or secondary secession a community develops that seemingly
resists further change. Ecologists call this a climax community, because it appears to be the
culmination of the succession process. The different biomes of our planet discussed are
examples of climax community.

SUCCESSION AND CLIMAX COMMUNITIES

Ecosystems are dynamic, in that the populations constituting them do not remain the same.
This is reflected in the gradual changes of the vegetational community over time, known as
succession.
It begins with the colonization of a disturbed area, such as an abandoned crop field or a newly
exposed lava flow, by species able to reach and to tolerate the environmental conditions present.
Mostly these are opportunistic species that hold on to the site for a variable length of time.
Being short-lived and poor competitors, they are eventually replaced by more competitive,
longer-lived species such as shrubs, and then trees.
In aquatic habitats, successional changes of this kind result largely from changes in the physical
environment, such as the buildup of silt at the bottom of a pond. As the pond becomes shallower,
it encourages the invasion of floating plants such as pond lilies and emergent plants such as
cattails.
The pace at which succession proceeds depends on the competitive abilities of the species
involved; tolerance to the environmental conditions brought about by changes in vegetation;
the interaction with animals, particularly the grazing herbivores; and fire.
Eventually the ecosystem arrives at a point called the climax, where further changes take place
very slowly, and the site is dominated by long-lived, highly competitive species.
As succession proceeds, however, the community becomes more stratified, enabling more
species of animals to occupy the area.
The characteristics of animals in later stages of succession replace those found in earlier stages
in time.

➢ Models of Succession:
1. Facilitation – colonists prepare environment for later successional species
2. Tolerance – modifications that early successional species impose on environment
neither increase nor reduce rates of recruitment and growth of later successional species; species
sequence is solely a function of life history – any species can start succession and the
competitively superior species prevail.
3. Inhibition – once early colonists secure a place and/or resources, they inhibit
subsequent invasion by other species or suppress the growth of species invading at the
same time
 ➢ Ecological succession is dictated by how organisms respond and adapt to
external environment:
➢ Organisms respond to the environment in three principal ways:
1. Morphological adaptation - The variety of teeth found in mammals, and lizards, the
variation in shape and size of gills of birds, the different mouth parts of Insets.
2. Physiological adaptation - Structural adaptation for the digestion of food,
respiration circulation and excretion
3. Behavioral adaptation - It is the change in behavior of an organism to adapt itself
to the conditions of the environment

➢ Adaptive strategies of animals:

1. Bergman’s rule: is connected with heat loss and heat conservation. It states: As a
rule, geographical species possessing smaller body sizes are good heat dissipaters. On the
other hand geographical species, which have larger body sizes, are good heat conservers.
Because of this those organisms possessing relatively larger body sizes are found in the colder
regions.
2. Allen’s rule: just like Bergman’s rule this is connected with heat loss and heat
conservation. According to Allen’s rule, organisms possessing larger body sizes but relatively
short appendage extremities or protruding parts are found in cooler regions whereas
organisms possessing smaller body sizes with larger appendages extremities or protruding parts
are found in the warmer regions.
3. Gloger’s rule: states that races of warm-blooded animals are more dark- pigmented
in the warm and humid areas whereas organisms living in the dray and cool areas are less
pigmented.
4. The egg rule: the average number of eggs in a set, or clutch, laid by songbirds
and several other kinds of birds increases as one moves north in latitude.

➢ Range and limits – plant and animal species have optimal ranges that restrict their distribution
around the world. This fact is explained by:
1. Liebig’s Law (Law of the minimum) - “The rate of growth of each organism
is limited by whatever essential nutrient is present in a minimal amount”. The
law can also be stated as “the functioning of an organism is controlled or limited by
essential environmental factor or combination of factors present in the least favorable
amount in the environment”. Example:
The yield of crops is often limited not by nutrient required in large amounts, such as
water or carbon dioxide, but by something needed only in trace amounts such as nitrate or
phosphate.
2. Shelford’s Law (Law of tolerance) - For each species, there is a range of an
environmental factor with in which the species functions at or near optimum. There are
extremes, both maximum and minimum towards which the functions of a species are curtailed
and then inhibited.

➢ Upper and lower limits of tolerance are intensity levels of a factor at which only
half of the organisms can survive (LD50). Terms to express the narrowness
and wideness of tolerance (prefixes):

➢ Steno: narrow range of tolerance (example: stenothermal- narrow range of

tolerance for heat).
➢ Eury: wider range of tolerance (example: Eurythermal-wider range of
tolerance for heat).
Speciation – splitting of one set of interbreeding populations constituting a species into
two or more sets, each reproductively isolated. It requires the development of a genetic
difference between a group of individuals and the remainder of the parent species. There
has to exist some restriction in gene flow between the group sharing this genetic feature
and the rest of the ancestral stock. Several ways in which speciation takes place:
 1. Allopatric speciation – existing species are separated by a physical barrier, so
that they occupy a non-overlapping area. The barrier prevents the migration between
populations and so restricts or eliminates gene flow. Each population then evolves in
response to local selection processes, which are likely to differ between the two areas
or diverges as a result of chance. In time, the populations will become genetically
distinct.

2. Sympatric speciation – occur without the need for geographic separation of

populations. A genetic or behavioral change affecting a subgroup result in the partial
restriction or complete cessation of gene flow, despite the fact that it continues to
occupy part of the range of the ancestral stock.

LIMITING FACTORS IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Amount of salt (salinity)
Amount of dissolved oxygen
Sunlight
Nutrients

Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) are the main nutrients needed by plants to grow
For every unit of N, many units of P IS REQUIRED
If one nutrient is Insufficient, it will limit the total production potential OF THE AREA.
For phytoplankton, phosphorus is the most limiting nutrient
Phosphorus is typically liming nutrient in freshwater and nitrogen in marine system.

WATER QUALITY AND PROPERTIES

1. Water quality includes all the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water.
2. The physical characteristics of water are: Temperature, Density, Color, Turbidity
3. The types of water color are: True color and apparent color
4. The chemical characteristic of water are:
1. Amount of gasses dissolved in water such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, 2. pH and
3.Salinity
5. Amounts of nutrients dissolved in water e.g., phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium and other minor
nutrients, Total alkalinity, Total hardness, Particulate organic matter and Total solids
6. Biological aspects of water quality include:
1. Phytoplankton are minute plants suspended in the water column.
2. Macrophytes are vascular plants including floating, rooted and submerged vegetation,
3. other organisms, zooplankton and other animals affect water quality too.
7. The end result of the interaction of the organism and its environment is biological productivity
8. Problems that can occur if water quality is not controlled are: pollution, disease problem,
mortality
of aquatic organisms, and aging of lake/bodies of water
9. Measures to be taken to prevent problems that can occur in case water quality controlled is not
controlled include:
1. Controlling of stocking rate of natural body of water,
2. Dumping of domestic and industrial waste into the river or lake should be avoided,
3. Grasses/trees should be planted in the vicinity or watershed to avoid soil erosion,
4.Proper exploitation of the resources should be done to ensure a balance of population.
Temperature is a property that measures the amount of heat absorbed by water.
10.Density is mass of water per unit volume.
11.Color is the result from the unabsorbed light rays remaining from incident light. True color is
caused
by substances in true solution or in colloidal suspension. Apparent color is caused by suspended
particulate.
12.Turbidity refers to decreased ability of water to transmit light; it measures the transparency of
water.
13.pH is the amount of hydrogen-ion concentration; a measure of acidity and basicity of water.
14.Salinity is the total concentration of an ionic constituents present in a water sample. It is a
measure on the saltiness of the water.
15.Alkalinity is the concentration of bases in water expressed as mg/L equivalent CaCO³.
16.Hardness is the concentration of alkaline earth ions expressed as mg/L equivalent calcium
carbonate.
17.Particulate organic matter is the weight loss after ignition at 550°C of residue on the filter.
18.Total solids is the amount of total residue left upon evaporation of a raw water sample.

POPULATION DYNAMICS AND BIODIVERSITY OF ECOSYSTEMS

Population dynamics is the study of changes in the number and composition of individuals in a
population, and the factors that influence those changes. Population dynamics involves five basic
components of interest to which all changes in populations can be related: birth, death, sex ratio,
age structure, and dispersal.
An understanding of population dynamics is needed to:
o Estimate how many animals can be harvested,
o Understand how environmental changes affect populations,
o Predict when a species or population is threatened or endangered with extinction,
o Understand how one population might affect another (i.e., competition or predation), and
o Use populations as indicators of environmental quality.
o Understanding the structure and function of communities and ecosystems.

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

Factors that cause changes in populations are classified as:

1. Density-Dependent Factors - Are factors that act on a population as a function of density?
Density refers to the number of animals per unit area (usually measured in animals/hectare
or animals/square kilometer). As the density of a population increases, the amount of
resources available to each individual decreases, and the health of individuals decreases. As
health decreases, mortality (death rate) increases and reproduction decreases. Thus, we
may talk about density-dependent mortality or density-dependent reproduction. Density-
dependent forms of mortality include parasites, disease, starvation, and predation.
2. Density-Independent factor - Are those factors that act on a population independent of
the size of the population. Typical density-independent causes of mortality are weather,
accidents, and environmental catastrophes like volcanoes, floods, landslides, fire, etc.

Factors that cause changes in populations

1. Natality - The rate at which animals reproduce is a basic component of population dynamics.
o The rate of natural increase is the difference between birth and death rates. It
measures the degree to which a population is growing. Since birth and death rates are
 measured as the number of births (or deaths) occurring per 1000 population, the difference
is divided by 10 to convert this rate into a percentage.

o Natality refers to number of young individuals born or hatched per unit of time.
Birth rates are usually expressed as fecundity, which is the number of young produced
per female over a given time period. Usually one year is the time period considered, but
for smaller animals, especially those that may breed several times a year, a shorter time
period may be selected. Thus, if a population of 1,000 female grizzly bears produced 200
young in a year, the birth rate, or fecundity, would be 200/1,000 = 0.2.

o Factors Affecting Birth Rate:

a. The amount and quality of food available determines if an individual has enough energy
to reproduce. Animals that are in poor nutritional condition have fewer young and/or breed
less often.
b. Age at first reproduction is also an important factor in determining birth rate. Large,
long lived animals typically do not become sexually mature until they are several years of
age. A vole or meadow mouse might become sexually mature and breed for the first time
at 18 days. An Asian elephant on the other hand will typically be 9-12 years old when it first
breeds.
c. The birth interval is also important in determining birth rates. A vole might produce a
litter of young every 30 days during the breeding season, but a grizzly bear may only
reproduce every 3 or 4 years.
d. The average number of young produced is of obvious importance in a population's birth
rate. Some animals such as fish or amphibians produce 100's or 1000's of eggs (not all of
them hatch of course), while many wildlife only have one young at a time.
e. Potential population growth rates are related to fecundity rates. A doubling in the
fecundity rate will more than double the population growth rate.

2. Death rate or mortality rate is another important component of population dynamics.

Mortality is measured as the number of animals that die per unit of time (usually one year)
divided by the number of animals alive at the beginning of the time period. Thus, if 1,000
fawns are born in June, and 400 are alive the next June, then the mortality rate is 600
(the number that died)/1,000 = 0.6 or 60%. Survival and longevity are two other
population parameters related to mortality.
Survival is the number of animals that live through a time period and is the converse of
mortality. Thus, if the mortality rate was 0.8 or 80% per year, then survival would be 0.2,
or 20% per year
Longevity is the age at death of an animal. Mortality rates are usually age- and often sex-
specific, which means that animals of different ages or sexes die at different rates. In many
species, the young and old animals die at faster rates than the prime-age animals.
Often, males have higher mortality rates than females because of activities
associated with
territorial or mating behavior. Different species have different survivorship functions related
to life-history traits:
a. A Type I survivorship curve would be typical of animals that have relatively
high survivorship until later in life when they become subject to age-related mortality.
Typically, these are animals with a high degree of parental care. Many larger
 mammals, such as whales, bears, and elephants, might have Type I survivorship
curves.
b. Some animals have fairly constant survivorship (Type II). Some birds and
most reptiles and amphibians probably fit this pattern, although our knowledge of
survivorship in birds is not very complete because they are difficult to study.
c. A Type III survivorship curve would be typical of animals with little or no
parental care and/or vulnerable young; mortality is high in the young age classes,
then low in older animals. Insects and fish often have Type III survivorship curves.

3. Age structure or age composition of a population will influence population growth. A wildlife
population is composed of individuals of different ages. The age structure of a population refers to
the number of individuals of each age within the population. Because ages of animals are often
difficult to determine, ecologists often place animals in age categories or age classes. Many birds
and reptiles are classified as young of the year or adult. Some birds and small mammals may be
classified as juvenile, sub-adult, or adult. Because of age-specific mortality and fecundity rates, the
age structure of a population can greatly influence population growth. For example, differences in
age at first breeding can significantly influence the rate of population growth.

4. The sex ratio of a population has important implications for mating systems and management.
o Sex ratio is the proportion of males to females in a population. Typically, the sex ratio at birth is
50:50, but usually sex-specific mortality results in departures from this ratio in the adult
population. Depending on the mating system of the species, a departure from a 50:50 sex ratio
may influence the population's dynamics
In monogamous species (monogamy is a mating system in which each male only
mates with one female), a deviation from a 50:50 sex ratio will cause a
decline in population growth.
In polygamous species (polygamy is a mating system in which successful males
mate with more than one female), deviations from a 50:50 ratio can have major
effects on population growth. Fecundity within the population of a polygynous
species is a function of the number of breeding age females and males.

5. Dispersal is a poorly understood component of wildlife populations that is critical to the long-
term persistence of a species. Dispersal is the movement of an animal from its natal area (place
where it was born) to a new area where it lives and reproduces (if it survives that long). Dispersalis
important in the persistence of populations and species. Environments or habitats change over
time, and if an animal (species) does not disperse, it has no ability to colonize new areas. Dispersal
also functions to prevent inbreeding and provides new genetic material for other subpopulations.
Individuals that disperse likely will not breed with their relatives.

We know that dispersal is important, but it is one of the more difficult population parameters
to study. Dispersal usually occurs about the time an animal becomes an adult, and is often
sex-biased (one sex disperses more often than the other). For example, female elk usually
do not disperse; but instead, adopt their mother's home range. Male elk, on the other hand,
usually disperse when they are 2-3 years old. Dispersing animals may move only a short
distance and adopt a home range adjacent to their natal home range, or they may move
great distances, passing many suitable areas before establishing a new home range. Elk
have been recorded dispersing hundreds of miles.
Population growth
The change in population size over time is known as population growth. By monitoring population
growth in response to other factors such as habitat change or manipulation, weather patterns, and
hunting seasons, biologists and ecologists increase their understanding of the factors that limit
populations and how management affects a population.

Patterns of population growth:

1. Exponential Population Growth - This growth type occurs when no resources limit the
population. When resources are unlimited, populations grow at the maximum rate that is
biologically feasible for the species. That rate is called the intrinsic rate of increase and is denoted
by the symbol r. Although exponential growth is rare, it does occur under some circumstances.
Population growth by exotic species when they first colonize a new area often resembles exponential
growth. Exponential growth is typical characteristic of insects with short lifespan and most annual
plants.

2. Sigmoid or S-Shaped Population growth - Limitations on resources and/or space cause

population growth to change. Populations rarely grow in environments with unlimited resources.
Eventually, some resource becomes limited. It may be nest holes for cavity-nesting birds, or food
for many species, or space for territorial species.
The carrying capacity of a habitat is the number of individuals that the area can support. It
is the natural limit of the population set by the resources available. As a population
approaches K, then density- dependent mechanisms (increased mortality, decreased
reproduction) function
to slow population growth.
The maximum growth rate, which a population could achieve in an unlimited environment,
is that population’s Biotic potential. In reality however, no organism ever reaches its biotic
potential because of one or more factors which limit growth long before population size
attains its theoretical maximum, such limiting factors include: food shortages,
overcrowding, disease, perdition, and accumulation of toxic wastes. Taken together, the
environmental pressures which limit a population’s inherent capacity for growth ate termed
Environmental resistance Environmental resistance is generally, measured as the difference
between the potential of a population and the actual rate of increase as observed under
laboratory or field conditions.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity encompasses the variety of life, at all levels of organization, classified both by
evolutionary (phylogenetic) and ecological (functional) criteria.
At the level of biological populations, genetic variation among individual organisms and among
lineages contributes to biodiversity as both the signature of evolutionary and ecological history and
the basis of future adaptive evolution.
Species that lack substantial genetic variation are thought to be more vulnerable to extinction
from natural or human-caused changes in their environment.
It has 2 separate components:
1. Species richness – number of species present
2. Dominance or evenness – relative abundances - One species might be represented by 1000
individuals, and another by 200, and a third by a single individual.
 There are 3 types of species diversity:
1. Alpha diversity (ά) – Also ‘local diversity’ - refers to the diversity within a particular area, or
habitat.
2. Beta diversity (β) - refers to the difference in diversity between habitats.
3. Gamma diversity (γ) – Also ‘regional diversity’ – this refers to the diversity of species observed
in all habitats within a region, or ecosystem.
 MAJOR MARINE LIFESTYLES AND
ENVIRONMENTS

INTERTIDAL ZONE
Narrow fringe along the shoreline that lies between the highest high and the lowest low tides
Unique among marine environments in that it is regularly exposed to the air or emersion (vs
immersion –being placed underwater
Divided according to the type of substrate, whether bottom is:

A. ROCKY SHORE COMMUNITIES

Occur on recently uplifted or geologically young coasts or on coasts where erosion is
removing sediment and soft rock.
Most rocky intertidal organisms live right on the rock’s surface. Animals that live on the
surface of the substrate—be it rock, sand, mud, or even other organisms—are called
epifauna. Some epifauna move about over the rocks, but many are sessile and stay
attached to the rock.
Challenges faced by epifauna in rocky shore communities include:

1. Exposure at low tides – emersion time or time spent out of the water gets longer the higher
in the intertidal you go (the closer an organism in to the shoreline):
b) Water loss – to survive in the intertidal, an organism must be able to prevent
desiccation, tolerate it or both. Organisms cope using many ways:
I. run-and-hide strategy - when the tide goes out, the organism goes
somewhere wet and waits for the tide to come back in, Example: Tide pools,
depressions in the rocks that hold seawater after the tide goes out, are
favorite places to hide.
II. “clam-up” strategy - have some sort of protective covering, like a shell, that
they can close to hold in water.
III. Simply tolerate drying out - some intertidal chitons can survive the loss of
75 of the water in their tissues
c) Temperature and salinity - The intertidal has more extremes of temperature
and salinity than other marine environments because it is exposed to the air.
Intertidal organisms have evolved various mechanisms to avoid or endure these
extremes:
I. Snails have pronounced ridges in their shells that help give off heat.
II. Color of shell help tolerate high temperatures. Light color helps to reflect
sunlight so that the snail does not absorb energy and heat up.
III. Clam up strategy to endure freshwater when raining
IV. Burrow or reduce their activity to ride out extreme salinity and wait for high
tide
d) Restriction of feeding – since little sediment accumulates in the rocky intertidal,
deposit feeders are rare. Most of the sessile animals are filter feeders and cannot
feed when the tide is out (low tide). This prevent them from living higher on the
shore than they do.

2. Power of waves - Even when the tide is in, life in the intertidal is not necessarily easy.
Ocean waves expend tremendous energy as they crash on the shore. Coping with wave shock:
a. Seaweeds use their holdfast or encrust on rocks
b. Barnacles secure themselves with a strong glue
c. Mussel hold on with their byssal threads, strong fibers made of protein that the mussel
produces with a special gland in its foot
d. Intertidal fishes also tend to lack swim bladders so they sink and stay on the bottom
e. Move to sheltered spots when wave action gets too strong
f. Exposed animals tend to have thicker shells than sheltered ones. A compact shape can
help reduce the impact of waves
g. Flexible seaweeds go with the flow
h. Safety in numbers – mussels clump together to resist wave shock

3. Battle for space - Rocky intertidal populations are often limited by space, not food or
nutrients. To overcome this:
a. Having an effective means of dispersal; that is, organisms that depend on being the first to
occupy new patches of open space must be good at getting themselves or their offspring from
place to place.
b. Many intertidal organisms simply grow over their competitors, making them vulnerable to
waves, smothering them, or in the case of seaweeds, blocking precious sunlight
➢ Zones in rocky shore communities
- The rocky intertidal community is usually divided into distinct bands, or zones, at
characteristic heights in the intertidal.
* Vertical zonation - a given species is usually not found throughout
the intertidal, but only within a particular vertical range. A general rule
is that the upper limit at which a species occurs is usually determined
mainly by physical factors, whereas the lower limit is usually determined
by biological factors, especially predation and competition
1. Upper Intertidal “splash zone” – seldom submerged. Dominant
organisms: Lichens and cyanobacteria. Periwinkles (Littorina ) are so
abundant that the upper intertidal is often called the “Littorina zone.”
2. Middle Intertidal - submerged and uncovered by the tides on a
regular basis. A diurnal tide exposes the organisms once a day, a
semidiurnal tide twice - with so much variation in emersion time,
different heights within the middle intertidal often support different
organisms.

a. The upper boundary of the middle intertidal is almost always

marked by a band of acorn barnacles. The upper limit is
determined by how high they can live without drying out. Their
lower limit is set by competition with mussels or by snail or sea
star predators
b. Mussels are dominant competitors for space on many rocky
shores. Their upper limit is set by desiccation and filtering time,
their lower limit by predatory sea stars.

c. Keystone predators – removing them would profoundly affect

the other species and much of the structure of the community
depends on them.

d. Ecological succession – regular patterns of regrowth: When a

patch of space is cleared, new organisms often move into the
patch and get replaced by others in a regular sequence. The final
stage in an ecological succession is called the climax community.

Example: The typical steps of ecological succession in the middle

intertidal of many rocky shores are, first, a bacterial and algal
film, then seaweeds, barnacles, and finally the climax
 mussel community.

e. The number of species that live in an intertidal area is strongly

affected by predation and other disturbances. Without such
disturbances, a few dominant competitors, especially mussels,
take over. Occasional disturbance removes the mussels and
gives other species a chance. Too much disturbance removes
most of the species.

3. Lower Intertidal – submerged most of the time. Dominant

organisms: Red, green and brown seaweeds

Soft bottom communities

Any bottom that is composed of sediment, as opposed to rock
Occur where large amounts of sediments have accumulated
Soft bottoms are unstable and constantly shift in response to waves, tides, and currents.
Thus, softbottom organisms do not have a solid place for attachment.
Dominant organisms: Infauna - they live in the sediment.
Fine sediments remain suspended with even a small amount of water motion, whereas
coarse sediments settle out unless ther e is considerable flow.
Challenges faced by infauna in soft bottom communities include:
1. Oxygen availability
Detritus is the main source of food for intertidal soft-bottom communities.
Deposit feeders extract this organic matter from the sediments.
Grain sizes affect oxygen availability:
Coarse sand: low organic matter, high oxygen
since more water circulation through the
sediments to replenish oxygen supply. Fine silt
and clay: high organic matter, low oxygen due to
reduced flow of water thus except for the few
upper centimeters of mud, the interstitial water
(water between the grains) is deficient in oxygen.

Adaptations for limited oxygen:

i. Many bacteria are capable of anaerobic respiration (break down
organic matter without oxygen). Noxious gas, H2S becomes the by-
product
ii. Many animals avoid the problem by pumping oxygen-rich water from
the sediment surface with siphons or through their burrows
iii. Special hemoglobin and other adaptations that allow them to extract
every last bit of oxygen from interstitial water.

2. Getting around in the sediment – soft bottom animals use a variety

of methods to burrow through the sediments:
Clams and cockles take advantage of being able to change the shape of their
muscular foot
Burrow or plough through the sediment with their spines and tube feet
Crabs, shrimps use their jointed appendages to dig
 Rather than push through the sediments, sea cucumbers push the sediments
through them. They digest the organic matter and leave the rest of the
sediment behind.
Instead of burrowing through the sediments, they move in between grains
(meiofauna).

B. ESTUARIES
Semi-enclosed areas where fresh water and seawater meet and mix. Typically inhabited by
fewer species than rocky shores
Estuaries include plant-dominated communities with very high primary production. A
significant amount of food manufactured by these plants is made available to consumers by way
of detritus. Detritus tends to sink to the bottom. Bottom water, which has a higher salinity and
density than shallow water thus acts as a nutrient trap in deep estuaries. Surplus detritus is
exported to the open ocean and neighboring ecosystems
in a process known as outwelling.

Classifications of estuaries:
Based on water balance:

1. Positive (River-dominated): freshwater additions from river discharge, rain and ice
melting exceed
freshwater losses from evaporation or freezing – stronger outflow of water to the ocean

2. Inverse (Marine-dominated): freshwater losses from evaporation exceed freshwater

additions from precipitation, scant river discharge thus there is a stronger inflow of seawater –
flushing is more sluggish since there is little to no outflow to ocean – more prone to water
quality problems

3. Low-input - occur in regions of high evaporation rates but with a small influence from river
discharge.
During dry season, a salt plug or salinity maximum zone exists that serves as a barrier. Both
seaward
and landward of this barrier salinity is lower than in the
salinity maximum zone.
Based on geomorphology:
1. Drowned River valleys or coastal plain estuaries – sea
level rose due to melting of ice. The sea invaded lowlands
and river mouths in the process.
2. Bar-built estuary – accumulation of sediments
along the coast builds up sand bars and barrier
islands that act as a wall between the ocean and
fresh water from rivers

3. Tectonic estuaries - created not because sea

level rose but because the land sank, or subsided, as
the result of movements of the crust.

4. Fjords – created when retreating glaciers cut deep, often spectacular, valleys along the coast.
The
valleys were partially submerged when sea level rose, and rivers now flow into them.
Physical characteristics
1. Salinity – decreases as one moves upstream (landward); varies with depth in the estuary.
The salty seawater is denser and stays on the bottom. It flows in along the bottom in what
is frequently known as a salt wedge. Meanwhile, th e fresher, less dense water from the river
flows out on the surface.

Because most estuaries are long and narrow, the tide doesn’t just rise; it rushes in, often
creating strong tidal currents. In a few places the tide actually comes in as a nearly vertical wall
of water known as a tidal bore.
Another factor that affects circulation in estuaries is the Coriolis effect. North of the Equator,
the fresh water that flows from rivers toward the sea is deflected toward the right. South of the
Equator, the flow is to the left.
 Most estuarine organisms are euryhaline (tolerate
a wide range of salinities). Stenohaline species
tolerate a narrow range of salinity and are limited to
the outer ends of the estuary, rarely penetrating into
the estuary proper. Some plants actively absorb
salts and concentrate harmless solutes like sugars to
match the outside concentrations and prevent
water from leaving their tissues. Example: Salt

Marsh plants, and some mangroves actually excrete

excess salts by way of salt glands in their leaves.
Some estuarine plants, such as pickleweed
accumulate large amounts of water to dilute the
salts they take up. Fleshy plants such as these are
known as succulents

Types of Estuaries depending on vertical structure of salinity:

a. Strongly stratified or salt-wedge estuary – flow of river water is strongly dominant over
tidal action, as in the mouth of a large river. Freshwater tends to overflow the heavier salt
water, which form a wedge extending along the bottom for a considerable distance upstream.
Such a stratified, or two layered estuaries will exhibit a salinity profile with a “halocline” – or
zone of sharp change in salinity from top to bottom.

b. Partially mixed or moderately stratified estuary - where freshwater and tidal inflow are
more nearly equal, the dominant mixing agent is turbulence, caused by the periodicity in the
tidal action. The vertical salinity profile is less steep as more of the energy is dissipated in
vertical mixing, thus creating a complex pattern of layers and water masses.

c. The completely mixed or vertically homogenous estuary - when tidal action is strongly
dominant and vigorous, the water tend to be well-mixed from top to bottom and the salinity
relatively high, approaching that of the ocean. Major variation in salinity and temperature are
horizontal rather than vertical.
d. Hypersaline estuary = where the inflow of freshwater is small, the tidal amplitude low, and
the evaporation very high, the salinity of enclosed bays may rise above that of the sea, at least
during some seasons. The salinity may rise to 60 ppt (recall that salinity of the sea is around
35 ppt).

2. Substrate - Fine, muddy sediments brought into estuaries by rivers settle out in the
relatively quiet waters. Therefore, the substrate, or type of bottom of most estuaries is soft
mud. Bacterial respiration in these organic-rich sediments depletes the oxygen in them.

3. Other physical factors: Temperature varies markedly because of their shallow water and
large surface area. Large amounts of suspended sediment in estuaries lowers water clarity.
Types of Estuarine Communities:
1. Open water - rich variety of fishes live in most estuaries. Many are the juveniles of marine
species that breed at sea but use estuaries as nurseries, taking advantage of the abundant food
and relative safety from predators, some fishes move through the estuary during their
migrations.

2. Mud flats - bottoms of estuaries that become exposed at low tide. Primary producers are
not usually evident on mudflats except for a few hardy seaweeds—such as the green algae
Enteromorpha and Ulva, the sea lettuce, and the red alga Gracilaria that manage to grow on
bits of shell. The dominant producers on mudflats are diatoms and bacteria. Most of the animals
are burrowing deposit and suspension feeders that feed on detritus.

Deposit feeders are more common than suspension feeders in mud flats and other muddy
bottoms.
Suspension feeders which include filter feeders are actually excluded or eliminated since their
filtering mechanisms tend to get clogged by the higher amounts of detritus that rain on soft
bottoms. They are more common in bottoms where sediment particles are more sandy. The
wider interstitial spaces between the larger sand particles hold less of the detritus that feeds
deposit feeders.
Estuaries are important stopover and wintering areas for many species of migratory birds.
The open spaces offer safety from natural enemies and food is plentiful.

3. Salt marshes or tidal marshes – in temperate areas.

Areas partially flooded at high tide that extend inland from the mud flats and bordered by
extensive grassy areas. Sometimes grouped with freshwater marshes and collectively called
wetlands.
Have a muddy bottom, but held together by the roots of marsh plants and thus is more
stable. Dominated by grasses and other marsh plants. Bacteria in the mud decompose dead
plants and plant material and contribute a large portion of detritus in the estuary.

4. Mangrove forests or mangals – tropical equivalents of salt marshes. Mangroves are

flowering land plants adapted to live in the intertidal. Show a distinctive zonation in the
intertidal, from a marine to a progressively terrestrial environment:
Fiddler crabs, mudskippers – burrows in the mud but spread most of their time out of the
water, skipping over the mud and crawling up mangrove roots to catch insects and crabs. Their
gills get oxygen not from the water but from the air trapped in the mouth.

5. Seagrass beds

6. Oyster reefs – may form extensive beds on the muddy bottoms of estuaries in temperate
waters; oyster reefs gradually develop as successive generations of oysters grow on the shells
of their predecessors
7. Deltas – occur in estuaries where the sediment load carried by the river is so large that
accumulations of sediment near the mouth grow
towards the sea.
A river carries sediment from its drainage basin
toward the sea and much of it ends up deposited
on the flood plain when the stream flow slows
down. Some deposits are light enough that the
current will carry them into the ocean before they
are deposited. These deposits form the river delta.
Sand is the first to be deposited close to shore as
it is the heaviest, followed by silt and clay.

Currents from larger rivers can be detected as much as fifty kilometers from shore. This
would be the final resting place for the lightest river sediment. Rivers with large sediment
loads have constructive river deltas, meaning that they increase in size each year. Large
rivers tend to have broad deltas with shallow water extending far out to sea. Deltas of this
type are not easily eroded by ocean waves.
 Process that modify estuary:
1. Erosion. Marine forces, such as waves, and currents created by wave action, attack coastal
rocks. They cut and gradually wear down shoreline features like cliffs and headlands.
Upstream, running water also continues to erode its valley.

2. Transport. Both stream and oceanic currents carry to the shore sediments that are kept in
suspension by turbulence of the water. Ocean currents may also remove sediments from
the shore and bring them to some other part of the coast.

3. Deposition. The velocity of a stream diminishes as it enters the sea and causes it to drop
its transported sediments at its mouth or in the upper reaches of the drowned valley where
it meets the sea. The products of erosion by the sea are likewise deposited at the bottom of
the seaward portion of an estuary. The accumulation of riverine and oceanic sediments
create various depositional features along the coast.

Coastal features that result from

modifications of the original estuary –
continuous erosion, transport and
deposition of sediments changes estuaries and
gives rise to the following features:

SPIT. A spit is a narrow ridge of sandy

sediments extending outward from the
shore, lying parallel to the general shoreline
and curving sharply at its outer end.
BAYMOUTH BAR. This is also a sand ridge
that may extend nearly across the mouth of
a bay or estuary. Such a bar may have originated as a spit and was gradually lengthened. It
produces a narrow bay or estuary opening.
BARRIER BEACH. A barrier beach is a much larger ridge located at a considerable distance
offshore, extending parallel to a shore, and enclosing an estuarine – like body of water. This
water between the beach and the shore is called a LAGOON. The origin of a barrier beach is
uncertain. It may havebeen a greatly lengthened spit subsequently separated from the coast
by erosion or it may have formed a long the zone where large waves break against a gently
sloping sea floor.
DELTA. A delta is a triangular shaped deposit at the mouth of a stream or in the upper
reaches of the drowned mouth.
TIDAL FLAT OR MUD FLAT. This is the level, broadened accumulation of sediments built
up as a result of the meeting of river currents and encroached tidal currents

C. SUBTIDAL ZONE
 Also called sublittoral zone; part of the continental shelf that is never exposed at low tide.
Extends from the low tide level on shore to the shelf break, the outer edge of the continental
shelf where depth suddenly increases.

The physical factors that affect subtidal organisms are linked to two of the shelf ’s
fundamental characteristics: its relatively shallow water (temperature & waves) and its
proximity to land:

1. Temperature varies more from place to place in the subtidal zone than on the deeper
bottom beyond the shelf because bottom is shallow.

2. The bottom in shallow water is also much more affected by waves and currents than in
deep water. The rise and fall of tides can produce particularly strong tidal currents on the
shelf, especially in bays and narrow straits.

Water motion, or turbulence, stirs up the water column and prevents stratification. Result:
nutrients do not concentrate in bottom layer; nutrients are available to primary producers in
the surface.

3. Proximity to land: Nutrients are also brought in by rivers, sometimes as by-products of

the highly productive salt marshes or mangrove forests that fringe the shore. Result: the
water over the continental shelf is far more productive and plankton-rich than the open
ocean, so much more food is available.

The high concentration of phytoplankton, plus decaying organic matter brought in by rivers,
gives coastal water a greenish tint as opposed to the deep blue of open-ocean water.

Coastal vs ocean open waters: coastal waters are exposed to nearby sources of nutrients so
concentrations off almost any substance are greater than in deeper water environment.

Almost all ecological processes take place at a faster rate on a per square meter/ cubic meter
basis in coastal waters than in oceanic waters. The nearer to a coast, in shallower water,
macroalgae and vascular plants are more prominent and are the key producers vs dominance
of phytoplankton in open waters.

Sources of nutrients in coastal ecosystems: new nutrients can be transported into coastal
ecosystems via:
i. Precipitation –rain, snow and dry deposition can provide nutrients to waters, land
and man are still the sources of these nutrients (fossil fuel combustion release
nitrates and nitrites).
ii. Freshwater transport – anthropogemic activities on watersheds increase nutrient
content of rivers and groundwater – downslope transport of this enriched fresh water
results in loading of coastal ecosystems.
iii. Nitrogen fixation – bacteria (including cyanobacteria) perofrm nitrification:
gaseous nitrogen is fixed into an organic form.

4. Proximity to land and shallow waters: greatly influences sedimentation (settling of sediment
particles from the water) – most of the sediments on the shelf is lithogenous and rivers bring
in huge quantities of sediment from the continents.

Large grained material (gravel, sand) – settle in areas even with strong waves and
currents when the bottom I shallow. Turbulence keeps fine particles such as silt and clay in
suspension. Fine particles are deposited only in quiet areas or in deeper water, where turbulence
does not reach the bottom.
 Soft bottom subtidal communities
➢ Sandy and muddy substrates dominate the world’s continental shelves. The subtidal
communities in these areas are dominated by infauna. Number of species is higher than
species in soft bottom intertidal communities because: dessication is not a problem +
sand is abundant in shelf (low organic matter, highly porous – water can circulate
through the sediment and replenish oxygen so infauna can burrow deeper in the sand
➢ Lottery hypothesis – establishment of subtidal and other marine communities is
influenced by a random or chance element. Whenever an empty space becomes available
on the substrate – because of death of adults or disturbances – larvae will settle on a
“first come, first serve” basis.
➢ Little water movement: 0fine particles accumulate – intertidal marshes and seagrass
beds BUT more water movement (due to wave and current action) – bottom consists of
large boulders and exposures of bed rock – dominant submerged primary producers-
seaweeds.
➢ Soft bottom subtidal communities include:
1. Unvegetated soft bottom communities
lack significant amounts of seaweeds or seagrasses. The main primary producers
are diatoms and a few other microscopic algae and bacteria that grow on sand or
mud particles in shallow water
Because there is little primary production by benthic organisms, detritus is a very
important food source for many inhabitants. Detritus is brought in by currents from
estuaries, rocky shores, and other, more productive coastal communities or
generated by the bottom inhabitants when they die and decompose.
Most bottom-dwelling (demersal) fishes in these soft-bottom communities are
carnivores: rays, flatfishes, halibuts, soles and turbots
2. Seagrass beds
Soft bottoms along the coast are occasionally carpeted by seagrasses. These
flowering plants, grass-like in appearance but unrelated to true grasses
Develop best in sheltered, shallow water along the coast. Different species of
seagrasses vary in maximum depth but all are limited by the penetration of light
through the water column.
Roots and a network of underground stems keep them anchored in the face of
turbulence. The roots and stems also help stabilize the soft bottom and leaves cut
down wave action and currents.
Decrease in turbulence causes more and finer sediment to be deposited, which in
turn affects colonization by other organisms and improves water clarity because less
sediment remains suspended in the water column.
Higher primary production than anywhere elso on soft bottoms because:
seagrasses have true roots, unlike seaweeds and are therefore able to absorb
nutrients from the sediment
while phytoplankton and seaweeds by contrast must depend on nutrients dissolved
in the water.
Many small algae grow on the surface of seagrass leaves (epiphytes) which further
increase primary production in seagrass communities. The plants are not heavily
grazed but produce a lot of detritus that is used by deposit feeders and exported to
other communities.

❖ Hard bottom subtidal communities – a significant component is provided by calcareous

coralline algae, by the tubes of polychaete worms, or shells of oysters. These hard bottoms
are often called reefs but are not the same with live coral reefs of warm waters:
1. Rocky bottoms - Seaweeds are the most conspicuous inhabitants. As in the intertidal, one
of the main problems for seaweeds and sessile animals in the subtidal is to find a place to attach
– there is an intense competition for living space on the rocks
 2. Kelp forests - group of large, fast growing brown seaweeds that live in relatively cold water
and are restricted to temperate and subpolar regions.
Each kelp individual is attached to the rocky bottom by a large holdfast. Several long stipes,
intertwined to form a trunk-like foundation, grow from a single holdfast. The fronds, leaf-like
blades, grow from the stipes.
Large, dense patches of kelp are known as kelp beds. They are called kelp forests when the
fronds float on the surface in a thick mat
Temperature is of particular importance because kelps are restricted to cold water. This is
partially because kelps don’t do well in warm water and partially because warm waters tend
to lack the rich supply of nutrients that kelps need
Sea urchins are by far the most important grazers in kelp communities. The urchins may
completely clear large areas, which are then known as “urchin barrens” or “urchin deserts.”
The reasons for such outbreaks of urchins remain unclear. One possible reason is the
decline in sea otter, an urchin predator that is slowly disappearing
3. Coral reefs

D. CORAL REEFS
Part of the subtidal zone; made of vast amounts of calcium carbonate, limestone that is
deposited by living things: “zooxanthellate frame builders”. Includes:

1. Reef corals – Cnidarians, mostly class Anthozoa that lacks a medusa stage and live only as
polyps.
Hermatypic corals: corals that build reefs vs ahermatypic corals (not reef builders).
Ahermatypic corals have internal skeleton instead called “spicules”. Ahermatypic corals
are distributed worldwide but hermatypic corals are found only in tropical regions
(between 20°N and 20°S of the equator).
 Most reef building corals are colonies of polyps, all connected by a thin sheet of tissue.
The colony starts when a planktonic coral larva, called a planula, settles on a hard
surface. Coral larvae generally do not settle on soft bottoms. The larva transforms, or
metamorphoses, into a single “founder” polyp that, if it survives, divides over and over
to form the colony.
Thus all polyps in a coral colony are generally identical copies or clones of founder
polyp – a few reef.
Building corals consist of only a single polyp. Example: mushroom coral, Fungia.
❖ Coral polyps lie in a cup-like skeleton of calcium carbonate that they make themselves. The
polyps continually lay down new layers of calcium carbonate, building outward. The skeleton
forms nearly all the bulk of the colony and can take many different shapes. The actual living
tissue is only a thin layer on the surface. It is the calcareous coral skeletons that form the
framework of the reef.
❖ Branching corals can withstand constant wave action while thinner branches or large plate-
like forms are found in calm, deeper waters.

❖ Coral nutrition – nourish themselves in a remarkable number of ways:

i. Zooxanthellae (Symbiodinium sp.) nourish the host coral as well as help it deposit its
skeleton. They perform photosynthesis and pass some of the organic matter they make on
to the coral. Thus, the zooxanthellae feed the coral from the inside. Many corals can survive
and grow without eating, as long as the zooxanthellae have enough light.
ii. Corals capture zooplankton with tentacles or mucus nets. Corals are called “wall of
mouths” since they voraciously prey on zooplankton. They catch zooplankton in sheets of
mucus that they secrete along the colony surface, tiny, hair-like cilia gather the mucus into
threads and pass them along the mouth. Nematocysts enable the polyp to gather food by
paralyzing passing prey.
iii. Corals digest organic material outside the body with mesenterial filaments (long,
coiled tubes attached to the wall of the gut that secrete digestive enzymes). The polyp can
 extrude filaments through the mouth or body wall to digest and absorb food particles outside
the body
iv. Absorb dissolved organic matter from the water

2. Other reef builders – azooxanthellate frame builders:

❖ Coralline algae – produce a “skeleton” of calcium carbonate. Encrusting coralline red algae
(Porolithon, Lithothamnion, Lithophyllum) grow in rock hard sheets over the surface of the
reef. They keep corals from washing away, algae form a distinct ridge “algal ridge” on the
outer edge of many reefs that absorbs the force of waves and prevents erosion from
destroying the reef. Encrusting algae cements sediment as it builds up - glue that holds the
reef together.
❖ Nearly all the sediment that accumulates to help form the reef comes from corals and the
shells or skeletons of other organisms (biogenous sediments)
❖ Halimeda – coralline green algae, most important of all the sediment-forming organisms.
Deposits calcium carbonate within its tissues to provide support and discourage grazers
❖ Echinoderms, primarily sea urchins (class Echinoidea, sea cucumbers (class Holothuroidea),
starfish (class Asteroidea), and feather stars (crinoids), are another abundant and
conspicuous group on reefs
❖ The only sponges contributing to construction are the sclerosponges, and they are restricted
to deeper slopes and in caves or overhangs, where coral cover and calcification are low.
❖ Siliceous sponges (Demospongiae) may, however, be important in holding coral and rubble
together, preventing loss from the reef until it can be fused together by coralline algae

Conditions for reef growth:

1. Light and temperature
❖ Corals need light and temperature (because the zooxanthellae on which they depend need
light) so corals grow only in shallow, clear water
❖ Can grow and reproduce only if the average water temperature is above about 20°C
❖ The upper temperature limit varies, but is usually around 30° to 35°C
❖ First outward sign of heat stress, or stress of other kinds, is bleaching, in which the coral
expels its zooxanthellae. Above a certain temperature, the coral never recovers and dies.

2. Depth and light

❖ Reefs do not develop in water deeper than about 50-70 m. Most reefs grow in depths of
25m or less. This depth restriction due to the hermatypic corals’ requirement for light
❖ Light is one of the most important factors limiting coral reefs. Sufficient light must be
available to allow photosynthesis by the symbiotic zooxanthellae in the coral tissue. Without
sufficient light, the photosynthetic rate is reduced and the ability of the corals to secrete
CaCO3 and produce reefs.

3. Sediments, salinity and pollution

❖ Fine sediment clouds the water, cutting down light for the zooxanthellae, also even a thin
layer of sediment on the colony surface smothers the coral.
❖ Many corals can remove limited amounts of sediment by trapping it in mucus and carrying
it off by ciliary action. Most hermatypic corals, however, cannot withstand heavy
sedimentation, which overpowers their ciliary-mucus cleansing mechanisms, clogs their
feeding structures and smother them.
❖ Corals are also sensitive to pollution of many kinds. Even low concentrations of pesticides
and industrial wastes can harm them. Larvae are especially sensitive.
❖ Hermatypic corals are true marine organisms (normal seawater of 32-35 ppt) and intolerant
of low salinities. Wherever inshore waters are subject to continuing influxes of freshwater
from river discharge so that salinity is lowered, reefs will be absent. At the other extreme,
coral reefs do occur in regions of elevated salinity (e.g. Persian Gulf, 42 ppt).
4. Carbon dioxide
❖ CO2 block the earth’s re-emission of solar radiation, the largest carbon stores are in the
ocean where most of it is present in the sediments as calcium carbonate, magnesium
carbonate. It is removed from the atmosphere to the surface ocean by gas exchange after
which it is taken up by organisms as organic carbon or calcium carbonate and sedimented
to deeper layers. This transport of carbon to greater depths (which constitute the main
oceanic reservoirs) is the process that limits the rate at which the oceans can absorb
atmospheric CO2. Methane, chlorofluorocarbon, tropospheric ozone and nitrous oxide double
the warming expected from CO2 alone.
❖ High levels of CO2 dissolved in seawater results in the formation of carbonic acid – a weak
acid that reduce calcium carbonate precipitation by coral polyps resulting in low reef
calcification in seawater.

5. Emergence into air

❖ Most corals are killed by long exposure to air, though mucus secretions may prevent
dehydration for a short time. Thus, their upward growth is limited to the level of the lowest
tides.

Kinds of coral reefs

1. Fringing reefs - simplest and most common kind of reef. They develop near shore throughout
the tropics, wherever there is some kind of hard surface for the settlement of coral larvae. Rocky
shorelines provide the best conditions for fringing reefs.

2. Barrier reef – occur considerably farther from shore, are separated from the shore—which may
also have a fringing reef—by a relatively deep lagoon
❖ Largely protected from waves and currents, the lagoon usually has a soft sediment bottom
and there are columns of coral – coral knolls or pinnacles that grow up nearly to the surface
❖ Great Barrier reef – largest structure built by living organisms on Earth and it is the only
living structure visible from outer space.

3. Atolls - ring of reef, and often islands or sand cays, surrounding a central lagoon. Unlike fringing
and barrier reefs, atolls can be found far from land, rising up from depths of thousands of meters
or more.
❖ Encrusting coralline algae, which can endure the constant pounding of waves, build a distinct
algal ridge on the reef crest of the windward side of the atoll, the side that faces the
prevailing wind.
❖ Two largest atolls: Suvadiva, in the Maldive Islands of the Indian Ocean, and Kwajalein, one
of the Marshall Islands in the central Pacific.
❖ The Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (Filipino: Bahurang Tubbataha) is a protected area of
the Philippines located in the middle of Sulu Sea. The marine and bird sanctuary consists of
two huge atolls (named the North Atoll and South Atoll) and the smaller Jessie Beazley Reef
covering a total area of 97,030 hectares (239,800 acres; 374.6 sq mi). It is located 150
kilometres (93 mi) southeast of Puerto Princesa City, the capital of Palawan province. The
uninhabited islands and reefs are part of the island municipality of Cagayancillo, Palawan,
located roughly 130 kilometres (81 mi) to the northeast of the reef. In December 1993, the
UNESCO declared the Tubbataha Reefs National Park as a World Heritage Site as a unique
example of an atoll reef with a very high density of marine species; the North Islet serving
as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles. The site is an excellent example of a pristine
coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall, extensive lagoons and two coral
islands. In 1999, Ramsar listed Tubbataha as one of the Wetlands of International
Importance. In 2008, the reef was nominated at the New 7
Wonders of Nature. Research of scientists visiting the reefs since the 1980s revealed that
the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park contains no less than 600 fish species, 360 coral species,
 11 shark species, 13 dolphin and whale species, and 100 bird species. The reefs also serve
as a nesting ground for Hawksbill and Green sea turtles.
As a result of corals growing continuously upward towards the sunlight as sea level rises and/or
land subsides and, coral reefs pass through three stages of development.

1. Fringe reefs form limestone shorelines around islands or along continents and are the
earliest stage of reef development.

2. As the land is progressively submerged and the coral grows upward, an expanding shallow
lagoon begins to separate the fringe reef from the shoreline and the reef is called a barrier
reef.

3. In the final stage the land vanishes below the sea and the reef forms a ring of islands,
called an atoll, around a shallow lagoon.

Reef zones

Land - Lagoon in shallow water (Beach – Mangrove – Seagrass – Patch reef) - Reef crest - Reef
face - Sea
Beach – formed by waves washing ground-up coral skeletons
Mangroves – specialized trees that thrive in seawater, together with seagrass beds they trap
soil runoff and silt from land.
Seagrass beds – serves as nursery for fish.
Patch reef – fairly flat, circular or oval islands of coral which are surrounded by sand and
seagrass.
Reef crest and reef face – protect the mangroves and seagrass beds from erosion by waves
Reef crest – highest (shallowest) part of the entire reef and most easily visible from above the
surface of the sea, fewer species of corals are present here due to storms that crash against it,
breaking off coral branches and plates
Reef face – seaward facing slope of the reef. The upper zone is brightly lit by the sun while the
lower zone is characterized by spur-and-groove formation (high ridges of coral divided by sand
channels or groves) that run perpendicular to the shore

Ecology of coral reefs

Competition of reef corals vs seaweed and algae:
i. encrusting algae have to produce a calcium carbonate skeleton and grow relatively slowly,
thus they tend to be found in places where corals don’t do well because of sedimentation,
wave action or predation
ii. seaweeds are nutrient limited most of the time so they grow slowly and are consumed by
grazers
iii. soft corals are important competitors for space on reefs, they grow rapidly, are resistant
to predators and can occasionally move about BUT they can’t take over because they have
much shorter lives than reef building corals and are much more easily torn away by storm
waves.
Predation on corals - Encrusting coralline algae, which can endure the constant pounding of
waves, build a distinct algal ridge on the reef crest of the windward side of the atoll, the side
that faces the prevailing wind.
➢ Crown-of-thorns sea star (Acanthaster planci) - feeds by pushing its stomach
out through the mouth, covering all or part of the coral colony with the stomach,
and digesting away the live coral tissue. The sea stars in large aggregations move
en masse across the reef, consumingalmost every coral in their path. Outbreaks
occur because shell collectors have removed the triton shell (Charonia tritonis),
a large snail that preys on adult crown-of-thorns.
Symbiosis in coral reef communities. Example:
 ➢ Heterotrophic hosts (Coral) can derive their energy requirements from organic
compounds released by their autotrophic partners (zooxanthellae). Internal
autotrophs benefit from the release of N and P in inorganic form by the catabolic
processes of the host. They may find additional advantage in protection from
predation that residence within a larger organisms can provide. A sessile host can
also offer an opportunity for a symbiont to remain stationary in a place that offers
appropriate conditions.
➢ Anemone fishes (Amphiprion) and sea anemone - The fish have a protective mucus
that keeps the anemone from stinging. When anemone fishes are newly introduced
to an anemone, they typically rub against and nip the anemone’s tentacles. They
may be coating themselves with the anemone’s mucus.
Common herbivores in reefs:
i. Damselfish “reef farmer” – actively guards and grows small patches of algae on an
area of coral to serve as its food source
ii. Parrotfish “parrot’s beak” – to bite and scrape algae off the hard coral
iii. Surgeonfish – knife-like spine located on each side of its body near the base of the tail.

PHILIPPINE CORAL REEFS

The richest corals reefs in the world can be found in the area bordered by the Philippines, Borneo,
Papua New Guinea and Australia. Philippine coral reefs contain 430 species out of the world’s known
coral species. The Philippine coral fauna is the richest in the world, with about 430 species. This is
followed by Papua New Guinea (380 species and the Great Barrier Reef (350 species). As with most
marine organisms, coral endemism is limited because of the continuity of global oceans and the
ability of currents to disperse planktonic larvae widely. For example, 62% of all central Indo-Pacific
coral species are common to the region, with 13% (about 70 species) restricted to ranges within
the continental coastlines.

In 1988, a spot satellite survey estimated the Philippine coral reef area at 352,600 has. Of this
total, 63% is found in Region IV (Southern Tagalog), Region V (Bicol) and Region VII (Central
Visayas. A national coral reef survey indicated that 1/3 of the total coral reef cover were already in
poor condition while only 5.5% was in excellent condition.

Only 12 species are endemic to the Philippines. These are:

1. Montipora setosa
2. Montipora confuse
3. Montipora orientalis
4. Montipora florida
5. Acropora magnifica
6. Porites cumulates
7. Pachyseris foliosa
8. Galaxea alta
9. Oxypora carassisspinosa
10. Euphyllia paradivisa
11. Plerogyra turbid
12. Physogyra exerta

Ecological Importance:
1. Coral reefs provide shelter to many fishes and invertebrates and substrates for its resident
organisms. They serve as breeding and feeding grounds for various fish, invertebrates and
microorganisms.

2. They play an important role in maintaining the quality of local waters. Water currents circulating
over and within coral reefs are filtered as the reef system utilizes the inorganic minerals, oxygen,
organic detritus and plankton carried by water current. Most corals and sponges are filter
 feeders, which means that they consume particulate matter suspended in the water column.
This contributes to enhanced quality and clarity of our near shore waters.

3. Reefs protect the coastline from erosion.

4. Many biological principles and phenomena are exhibited and illustrated in the reef area making
it a rich source of education materials and an excellent area for research.

Socio-economic importance:
1. Contributes about 25% to the total fish production of the Philippines and is a source of livelihood
for many fishers. Earns millions of pesos from the export of food and aquarium fishes, shells,
seaweeds, etc.

2. Provides raw materials for medicines and for the biotechnology industry.

3. Serves as traditional sources of building materials. Limestone extracted from reefs is commonly
used as filling material and as cement mix.

Threats to coral reefs:

1. Destructive fishing practices: These include cyanide fishing, blast or dynamite fishing, bottom
trawling, and muro-ami (banging on the reef with sticks). Bottom-trawling is one of the greatest
threats to cold water coral reefs.

2. Overfishing: This affects the ecological balance of coral reef communities, warping the food chain
and causing effects far beyond the directly overfished population.

3. Careless tourism: Careless boating, diving, snorkeling, and fishing happens around the world,
with people touching reefs, stirring up sediment, collecting coral, and dropping anchors on reefs.
Some tourist resorts and infrastructure have been built directly on top of reefs, and some resorts
empty their sewage or other wastes directly into water surrounding coral reefs.

4. Pollution: Urban and industrial waste, sewage, agrochemicals, and oil pollution are poisoning
reefs. These toxins are dumped directly into the ocean or carried by river systems from sources
upstream. Some pollutants, such as sewage and runoff from farming, increase the level of nitrogen
in seawater, causing an overgrowth of algae, which 'smothers' reefs by cutting off their sunlight.

5. Climate change: Corals cannot survive if the water temperature is too high. Global warming has
already led to increased levels of coral bleaching, and this is predicted to increase in frequency and
severity in the coming decades. Such bleaching events may be the final nail in the coffin for already
stressed coral reefs and reef ecosystems

6. Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide content. The amount of carbon dioxide in the air has
increased by over one-third over the last 50 years due to the burning of fossil fuels. Increasing the
amount of carbon dioxide that dissolves into the water lowers pH and appears to be dissolving the
skeletons of corals. Thus, corals may form weaker skeletons, making them more susceptible to
damage from storms,
waves, etc.

7. Indirect Ecological Effects. A species may affect another species directly by eating them or by
serving as food. In addition, species may affect each other indirectly. For example, removing a
predator might harm the competitor of a prey species because fewer predators results in a larger
population size of its prey which can in turn decrease the population size of its competitor.

Conservation measures:
1. Establishment of marine protected areas
 2. Prevention of over-harvesting through legislation
3. Monitoring status of coral reefs
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) coordinates efforts to improve the
management of coral reefs through knowledge sharing and capacity building, and
works closely with Reef Check and ReefBase
Coastal Ocean Research and Development in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) funds
and supports scientists and institutions in the Indian Ocean Region, to ensure that
the status of coral reefs in the region is monitored, focussing both on the ecological
and socio-economic effects of coral reef degradation.

4. Building awareness
5. Reef resilience – understanding why some reefs do not succumb to bleaching while others
nearby do (i.e., why they are resistant) and why some ‘bounce’ back quickly while others
do not ((i.e., why they are resilient).
6. Supporting participation and sustainable livelihoods in reef dependent communities

E.SEAGRASS BEDS

There are 60 species of seagrasses described globally, within 12 genera, 4 families and 2 orders;
many of which are found in the Indo-Pacific region. East Asia (where the Philippines belongs), with
20 species of seagrass, has the highest diversity of seagrass flora in the world.

In the Philippines, a total of 19 species has been identified. Although the number of seagrass
species is small. They form dense carpets of as many as 4,000 plants per square meter over
extensive areas of the sea bottom. They are one of the most conspicuous and productive
communities found in shallow waters.

Australia has the highest diversity with more than half of the total seagrass species in the world;
followed by the Philippines with 19 species; Malaysia with 14 species; and Indonesia with 13
species.

The sea turtle at Turtle Islands of the South Sulu Sea, are known to consume both seagrasses
and algae

There is a high coincidence between the recorded collection of seagrasses and the occurrence of
the sea cow or dugong (Dugong dugon). The IUCN Red Data Book gives the status of the dugong
as 'vulnerable'. It feeds directly on seagrasses.

The seeds of Enhalus acoroides are known to the coastal people to be edible. Its proximate
composition is similar to rice. It is eaten raw or boiled and tastes like sweet potato when cooked.
Some fishermen believe that it is an aphrodisiac

With the aim to develop seagrass seed as human food in small island systems, researchers from
the University of the Philippines have developed flour made from dried mature seeds of E. acoroides.
Using a standard recipe for oatmeal cookies, seagrass seed cookies were made using seagrass flour
half substituted for half of the usual wheat flour.

Importance:
1. Provides shelter and food for its many associated organisms.
2. Is a major source of primary productivity in shallow waters around the world and is an important
source of food for many organisms, humans included.
3. Stabilizes the soft bottom primarily through their dense matted root system. This stabilization is
extremely durable being able to withstand severe storms.
4. Serves as nursery grounds for many species that spend their adult lives in other areas in the sea
(e.g. shrimp, crabs, etc).
5. Acts as sediment traps, thus protecting the outlying coral beds.
6. Seagrass leaves also serve as a protective canopy, shielding the inhabitants of the bed from the
adverse effects of strong sunlight, Where the beds become intertidal, the leaves cover the bottom
substrate at low tide, protecting the inhabitants from dessication
7. Most of the marine fishing families are highly dependent on seagrass habitats that are accessible
for “gleaning”; a fishing activity conducted during low tide by walking on seagrass beds or shallow
reefs to collect edible marine resources such as shellfish, spider conch (Lambis sp.) or kahanga as
it is locally known, sea urchin, clam, sea cucumber, stingray, eel and fish. Gleaning is commonly
practiced by women and children
8. They are rich sources of green manure (fertilizer), chemicals and fodder and source of various
fishery products.

Concerns
➢ Seagrass ecosystems are often overlooked as a fragile ecosystem with a high priority for
conservation. They are also highly impacted by anthropogenic activities and natural
disturbances which result in declines in seagrass coverage and density. Despite the high
dependence of marine tourism and fisheries on the ecological services provided by seagrass
habitats, there appears to be little appreciation for this ecosystem. Seagrass habitats
continue to be negatively impacted by unsustainable coastal development of resorts, houses
and jetties as well as sedimentation and pollution from human waste
1. Sediment disturbances
Disruptive fishing practices such as bottom trawls which scrape the seabeds. Additions of
sediments caused by storms, flooding, coastal soil erosion, dredging near seagrass meadows
or coastal construction may smother the plants irreversibly or create high concentrations of
suspended sediments that reduce the light reaching the seagrasses
2. Eutrophication
The addition of excess nutrients to coastal areas may cause excessive growth of
opportunistic, fast-growing, algae (seaweeds, epiphytic algae and/or phytoplankton)
These algae will then shade the seagrass leaves, possibly causing their death (especially
if they already grow under critically low light conditions)
Another effect of eutrophication is the increased loading of organic materials (e.g. dead
algae) to the sediment, which increases its O2 demand and may cause excessive hypoxia,
thus killing the seagrass roots.
3. Light reductions
Siltation and shading reduce ambient light levels in the water resulting in the lowering of
the rate of photosynthesis or, in extreme cases, completely inhibiting it
 Climate change may also reduce light by shifting weather patterns to cause increased
cloudiness or by increased water depth caused by sea level rises.
Greenhouse effect results in increased flow and melting of glaciers as well as thermal
expansion of water which result In rise of sea level
4. Temperature increases
They are also sensitive to hot-water discharges and are usually eliminated from areas
subjected to effluents from power plants
One of the most widely mentioned global changes is increased temperature. Since
seagrasses feature various tolerances to temperature, it follows that certain species may
decline drastically (e.g. the temperate Zostera marina growing in monospecific meadows)
while others may become replaced by more temperature-tolerant ones (e.g. in
temperate
subtropical-tropical interface areas)

Conservation measures:
1. Establishment of marine protected areas - Twenty-five percent of MPAs worldwide include
areas of seagrass meadows
2. Prevention of over-harvesting/habitat destruction/degradation through legislation
Dugongs are listed on Appendix I of CITES (where trade is prohibited) all over the world except
in Australia where it is on Appendix II (where trade is regulated).
They are also on Appendix II as a species for cooperative action of the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) (UNEP/CMS, 2006).
All seven species of marine turtles are either on Appendix I or II of CITES.

3. Monitoring status of coral reefs

Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program, the Cooperative Monitoring in the Baltic Marine
Environment, Seagrass-Watch and Seagrass-Net

4. Building awareness
5. Supporting participation and sustainable livelihoods in reef dependent communities.

F. Mangrove forests
Mangroves are woody, seed-bearing plants adapted for life in brackish and waterlogged soils that
are acidic and often anoxic (without oxygen). They vary in size from shrubs to tall trees and are
found along sheltered tropical mudflats in association with estuaries and lagoons and extend inland
along rivers, streams, and their tributaries where the water is brackish.

Mangrove is a type of forest growing along tidal mudflats and along shallow water coastal areas
extending along rivers, streams and their tributaries where the water is generally brackish. The
mangrove ecosystem is dominated by mangrove trees as the primary producer interacting with
associated aquatic fauna, social and physical factors of the coastal environment.

About 34-40 of the estimated 74 mangrove species in the world can be found in the Philippines
(Haribon, 2006) belonging to 15 families

In the Philippines, an estimated 400,000 to 500,000 ha are used to be covered by mangroves

Mangroves flourish in different environmental settings ranging from highly humid to extremely
arid conditions, and in soils which range from pure clay to peat, sand or coral rubble

Although mangroves develop in saline environments, they have the usual plant requirements for
freshwater, nutrients, and oxygen.
 Highest productivities occur under conditions of moderate salinity (25 ppt), neutral acidity (pH
6-7), year round warm temperatures, regular surface-water flushing, and exposure to moderate
terrestrial-water runoff

Mangal communities are unique; due to the vertical extent of its trees, true terrestrial organisms
can occupy its above-water levels, while simultaneously, true marine animals can occupy their
bases.

Among the dominant associated fauna in the mangrove forest are snails, bivalves, crabs and
shrimps, and some peculiar fishes (i.e. mudskippers)

Classification of Mangroves
1. True Mangrove
➢ Physiologically (salt secretion) and morphologically (specialized roots) adapted to the
extreme environment
➢ Form a natural stand or canopy, found within intertidal areas
2. Associate Mangrove
➢ Inability to form pure stand, inundated once a year or more, transition vegetation
Mangrove zonation
(Landward) Xylocarpus and Nypa
Bruguiera, Ceriops and Rhizophora (Intermediate zone)
Sonneratia and Avicennia (Seaward – fringing zone)
➢ Riverine – occur along rivers and streams and are flooded daily by the tides
➢ Fringe – found along protected coastlines, island and the exposed waters of bays and
lagoons, flooded periodically by tides
➢ Basin forests - located inland in depressions that channel runoff from inland to the coast
Unique seed dispersal and succulent leaves
➢ Since mangroves grow in saline environments, they evolved tough and succulent leaves with
internal water storage tissues. Stomata are positioned in such a way as to reduce
evaporation.
➢ Viviparous propagule or tungki - Certain mangroves (Bruguiera and Rhizophora) have
developed a peculiar form of seed germination and dispersal. The seed while still on the
parent, germinates and begins to grow to a seedling without intervening resting stage.
During this time, the seedling elongates and its weight distribution changes so that it
becomes heavier at the outer free end. Eventually, this seedling drops from the parent plant,
and because of its weight distribution, floats upright in the water. It is then carried by the
water current until it reaches waters shallow enough for its root end to strike bottom. When
this happens, the seedling puts out roots to anchor itself and commences its development
into a tree.
Specialized root system
➢ They are shallow-rooted, with their roots spreading widely or else with peculiar prop roots
shooting down from the trunk and/or branches. Roots have special tissues (aerenchyma
tissue) that contain air spaces between them that allows for more gas exchange.
➢ The shallow roots often send up extensions, called pneumatophores, to the surface of the
substrate. This allows the roots to receive oxygen in spite of the anoxic mud in which they
grow. Four types of breathing roots:
1. Stilt or stilt type with breathing pores – Rhizophora
2. Pencil or peg type – Avicennia and Sonneratia
3. Knee type (growing upwards then immediately downwards) – Bruguiera
4. Ribbon or plank type (curving in a snake-like fashion) – wavy, plank like structures
extend outward from the trunk base – Xylocarpus
Ecological Importance of Mangroves:
1. Mangroves provide nursery grounds for fish, prawns and crabs, and support fisheries production
in coastal waters.
2. Mangroves produce leaf litter and detrital matter, which are valuable sources of food for animals
in estuaries and coastal waters
3. Mangrove protect the environment by protecting coastal areas and communities from storm
surge, waves, tidal currents and typhoons
4. Mangroves produce organic biomass (carbon) and reduce organic pollution in nearshore areas
by trapping or absorption.
5. Mangroves serves as recreational grounds for bird watching and observation of other wildlife
6. Mangroves are good source of wood and timber and nipa shingles for housing materials, firewood,
and charcoal, and of poles for fish traps. Mangroves seeds can be harvested and sold. Fish,
crustaceans and molluscs can also be harvested from mangroves. Aquaculture and commercial
fisheries also depend on mangroves for juvenile and mature species. Last but not the least,
mangroves are source of tannin, alcohol and medicine.
Threats to mangroves:
1. Direct (Human)
➢ Conversion of mangroves to fishponds and saltbeds
➢ Reclamation of mangrove areas for various developments (such as wharves, piers, airports,
housing projects, etc)
➢ Pollution and siltation
➢ Dikes and structures obstructing waterways and tidal inundation – this means that the tidal
flow is prevented by these structures affecting nutrient distribution, salinity and temperature
gradients, enhancing accumulation of biogas and other products of organic decomposition
causing mangrove vegetation to die
➢ Overexploitation/utilization
➢ Disturbance due to gleaning, fish landing, etc.
2. Indirect (Natural phenomenon)
➢ Pest (diseases)
➢ Typhoons
➢ Sea level rise due to global warming causing polar ice cap to melt
➢ Some diseases and pests that destroy mangroves include:
a. barnacles which envelope stems of young bakauan, causing roots to rot;
b. tiny beetles (Phoecilips fallax) which attack propagules, therby preventing them
from germinating;
c. worm-like Diopatra cuprea which cause defoliation of leaves and seedlings; and
d. crabs which girdle newly planted propagules and young seedlings.

Studying Mangroves:
1. Complex Index: It denotes the diversity and abundance of flora within the forest community. It
is calculated combining the number of species, stand density, basal area and height.

2. Importance value index (IVI): It indicates the structural importance of a species within a stand
of mixed species. It is calculated by summing up the relative percentages of basal area, density
and frequency, each weighed equally for each species, relative to the same dimensions for the
entire stand.

Mangrove rehabilitation
- Because of the decline in mangroves, replanting programs have been popular, from community
initiatives (1930s–1950s) to government-sponsored projects (1970s) to large-scale international
development assistance programs (1980s to present):
➢ Despite heavy funds for massive rehabilitation of mangrove forests over the last two
decades, the long-term survival rates of mangroves are generally low at 10–20%
➢ Poor survival can be mainly traced to planting by convenience, not ecology caused by two
factors:
1. inappropriate species - the favored but unsuitable Rhizophora are planted in sandy substrates of
exposed coastlines instead of the natural colonizers Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp.
The natural colonizers in most replanting sites are A. marina and S. alba, but their
relatively small seeds require a labor-intensive nursery period. In contrast, Rhizophora
species have large propagules that are easy to collect and to plant (Samson and Rollon
2008), hence they are preferred by government agencies and NGOs alike. Moreover,
Rhizophora are suited to more protected zones such as behind the S. alba- A. marina zone
of fringing mangroves, or along muddy tidal rivers and creeks, hence the high Rhizophora
mortality rate in most planting sites

2. inappropriate site selection - more significantly, planting sites are generally in the lower intertidal
to subtidal zones where mangroves do not thrive rather than the optimal middle to upper intertidal
levels, for a simple reason
Ideal sites have long been converted to brackishwater fishponds whereas the former are
open access areas with no ownership problems. The upper to middle intertidal sites that are
 ideal for mangroves are mostly occupied by culture ponds which theoretically are covered
by a legal title if privately owned, or by a fishpond lease agreement (FLA) from the
government.

Planting locations have mostly been seaward in the lower intertidal down to the subtidal
zones that include tidal flats and seagrass habitats. These areas are open access and pose
little or no threat of ownership conflicts for plantation managers (Samson & Rollon, 2008).
But they are not optimal for mangroves, hence the generally low survival and growth rates.

Hence, mangroves should be planted where fishponds are, not on seagrass beds and tidal
flats where they never existed. Experts recommend specific protocols (e.g. a 4:1 mangrove
to pond ratio for a healthy ecosystem) and wider policy directions to make mangrove
rehabilitation in the country more effective

Conservation measures:
1. Establishment of marine protected areas - Twenty-five percent of MPAs worldwide include areas
of seagrass meadows.

2. Prevention of over-harvesting/habitat destruction/degradation through legislation

Dugongs are listed on Appendix I of CITES (where trade is prohibited) all over the world
except in Australia where it is on Appendix II (where trade is regulated).
They are also on Appendix II as a species for cooperative action of the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) (UNEP/CMS, 2006).
All seven species of marine turtles are either on Appendix I or II of CITES.

3. Monitoring status of coral reefs

Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Program, the Cooperative Monitoring in the Baltic
Marine Environment, Seagrass-Watch and SeagrassNet

4. Building awareness

5. Supporting participation and sustainable livelihoods in reef dependent communities

STATUS OF MAJOR HABITAT RESOURCES

The Aquatic Organisms
Plantae

1. Multicellular algae: the seaweeds/ macrophytes/ macroalgae

Far more complex than unicellular algae and reproduction is more elaborate – all are
eukaryotic
Still lack the highly specialized structures and reproductive mechanisms of the mostly
terrestrial plants. Lack true roots, stems or leaves and whole body of plant but instead have:
Thallus (complete body), blades (leaf-like flattened portions of thallus), pneumatocysts
(gas-filled bladders that keep blades close to sea surface maximizing their exposure to
sunlight), stipe (stemlike structure to provide support), holdfast (looks like roots).

Types of seaweeds:
a. Green Algae (division, or phylum, Chlorophyta) – most live in freshwater and terrestrial
environments. Cell wall: pectin, Pigment: Chlorophyll a and b, Storage: starch.
b. Brown algae (division, or phylum, Phaeophyta) – include seaweeds that are the largest
and structurally most complex algae, exclusively marine, varies from olive green to dark
brown due to yellow pigments (carotenoid pigment and fucoxathin) over chlorophyll
(chlorophyll a and c). Cell wall: Alginic acid, Storage: Laminarin, Mannitol – largest group:
kelps. Largest kelp (Macrocystis)
c. Red algae (division, or phylum, Rhodophyta) – cell wall: mucopolysaccharides
(carrageenan, agar, porphyron), Pigment: Phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin, Storage: Floridian
starch

Reproduction is a complex affair in seaweeds:

a. Asexual, or vegetative, reproduction is common. Fragments of the thallus can often grow
into new individuals, as occurs in the floating masses of Sargassum of Sargasso Sea fame.
Some seaweeds produce spores, which are cells specialized for dispersing to new locations
or persisting through unfavorable conditions. Some spores are protected by resistant cell
walls; others have flagella for movement and are known as zoospores.
b. Sexual reproduction – production of gametes. Gametes from two different individuals fuse,
so that the new generation contains genetic information from both parents. Cells of seaweeds
(and of us all—clam, fish, or human) divide and produce identical cells by mitosis. Seaweeds
may also produce haploid spores or gametes by meiosis. Sexual reproduction may involve an
alternation of a haploid (or gametophyte) and a diploid (or sporophyte) generation.

2. Flowering plants – true leaves, stems and roots.

Reproduction involves a dominant sporophyte that
features an elaborate reproductive organ (the
flower).
a. Seagrasses (Class Lilopsida) - superficially
resemble grass but actually are not grasses at
all. The closest relatives of certain seagrasses
seem to be members of the lily family.
Have adapted to life in the marine
environment. They are the only
flowering plants that has adapted to a
completely submerged life in the sea
due to some adaptations:
i. Adaptations to withstand wave energy -
They have horizontal stems called rhizomes that
commonly grow beneath the sediment. They have extensive roots that provide
anchorage as well as flat, ribbon-shaped leaves that are flexible enough to bend in
the water

ii. Adaptations to growing when completely submerged - Seagrass flowers are typically very
small and inconspicuous because there is no need to attract insects for pollination. The
pollen, which contains the sperm, is carried instead by water currents (submarine
pollination)

iii. Air filled tissues called lacunae (contain oxygen) and aid in floatation.
iv. Salt tolerance of up to 36 ppt
They are associated with shallow inter-tidal habitats, mangrove areas, coral reefs,
semi-enclosed lagoons and shoals; and have the ability to tolerate a wide range of
salinity. Seagrasses need more sunlight than algae which do not have underground
parts. They need more than 10% of the light falling at the water surface vs algae
(need 1% only).
b. Salt-marsh plants - Cordgrasses (Spartina) are true members of the grass family. They

are not really marine species but, rather, land plants tolerant of salt. Unlike seagrasses,
which are true marine species, cordgrasses do not tolerate total submergence by seawater.
Becomes submerged by seawater only at high tide, so their leaves are always
partly exposed to air. Salt glands in the leaves excrete excess salt. Other salt-tolerant
plants, or halophytes, such as pickle weed (Salicornia), may be found at higher levels
on the marsh.
c. Mangroves - are trees and shrubs adapted to live along tropical and subtropical shores
around the world. They are essentially land plants that can tolerate salt.
Mangroves are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical oceans of the
world. They are able to grow only on shores that are sheltered from wave action.
These shores may be directly along the lee sides (side of an island or reef protected
from winds and waves) of islands or on land masses protected by offshore coral reefs.
Mangroves are particularly well developed in estuarine areas, where they reach
their greatest areal extent.