FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 1-40

October 2016
Interim Revision October 2019
Page 1 of 36

FLOOD

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Hazards ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 4
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Construction and Location ............................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Site Selection for New Construction ....................................................................................... 4
2.2.2 Stormwater Runoff and Terrain Management ......................................................................... 4
2.2.3 Elevating the Entire Site .......................................................................................................... 5
2.2.4 Elevating Individual Buildings and Key Equipment ................................................................. 6
2.2.5 Lessening Damage for New Buildings Not Built Above Flood Levels .................................... 7
2.2.6 Lessening Damage for Existing Buildings and Equipment .................................................... 7
2.2.6.1 Permanent Site Flood Protection Systems ................................................................ 8
2.2.6.2 Complete And Partial Building Protection .................................................................. 9
2.2.6.3 Protection or Relocation of Equipment, Production Lines, and/or Storage ............. 11
2.2.6.4 Temporary Perimeter Flood Protection Systems ....................................................... 11
2.2.6.5 Hybrid Solutions ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3 Occupancy ....................................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Protection ......................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 12
2.6 Utilities ............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.7 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 13
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 14
3.1 Avoid the Zone ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.2 Flood Maps and Data ...................................................................................................................... 14
3.2.1 Levees Don’t Eliminate the Threat ........................................................................................ 15
3.2.2 Site-Specific Flood Studies ................................................................................................... 16
3.2.3 Flood Protection Breach Studies .......................................................................................... 16
3.3 Strategy to Understanding the Flood Potential ............................................................................... 16
3.4 Understanding Flood Sources and Their Characteristics ............................................................... 16
3.4.1 Flood Sources ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.4.2 Flood Characteristics ............................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Understanding the Flood Impact ..................................................................................................... 20
3.6 Understanding All Possible Solutions; Building or Retrofitting in a Flood Prone Area:
A Strategy is Needed ..................................................................................................................... 21
3.6.1 Freeboard is a Key Design Consideration ............................................................................ 22
3.7 Selecting Barriers to Protect Building Openings ............................................................................ 22
3.7.1 Permanently Mounted Flood Gates ...................................................................................... 23
3.7.2 Flood Gates That Require Assembly .................................................................................... 26
3.8 Temporary Perimeter Barriers Remote from Buildings ................................................................... 29
3.8.1 Bladders Filled with Water .................................................................................................... 29
3.8.2 Rigid/Shaped Containers Filled with Water or Sand ............................................................ 31
3.8.3 Flexible Containers Filled with Gravel or Sand ..................................................................... 32
3.8.4 Deployable Flood Walls Without Foundations ...................................................................... 32
3.8.5 Waterproof Fabric Cofferdams .............................................................................................. 33
3.9 Designed, Semi-Permanent Deployable Flood Walls ..................................................................... 34

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photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
1-40 Flood
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

4.0 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 35

4.1 FM Global ....................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Other ............................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2.1 Some Nationally Recognized Levee and Floodwall Standards ............................................ 35
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...................................................................................................... 35
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 35

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Schematic for lessening damage at existing sites using a hybrid solution ........................................ 8
Fig. 2. Pivot-type gate with a single pivot point ............................................................................................ 23
Fig. 3. Stored in-ground hinged-type gate, partially deployed ..................................................................... 23
Fig. 4. Door-style gate hinged flood, partially deployed ............................................................................... 24
Fig. 5. Rolling gate, shown deployed ........................................................................................................... 24
Fig. 6. Drop-from-above gate, shown in storage position ............................................................................ 25
Fig. 7. Automatic flood barrier ....................................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 8. Window opening protection ............................................................................................................... 26
Fig. 9. Three stop logs deployed in a doorway ............................................................................................ 27
Fig. 10. Large opening protected by stop logs with intermediate support ................................................... 27
Fig. 11. Drop-in-place gate, shown in storage position next to doorway ..................................................... 28
Fig. 12. Hatch cover for vertical tunnel ......................................................................................................... 30
Fig. 13. Bladders filled with water; plastic sheeting may also be needed ................................................... 30
Fig. 14. Rigid/shaped containers filled with water or sand ........................................................................... 31
Fig. 15. Rigid/shaped containers filled with water or sand ........................................................................... 31
Fig. 16. Flexible containers filled with gravel or sand .................................................................................. 32
Fig. 17. Deployable flood walls without foundations .................................................................................... 33
Fig. 18. Waterproof fabric cofferdams without rigid frame; water holds fabric open ................................... 33
Fig. 19. Waterproof fabric cofferdams with rigid frame ................................................................................ 34
Fig. 20. Designed, semi-permanent deployable flood walls ......................................................................... 34

List of Tables
Table 1. Erosion Threshold Velocities ............................................................................................................. 5
Table 2. Probability of Flooding at Least Once during the Facility’s Lifetime .............................................. 15
Table 3. Flood Types and Characteristics .................................................................................................... 20

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Flood 1-40
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 3

1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet provides recommendations for the prevention and mitigation of losses due to flooding and
stormwater runoff. Flood prevention and mitigation is an approach that relies on permanent solutions and
emergency actions. Solutions include flood gates and barriers, flood pumps, waterproofing, emergency
power, permanently relocating equipment, flood defense systems, etc. Permanent solutions are preferred
whenever practical.
Detailed guidance on the design of flood protection for locations subject to direct wave action associated
with coastal flooding is beyond the scope of this document. Avoid building in such areas. The forces
associated with direct wave action will challenge the integrity of buildings unless the buildings and grounds
are properly designed. Each coastal location is unique and requires a full understanding of the geotechnical
issues along with dynamic wave and wind impacts.
The design, inspection, and maintenance of dams and levees are also beyond the scope of this document.
Refer to Data Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response, for information on flood emergency response plans
(FERPs).
This data sheet does not address how to find or interpret flood information or maps.

1.1 Hazards
Flooding can occur adjacent to bodies of water, on normally dry land far from flood sources, or from a
combination of exposures. For the purposes of this data sheet, flood exposures have been grouped into the
following categories:
A. River, riverine, fluvial flooding: Rivers, lakes, man-made drainage channels, smaller watercourses
overflowing due to upstream heavy rains, melting snow, and dam releases.
B. Alluvial fan flooding: Flooding that occurs in areas at the base of steep-sloped areas; as the water
exits the steep area it fans out in the flat areas in a random manner.
C. Coastal flooding: Oceans, bays, estuaries, and rivers affected by coastal waters overflowing due to
abnormal high tides, coastal storms, high winds or tsunamis. It is not uncommon for inland areas along
rivers to be affected by tidal flooding; for example, for the Thames River in England or the Yangtze River
in China, coastal flooding can influence the river for 100 km and 200 km, respectively, from the river’s
mouth.
D. Stormwater flooding: Stormwater flooding is caused by the accumulation of runoff on land and paved
areas from rainfall before it enters a stream, river, body of water, or a manmade drainage system.
Stormwater flooding often happens due to poor drainage, insufficient drainage, overtaxed drainage
systems, inappropriate landscaping, and building design. Another term for stormwater flooding is surface
water flooding.
It is important to note that the above flood types may mix as flooding occurs. Coastal rivers and estuaries
may be affected by both river flooding due to upstream rains and coastal storms. Flooding in these areas may
flood solely due to upstream rainfall or a coastal storm or a combination. Another example of mixed flooding
is a flood event that may be exacerbated by a stormwater event occurring at the same time as a river or
coastal flood.
When flood water enters a building, it not only damages the structure itself and the contents inside, but can
also leave a facility’s stored or in-process products stained, rusted, and deformed. Flood water also can cause
equipment to malfunction. Electrical switchgear and electronics may require major repair or replacement.
Water may fill below-grade areas and remain there after the flood recedes. Business interruption can vary
from a few days to more than a year based on the depth of water, duration of flooding, wave and water velocity
impact, and sensitivity of the occupancy to water damage.
A facility that is not properly designed to minimize the effects of flooding will have more costly and frequent
flood losses; possibly even a major loss that jeopardizes market share and bottom line for years to come.

1.2 Changes
October 2019. Interim revision. Minor editorial changes were made.

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1-40 Flood
Page 4 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Introduction
Flooding can be caused by bodies of water (rivers, streams, oceans, bays, lakes, canals, etc.) overflowing
their normal boundaries, or as the result of stormwater runoff accumulating in normally dry areas. Protecting
a facility from the negative effects of flooding, however, is not as simple as merely locating it outside known
flood zones; inappropriate site layout and building design can create a stormwater runoff flood exposure
anywhere. In addition, off-site flooding can block access routes to and from the site, as well as interrupt vital
utilities.
If a facility is located within a known flood zone, the challenge of managing the flood risk is greatly increased.
The goals then become to ensure that:
A. operations can continue without interruption, and
B. the facility suffers the least possible amount of physical damage.
These goals can be achieved by developing a flood-mitigation strategy throughout the facility that addresses
overall layout, electrical and mechanical systems, and vital utilities, and applying it during all phases of the
site’s lifespan, including design and construction. While instituting the flood-mitigation strategy is most
effective during the design and construction phases, practical mitigation solutions included in this data sheet
can be very effective for existing locations.
It is important to recognize that flood prevention and mitigation is a systemic strategy to protect property
and business continuity. This section contains recommendations that can be implemented individually or in
combination with each other. Effective and successful flood prevention and mitigation will often require the
application of multiple recommendations simultaneously and systematically in a timely manner (see Section
3.4 and Table 3).
Use FM Approved products whenever they are applicable and available. For a list of FM Approved products,
see the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals (www.approvalguide.com)

2.2 Construction and Location

2.2.1 Site Selection for New Construction

Proper site selection is the best solution for avoiding the effects of flooding. Selecting the correct site is far
less difficult than designing a facility located in a flood zone to resist the effects of flooding.
2.2.1.1 Select a location where the entire site and all access routes (highway, marine, railroad, etc.) are
outside 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood zones (by both elevation and footprint). Verify flood studies
for the selected site are up-to-date by having a qualified hydrologist review the study and recent flood data.
2.2.1.2 Select a building site that is above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation
and includes 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard. The building site should be at least 500 ft (152 m) from direct
wave impacts and or high flood-flow velocities (i.e., above 7 fps [2 m/s]).
2.2.1.3 Select a site that is not in an area protected by a levee or other man-made flood control works.
2.2.1.4 Ensure electrical and communication services, drinking and process water, wastewater treatment,
steam supplies, etc. obtained from off-site locations will remain unaffected during flooding in their area. If this
cannot be ensured, establish alternative sources for backup.

2.2.2 Stormwater Runoff and Terrain Management

Proper design of the facility’s stormwater management system is needed for all locations to ensure a flood
exposure isn’t created or flooding made worse by the layout, grading, stormwater management system, etc.
2.2.2.1 Ensure new or existing drainage systems are capable of conveying or storing the 100-year rainfall-
induced runoff without causing property damage.
As stormwater systems are designed for low return period events (5 to 25 years) surface ponding during
the 100 year event is acceptable provided there is no damage to property and key assets.

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 5

The duration of the design 100-year rainfall is selected to maximize site flooding (the critical rainfall duration
is the combination of peak intensity and rainfall duration that causes the maximum flooding for a given return
period event). Both subsurface routing (drainage piping) and overland flow capacity can be used to store
and direct the runoff away from key assets.
2.2.2.2 Ensure the facility’s stormwater management system uses grading sufficient to route predicted
rain-water and snow-melt runoff away from buildings, outside storage, and equipment.
2.2.2.3 Ensure water runoff originating from off-site areas is included in the facility’s site water management
plan.
2.2.2.4 If on-site ponding or stormwater routing is essential, ensure it is arranged so water will not enter or
come into contact with buildings, outside storage, or equipment. All possible water ingress points, doors,
windows, and pipes chases into the building envelope should be at least 6 in. (0.15 m) above the 100-year
overland flow paths or ponding levels. Consider larger freeboard if there is a risk of inlet drains being blocked
or the drainage system backing up.
2.2.2.5 Use customary drainage design features to limit soil erosion and avoid excessively high flow velocities.
Table 1 lists the erosion threshold velocities for common materials.
2.2.2.6 Use grates, trash racks, curbs, etc. to protect the inlet to all drains and stormwater drainage systems
against debris blockage.
2.2.2.7 Do not use landscaping materials, such as wood chips, pine needles, etc., that can be easily dislodged
by rain water. They may obstruct or clog drainage systems, catch basins, culverts, or overland flow patterns.

Table 1. Erosion Threshold Velocities

Mean Channel Velocity
Bank Material ft/s m/s
Sandy silt 2 0.61
Clay 6 1.83
Gravel 6 1.83
Grass-lined earth 6 1.83
Sandstone 8 2.44
Solid rock 20 6.10

2.2.2.8 Do not locate buildings, outside storage, or fire protection equipment within natural stormwater
drainage flow paths such as small streams or swales.
2.2.2.9 Ensure walls, fences, and landscaping do not direct water on to buildings, outside storage, or fire
protection equipment.
2.2.2.10 Install a backflow valve equipped with manual shutoff valves on each side of the backflow valve
on effluent-discharge lines that connect to combined sewer systems (wastewater and stormwater runoff), drain
lines that daylight to flood exposed areas, and any other areas that have a history of backups. Additionally,
provide a backflow valve bypass line and normally closed shut-off valve on combined sewer drain lines to
allow for maintenance.
2.2.2.11 Have systems with a history of blockages, surcharging, or flooding buildings modified to prevent
reoccurrences.
2.2.2.12 For stormwater systems in desert areas or where windblown dust and/or sand can be an issue,
include the possibility of partial or total loss of pipe capacity in the design.
2.2.2.13 Separate pumped drainage from basements from stormwater by means of backwater valves or other
devices to prevent backflow during an extreme rainfall event.

2.2.3 Elevating the Entire Site

If it is not possible to comply with the recommendations in section 2.2.1, Site Selection, the risk of flooding
may be greatly reduced by building up land levels.

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1-40 Flood
Page 6 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2.2.3.1 Build up the entire site so it is above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation.
Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.
2.2.3.2 Do not raise the land in areas subject to high or moderate velocity flows (above 7 fps[2 m/s]). If this
cannot be avoided, provide erosion protection designed by a qualified engineer.
2.2.3.3 Design fill material to be stable when exposed to flood action, including rapid rise and drawdown,
prolonged inundation, scour, and erosion.
2.2.3.4 Ensure the facility and grounds are designed by a qualified registered civil or structural engineer with
previous experience in flood-related loading and geotechnical conditions.
2.2.3.5 Ensure the geotechnical properties used for the foundation design (e.g., bearing and frictional
resistance, active and passive pressure, and settlement) are based on diminished structural capacities that
are associated with flood level and floodwater action.
2.2.3.6 Comply with all of the recommendations in Section 2.2.2, Stormwater Runoff and Terrain Management.

2.2.4 Elevating Individual Buildings and Key Equipment

If it is not possible to comply with the recommendations in Sections 2.2.1, Site Selection, or 2.2.3, Elevating
the Entire Site, the risk of flooding to specific buildings and equipment may be greatly reduced by designing
them to be above the flood elevation.
2.2.4.1 Design buildings, outside storage areas and equipment (whether owned by the facility or a utility
company) to be above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation by using raised
foundations or elevated structures. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.
2.2.4.2 Design foundations, buildings, and outdoor structures to withstand the predicted 0.2% annual
exceedance (500-year) flood elevation to resist erosion from high water velocity. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6
m) of freeboard.
2.2.4.3 Do not build foundations in areas subject to high or moderate velocity flows (above 7 fps [2 m/s]).
If this cannot be avoided, provide erosion protection designed by a qualified engineer.
2.2.4.4 Avoid narrowing, re-routing, or changing the onsite watercourse. If this cannot be avoided, have an
engineer specializing in hydraulics ensure the hydraulic capacity or stability of the watercourse is not
reduced.
2.2.4.5 Design and build structures to adequately resist all flood-related loads and conditions, including
hydrostatic loads, hydrodynamic loads, breaking wave action, debris impact, ice floes, ice and debris jams,
rapid rise and drawdown of floodwaters, prolonged inundation, soil liquefaction, soil consolidation and
subsistence, sediment deposition, mud slides, and wave-induced and flood-related erosion and scour.
Consider long-term erosion over the design life of the structure when determining the effects of flooding on
building and foundation design.
2.2.4.6 Ensure design considerations also account for other applicable loads (e.g., gravity and wind) that
will act on the structure concurrently with the flood.
2.2.4.7 Consider all appropriate load combinations when analyzing flood loads for actions, including
overturning, sliding, undermining (erosion and scour), and uplift (buoyant forces).
2.2.4.8 Use load combinations, load factors, and resistance factors as specified in the governing model codes
and standards. Where local codes do not specify load combinations with flood loads, use load combinations
from the most recent editions of ASCE 7 or the International Building Code (IBC). However, in no case use
flood load factors of less than 1.3 in strength design or 1.0 in allowable stress design.
2.2.4.9 Comply with all of the recommendations in Section 2.2.2, Stormwater Runoff and Terrain Management.
2.2.4.10 Retain a qualified registered civil/structural engineer with previous experience in flood-related
loading and flood-related geotechnical conditions to design buildings, structures, and protective works (e.g.,
flood walls, retaining walls, bulkheads, levees, dams, channels, and diversions).

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Flood 1-40
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 7

2.2.5 Lessening Damage for New Buildings Not Built Above Flood Levels
If the recommendations in sections 2.2.1, 2.2.3, or 2.2.4 cannot be complied with, adhere to the
recommendations in this section to lessen the impact of flooding.
2.2.5.1 Ensure the lowest floors of buildings are built at the highest elevation possible. 0.2% annual
exceedance (500-year) flood levels aren’t reached during every event, so increasing the building’s lowest
floor elevation will reduce the number of flood losses.
2.2.5.2 Use building construction and finish material that will minimize damage and speed cleanup. Use
materials that will ensure walls can be easily cleaned, dried, and sanitized. For example, concrete walls will
be easier to restore than walls with fiberglass insulation and gypsum wallboard. Ceramic tile floors will suffer
less damage than wood floors. Metal and glass doors will suffer less damage than wooden doors.
2.2.5.3 Design exterior walls and building entry points to keep out water as long as possible without relying
on any human actions (e.g., closing flood gates). Do not install access that will compromise the integrity
(completeness) of the barriers; install ramps or stairways that go over the barriers instead.
2.2.5.4 Comply with all of the recommendations in Section 2.2.2, Stormwater Runoff and Terrain Management.

2.2.6 Lessening Damage for Existing Buildings and Equipment

In order to successfully implement flood mitigation, a series or system of improvement actions must be
undertaken to waterproof the perimeter of a site, building, and selected areas within a building or equipment.
These actions include closing openings, waterproofing walls, sealing wall penetrations, and installing FM
Approved flood abatement pumps, non-return valves, backflow valves, backwater valves, etc. Failing to
address every water entry point can lead to flood damage.
A. Site Protection
This concept involves permanent, designed flood defenses along the perimeter of a site using floodwalls,
earthen embankments, roadway gates, raised ground, etc., or a combination of each.
Flood pumps should be considered to reduce the likelihood that ponding from rainfall, seepage, or other
bodies of water will create a flood risk within the perimeter.
B. Building Protection
This concept involves flood-proofing the exposed perimeter of the building to reduce exposure. The walls,
floors, openings, doorways, vents, and penetrations of the building perimeter (including below grade) are
addressed using a combination of permanently or temporarily installed flood barriers, flood pumps, backwater
valves, and other flood-proofing products. The walls (including below grade) and floors should be non-
permeable or improved.
C. Partial Building Protection
This concept involves flood-proofing a portion of a building. This allows water to enter the building, but protects
key areas to reduce loss and expedite recovery. It may include protecting an exterior corner of a building
along with two internal walls, one external wall, and three interior walls or a room that has only interior walls.
There are multiple combinations.
D. Protection Of Equipment, Production Lines, and/or Storage
This concept involves flood-proofing specific equipment, production lines, or storage areas. It may include
the permanent (preferred) or temporary elevation of equipment above flood levels, or the use of permanent
or temporary barriers to protect a given space.
E. Relocation
This concept involves permanently relocating equipment and/or storage to a higher floor, another non-
exposed building onsite or offsite.
Mobile equipment and vehicles should not be located in flood-exposed areas.
F. Temporary Perimeter Flood Protection Systems

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Page 8 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

These systems may be used as part of a design or can be used in an emergency basis. In an emergency,
the devices would be placed over ground that hasn’t been designed/studied to support the flood loads.
Temporary flood protection systems rely on a crew to set up the system as the flood is approaching, thus
adding a level of uncertainty.
G. Hybrid Solution
This method involves a mixture of the above concepts to provide a feasible and cost-effective solution.
Figure 1 shows a representation of the concepts described above. Buildings 1 and 2 and the outdoor
equipment area are protected by a designed site protection system. Building 3 is protected by a building
protection system. Building 4 shows key areas that utilize partial building protection along with an area with
protection of equipment. There is also an outdoor area to the right of Building 3 that demonstrates the
protection of equipment for outdoor areas. The offices in Building 4 are shown as relocated to an upper floor
and demonstrates the relocation concept. The entire figure demonstrates a hybrid type of solution.

Building protection: Protection of

Building 3 outdoor
equipment

Partial
building
protection Building 1
Partial
building
Partial building protection

protection

Offices
relocated Building 4
to upper
floor
Protection Outdoor
equipment
of
Building 2 area
equipment
in a building
Partial
building
protection

Legend Designed site flood protection of site Building wall flood protection (interior and exterior)
Blue shading is flood water White shading is flood protected

Fig. 1. Schematic for lessening damage at existing sites using a hybrid solution

2.2.6.1 Permanent Site Flood Protection Systems

This section focuses on permanent flood protection systems, levees, and floodwalls specifically designed
for the site. A successful design will address the local flood scenario and requires knowledge of structures,
hydrology, hydraulics, interior drainage configuration, soils, and the owner’s technical ability to operate and
maintain the system. Site flood protection must form a complete line of protection, surrounding the site or tying
into sufficient high ground that it will not be circumvented by flood water upstream or downstream of the
site. Interruption to normal site access routes and utility supplies while the flood protection system is in place
should be considered in the design. This section is not intended as a design standard, but provides minimum
guidelines.
2.2.6.1.1 Clients of FM Global should submit request for proposal (RFP) specifications and plans to FM Global
well before the let of any contract. The conceptual plan for providing site-level protection should be shared
with FM Global early in the planning stage. This will allow for a common understanding of the flood scenario
and appropriate flood control system design, including the site protection as well as stormwater removal,
blocking underground conduits for flood water, temporary site access and utility supply.
2.2.6.1.2 Ensure the design is based on an up-to-date flood study that details the flood levels for the 1%
annual exceedance (100-year) and 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) recurrence intervals. The use of the
most severe historical flood levels, while useful for the calibration of the detailed study, is discouraged as
a design criteria. If such information is not readily available or current, have a hydrology and hydraulics study
performed to determine the 1% annual exceedance (100-year) and 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year)
water-surface elevations.

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 9

2.2.6.1.3 Retain a qualified firm experienced in the design and construction of flood protection systems.
Design of the individual flood protection components differs from the “dry” design (e.g., retaining walls)
because flood-exposed structures need to include static and dynamic water loads. Care is required to account
for changes due to soil properties during flood loading and hydrostatic uplift forces. Use a minimum factor
of safety of 1.5. Ensure the design incorporates the flood duration and any features needed to minimize
the potential for foundation failure. The design should include not only the static hydraulic forces on the wall,
but also the momentum dependent upon the expected water velocity, as well as floating debris in the flood
water.
2.2.6.1.4 The height of riverine/fluvial systems should preferably be 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year)
plus a minimum of 3 ft (0.9 m) of floodwall and levee freeboard or a value as determined by the designer
based on the local conditions. Local conditions for assessing the floodwall and levee freeboard should include
kinetic energy, super-elevation at bends, uncertainties in the estimated flood level and topographic data,
changes in the flood levels during the life of the defense, settlement of the flood defense over its life, and
wave action.
Exceptions to the riverine/fluvial 3 ft (0.9 m) floodwall and levee freeboard should be supported by engineering
analyses to demonstrate the adequacy of a reduced floodwall and levee freeboard. The analyses should
include a review of all the factors affecting the floodwall and levee freeboard requirement under local
conditions, and the stability of the levee under flood conditions with regard to wave overtopping and erosion.
2.2.6.1.5 Coastal systems should also be designed for the 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) water level
and to prevent overtopping from associated wave action. The floodwall and levee freeboard should include
the design wave or wave run-up (whichever is greater) plus 1 ft (0.3 m). The wave run-up is assumed to
include wave setup.
2.2.6.1.6 Ensure the designer uses nationally recognized levee and floodwall standards (see Section 4.2.1).
The United State Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) standards or international equivalents are acceptable
to establish design criteria. Note that if the entire design configuration includes crediting for structures such
as railroad embankments, highways, buildings, walls, and similar features they should be analyzed by the
designer and proven to be able to withstand the design flood event.
The design should minimize pedestrian, roadway, or railroad openings that will require deployment of barriers
during flooding. Selection of the barrier type should be based on the owner’s capability to deploy the barrier
prior to the arrival of the flood. In addition, the opening type should be based on the magnitude of the warning
time. The opening’s foundation should be designed to account for flood loading, seepage, and the closure
device loading (see Section 2.2.6.1.3).
2.2.6.1.7 Assemble an written inventory of all water entry points that penetrate the flood protection system
and allow water to enter the protected area. This includes storm sewers, sanitary sewers, various utilities
conduits, tunnels, and similar penetrations. Flood water entry points should be designed to prevent backflow
from the flooding source. Drain lines should be provided with backwater valves. Use the written inventory as
part of the flood protection actions implemented prior to the flood.
2.2.6.1.8 Ensure the design includes details related to the flood abatement pumps to remove the rainwater,
seepage, and smaller bodies of water that freely flow through the site during non-flood conditions. Reliable
power sources and anti-siphon devices should be included in the design. Where possible, FM Approved flood
abatement pumps should be provided.
2.2.6.1.9 An operations and maintenance manual that details how the system will be operated during a flood
should be provided by the designer. A maintenance schedule for the life of the system should also be
provided.

2.2.6.2 Complete And Partial Building Protection

2.2.6.2.1 Hire a structural engineer to review the stability and waterproofing capabilities of buildings walls,
floors, and foundations and to identify other water entry points.
Most buildings are not waterproof or are not strong enough to rely on existing walls to keep water out. Two
examples are wood-framed buildings and metal panel walls. Buildings of substantial construction, such as
reinforced concrete, concrete block, etc. can be used for flood depths lower than 3 ft (0.9 m), often without
the need for reinforcing. Flood depths of more than 3 ft (0.9 m) above floor level will subject the ordinary
walls and floors to loads that cannot be withstood unless the building was originally designed to do so;

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providing structural improvements usually is not a cost-effective solution. Additionally, flood depths of more
than 3 ft (0.9 m) will increase the likelihood of grade or below-grade floors lifting and buckling due to
hydrostatic uplift and may therefore require extensive reinforcing.
2.2.6.2.2 Have all water intrusion points in the floors and walls sealed, including the following:
A. Sanitary systems: Automatic closing devices such as backflow valves on waste water systems should
be used. Manual devices can be used, but are not preferred; examples include ball valves, closed gates,
and air-filled bladders.
B. Sanitary sewer, combined sewers, storm drains, and floor drains: Automatic closing devices such as
backflow valves should be used. Manual devices can be used, but are not preferred; examples include
sluice gates, air-filled bladders, etc.
C. Pipe penetrations: Gaps should be permanently sealed with water-resistant materials.
D. Ventilation ductwork and shafts: Ventilation equipment is lightweight and typically can’t withstand the
forces developed by flood waters. Ductwork should be rerouted above the flood level, and the remaining
openings should be blocked and sealed.
E. Electrical and signaling conduits: Gaps should be permanently sealed with water-resistant materials.
This includes penetrations into electrical panels mounted on the wall that may not be apparent without
opening the panels.
F. Construction floor and wall joints: Construction joints should be sealed. Walls and floors should be
waterproofed to minimize through seepage.
G. Cracks caused by settling, impact, etc.
2.2.6.2.3 Plan for seepage and flood waters to collect in unexpected areas; FM Approved flood abatement
pumps should be provided inside the building where walls and barriers are used to keep flood waters from
entering the facility. Provide a primary and a backup pump designed to remove a minimum of 50 gpm (190
L/m) in case of seepage or water-pipe leaks. These pumps should be connected to emergency power. Use
a certified engineer to estimate seepage rates in order to size the pumps.
2.2.6.2.4 Use FM Approved flood gates, stop logs, etc. for each flood-exposed opening, including doors,
windows, air brick/air vent, and garage and loading dock entrances that cannot be permanently sealed. If
automatic gates are used, they should be designed to be manually deployable as well. Flood-protection
devices should only be installed in buildings that can support the predicted flood loads. The barrier should
include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard where possible. The total height of the barrier should not exceed
3 ft (0.9 m) unless the building can withstand the flood loads. Installation of opening barriers in close proximity
to seams between the building floor and the outside sidewalk should be avoided or properly filled so
hydrostatic pressure does not introduce a point of entry for water behind the barrier.
Opening barriers listed in the Approval Guide will have a leakage rate of not more than 0.08 gal/hr/linear ft
(1 L/hr/m). They have not been evaluated for their ability to control coastal high-energy wave action that
can occur with hurricanes, typhoons, or cyclones.
2.2.6.2.5 Flood gates can be used in higher velocity areas (flow of greater than 7 fps [2 m/s]) with flood depths
up to 3 ft (0.9 m); however, a qualified structural engineer should evaluate the wall’s and gate’s ability to
resist the hydrodynamic loads.
2.2.6.2.6 Flood gates, stop logs, etc. should be readily accessible and protected from the elements when
stored.
2.2.6.2.7 Flood gates, stop logs, etc., whether permanently installed or for temporary use, should be designed
so the facility’s staff can easily install the devices in time to prevent flooding. This installation must be included
as part of the FERP. When common storage is used for multiple barriers, ensure the barriers are marked
to indicate the proper location for deployment
2.2.6.2.8 Flood gates, stop logs, etc. and mounting devices should be protected from vehicle damage or
theft; concrete bollards may be an option.
2.2.6.2.9 Confirm the following on a regular basis, plus after flooding and prior to predicted flooding.
A. On a monthly basis, confirm the following:

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1. The gates are inspected and listed on the inspections forms.

2. The protected openings and gates are well maintained and don’t show signs of damage or housekeeping
problems.
3. The openings are kept clear of debris that may impact the barrier’s functionality.
4. The gasket and securement system hasn’t deteriorated.
5. Any new openings that have been added below the predicted flood elevation are properly sealed to
withstand pressures during the design event.
6. Flood pumps are properly maintained.
B. On an annual basis, confirm the following:
1. Gate maintenance is adequate (painting, greasing, etc.).
2. Flood gates have been installed, and itemized records kept of these inspections.
3. The gate installation plan is part of the FERP.
4. Installation instructions are available.

2.2.6.3 Protection or Relocation of Equipment, Production Lines, and/or Storage

When it is not feasible to provide site perimeter or building protection, consider protecting or relocating
equipment, production lines, or storage to reduce the potential flood damage.
2.2.6.3.1 Permanently (preferred) or temporarily elevate key equipment, production lines, or storage above
the anticipated flood level. Providing raised floors, platforms, or storage racks is an option.
2.2.6.3.2 Relocate key equipment production lines or storage to upper floors or to a building or site that is
not flood-exposed.
2.2.6.3.3 Use protection-in-place strategies when elevation or relocation of equipment, production lines, or
storage is not an option. Protection-in-place strategies follow many of the same recommendations as site or
building protection recommendations discussed in Sections 2.2.6.1 and 2.2.6.2, but are focused on smaller
areas or critical equipment.

2.2.6.4 Temporary Perimeter Flood Protection Systems

The suitability of temporary barriers as part of a design needs to be evaluated with regard to warning time
ahead of the flood, deployment time for the barrier, and available staffing to ensure it is deployed in time to
prevent flood damage.
Temporary perimeter flood protection systems typically will have leakage rates greater than floodwalls and
levees. Temporary perimeter barriers listed in the Approval Guide will have a leakage rate of not more than
15 gal/hr/linear ft (186 L/hr/m). The temporary perimeter barrier’s Approval testing is conducted on a concrete
surface; leakage rates on other surfaces are not part of Approval testing, nor have the systems been evaluated
for their ability to control coastal high-energy wave action during hurricanes, typhoons, or cyclones.
2.2.6.4.1 Use FM Approved temporary perimeter barriers.
2.2.6.4.2 Have the temporary perimeter flood protection system designed by a qualified engineering firm.
Follow recommendations in Section 2.2.6.1, Permanent Site Flood Protection Systems.
2.2.6.4.3 The time it takes to initiate the flood response, collect materials, gather the response crew, and
deploy the protection should be less than half of the warning time determined for the site. If an adequate
warning time cannot be provided, formulate an alternative flood protection plan.
2.2.6.4.4 Store temporary perimeter barriers at an accessible location on the site, and protect them against
environmental damage and theft.
2.2.6.4.5 Inspect temporary perimeter barriers on a regular basis. Also inspect the temporary barrier
installation footprint to ensure changes have not occurred that will render the temporary barriers ineffective
or impossible to install.
2.2.6.4.6 Hold annual deployment drills to confirm the system will function as designed.

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2.2.6.5 Hybrid Solutions

This concept involves a mixture of the above concepts to provide a feasible and cost-effective solution.

2.3 Occupancy
If the recommendations in Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3, or 2.2.4 cannot be complied with, adhere to the
recommendations in this section to lessen the impact of flooding.
2.3.1 For each structure, identify areas and floors that are likely to be flooded, and ensure they are used
solely for nonessential operations.
2.3.2 Ensure valuable storage is located above the 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood level.
2.3.3 Locate all of the following on floors and in areas above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance
(500-year) flood elevation. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.
A. Emergency power equipment
B. Spare parts, motors, and equipment including their controls and supporting equipment.
C. Building, construction and equipment plans, maintenance manuals, etc.
D. The maintenance department and its stores. Undamaged spare parts, maintenance equipment, and hand
tools are vital to a quick return to normal operations.
E. Important equipment. If the equipment cannot be relocated to a building that is not flood-exposed,
permanently relocate the equipment to mezzanines, platforms, pads or pedestals (plinths) that are above
the flood level.
2.3.4 Do not locate any product or equipment that can leak oil, solvent, fuel, etc., in areas that are likely to
flood. Doing so may slow the cleanup of the building.
2.3.5 Do not build basements and machinery pits. If they are unavoidable, adhere to the following
recommendations:
2.3.5.1 Use noncombustible construction and finish materials that will minimize the damage from water.
2.3.5.2 Seal all piping, wiring, conduit, and penetrations to prevent seepage.
2.3.5.3 Install primary and backup FM Approved flood abatement pumps, with backup power, designed to
remove a minimum of 50 gpm (190 L/m), in case of seepage or water-pipe leaks.
2.3.5.4 Do not install equipment vital to production, lighting, heating, or ventilation in this area.
2.3.5.5 Do not place high-value electronic equipment or store critical records in this area.

2.4 Protection
2.4.1 Locate fire pumps, dry-pipe sprinkler system air supplies, gaseous suppression systems, etc., and their
associated electrical equipment outside flood-prone areas or above the expected flood level.

2.5 Equipment and Processes

If the recommendations in Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3, or 2.2.4 cannot be complied with, adhere to the
recommendations in this section to lessen the impact of flooding.
2.5.1 Install process equipment on platforms, pads, or pedestals to be above the predicted 0.2% annual
exceedance (500-year) flood elevation. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m)of freeboard. If this is not possible, build
a permanent flood barrier around the equipment.
2.5.2 If equipment vital to processes, production lines, or the building’s operation is located below the
predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation, ensure it is flood-proof if the equipment
supports building or process lines expected to remain operational during the flood. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to
0.6 m) of freeboard. Flood-proof electrical equipment is designed for use while being continuously submerged
and has an electrical ingress protection (IP) rating of IPX8.
The International Electrotechnical Commission’s International Protection Marking, IEC standard 60529, lists
the categories of protection for mechanical and electrical enclosures from the ingress of body parts, dust,

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accidental contact, and water. International Protection (IP) listings use the designation “IPXX,” with the X’s
standing for a number that refers to the protection level. The first X is for solids and the second X is for liquid
ingress.
Such specialty equipment is custom-built for the application and can be costly, but will prove invaluable if it
keeps vital operations in service during a flood.
2.5.3 Provide all structures that may float or experience lateral movement when subjected to flood-related
loads with properly designed anchorage to resist the forces of buoyancy, moving water, and wave impact.
Structures of concern include storage tanks, silos, bins, sealed conduits and pipes, duct banks, lined pits, and
sumps. In addition to protecting the structures themselves, proper anchorage will prevent them from
becoming flood-borne debris that could cause damage to surrounding buildings and equipment.
When designing the anchorage, use the conditions that will produce the most severe loads. For example,
assume storage tanks are empty when designing tank hold-downs and foundations to resist uplift and
overturning, and assume storage tanks are full when designing supports and foundations to resist maximum
gravity loads.
Data Sheet 7-88, Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks, Section 2.2.4, Flood, provides design guidance. This
guidance can also be used for tanks storing other liquids or materials.

2.6 Utilities
For locations where the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood will result in onsite flooding,
design onsite utilities as follows:
2.6.1 Ensure all utilities are located above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation
or are flood resistant. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.
2.6.2 Ensure foundations for platforms and plinths used to elevate key equipment (including substations,
whether owned by the facility or not) are designed to withstand damage from flooding, including erosion from
high-velocity flood water and mechanical impact from floating debris.
2.6.3 Locate climate-control utilities, such as heating, air-conditioning and ventilation (HVAC) systems,
chillers, and environmental-control equipment, above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood
elevation.
Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard. Supply these systems from substations that are not exposed
to flooding to ensure a controlled environment can be maintained inside a flooded facility to prevent humidity
damage.
2.6.4 Design HVAC and utility systems to segregate flood-prone areas from non-flood prone areas.
2.6.5 Locate boilers, their controls and supporting equipment (including blower fans) above the predicted
0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.

2.7 Electrical
If the recommendations in Sections 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3, or 2.2.4 cannot be complied with, adhere to the
recommendations in this section to lessen the impact of flooding.
2.7.1 Install electrical equipment above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation.
Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard. This includes all motor control centers (MCCs), distribution panels,
switchboards, motors, generators, transformers, communication and control equipment, batteries, battery
chargers, uninterrupted power systems (UPSs), electrical outlets, and lighting.
2.7.2 Ensure electrical systems in areas of the facility that are likely to be flooded are isolated from electrical
systems in areas that are not.
This will allow the rest of the facility to continue to operate in the event of a flood.
2.7.3 If is not possible to install electrical equipment above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year)
flood elevation, adhere to the following recommendations:
2.7.3.1 Use electrical equipment that is rated for use while being continuously submerged. Equipment rated
for this use has an ingress protection (IP) rating of IPX8.

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2.7.3.2 Ensure any cables run below flood level have protected metallic armoring or shields and are designed
for use in a wet environment.
2.7.3.3 Protect outdoor, elevated cable runs from high-velocity flood waters that could undermine the cable
run support foundations or cause mechanical damage to the cable supports from floating debris.
2.7.3.4 Install water-tight covers over cable trenches to prevent the trenches from being filled with silt and
debris carried by flood waters.
2.7.3.5 Locate cable joints and cable terminations above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year)
flood elevation. Include 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.
2.7.3.6 Install water sensors and relay devices that will either automatically alarm to a constantly attended
location or shut off nonessential electrical devices before flood damage occurs. Have these devices tested as
recommended by the manufacturer on an annual basis.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Avoid the Zone

The best way to avoid flooding is to build in areas that are outside the predicted flood footprint and above
the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation, for the following reasons:
A. Flooding is governed by nature and therefore its exact results can be very unpredictable and difficult
to model.
B. Flooding is dynamic; flood studies can become outdated due to land development.
C. Flood flows and weather patterns may have changed since the last study.
D. Flood mapping analysis is a complex process often limited by available information and resources.

3.2 Flood Maps and Data

Flood maps provide a static representation of a flood exposure and represent the flooding potential at the
time the map was developed. Typically, maps will show a high hazard (1% annual exceedance) flood footprint
and a moderate hazard (0.2% annual exceedance) flood footprint.
The terminology used on flood maps varies by country. In Australia, high hazard flooding also factors in flood
depth and velocity. In other parts of the world, the use of base flood elevation or 100-year return frequency
in place of the equivalent the 1% annual exceedance is used. Similarly 500-year return frequency is another
way of expressing the 0.2% annual exceedance. It is important to understand the terminology of the map or
data source before making conclusions on the exposure.
In general, flood maps do not show the more likely events (10% annual exceedance [10-year], 2% annual
exceedance [50-year]). Thus, the maps do not show how early flooding will start at a facility. A facility may start
to flood much earlier than the 1% annual level and result in significant flood depths.
The chances of the facility flooding are based on where the floor level is as compared to the flood level
associated with the return frequency. Table 2 displays the probability of flooding for various return periods.

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Table 2. Probability of Flooding at Least Once during the Facility’s Lifetime

Facility Life (Years)
Exposure Level Return 10 25 50 100
Period Flooding Probability
10 years 65% 93% 99% 100%
(10% annual exceedance)
25 years 34% 64% 87% 98%
(4% annual exceedance)
50 years 18% 40% 64% 87%
(2% annual exceedance)
100 years 10% 22% 39% 63%
(1% annual exceedance)
500 years 2% 5% 10% 18%
(0.2% annual exceedance)

Other limitations include the following:

A. Frequently, flood losses occur at locations that are not shown to be in a mapped flood zone. Examples
not normally covered by a standard flood map include collapse of a road embankment across the
floodplain during an event, blockage by debris of a structure diverting floodwaters off the watercourse,
diversion of floodwaters via a navigation canal, and faulty operation or failure of a dam.
B. Connections from adjacent flood zones to below-grade areas are not always covered by flood maps.
C. The flood maps may not address smaller bodies of water (e.g., small streams, local drainage ditches,
small culverts passing below buildings).
D. Flood defense systems may be shown on flood maps, but the current condition of the flood defense
sometimes is not well represented by the maps, which may have been developed years earlier. The system
may have reached the end of its designed lifespan, have been poorly maintained, or the flood map might
not show the increased extent of flooding caused by upstream development or changes in the environment
since the map was developed.
E. Flood maps across the world take various approaches to mapping the flood exposure protected by
flood defense systems. Some maps may not take into account flood defenses and show an area as
flooding, while some maps will show the same area as not even being flood exposed.
F. As flood maps are developed, the results are checked and compared to historical events whenever
good data is available. Frequently, the model assumptions or input data are adjusted so the results will
match or closely approximate the historical event. Unfortunately, the historical data almost always covers
a short period of time in relation to the frequency intervals being determined. The base time period may
not accurately represent weather patterns expected over 100 or 500 years for the area.
The available flood maps may have been developed based on historical flooding that occurred in the spring
when the ground is not frozen. A severe winter rainstorm landing on top of frozen earth will develop runoff
almost like rain landing on pavement. A severe thunderstorm after a particularly rainy or heavy snowmelt
period results in rainfall onto ground already saturated, causing increased runoff. Such events could
generate higher-than-expected flood levels even if the initiating event had a 100-year or 500-year
frequency. Factors such as ground saturation level, snow water content, and snow melt rate also reduce
the accuracy of flood-forecasting agencies.

3.2.1 Levees Don’t Eliminate the Threat

Building a levee, dike, or floodwall to protect a site is not equivalent to building in areas that are outside
the predicted flood footprint. Levees reduce the likelihood of flooding but do not eliminate it. Levees may fail
due to poor maintenance, design and construction, unanticipated reasons, or could be overtopped by a flood
larger than the design flood elevation. In either case the resultant failure can lead to a greater level of
damage due to increased water depths and velocity. Additionally, building a levee system is very costly and
requires the following:
• Significant ongoing maintenance.

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• A great deal of manual intervention in order to be effective at the time of the flood (e.g., closing gates,
operating pumps, etc.).
• Extensive training and emergency planning in order to ensure a successful flood fight.
Levee systems owned by public or private authorities protecting large areas have the same concerns and
can be subject to budgetary constraints that force the authority to reduce maintenance and training. The
largest drawback of a publicly or privately owned system is that the protected facility is forced to count on
others to manage their flood risk.

3.2.2 Site-Specific Flood Studies

If flood maps for a particular area do not exist, are out-of-date, or were developed on a scale that does not
adequately address the site’s local factors, an in-depth flood study is required. Hiring a qualified firm to review
existing flood maps is sound advice prior to site selection for new facilities, facilities undergoing major
renovations, and facilities that have experiences recent close-call flooding events.
Most government flood maps are developed for land planning purposes or government property insurance
programs. The maps are developed on a large scale and may not have the accuracy needed at the local or
site-specific scale. For example, the United Kingdom Environmental Agency’s flood maps contain the
following disclaimer: “This map is for land-use planning. If you are planning a development, you will need
to undertake a more detailed flood risk assessment to show how the flood risk to the site, or elsewhere as
a result of proposed changes to the site, can be managed as part of your development proposal.”
Governmental maps also may not be updated on a frequent enough basis and may not reflect recent flooding
or changes to a body of water or a natural or man-made environment.

3.2.3 Flood Protection Breach Studies

The recent improvements to computer technology and software, and accurate topographic data (such as
LiDAR) has made modeling flooding due to levee and floodwall breach analysis possible. Understanding how
a potential levee and floodwall breach will affect a site and impact normal business will help a company
develop a better strategy to address the flood exposure. Breach studies will help define the warning time
available, evacuation plans, the depth of water expected across the property and in buildings, and the water
velocity.

3.3 Strategy to Understanding the Flood Potential

In order to determine the correct strategy to address the potential of flooding and its impact on a facility,
the flood scenario must be understood. The steps are as follows:
A. Determine which types of flooding expose the site. Sites can be exposed to flooding from more than
one source.
B. Determine the expected flood depths.
C. Determine the warning time for flood.
D. Determine the duration of flooding:
1. Consider the impact of long-term flooding as the amount of time flood water remains inside a building.
This is a factor in how badly a building and its contents will be damaged.
2. Locations next to large rivers or located in flat flood plains can be impacted longer by standing flood
water.
3. Access to the site and transportation routes can be interrupted for extended periods of time.
4. Utilities may be adversely affected longer than the site itself.
E. Determine the property damage and business interruption risks and existing flood mitigation
opportunities.

3.4 Understanding Flood Sources and Their Characteristics

Intense rainfall events or melting snow can cause rivers, small streams, lakes, arroyos, etc. to overflow into
the surrounding flood plain or cause stormwater flooding.

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3.4.1 Flood Sources

3.4.1.1 River Flooding

Rivers and streams are naturally occurring drainage features. Their characteristics vary due to climate,
geology, and man-made features and can be altered by redirecting the watercourse or lining the channel
with concrete or similar. These can cause changes in river or stream cross sections that change flood
elevations and flow patterns. The magnitude and amount of advanced warning of flooding within a river basin
is correlated with the size, slope, and duration of the rainfall event relative to the size of the river basin.

3.4.1.2 Dry Stream Bed Flooding (Wadis, Ephemerals, Arroyos, Dry Gulches and Washes)
Typically, these channels drain areas of minimal or sporadic rainfall, which are therefore characterized by
rocky, sandy terrain with little vegetation. Flooding that involves dry stream beds will most likely be flash floods
associated with heavy, concentrated rainfall. There will be little or no advance warning (few hours at most);
high wave fronts; high velocity; high sediment load; possible obstructions at bridges, culverts, etc. causing
water to back up; considerable erosion; and short duration.

3.4.1.3 Channel constrictions

Channel constrictions, such as bridges, culverts, diversion channels, pipes, and sluice ways, can become
obstructed by debris or ice carried by flood water.
Types of debris are limitless but include trees, ice, lumber, furniture, process tanks, vehicles, rocks, sheds,
concrete pipes, gravel, and coal. In large floods, items that normally are not transported in an annual flood
will be carried downstream due to flood waters reaching new areas. A single object, for example an uprooted
tree caught in a constriction, can collect smaller debris.When enough debris is gathered, flood waters will
back up until relieved. It is not uncommon for debris dams to impound large volumes of water that are suddenly
released, causing flood volumes and elevations greatly above the expected flood level.
Relief can occur with breakout flow, which results in flood exposures to sites or buildings not previously
exposed. Consequently, some locations identified as not exposed, or exposed at an infrequent recurrence
with unconstricted flow in the main channel, would then experience flooding at a higher frequency than
anticipated. A bridge choked by debris or ice can cause an upstream levee to be overtopped.
Typical government flood profiles are computed under the assumption that bridges and culverts are
unobstructed; 100% open and clear. Depending on the characteristics of the stream, full or partial obstruction
of these constrictions can occur. The obstruction alters the flood profile by causing the water surface to rise
above the unobstructed flood profile and it might cause breakout flow that conveys flood waters outside of
the unobstructed constriction.
Some rivers have an annual issue with ice jamming. Ice jams can be classified into six categories: freeze-up
ice jams; break-up ice jams; moving ice jams; stationary ice jams; floating ice jams; and grounded ice jams.
Only break-up ice jams result in significant flooding.
Break-up ice jams are frequently associated with rapid rises in river stage, resulting from rainfall and/or
snowmelt, and usually occur in the late winter or early spring. Because of the large volume of ice that may
be involved and the greater discharges from rain or snowmelt, break-up ice jams can cause flooding of a
magnitude similar to, or in excess of, the 100- and 500-year flood.
Ice jam flooding will normally be characterized by several hours to several days’ advance notice; rapid rise
once the obstruction has occurred; duration dependent upon the weather and emergency action (using
explosives to dislodge the ice); low velocity; low sediment loading; impact and push damage from heavy
floating ice plates and blocks; and slight erosion hazard.
As the temperature increases or the ice jam is impacted, it may break free, float, and jam again as it impacts
other ice, a bridge, etc. or it may break up into large floating plates and blocks. The backed-up water will
be released as the jam breaks free, creating a fast moving surge of water. The water surge and the
accompanying large pieces of ice can cause increased physical damage to property. While the presence of
an ice jam can be monitored, the location, time, and magnitude of release and associated results may be
difficult to predict. The effects of ice jam flooding can be much more severe than warm water flooding of the
same stream to the same level.

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3.4.1.4 Flood Control Dams

Most flood-control dams are constructed in conjunction with a reservoir. Flooding downstream is reduced
as water is retained behind the dam. Discharge through the dam is restricted, and resultant downstream flows
and flood levels are reduced. In many cases, the published 100-year, 500-year, etc. flood levels consider
the many effects of the upstream flood structure and reservoir. Items factored into the flood projections include
the duration of the rainfall event, the capacity of the reservoir and its assumed water level at the time of
the event, the location of the rainstorm in the watershed, and the effect of other dams and reservoirs.
While a flood-control project upstream may serve to reduce the extent of flooding from a specified design
event or scenario, it is still possible that downstream flooding may result from a different scenario. For
example, a flood-control dam located 100 miles (161 km) upstream of a site on a moderate-sized river may
be designed to provide protection against a regional rainstorm event. However, a very intense, slow moving,
localized rainfall event centered downstream of the dam could cause flooding similar in magnitude to the
flood the dam was designed to limit (different storm position and intensity; different scenario; same flood level).
Changes to the flood-control systems in a watershed after a study or map is completed can affect the
expected flood levels. Flood-control dams are built to a design frequency based on economic feasibility. Some
flood-control dams may be built to the 50-year event, while others may be built to the 100-year event or
greater. However, a dam built to the 100-year event in 1950 may not contain the 100-year event today due
to changes in the watershed since 1950. Local authorities may be aware of the design frequency of the
flood-control dam but may not be aware that changes in the watershed may have reduced the effectiveness
of the dam.

3.4.1.5 Interior Drainage Flooding Behind Flood Protection

Flooding may occur in a “protected” floodplain even though the main levee, floodwall, or sea wall is not
breached or overtopped. Flooding can be caused by rain, interior streams, or from seepage under the levee
or sea wall.

3.4.1.6 Coastal Flooding

Coastal flooding is the result of increased sea levels caused by storm force winds. Coastal flooding is usually
caused by large ocean storms. Wide and gently sloping continental shelves produce higher storm surges
than narrow, steep continental shelves. Normal sea levels will increase and wind will generate waves.
Sheltered harbors and bays often have smaller waves.The storm force winds also push water inland across
normally dry areas. Coastal storms can create flood levels from 15 to 30 ft (4.6 to 9.1 m) or more above
high tide.
Coastal storms can also cause inland flooding. As a storm moves inland, it usually reduces in strength since
it is no longer being powered by the rising warm, moist ocean air. When this occurs, the remaining storm
will release intense rain over the inland area. This intense rain may lead to severe inland river or stormwater
flooding.

3.4.1.7 Alluvial Fan Flooding

Alluvial fans are located at the base of steep-sloped mountainous areas. Often they are located in areas
that typically receive very little rainfall. When a major storm occurs, alluvial flooding is sudden and severe
and may affect small or large areas.
On these very flat flood plains, the flow tends to be at high velocity, undergoes unpredictable changes in
direction, and carries large amounts of sediment. The soils found on alluvial fans tend to be easily eroded
and highly porous.

3.4.1.8 Seiche Flooding

A seiche is an oscillation of the water in a lake, sea, or bay caused by seismic disturbances, winds, waves,
or abrupt, unusual changes in atmospheric pressure. Large storms with unusually low pressure and high
winds can cause water elevation differences of several feet (meters) from one side of a lake to another. The
elevation of the water surface coupled with wind-driven waves causes coastal areas to flood and tributary
rivers to back up and overflow their banks.

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3.4.1.9 Stormwater Flooding

Natural terrain or insufficient drainage design can cause flooding. Stormwater flooding can be classified into
three categories: surcharged drainage systems, ponding, and sheet flow.
In many parts of the world, underground drainage is not designed for severe rainstorms. During unusually
heavy rainfall, the lack of drainage capability may cause water to back up and enter buildings if not considered
during the design. Unfortunately, typical urban drainage systems are sized to handle at most the 25-year
storm. Due to the lack of capacity, onsite stormwater runoff may require the use of retention or detention
basins to safely handle the 100-year stormwater run-off.

3.4.1.10 Groundwater
The groundwater level is governed by adjacent rivers, lakes, and streams. Depending on the soil conditions,
the groundwater level will respond to changes in adjacent water body levels. Usually, this response is slow.
However, for long-duration flood events, the groundwater table might affect building basements.

3.4.1.11 Tsunamis
Tsunamis are usually caused by undersea earthquakes. The earthquake causes a displacement of the earth’s
crust at the bottom of the ocean. Although they are rare events, tsunamis can reach heights of from 30 to
50 ft (9 to 15 m) as they approach the coast at more than 500 mph (805 km/h).

3.4.1.12 Combined Sewer Systems

Combined sewer system are not always able to handle increased flows during heavy rainfall or flooding.
As a result, the system will back up and flow out of manhole covers, drainage inlets, toilets, floor drains, and
sinks. Because the water is dirty, the cleanup is complicated due to contaminates.

3.4.1.13 Roof Drainage Flooding

This is localized flooding due to roof drains and downspouts emptying on ground or paved surfaces that
don’t drain away from a building. See Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads and Drainage.

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3.4.2 Flood Characteristics

Table 3 gives some general characteristics of the major types of flooding.

Table 3. Flood Types and Characteristics

Flow Paths/
Flood Type Depth Velocity Warning Time Duration Drainage
Large, long rivers Varies widely, Low: velocity not Up to 2 weeks or Days or weeks Overbank
governed by expected to more
valley shape; increase damage.
levee-protected
areas can be
deep.
Smaller sized Varies widely, High in steep Short; very short Short: less than 1 Overbank
rivers governed by areas; velocity in steep-sloped day to several
valley shape; damage possible. areas days. Flash flood
levee-protected Low in flat areas. in steep areas: <3
areas can be Low in ponding hours.
deep. areas.
Dry stream beds High wave fronts; High; velocity Short (few hours Short: less than 1 Flash flooding
backup at damage possible. at most) day to several
obstructions. days
Interior drainage Low level: <3 ft Low; velocity not Short, but varies Longer: Varies by 1. Rain or interior
behind flood (1 m). expected to by flood type flood type streams;
protection increase damage.
2. seepage under
levee or sea wall
Coastal From 15 to 30 ft High near Storm formation: Short: hours Ocean water
(5 to 10 m) or coastline; velocity up to 1 week; pushed onto land
more above high damage possible. action stage for
tide facility 2 to 3 days
prior to landfall;
1 day out
evacuation may
be ordered
Alluvial Fan High level: <3 ft High; velocity Short: <3 hours Short: <3 hours Onto base of
(1 m). damage possible. steep-sloped
mountains
Seiche Several feet High; velocity Short: hours Short: hours From water
(meters). damage possible. oscillation in a
lake, sea, bay
Stormwater Low level: <1 ft Potentially high Short: minutes to Short: minutes to Surcharged
(0.3 m) except for for steep 1 hour 1 hour drainage systems,
below grade slopes;low for ponding, and
spaces. ponding areas. sheet flow
Groundwater Low level: <1 ft Low; velocity not Long: 1 day to Long: 1 day to From adjacent
(0.3 m). expected to days days rivers, lakes, and
increase damage. streams
Sewer systems Typically low Low; velocity not Short: minutes to Short: minutes to Flow out of toilets,
level: <1 ft (0.3 expected to 1 hour 1 hour floor drains, and
m). increase damage. sinks

3.5 Understanding the Flood Impact

Critical facility assets should be inventoried and the impact of flood considered. In addition to building damage,
items to consider include equipment that, once damaged, will cause a bottleneck in resuming operations;
information systems; long lead-time equipment; switch gear; and electrical feeds.
Flood damage to fire protection equipment presents a number of significant issues. Flood water often carries
heavy debris that can rupture ignitable liquid tanks and damage ignitable liquid and flammable gas piping.
Electrical short circuits and other ignition sources are available to start a fire. Once a fire starts, the local fire
service may not be able to reach the fire due to flooding. The automatic sprinkler and fire pumps may also
be damaged. Therefore, always locate automatic sprinkler valves and pumps outside flood-prone areas.

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The impact to utility services should be understood. Be aware of underground substations, equipment, and
transformer vaults. Water service, sewage and disposal, electrical service (generation, transmission &
distribution), telecommunication, natural gas service, refrigeration, steam, etc. may be affected.
Access to the site may be restricted or closed even if the site is unaffected. Normal supply routes, including
highways and railroads, may be closed due to flooding for extended periods of time.

3.6 Understanding All Possible Solutions; Building or Retrofitting in a Flood Prone Area: A Strategy
is Needed
This data sheet addresses a wide variety of physical solutions to reduce the severity of flooding to a facility
when building in these areas can’t be avoided. Human element solutions (those that require humans to
respond during flooding) should only be relied upon after all practical physical solutions have been
incorporated into the design.
A carefully planned strategy has to be developed and executed during the project’s design and construction
phases in order to minimize the damage flooding will cause. The ultimate strategy is to ensure that as much
of the facility can continue operating without pause during flooding.
There are many concepts that can be used to help reduce flood damage and downtime. The logical options
in order of reliability are:
A. Designing the facility to be constructed outside of any flood hazard (new construction) or permanently
relocating the existing facility.
B. Raising the site above the 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) level (new construction).
C. Building permanent 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood defenses around the site.
D. Protecting a portion of the site’s critical assets by raising above or protecting to 0.2% annual exceedance
(500-year) standards (e.g., building low-level earthen embankments or flood walls, landscaping, and walls
to redirect stormwater and sheet flow away from important areas).
E. Deploying emergency devices and emergency response plans until permanent solutions are made.
This can include relocation of equipment and production lines to areas higher than the flood. See Data
Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response.
F. Developing plans to make up production while the site is repaired.
If achieving the 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) standard is not feasible or cost-effective, the 100-year
should be considered instead. When deciding on the best strategy, the likelihood of flooding, expected
damage, and insurance costs, impact on public image and customers during the lifetime of the site should
also be considered.
One of the drawbacks to elevating the entire site outside of the flood hazard is that it can be expensive and
not always practicable. When elevating the entire site is not possible, it then becomes necessary to determine
which buildings and areas of the facility are likely to be flooded and focus on minimizing the impact the
flooding would have to the lower areas, both in terms of physical damage and interruption to business.
Often the most effective flood mitigation approach is a combination of approaches. Proper design of the
buildings that will potentially be flooded is required to keep damage to a minimum. Shallow flood waters that
fill basements seldom damage the basic structure or the floor above. Structural damage becomes a possibility
when deep waters rise up to the first story walls. Wall damage at grade and below level floor does not
normally occur when water rises equally both inside and outside, as the forces are hydrostatically balanced.
However, waters rising on the outside only can quickly over-stress a wall and floors at grade or below and
cause its collapse or uplift. A rise of several feet of water against one side of an unreinforced brick or concrete
block wall is cause for concern.
One of the most important steps ensuring flood damage is minimized after the flood has receded from
buildings is to quickly clean up the damage the flood has created. In order to accomplish a fast cleanup, power,
heating, and air conditioning has to be restored quickly.
Therefore, when designing the location or selecting equipment for power and HVAC systems, consider the
following:

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A. Electrical equipment, particularly dry-type transformers, high-voltage air circuit breakers, and modern
control equipment that uses semi-conductor circuitry are highly susceptible to water damage.
B. Boilers, furnaces, and ovens will sustain extensive damage. If flood waters rise while the unit is firing
or still hot, the unit is susceptible to considerable permanent deflection. Fine silt will penetrate combustion,
air, and gaseous fuel piping as well as burner assemblies.
C. Tanks can sustain major damage. Below-floor along with elevated tanks may be hydrostatically
damaging the tank, building floor and surrounding equipment. Storage tanks may also move and fill, and
supply or vent lines may break. Released contents may contaminate other areas.
D. Equipment located outside, although adequately weather resistant, is susceptible to the same damage
as equipment located indoors. Weather protection is usually not sufficiently tight enough to keep out flood
water. Velocities of greater than 7 fps (0.2 m/s) will knock over outside equipment that hasn’t been
specifically designed to resist the force of moving flood water.
Basements flood more often due to the fact they are lower in elevation. Key electrical, process, and analytical
equipment is often located in basements and minor flooding events involving the basement has caused large
property damage and long closure of facilities or production lines.

3.6.1 Freeboard is a Key Design Consideration

Freeboard is the difference between a building’s floor elevation, equipment elevation, storage elevation, etc.,
or the top of a flood defense system elevation and the flood level. It is a safety factor (margin) to account for
uncertainties in the calculation (hydrology, hydraulics, topography, etc.) of the flood level due to flood modeling
inaccuracy, manmade and natural changes to the watercourse, increased runoff due to urbanization, changes
in the flood exposure over the lifetime of the site (climate change), or to provide a buffer against unexpected
waves due to vehicle traffic or wind. Providing freeboard as part of the design criteria will help reduce the
likelihood or the amount of damage that an unanticipated change will cause over the lifetime of a site.
Selecting the amount of freeboard to use should be based upon critical factors such as the following:
A. Susceptibility of the building to damage. Occupancies that can’t tolerate any water in or near the building
should use more freeboard. Examples of highly susceptible occupancies include hospitals, pharmaceutical
operations, and locations with clean rooms.
B. Areas with frequent flooding approaching or exceeding the regulatory flood level (e.g., design levels
incorrect or in need of an update).
C. Areas for which the flood maps and studies are older than 10 years.
D. Areas in which upstream development of vacant land has drastically increased (or is projected to
increase) since the last flood map was developed.
E. Water levels affected by blockage by debris, landslides, or incorrect operation of hydraulic structures.
F. A minimum of 2 ft (0.6m) freeboard is recommended.

3.7 Selecting Barriers to Protect Building Openings

Whenever possible, all unnecessary openings that will allow flood water to enter a building should be
eliminated. For the rest, flood barriers can be used in conjunction with other cost-effective improvements to
reduce the likelihood of large amounts of water penetrating the building envelope. If it is impractical to prevent
water from entering the building, it is still possible to limit damage by constructing interior protection.
For example, construction of flood protection walls around key interior rooms and manufacturing or equipment
areas can be a cost-effective way to reduce flood damage. Another method is waterproofing and strengthening
existing partitions and equipping openings with flood gates around vital mechanical equipment such as
furnaces, boilers, computers, and electronic switchgear. The goal of this guidance is to reduce the amount
of water that will penetrate and collect in the building’s interior to a few inches (centimeters) in depth. Facilities
that cannot tolerate any water penetration should be relocated to another area, and critical occupancies
should be raised above the predicted 0.2% annual exceedance (500-year) flood elevation and include 1 to
2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of freeboard.
Often, it is not possible to seal or provide curbs around every personnel or vehicle opening. Part of the flood
protection scheme may have to include gates that require assembly. Therefore, an FM Approved flood gate

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should be selected that can be installed on short notice. A flood gate that is permanently mounted adjacent
to the opening and can be rapidly deployed is the best choice. Ideally, the gate should be designed to allow
an untrained person to close it. Another benefit of permanently mounted gates is that they are less likely
to be stolen or misplaced. Drawbacks to these gates, however, are that they can be more expensive than
other types, and often are not aesthetically pleasing.

3.7.1 Permanently Mounted Flood Gates

3.7.1.1 Hinged/Pivot Gates

These gates are permanently in place and shut by swinging the barrier closed. Some barriers are hinged
to walls like doors; other barriers are hinged to the floor and flip out when deployed. (See Figures 2, 3, and
4)
Ease of operation/training needed:
• A properly designed hinged gate is very easy to close.
• Hinged gates protecting personnel doors can be closed by one person.
• Hinged gates for vehicle openings may require several people to close.
• Well-designed doors require minimal training.
Deployment time: Gates can be closed in minutes.

Fig. 2. Pivot-type gate with a single pivot point

Fig. 3. Stored in-ground hinged-type gate, partially deployed

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Fig. 4. Door-style gate hinged flood, partially deployed

3.7.1.2 Rolling Gates

Rolling gates are permanently in place and shut by rolling the barrier closed. The rolling mechanism needs
to be inspected regularly and kept clear of debris and standing water. In cold climates, ice may accumulate
in the tracks and hinder prompt operation. (See Figure 5.)

Fig. 5. Rolling gate, shown deployed

Ease of operation/training needed:

• A properly designed rolling gate is very easy to close.
• Rolling gates protecting personnel doors can be closed by one person.
• Rolling gates for vehicle openings may require several people to close.
• Well-designed doors require minimal training to close.
Deployment time: Gates can be closed in minutes.

3.7.1.3 Drop-From-Above Gates

These gates have preventive maintenance, ease of operation, and training issues similar to rolling gates.
(See Figure 6.)

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Fig. 6. Drop-from-above gate, shown in storage position

Ease of operation/training needed:

A. A properly designed drop-from-above gate is very easy to close.
B. Gates protecting personnel doors can be closed by one person.
C. Large gates for vehicle openings may require mechanical equipment to close; this equipment should
be designed as part of the gate.
D. Well-designed gates require minimal training to close.
Deployment time: Gates can be closed in minutes if closure equipment is part of the design.

3.7.1.4 Automatic Flood Barriers and Gates

An automatic flood barrier can be installed in an existing doorway (see Figure 7). When not needed, it is
vertically stored below the floor. This allows for normal access to the room until a flood occurs. The first flow
of water to the barrier will cause it to automatically deploy. The use of this barrier eliminates the need for
curbing at the opening. Installation requires removal of a floor section and pouring of a foundation to install
the barrier.

Protected area

Building wall
Barr
ier d
u ep
whe pward loys
n ac s
tiva
ted

Outside area or
flooded area
Flood barrier stored
below ground when
not deployed

Fig. 7. Automatic flood barrier

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Ease of operation and training needed:

A. Fully automatic operation.
B. Should be designed to allow for manual deployment for inspection and maintenance or to ensure it is
deployed.
C. Installation is available either inside or outside of exterior doors.
D. Must be kept free of debris to allow for proper operation
Deployment time: Automatic or manually opens in minutes.

3.7.1.5 Window Opening Protection

This type of flood barrier can be installed over or in existing windows (see Figure 8). The protection devices
are made of metal and can be hinged from the top, bottom or sides. They are closed manually.
Ease of Operation and training needed:
A. Deployed manually
B. Typically, closing the device is easy.
C. Annual assembly drill is recommended.
Deployment time: Closure of this type of gate can be done quickly as it is permanently mounted.

Panel hinge

Non-deployed
flood panel

Panel hinge

Non-
deployed
flood panel

Window panel mounted on

top or bottom of window. Window panel mounted on side of
Panel swings vertically. window. Panel swings horizontally.

Fig. 8. Window opening protection

3.7.1.6 Single or Double Pedestrian Doors

These doors are designed to function as normal pedestrian doors when there is no flood. To prevent impact
damage from water-conveyed debris, the doors are metal. Some doors have additional latches that must
be closed as the flood is approaching.
Ease of Operation and training needed:
A. Fully automatic operation or have simple closing latches.
B. Must be kept free of debris to allow for proper operation.

3.7.2 Flood Gates That Require Assembly

3.7.2.1 Stop Logs

This type of gate is assembled in the opening. A series of “logs” (wooden, steel, or aluminum planks) are
assembled in the opening on an as-needed basis. Usually, the opening that is being protected will have a

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permanently mounted frame on each side of the opening that accepts the logs (see Figure 9). For large
openings, an intermediate or several intermediate supports are used to span the opening. These intermediate
supports must be anchored to the floor via fastening bolts or a foundation channel (see Figure 10). These
gates may require the installation of rubber gaskets between the stop logs, building, and sill. Frequently,
tear-resistant plastic sheeting and sandbags are added in front of the stop logs to further reduce water
seepage.

Fig. 9. Three stop logs deployed in a doorway

Intermediate Mounting
support bracket

Stop log 1 Stop log 5

Stop log 2 Stop log 6
Stop log 3 Stop log 7
Stop log 4 Stop log 8

Stop log door sill

Fig. 10. Large opening protected by stop logs with intermediate support

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Stop logs protecting personnel doors are designed to be able to be picked up by one or two people and
put in place. The height of the individual stop log will vary based on the span being covered and the weight
of the individual stop log. Typically, stop logs vary in height from 6 to 24 in. (15 to 60 cm). Stop logs for
roadway and vehicle doors may require lift equipment and vertical support at mid-span.
Ease of operation/training needed:
A. The stop log mounting brackets are typically permanently installed.
B. This system has multiple components to install, including multiple stop logs and fasteners.
C. The first stop log installed at floor level typically has a larger seal at the bottom.
D. All systems have a fastener on each side that is installed at the top and is designed to compress the
gaskets. Some designs also will have two fasteners for each stop log.
E. Incorrect stop log installation order jeopardizes the sealing. FM Approved stop logs are marked to
indicate which side should face the flood water to ensure proper sealing.
F. Annual training/assembly is recommended.
G. The logs and assembly parts are often stored in another location.
Deployment time: Installation of stop log assembly across an 8 ft (2.4 m) opening will take less than 1.2
hours if the mounting brackets have been previously installed. The marshalling of staff and equipment needed
to transport the gates from the storage location and assemble them can be significant and should be included
in the time estimates. A test assembly must be conducted to understand the time, equipment, and staff
necessary to assemble the gate.

3.7.2.2 Drop-in-Place Gates

This type of gate consists of a single barrier that slides into a permanent sill and frame. These gates are
typically made of aluminum to keep the weight low. (See Figure 11.)

Fig. 11. Drop-in-place gate, shown in storage position next to doorway

Ease of operation, training needed:

A. The mounting brackets are typically permanently installed.
B. Drop-in-place gates are usually a single panel. Typically, they are easy to install. The weight of the
panels may require more than one person to lift them or the use of a mechanical lift.
C. Annual assembly drill is recommended.
D. The gates and assembly parts are often stored in another location.

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Deployment time: Closure of this type of gate can be done quickly if the gate is stored close to the opening.
If a mechanical lifting unit is required due to the weight of the gate, the deployment time will be longer if
the lifting unit is located away from the opening. The marshalling of staff and equipment needed to transport
the gates from the storage location and assemble them can be significant and should be included in the
time estimates. A test assembly must be conducted to understand the time, equipment, and manpower
necessary to assemble the gate.
Deployment time: Automatic or minutes if manual latches are needed.

3.7.2.3 Expandable Gates With or Without Mounting Hardware

These are gates that can use existing door frames or can be used with permanently installed mounting
hardware. These gates may be used in series if intermediate mounting hardware is installed. The gates
expand into the door frame or mounting hardware. These gates are typically made of a steel or aluminum
frame with a waterproof membrane and gaskets to minimize leakage while keeping the weight manageable.
Ease of operation, training needed:
A. The device must fit in the door frame or permanently installed mounting hardware. The device will need
to avoid the door’s opening hardware, including door latches, hinges, and panic bars.
B. Typically they are easy to install and can be put in place by one person.
C. If multiple gates are to be installed by one person, rest periods may be needed during the installation
period.
D. An annual assembly drill is recommended.
E. The gates are often stored in another location.
Deployment time: Closure of this type of gate can be done quickly if the gate is stored close to the opening.
The marshalling of staff and equipment needed to transport the gates from the storage location and assemble
them can be significant and should be included in the time estimates. A test assembly must be conducted
to understand the time and staff necessary to assemble the gate.
Deployment time: 5 minutes or less for a well-trained responder.

3.7.2.4 Hatch Covers

These devices cover non-water-tight hatches (see Figure 12). The hatches can be on floors or other ground
surfaces, or on vertical surfaces.
Ease of operation and training needed
A. The complexity of installation will vary based on the access hatch size, location, and design.
B. An annual assembly drill is recommended.
Deployment time: Varies based on design.

3.8 Temporary Perimeter Barriers Remote from Buildings

3.8.1 Bladders Filled with Water

This type of flood protection uses tubing made of durable, impermeable material; typical materials include
polyester-coated fabric, nylon, and PVC (see Figure 13). The tubes are placed on an area that is free of debris
or sharp objects. The tubes are anchored to the ground via anchoring straps to prevent floating or movement
due to water velocity; the location and spacing of anchors will vary based upon product and soil conditions.
Anchor spacing can be as close as 5 ft (1.5 m).
Engineering analysis is required to evaluate soil conditions and determine anchoring requirements. In certain
instances (installations on grassy/loose soil), concrete pads are recommended for attachment of anchoring
devices. The anchors are either permanent or installed as the tube is being deployed. The anchoring straps
are needed to prevent rolling, floating, and movement due to waves or water velocity. Sandbagging to prevent
rolling also may be recommended by the manufacturer. Some manufacturers also cover the tubes with plastic
sheeting adhered to solid surfaces to reduce leakage. They cannot be deployed on hills, but can tolerate
minor ground roughness.

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Hatch cover shown

with anchor bolts

Floor or roadway

Fig. 12. Hatch cover for vertical tunnel

Ease of operation/training needed:

These devices need a skilled/trained work force to assemble. Multiple employees are needed for deployment.
The weight of the empty tubes can be significant. The tubes will also need to be filled via a water pump or
another water source. The manufacturer’s anchoring guidelines need to be followed. If more than one tube
is needed, the connection point between two tubes requires careful attention when assembling. The assembly
crew should also be prepared to repair leaks.
Deployment time: These tubes require significant time to assemble. The marshalling of staff and equipment
needed to transport and assemble them can be significant. Consult with the manufacturer on estimated
deployment times during the selection process. A test should be conducted to understand the time, equipment,
and staff necessary to properly assemble the tubes once delivered.

Ground anchor

Securement strap
3 water filled bladders shown End attached to high
ground or wall (not
shown)
Protected side of barrier

End attached to high

ground or wall (not Wet side
shown)

Fig. 13. Bladders filled with water; plastic sheeting may also be needed

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3.8.2 Rigid/Shaped Containers Filled with Water or Sand

This type of flood protection uses a series of rigid and shaped containers, usually made of plastic or metal,
that are deployed once a flood is forecast to cause damage (see Figures 14 and 15). Designs vary and some
units require anchors to prevent movement. Follow the manufacturer’s guidance in regards to installation
method.
Ease of operation/training needed:
These containers require equipment to fill the devices, and lifting equipment or several workers to install.
The flood responders will need to be able to use mechanical equipment to fill the containers with sand or water.
The crew will also need to be able to repair punctures, particularly between each section.
Annual training/assembly is needed. The crew must be prepared to follow the manufacturer’s installation
manual. Installation methods will vary and may include anchoring the units to ground, interlocking units
together, and filling the units with water, sand, or a mixture of sand and gravel, etc.
Deployment time: These panels require significant time to assemble. The marshalling of staff and equipment
needed to transport and assemble them can be significant, even with proper pre-planning. Consult with the
manufacturer on estimated deployment times during the selection process. A test should be conducted to
understand the time, equipment, and staff necessary to properly assemble once delivered.

6 sand, gravel
or water filled End attached to high
End attached to high ground, wall or
containers shown
ground, wall or similar (not shown)
similar (not shown)

Fig. 14. Rigid/shaped containers filled with water or sand

End attached to high 3 water or sand filled End attached to high

ground, wall or containers shown ground, wall or
similar (not shown) similar (not shown)

Fig. 15. Rigid/shaped containers filled with water or sand

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3.8.3 Flexible Containers Filled with Gravel or Sand

This type of flood protection uses a series of flexible containers that are deployed once a flood is forecast
to cause damage (see Figure 16). The containers may contain either a rigid wire or wooden frame and a
waterproof membrane material. A waterproof membrane or plastic sheeting may be deployed in front
containers, as well, to reduce leakage. These containers will leak at various rates based upon design and
installation; careful planning must be done to ensure the flood abatement pumps can keep up with the
anticipated leakage.
Ease of operation/training needed:
These containers typically are lighter than rigid containers, so they may not require lifting equipment to
position. Material handling equipment for loading the fill material will be needed.
Annual training/assembly is needed. The crew must be prepared to follow the manufacturer’s installation
manual. Installation methods will vary and may include anchoring the units to the ground and interlocking
the units together. The flood responders will need to be able to use mechanical equipment to fill the containers
with sand or gravel. The crew will also need to be able to repair punctures, particularly between each section.
Deployment time: These devices require significant time to deploy. The marshalling of staff and equipment
needed to transport and fill them can be significant, even with proper pre-planning. Consult with the
manufacturer on estimated deployment times during the selection process. A test should be conducted to
understand the time, equipment, and staff necessary to properly assemble once delivered.

4 sand or sand and

End attached to high gravel mix filled
ground, wall or containers shown
similar (not shown)

Fig. 16. Flexible containers filled with gravel or sand

3.8.4 Deployable Flood Walls Without Foundations

This type of flood protection uses flood panels that are deployed once a flood is forecast to cause damage
(see Figure 17). Some types use the product’s design and weight of water to prevent movement. Other types
may require anchoring to the ground. The location and spacing of anchors will vary based on product and soil
conditions. Engineering analysis is required to evaluate soil conditions and determine anchoring requirements.
In certain instances (i.e., installations on grassy/loose soil), concrete pads are recommended for attachment
of anchoring devices. They should not be deployed on sandy, silty, or unstable ground. Uneven ground
requires concrete foundations.
Ease of operation/training needed:
These panels will require lifting equipment or several workers to install. Annual training/assembly is needed.
The crew must be prepared to repair rips of the waterproofed canvas between panels.
Deployment time: These panels require significant time to assemble. One manufacturer suggests a team
of 10 to assemble 328 ft (100 m) in 1 hour. The marshalling of staff and equipment needed to transport and
assemble them can be significant; consult with the manufacturer on estimated deployment times during the
selection process. A test should be conducted to understand the time, equipment, and staff necessary to
properly assemble the walls once delivered.

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End attached to high

5 flood panels shown ground, wall or
similar (not shown)

End attached to high

ground, wall or
similar (not shown)

Ground anchor

Fig. 17. Deployable flood walls without foundations

3.8.5 Waterproof Fabric Cofferdams

There are two types of fabric cofferdams. The first is a temporary perimeter barrier that is designed to be
rolled out and secured to the ground by use of anchors or sandbags. This design relies on the water to help
fully deploy in terms of height, sealing along the ground, and positioning (see Figure 18). Successful
deployment may require the use of dowels or other items to create a sail area to collect the flood water at
the beginning of the flooding.
Another design uses a rigid frame, and the waterproof fabric is attached to the frame (see Figure 19).
Ease of operation/training needed: The cofferdam without the rigid frame is easy to deploy and does not
require use of specialist material handling or lift equipment. Annual training is recommended. The cofferdam
with the rigid frame may require material handling equipment.
Deployment time: Deployment time is quick once the materials are brought to the area where it will be
deployed.

End attached to high

End attached ground, wall or
to high wall Wet side similar (not shown)

Protected side

Fig. 18. Waterproof fabric cofferdams without rigid frame; water holds fabric open

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1-40 Flood
Page 34 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

End attached to high

ground, wall or
similar (not shown)
End attached Rigid frame to
to high wall Protected side support fabric

Wet side

ic
abr
of f
pro
ter
Wa

Fig. 19. Waterproof fabric cofferdams with rigid frame

3.9 Designed, Semi-Permanent Deployable Flood Walls

These systems are typically deployed in areas where a permanent flood wall is not an option, as the need
for access or maintaining views when there is not a flood is required.
These devices are essentially a series of stop logs that are installed between vertical support members.
This system requires a designed foundation along the length of the system (see Figure 20). The stop logs
must have a good foundation to develop a good seal, and the vertical support members must have a rigid
foundation to support the forces created by the flood water. See Section 2.2.6.1, Permanent Site Flood
Protection Systems, for additional guidance.
Ease of operation/training needed: This type of system will require significant training to assemble properly.
Material area handling equipment will be needed to transport the materials from the storage to the deployment
area. The weight of the vertical support members often will require lifting equipment to install the supports
into the designed foundation.
Deployment time: These systems require significant time to assemble. The marshalling of workers and
equipment needed to transport and assemble the walls can be significant; consult with the manufacturer on
estimated deployment times during the selection process. A test should be conducted to understand the time,
equipment, and workers necessary to properly assemble the system once they are initially delivered.

Intermediate Attaches to flood wall or

support terminates at high ground
Design flood level

Stop log 1 Stop log 5 Stop log 9 Stop log 13 Stop log 17
Stop log 2 Stop log 6 Stop log 10 Stop log 14 Stop log 18
Stop log 3 Stop log 7 Stop log 11 Stop log 15 Stop log 19 High ground or flood
Designed permanent Stop log 4 Stop log 8 Stop log 12 Stop log 16 Stop log 20 wall
flood wall

Design permanent foundation

Ground level

Fig. 20. Designed, semi-permanent deployable flood walls

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4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 10-2, Emergency Response

4.2 Other
American Concrete Institute. ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete.
American Concrete Institute. ACI 423, Recommendations for Concrete Members Prestressed with Unbonded
Tendons.
Federal Emergency Management Agency. FEMA Technical Bulletin 1-93, Openings in Foundation Walls.
Federal Emergency Management Agency. FEMA Technical Bulletin 8-96, Corrosion Protection for Metal
Connectors in Coastal Areas.
International Code Council. International Building Code. Operating Standard 7-88, Ignitable Liquid Storage
Tanks

4.2.1 Some Nationally Recognized Levee and Floodwall Standards

Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). The International Levee Handbook.
ISBN 978-0-86017-734-0.
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Relief Wells. USACE
Engineering Manual No. 1110-2-1914.
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Engineering and Design, Design and Construction of Levees. USACE
Engineering Manual No. 1110-2-1913.
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Engineering and Design, Retaining And Flood Walls. USACE
Engineering Manual 1110-2-2502.
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Guidelines For Landscape Planting And Vegetation Management
At Levees, Floodwalls, Embankment Dams, And Appurtenant Structures. USACE Technical Letter 111-2-571.
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Guidelines for Landscape Planting and Vegetation Management
at Levees, Floodwalls, Embankment Dams and Appurtenant Structures. USACE Manual No. 1110-2-53.
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Mechanical And Electrical Design Of Pumping Stations. USACE
Manual EM1110-2-3105.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

FM Approved: Products or services that have satisfied the criteria for Approval by FM Approvals. Refer to
the Approval Guide for a complete list of products and services that are FM Approved.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

October 2019. Interim revision. Minor editorial changes were made.
April 2019. Interim revision. Minor editorial changes were made.
October 2018. Interim revision. Added support information to Section 3.2 Flood Maps and Data, and Section
3.4 Understanding Flood Sources and Their Characteristics, covering historical flood data, floodway
constrictions, and flood control dams.
October 2016. The following major changes were made:
A. Expanded the document to better address solutions for existing buildings. Rewrote parts of the data
sheet to better emphasize flood prevention and mitigation, which is an approach that relies on permanent
solutions and emergency actions.

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B. Added new recommendations on lessening damage for existing buildings and equipment (Section
2.2.6). Topics in this section include the following: Permanent Site Flood Protection Systems, Complete
and Partial Building Protection, Protection or Relocation of Equipment, Production Lines or Storage, and
Temporary Perimeter Flood Protection Systems.
C. Added three recommendations (2.2.2.11, 2.2.2.12, and 2.2.2.13) to Section 2.2.2, Stormwater Runoff
and Terrain Management. These recommendations cover stormwater systems with a history of flooding,
desert storm systems, and basement pumped drainage systems.
D. Revised Section 3.0, Support for Recommendations, to help the building owner better understand the
flood scenario and select an appropriate solution to retrofit buildings. Added or expanded information on
the following topics: flood maps and data, site-specific flood studies, flood protection breach studies,
understanding the flood potential, understanding flood sources and their characteristics, understanding
the impact, and building or retrofitting in a flood-prone area. Added examples on opening-protection
solutions, and a section on temporary perimeter protection.
October 2014. Interim revision. Minor editorial changes were made.
July 2014. Interim revision. Minor editorial changes were made.
July 2012. The following changes were made:
• Sections 2.2.6 and 3.7 have been added to the data sheet.
September 2010. Minor editorial changes were made.
February 2010. Minor editorial changes were made.
October 2007. Minor editorial changes were made for this revision.
March 2007. This data sheet has been completely rewritten and incorporates material formerly contained
in Data Sheets 9-13, Evaluation of Flood Exposure, and 9-2, Surface Water, which are now obsolete.

©2010-2019 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.