KCU 202 Principles of Soil Science

NOTES by Dr Felix Ngetich and Dr. Jayne Mugwe

Department of Agricultural Resource Management

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction (definitions and soil profile)
2. Soil formation factors and processes
3. Physical and chemical properties
4. Soil Chemical and Colloidal properties
5. Soil Organic matter
6. Soil fertility and plant nutrition
7. Soil Biology
8. Soil genesis and classification
9. Soil water and Temperature
10. Soil management

REFERENCES
1. Fitzpatrick EA (1986) An introduction to Soil Science. Longman, Hong Kong
2. Donahue RL, Schickluna JC, Na Robertson LS (1971) An introduction to soils
and plant growth
3. Young A (1989). Agroforestry for soil conservation. CAB International,
Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
4. Brady NC (1990). The nature and properties of soils. Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York. Tenth Edition
5. Loomis RS and Connor DJ (1992). Crop Ecology: Productivity and
Management in Agricultural Systems. Cambridge University Press
6. Vanlauwe B, Diels J, Sanginga N and Merckx R (Eds.) (2002). Integrated
Plant nutrient Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Concept to Practice.
CAB International Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
7. Mugendi DN, Mucheru-Muna MW and Mugwe JN (Eds.) (2006). Soil Fertility:
Enhancing Community Extension. Manilla Publishers, Nairobi, Kenya

CATS (2) 30/40%

Exam 70/60%
Lecturer: Njeri Karanja
Department: Agricultural Science and Technology
Email:
Cell:

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Definitions
1.1 Soil - (i) The unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate
surface of the Earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants. (ii)
A product-soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical,
chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.

Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and
gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one
or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial
material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and
matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment.

The upper limit of soil is the boundary between soil and air, shallow water, live
plants, or plant materials that have not begun to decompose. Areas are not
considered to have soil if the surface is permanently covered by water too deep
(typically more than 2.5 meters) for the growth of rooted plants.

The lower boundary that separates soil from the non-soil underneath is most difficult
to define. Soil consists of horizons near the Earth's surface that, in contrast to the
underlying parent material, have been altered by the interactions of climate, relief,
and living organisms over time. Commonly, soil grades at its lower boundary to hard
rock or to earthy materials virtually devoid of animals, roots, or other marks of
biological activity. For purposes of classification, the lower boundary of soil is
arbitrarily set at 200 cm.

1.2 Functions of soil

i. Support growth of higher plants
ii. Primary factor controlling fate of water in hydrologic system
iii. Nature’s recycling system
iv. Habitat for organisms
v. Engineering medium

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1.3 Soil Horizon
Vertical section through the soil that shows different sections called horizons. The
arrangement of these horizons in a soil is known as a soil profile. Soil
scientists/pedologists, observe and describe soil profiles and soil horizons to classify
and interpret the soil for various uses.

Soil horizons differ in a number of easily seen soil properties such as colour, texture,
structure, and thickness. Other properties are less visible. Properties, such as
chemical and mineral content, consistency, and reaction require special laboratory
tests. All these properties are used to define types of soil horizons.

Capital letters O, A, B, C, and E are used to identify the master horizons, and
lowercase letters for distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have three major
horizons - the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum (C). Some
soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also be buried.
The master horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a significant loss of
minerals (eluviation). Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.

O Horizon: (1st layer) This is the top layer of soil.

Animals live on this layer. It is made of fresh to
partially decomposed organic matters. The color
varies from brown to black.
A Horizon: (2nd layer) The top part of this soil is
made of highly decomposed organic matter mixed
up. The color range from brown to gray.
E Horizon: (3rd layer) This layer is made up of
mostly sand and silt it have lost most of its minerals
and clay due to eluviation.
B Horizon: (4th layer) Unlike the other horizons,
this one has more clay and bigger bedrock. It is
reddish brown or tan in color.
C Horizon: (5th layer) This layer have mostly
weathered bedrock. It is the cracked and broken surface of the bedrock.

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R Horizon: (Last Layer) This is the last layer in the profile. It is made of unweathered
rocks.

1.4 Soil composition

Soil for plant growth is a dynamic system. The soil acts like a sponge storing water
and nutrients until both are needed by plants. Soils make up the Pedosphere which
lies at the interface between the lithosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere. It is therefore easy to see why soils are composed of four basic
components of mineral matter, organic matter, air and water.

The composition of the mineral soil on a volume basis is considered to be 50%

solids (mineral and organic) and 50% non-solids (air and water). Solids are from
the weathering of rocks and minerals and the decomposition of plant and animal
remains. In an "ideal" soil, the air and water are each 25%. However, the proportion
will vary on an hourly, daily and monthly basis. The amount and type of the soils
constituents vary widely from place to place which results in tremendous amounts of
soil variability.

Soils differ in composition depending on environmental

factors. The composition of the top soil differs from
sub-soil. Sub-soil layer has slightly lower organic
matter content, air and water.

1.4.1 Soil Solids

About 90 percent of the solid part of soil is composed of tiny bits of rocks and
minerals from which the soil was foamed. These particles are referred to as sand,
silt, or clay, depending on their size.
Most soils contain a mixture of these
three types of particles. These
components of a soil are largely
unalterable - there's not much you can
do to change them.

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The remaining 10 percent of the solid part of soil is the organic fraction. This small
part of the soil has a tremendous influence on the soils ability to support plant and
crop growth. How you manage your soil has a profound influence on the amount and
quality of organic matter it contains.

The organic fraction of soil is a dynamic substance, constantly undergoing change.

This vital bit consists of living organisms, including plant roots and bacteria as well
as dead plant residues and other wastes. The total weight of the living organisms in
the top 15 cm of an acre of soil can range from 2,268 kg to as much as 9,000 kg.

The continual decomposition of organic residues results in the formation of humus

and the release of plant nutrients. The fertility of your soil - its capacitor to nurture
healthy plants and crops - depends on the health, vitality, and diversity of the
organisms that live, grow, reproduce, and die in the soil. Through the activities of soil
microbes, which can number in the billions in every gram of healthy topsoil, the basic
raw materials needed by plant and crops are made available at the right time and in
the right form and amount.

Soil health and humus are interrelated: Health is the vitality of the soil's living
population, and humus is the manifestation of its activities. Humus is produced by
bacteria and fungi as they consume organic material in the soil. These elements
keep the soil healthy and easy to work, and help the soil to hold water. If soils are
properly cultivated and minimally disturbed they become healthy, productive soil that
plants and crops will thrive.

1.4.2 Soil Air and Water

The other half of the soil volume is composed of voids or holes. These voids fill with
water as the soil soaks up rain or flood waters, then are displaced with air as the
water drains away, evaporates, or is absorbed by roots. Organic matter is generally
very low in aridic soils, around 1% or less.
Pore spaces. About half the volume of good soil is pore space - the area between
particles where air and water can penetrate. The pore space generally contains an
equal volume of water, which clings to the surface of soil particles, and air. Keeping
a healthy balance of air and water by maintaining a loose, open soil is critical for
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good root growth and the health of the soil community. All the fertilizer in the world
won't solve the problems of dense, compacted soil that is deficient in pore space.

Air: Air is crucial for soil health, although certain bacteria can live without it. No
amount of fertilizing can compensate for lack of air. Plant roots can't take full
advantage of available nutrients if they are suffocating.
Water:. Water is also strictly essential, but too much water can mean too little air.
The ideal biological environment consists of a thin film of moisture clinging to each
soil particles, with lots of air circulating between the particles. Rain and irrigation add
needed soil moisture, but good soil structure is required to conduct moisture upward
from reserves in lower soil layers.

Generally, there are two types of soils, mineral soils and organic soils.
i. Mineral soils form from decomposed rocks or sediment derived from rocks.
Mineral matter is described as texture and comprises half the volume of
mineral soils.
ii. Organic soils form from the accumulation of plant material, usually in water-
saturated, anaerobic conditions that retard decomposition.

Soil is a biologically active matrix. It is a home for plant roots, seeds, animals,
bacteria, fungi, algae, and viruses. Because of its biological activity soil supplies
plants needed nutrients, purifies water passing through (including wastewater
effluent), and is an important carbon-sink that affects the concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (carbon sequestration).

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 CHAPTER 2: SOIL FORMATION
2.1 Soil formation, factors and processes
At one time it was felt that soils were static. In the late 1800s, Russian soil scientists
introduced the concept that soils are dynamic—that they developed to the point
where they are now and that they are evolving into what they will be. They came up
with five soil-forming factors that influence how soils turn out the way they do. The
idea is that if all five of the soil-forming factors are the same, then the soil will be the
same.
The technical term used for soil formation is
pedogenesis while weathering is the term used to
refer to the breakdown of rock into smaller and
smaller pieces.

2.2 Soil forming factors

There are five soil-forming factors: climate, relief,
organisms, parent material, and time. The
acronym "CROPT" may help you remember this.
i. Parent Material
– It is the only factor that can be considered inherited as opposed to
acquired. The effect of parent material on a soil include such feature as
soil texture, pH and mineral constituents. Parent materials are the
original formations in which changes take place to form soil or the
material that soil develops from. Parent materials may be rock that has
decomposed in place, or material that has been deposited by wind,
water, or ice
– Three broad categories of rocks are igneous (cooling of earths magma),
sedimentary (sediments) and metarmorphic (secondary change)
– The character and chemical composition of the parent material plays an
important role in determining soil properties, especially during the early
stages of development.
– Parent materials influence soil formation and soil characteristics because
they have different weathering rates, contain varying types and amounts
of plant nutrients and they weather to give rise to soils of different particle
sizes. For instance a sandstone will weather to give soils high in sand
content ie coarse textured and low in soluble bases, while a mudstone
will weather too give soils that are high in clay content.

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 ii. Climate
o Climate is often considered the most powerful soil-forming factor.
Climate is expressed as both temperature effects and rainfall
effects.
o Temperature controls rates of chemical reactions. Many reactions
proceed more quickly as temperature increases. Warm-region soils are
therefore normally more developed or more mature than are cool-
region soils.
o Rainfall affects leaching, pH and soil aeration. In addition to direct
effects of climate, climate also profoundly affects vegetation which in
turn also affects soil formation.
o Climate influences the rate of soil formation directly or indirectly.
Indirectly: Rainfall, temperature and relative humidity determine the
type of vegetation of an area, which affects soil formation. For
example, soil formation is hastened in areas receiving high amounts of
rainfall compared to areas receiving low rainfall. Hot, dry desert
regions have sparse vegetation and hence limited organic materials
available for the soil.
o Temperature and precipitation also affects the rate of chemical,
physical and biological processes responsible for profile
 As the mean annual soil temperature increases, the weathering
of the rocks and minerals in the soil will be faster. Tropical soils
weather faster than temperate soils because the chemical
reactions take place faster. The humid tropics have deeper
weathered profiles compared to cold areas
 In general, areas with more rainfall will have greater weathering
and greater leaching. Acid soils are common in high rainfall
areas mainly due to leaching of the bases from the topsoils to
the subsoils
 Alkaline soils occur arid and semi arid areas, these areas have
high evaporation of water than rainfall, resulting in upward
movement of water. The upward movement of water brings it
salts from the subsoils and deposits them at the surface as the
water evaporates to the atmosphere. These soluble salts
sometimes curtail plant growth

iii. Organisms (biota)

They affect and are affected by soil formation. Man is perhaps now the most
influential of all organisms. He affects the soil by such activities as: plowing,
irrigating, mining, clearing, disposing and leveling. The effects of large
animals other than man on the land are minor. The effects of vegetation on
soil formation are very profound. Different soils form in a grassland than under
a forest. Much of this difference is due to the rapid nutrient cycling in
grasslands. Vegetation effects extent of cover, thereby influencing runoff and
erosion. Vegetation type and amount directly influences the type and amount

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 of organic matter accumulation on the soil, and thereby influences such soil
chemical properties as pH and nutrient supply. Finally, vegetation is the food
source for most microorganisms so the vegetation exerts a strong influence
on soil microbial populations.

iv. Relief (topography)

It modifies the effects of other factors. Relief modifies climate by affecting the
smoothness of the surface and also the angle at which the soil surface orients
towards the sun. A convoluted surface dilutes solar energy over more surface
area than does a smooth surface. In the northern hemisphere a north-facing
slope will be cooler than a south-facing slope. Relief also affects the amount
of rainfall that infiltrates a given parcel of soil. A steep slope will encourage
runoff. A soil in a sloping location will experience less effective rainfall than
that which one would measure in a rain gauge. Likewise, a low area may
receive run-on water beyond the actual rainfall. Also, relief influences erosion.
Soil horizons form from the top downwards. If the topsoil readily erodes away
as it forms, the soil formation processes appear to have halted.

v. Time
Soil development is a process, not an event. Soils change over time. Clays
are secondary minerals. They form in the soil, then change forms, and all the
while they are moving downward with leaching rainwater. Similarly, organic
matter forms on the surface as it moves downward with rainwater. It declines
after reaching a maximum as old soils loose their ability to produce vegetation
fast enough to keep up with decomposition. These are highly dynamic
processes. Soils as viewed today are just snapshots in time. Soils looked
different in the past and will look different in the future.

2.3 Weathering
Typically weathering causes mineral materials to disintegrate into smaller parts. The
elements released as products of weathering may form new, secondary minerals.
Weathering products that are loose or unconsolidated are called soil. Weathering
can be accomplished by one or a combination of physical and chemical processes.

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2.3.1 Physical weathering
It involves six processes:
i. Freezing and thawing- The expansion force of water as it freezes is
sufficient to split any mineral or rock.
ii. Heating and cooling- Differences in temperature in a rock or soil mass
give rise to differential expansion and contraction. The resulting stresses
can fracture the minerals. Temperature changes also can bring about
exfoliation, where a thin layer of an entire rock is removed--often making
the rock round.
iii. Wetting and drying-The disruption of soil by wetting and drying results in
the swelling and contracting of soil peds and particles. Abrasion among
particles within the soil makes the particles finer. The soil shrinks when
dry, and cracks develop, creating an irregular boundary between
horizons.
iv. Grinding or rubbing- Grinding action, or the rubbing of moving rock or
soil particles against each other, also results in the disintegration of the
rock or soil particles. In soils high in clay (Vertisols), during the dry season
the soil cracks and fills with soil particles from above. During the wet
season the soil swells shut and the expanding forces causes the soil peds
to have slick, smooth surfaces called Slickensides which are evidence of
soil movement below the surface of the soil.
v. Organisms- Action of organisms, including animals and plants reduces
the size of rocks and minerals. Plant roots are capable of splitting the
hardest rock. Digging by animals or ploughing by humans result in a slow
breaking of rocks into finer particles.
vi. Unloading- Unloading is the removal of thick layers of sediments
overlying deeply buried rocks by erosion or uplift. The response of the rock
to this reduced pressure is to expand, and cracks and fissures are created.
Unloading is a physical process which can also result in chemical
weathering, because the temperatures are less in the soil environment
than where the rock was formed, and exothermic chemical reactions occur
among minerals, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the soil.

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2.3.2 Chemical weathering
Worldwide, chemical weathering processes tend to be more important in soil
formation than physical forces.It is the decomposition of rocks and minerals as
chemical reactions transform them into new chemical combinations that are stable at
or near the Earth's surface. Chemical weathering occurs because minerals are made
more soluble and are changed in structure, causing easy fragmentation. Solubility
changes are caused by: a) solution (usually in water); b) hydrolysis (the reaction of
elements with water); and c) carbonation (the reaction with HCO 3-). It involves six
processes:
i. Dissolution- Dissolution is the dissolving of a solid in a liquid, changing solid
material into separate ions (for instance, sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves into
Na+ and Cl- ions). This permits more independent and greater chemical
changes than in a non-ionized (usually solid) state.
ii. Hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is the process of minerals reacting with water to form
hydroxides, which usually are more soluble than the original mineral.
Hydrolysis is one of the most important weathering processes causing soil
profile changes.
iii. Acidification- Weathering is accelerated by the presence of the hydrogen ion
in water, such as that provided by carbonic and organic acids. Carbonic acid,
a weak acid produced when gaseous carbon dioxide is dissolved in water.
Thus acidification is a form of dissolution. The carbon dioxide comes partially
from the atmosphere, but mostly from biological respiration and from the
decomposition of plants. Carbonic acid dissolves minerals more readily than
water alone and forms the more soluble bicarbonates. Acidification is
responsible for the weathering of limestone
iv. Hydration- Hydration is the combination of a solid mineral or element with
water. When the water molecules are chemically bonded to the mineral, the
size of the chemical structure is increased, thereby making a softer, more
stressed, and more easily decomposed mineral.
v. Oxidation- Oxidation, as used in mineral weathering, is both the chemical
combination of oxygen with a compound and the change in oxidation number
of some chemical element (electrons are lost in oxidation). Oxidized minerals
have a volume increase and are usually softer. If an element's oxidation
number is changed, this can also unbalance the mineral's electrical neutrality,
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 making it more easily weathered by water and carbonic acid. Oxidation is
most evident in the weathering of iron-bearing minerals.
vi. Reduction. Reduction is the chemical process in which electrons are gained.
In soils, reduction usually takes place when oxygen is scarce, as in stagnant
water conditions. Reduction in minerals may result in electrically unstable
compounds, more soluble ones, or more internally stressed ones, which
eventually decompose more rapidly.
 Poorly drained soils will have reduction and oxidation reactions taking place
throughout the profile.
 Hydrolysis and carbonation are usually the most effective of the six chemical
weathering processes.

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CHAPTER 3: SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

3.1 Soil Texture & Structure

Soil texture is highly correlated with a range of soil chemical and physical properties.
Fine textured soils with high clay contents generally have higher nutrient and water
holding capacities than do coarse textured soils. However, fine textured soils often
do not have drainage characteristics that are ideal for plant growth, especially if the
soil does not have good structure. While texture can be determined through
quantitative analyses, structure is described in more qualitative terms (blocky,
subangular blocky, prismatic, granular, etc.). Maintaining good soil structure is
important for plant growth. Texture does not change over a period of only a couple of
hundred years or so, but structure can be changed rapidly, especially through
management practices.

3.2. Soil Texture

Qualitatively, soil texture refers to the feel of the soil material, whether coarse and
gritty, or fine and smooth. In general, soil behavior can be inferred from the texture.
A coarse-grain sandy soil tends to be loose, well aerated and easy to cultivate.
Water moves through sands relatively quickly and they do not retain much water
since they have few small pores. A fine-textured soil tends to absorb much water and
become plastic and sticky when wet, and tight compact and cohesive when dry.

Water move through clays more slowly but because they have a lot of small pores,
they tend to retain more water. Sands are often referred to as light soils and clays as
heavy soils. In actual fact a given volume of a clay soil is lighter than an equal
volume of a sandy soil. Thus the use of the terms heavy and light must be
understood in their historic content.

Texture is generally used to reference the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. The
particle sizes in each of these three soil separates ranges between specific limits.
The distinctions among the size groups are more or less arbitrary. They have been
arrived at after many trials in developing classes that can be used consistently,
conveniently, and best describe the nature of the separates. The scheme we will use
is that adopted by the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS). Another scheme
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of soil separate classification is used by the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA).

Source: Brady & Weil, 2003.

Soil Textural Classes

Textural classes are based on different combinations of sand, silt, and clay. The
twelve basic textural classes in order of increasing proportions of the fine separates
and with appropriate abbreviations are:
i. Sand (s)
ii. Loamy sand (ls)
iii. Sandy loam (sl)
iv. Loam (l)
v. Silt loam (sil)
vi. Silt (si)
vii. Sandy clay loam (scl)
viii. Clay loam (cl)
ix. Silty clay loam (sicl)
x. Sandy clay (sc)
xi. Silty clay (sic)
xii. Clay (c)
Soil texture information is conveniently displayed in a textural triangle.

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3.3 Soil structure
It is the arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other into a
pattern. The units in which these particles are formed are referred to as aggregates
and also known as peds. Aggregates are secondary units/granules and are
cemented together by organic substances. Aggregates are described according to:
 Size
 Shape
 Stability
The simplest shape of aggregates is a sphere and other shapes include: spheroidal,
block, prismatic, platy. Some peds are natural and stable but clods and concretions
can easily change. Soil structure can be classified into two: (1) simple structure and
(2) compound structure.

Simple structure: one that the natural cleavage planes are absent i.e. there is no
observable aggregation. There are no noticeable peds within that soil. The group
consists of soils with single grain and massive structure.

Soil Structure and its effects on permeability

Single grains is a structureless soil. It has non-coherent particles brought together

i.e. sandy coarse soil, silty soils.
Massive structure has coherent structures. It has uniform cohesion and when it
breaks down cannot be seen i.e. clay.

16
Compound structure: natural cleavage ends are distinct. When soil is moist the soil
aggregates has a structure. Structure controls rate of water and air movement. A
compound soil structure can take any of the following shapes: Spheroidal, blocky,
crumby, prismatic and platy.
Blocky structure allows rapid movement/infiltration of water through it. The platy
structure has slow infiltration rates.
In most soils found in Africa, they have spheroidal and crumb structures.

3.4 Soil consistency

Resistance of soil to deformation/rupture. Main contributors are cohesional (forces
that occur due to molecular attraction of soil particles) and adhesional forces (force
of attraction between solid molecules of soil and water particles).
Soil consistency is described in 3 moisture levels:
 Wet - Ranges from stickiness to plasticity
 Moist - Ranges from loose to firm
 Dry - Ranges from rigid to brittle

Sandy Increase in clay content Clay

Dry Loose Soft Hard
Moist Loose Friable Firm
Wet Non-sticky Slightly sticky Sticky
Non-plastic Non-plastic Plastic

3.5 Volume and mass relationships of soil constituents

We will now consider the volume and mass relationships among the three phases of
matter, as existing in the soil. This will enable us define some basic parameters
which are useful in characterizing the physical conditions of the soil.
We will start by drawing a schematic representation of a hypothetical soil, showing
the volumes and masses of the three phases in a representative sample.

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 Volume Mass Relations
Relations
Va Air Ma≈0
V
f Vw Water Mw
Vt Mt

Vs Ms
Solids

Schematic Diagram of soil as a three-phase system

The masses of the three phases are indicated on the right-hand side. These are
 Mass of air, Ma (to be considered negligible compared to mass of water and or
solids)
 Mass of water, Mw,
 Mass of Solids, Ms, and
 Total mass, Mt

For convenience, these masses can be represented by their weights (the product of
mass and gravitational acceleration).
The volumes of the same components are indicated on the left-hand side of the
diagram. These are:
 Volume of air, Va,
 Volume of water, Vw,
 Volume of pores (or fluid), Vf, where Vf,= Va + Vw;
 Volume of solids, Vs, and
 Total volume of representative soil body, Vt.

On the basis of this diagram, and the representations, we can now define important
terms for expressing the quantitative interrelations of the three primary soil
constituents.

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 3.5.1 Density of Solids (Mean particle Density), ρs

ρs = Ms/Vs
In most soils, the mean density of the particle is about 2.6-2.7 Mg/M3. It is
appropriate to us a mean value of 2.65 Mg/M3 while that of organic matter is: 1.2 –
1.5 Mg/M3.

3.5.2 Dry Bulk Density ρb

ρb = Ms/Vt = Ms/(Va+ Vw+ Vs)
The dry bulk density expresses the ratio of the mass of dried soil to its total volume
(solidas and pores together). It can be seen that ρ b will always be smaller than ρ s.
For example, if the pores of the soil constitute half the volume, then ρ b is half the ρs,
which is 1.3-1.35 Mg/M3.
Bulk density is affected by the structure of the soil (i.e. its looseness or degree of
compaction), as well as by its swelling and shrinkage characteristics. These swelling
and shrinkage characteristics often depend on the clay content and wetness.
However, even in extreme compaction, bulk density remains significantly lower than
particle density. This is because the particles can never interlock perfectly, and the
soil remains a porous body, never completely impervious.

3.5.3 Total (Wet) Bulk Density, ρt

ρt = Mt/Vt = (Mw+Ms)/(Va+ Vw+ Vs)
This is an expression of total mass of a moist soil per unit volume. The wet bulk
density strongly depends on the soil wetness, or the moisture content of the soil.

3.5.4 Dry specific volume γb

γb=Vt/Ms = 1/ρb
This parameter serves as a degree or measure of looseness or compaction of the
soil. It is the volume of a unit mass of dry soil, expressed as cubic metres per
kilogram ) m3/kg)
3.5.5 Porosity, f
f=Vf/Vt=(Va+Vw)/(Va+Vw+Vs)

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Porosity is an index of the relative pore volume in the soil. Its value generally ranges
between 0.3 and 0.6 (30%-60%).
Factors affecting porosity;
 Organic matter
 Texture
 Depth
 Management practice

3.5.6 Void Ratio, e

e=Vf/Vs=(Va+Vw)/Vs=Vf/(Vt-Vf)=(Va+Vw)/(Vt-Vf)
The void ratio is also an index of the fractional volume of soil pores, but it relates that
volume to the volume of solids, rather than to the total volume of the soil. The
advantage of void ratio over porosity is that a change in pores volume changes the
numerator alone, whereas a change of pore volume in terms of porosity will change
both the numerator and the denominator of the defining equation. Void ratio is the
generally preferred index in soil engineering and mechanics. Porosity is the more
frequently used index in agricultural soil physics.
Generally, e varies between 0.3 and 2.0.
3.5.7 Additional interrelations
From the basic definitions given, it is possible to derive the relation of various
parameters to one another. The following are some of the more useful interrelations:
i. Relation between porosity and void ratio
e=f/(1-f)
f=e/(1+e)

ii. Relation between porosity and bulk density

f = (ρs- ρb)/ ρs

= 1- ρb/ ρs

ρb = (1-f) ρs

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iii. A metal cylinder pushed into a loam soil is removed from the field and the
soil it contains is oven dried. The measured data is shown below;
Cylinder height = 5.0 cm
Inside diameter = 4.4 cm
Mass of oven dried soil = 87.6 g
Calculate the soil bulk density

21
 Chapter 4: SOIL CHEMICAL AND COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES
4.1 Colloids
Definition: Colloids are particles less than 0.001 mm in size, and the clay fraction
includes particles less than 0.002 mm in size. Therefore, all clay minerals are not
strictly colloidal. The soil colloids are the most active portion of the soil and largely
determine the physical and chemical properties of a soil.

Inorganic colloids (clay minerals, hydrous oxides) usually make up the bulk of soil
colloids.

Organic colloids include highly decomposed organic matter generally called

humus. Organic colloids are more reactive chemically and generally have a greater
influence on soil properties per unit weight than the inorganic colloids. Humus is
amorphous and its chemical and physical characteristics are not well defined. Clay
minerals are usually crystalline (although some are amorphous) and usually have a
characteristic chemical and physical configuration. Therefore, clay and humus
particles are known as soil colloids and represent the chemically-active portion of
soils. With the exception of soils with very low pH, most soils carry a net negative
charge. These negative charges are located on the surface of soil colloidal particles.
Both inorganic and organic colloids are intimately mixed with other soil solids. Thus,
the bulk of the soil solids are essentially inert and the majority of the soil's physical
and chemical character is a result of the colloids present.

4.2 Cation exchange

One of the most important properties of colloids is their ability to adsorb, hold, and
release ions. Colloids generally have a net negative charge as a result of their
physical and chemical composition. This negative charge is balanced by thousands
of cations. Thus, colloids can be viewed as huge anions surrounded by a swarm of
rather loosely held cations. Water molecules are also adsorbed to colloid surfaces;
they are present as part of the hydrated structure of the cations. The amount of
water associated with a particular cation is important, because the effective radius of
the cation changes with the amount of hydration, or associated water.

22
In humid regions, the cations associated with the colloids are dominated by Ca +2, H+,
and often A1+3, resulting in acidic soils. As the soil becomes more acid, H + and Al+3
become more predominant. The cations Mg+2, K+, and Na+ are usually found in lesser
amounts, while NH4+ may be present in considerable quantities if the soil has been
recently fertilized with ammonium fertilizers. In semiarid and arid regions, Ca 2+
usually dominated the cations, but Mg 2+ and Na+ are often found in large quantities.
H+ and A13+ are usually present only in small concentrations.
Many of the other plant nutrient cations are found only in very small amounts as
cations on colloidal surfaces. More often, they are found as chelates or in chemical
combination. Such cations include Mn+2, Zn+2, Cu+2, Fe+2, and Fe+3 and generally
make up only a small percent of the exchangeable cations. Anionic nutrients, such
as NO3-, C1-, SO4-2, and PO4-3 are not held on the surfaces of colloids to any great
extent. Instead, they exist as free anions in the soil solution or fixed within chemical
compounds.
Cation exchange is the exchange of a cation in the soil solution for another on the
surface of a colloid. Cation exchange is a phenomena which is constantly going on in
soils and is of great importance. Without some mechanism to temporarily hold
cations in the soil, plants would be unable to obtain sufficient quantities of the
essential nutrients to grow. Without cation exchange, the nutrients would simply be
leached downward in the soil and lost. Cation exchange plays a role in other soil
processes as well. Acidification is the process of exchanging basic cations, such as
Ca+2, Mg+2, K+, and Na+, for acidic cations, such as H + and A1+3. Liming acid soils
results in a reversal of this process, H + ions are exchanged for Ca+2 ions. If cationic
fertilizer nutrients are not held by the soil colloids, the nutrients would be lost to
percolation water.

4.3 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a quantitative measure of the ability of a

soil to exchange cations with the soil solution and is expressed in terms of cmols(+)
kg-1 of soil. Historically, soil scientists have expressed CEC in terms of meq/100 g of
soil and these units were often encountered in textbooks and journal articles. The
unit cmol kg-1 is equal to meg/100 g. The cmol weight of the ions commonly found in
soils is easily calculated by knowing: the relative atomic mass of the ion divided by
100 and the charge on the ion. For example, the calcium ion has a relative atomic
mass of 40 g mol-1 or 0.40 g cmol-1 and a charge of two. Because if it's charge, it will
23
replace 2 of hydrogen (hydrogen has a charge of 1) atoms. Dividing the relative
atomic mass of the ion by its charge gives you the cmol weight of the ion. For Ca 2+,
that is 40 g mol-1 or (0.40 g cmol-1)/2 or 0.20 g cmol-1.

Table showing Relative atomic mass, charge, and cmol weight for some
common soil ions

Ion Atomic mass (g) Charge cmol weight (g/cmol-1)

Al+3 27 +3 0.09
Ca+2 40 +2 0.20
Cl-1 35 -1 0.35
CO-2 60 -2 0.30
H+3 1 +1 0.01
K+ 39 +1 0.39
Mg+2 24 +2 0.12
Na+ 23 +1 0.23
NH4- + 18 +1 0.18
NO3-2 62 -1 0.62
SO4 96 -2 0.48
ZN+2 65 +2 0.32.5

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is an expression of the 'amount' of cations held in

the soil. This is expressed as cmol of cations per kg of soil. When the CEC is
combined with the cmol weight of a particular cation, then the 'amount' of that cation
can be expressed on a weight basis. Three examples of this are given below for H +,
Ca2+, and Al3+, respectively.

4.4 Soil pH
The soil pH, the negative log of the hydrogen ion activity (-log {H +]), describes the
soil's acidity or alkalinity. This pH is of great importance as it affects the health of
microorganisms and plant roots, and controls the amounts of available nutrients in
the soil solution. It is also important in water quality and other environmental issues.

24
Determining soil pH requires measuring the amount of H + in solution (H+ activity).
The most accurate method for this uses a pH meter and electrodes. The difference
in [H+] between the soil and solution in the electrode causes an electrometric
potential difference, which is read on the pH meter.
Dyes are also used to determine pH. They are not quite as accurate as the
electrode, but are good enough for most uses and easier to use in the field than
most electrode methods. The dyes used in this method change color at different pH.
Mixing a few drops of dye with soil and allowing a few minutes for reaction results in
the color change which is then compared to a color chart to provide a good field
estimate of the soil pH.

Soil pH does not predict the amount of lime necessary to neutralize an acid soil. That
requires a determination of a soil's reserve acidity (lime requirement) which is a
function of the soil's CEC as well as its acidity. To measure reserve acidity, the soil's
cations must be extracted with a buffer solution. The adsorbed soil cations exchange
with cations in the buffer solution; then they are collected by filtering. The quantity of
acidic cations determines the amount of lime necessary to neutralize the acidity. A
soil with a high CEC will require more lime than one with a low CEC.

25
Fig. 8 General trend of the influence of reaction (pH) on the availability of plant
nutrients (widest part of the bar indicates maximum availability) - Organic soils
(after Lucas and Davis 1961)

4.5 Flocculation and Dispersion

Soils are generally in an aggregated state. Aggregation, however, is dependent on
the soil colloids and the cations associated with them. Soil colloids can be in either a
flocculated or dispersed state. The normal situation is for colloids to be in a
flocculated state. Individual particles stick together to form aggregates of particles
or floccules. Such aggregates do not move in the soil solution and form the basis for
soil structure. When soil particles are dispersed, aggregates do not form, and each
particle behaves as an individual. Without aggregation, water, air, and root
movement in the soil is inhibited. Thus, dispersion is not a desirable characteristic of
productive soils.

The type of cations present in the soil solution determines whether a soil is dispersed
or flocculated. Sodium cations cause dispersion while calcium, magnesium,
aluminum, and hydrogen ions promote flocculation. Because colloids are simply
large anions, they attract cations in order to neutralize their negative charge.
Flocculating cations sufficiently neutralize the negative charge, allowing colloids to
adhere and flocculate. The attraction of particular cations to the negatively charged
colloids is a function of two things, the hydrated size of the cation and the charge of

26
the cation. These two factors combine to determine the charge density on the cation,
in other words, the distribution of charge over the surface of the cation. For example,
with the highly hydrated Na+ cation, the hydrated size of the cation is relatively large,
while its charge is only +1. So, that +1 charge has to be distributed over a relatively
large area. With such a large cation having such a low charge, the negative charge
on the colloids is not sufficiently satisfied and the colloids actually repel one another,
resulting in dispersion.

4.6 Shrinking and Swelling

Soils shrink and swell as they dry and rewet. Shrinking and swelling is an important
factor in the construction of bridges, roads, and buildings, because of the pressures
exerted by swelling or expanding soils on the foundations of such structures.
Shrinking and swelling is largely a function of the type of colloid present, particularly
clay colloids. As water moves in and out of clay crystal lattices, they respond by
expanding or contracting. Extreme expansion and contraction is exhibited by clays
such as montmorillonite, which have expanding lattices. Clays with nonexpanding
lattices, such as kaolinite and chlorite, have very little capacity to shrink and swell.

27
 CHAPTER 5: SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
5.1 Introduction
Organic matter consists of dead plant parts and animal and microbial waste products
in various stages of decomposition in the soil. Eventually, they break down into
humus, which is relatively stable in the soil. Undecomposed organic matter is what is
seen and available in the soil and includes compounds of carbohydrates, lignins,
fats, waxes, proteins in their raw forms and resins. Being undecomposed means that
they cannot supply nutrients to the plants. The carbohydrates and proteins are most
important and are readily decomposed to release N, S, and P nutrients. Lignin is
very resistant and when decomposed by microorganisms it releases C, N, Ca, Mg,
Zn etc to leave an end product, a compound that is relatively stable called humus.
Humus is normally considered as the colloidal material in the soil and influences
CEC and hence chemical properties of soil. OM decreases with soil depth and
represents the amount of carbon present in the soil e.g. sandy soil have low
concentration of carbon and hence less fertile.
Carbon contents indicates the overall amount of organic matter and is done by
conversion:
Organic C x 1.724 = organic matter
Organic carbon percent indicates how easily decomposable C is when added to the
soil. Also the relative amount of carbon to nitrogen indicates its decomposability;
C:N of 10:1 - narrow ratio e.g. green legume manure, easily decomposed,
C:N of 400:1 – Wide ratio e.g. saw dust, takes long to decompose.

5.2 Importance of organic matter

Although organic matter makes up a minor part of the soil, it has a very strong
impact on soil properties:
i. Structure
Organic matter acts like glue that helps hold soil aggregates together. This will even
hold upon wetting.
ii. Available Water Capacity (AWC)
Organic matter helps bind water to the soil to keep it from being lost through
percolation. This is especially important in sandy soils.
iii. Source of energy for soil microorganisms i.e. food.
iv. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
28
While the highest CEC you will find in a clay is 160 cmol/kg, humus has a CEC of
100 to 300 cmol/kg or more

5.3 Origin of OM in the soil

i. Crop and plant residues
ii. Green manure – plant material that is ploughed /incorporated in the soil while
green and immature.

5.4 Detrimental effects of burning organic matter

i. Loss of protection against erosion
ii. Loss of nutrients by erosion, leaching, volatalization of some nutrients
iii. Loss of active organic matter i.e. humus
iv. Loss of wild life habitat

5.5 Relationship of OM to climate

Large amounts of organic matter cannot be added to the soil and expected to
persist. There is a maximum equilibrium amount any given soil can hold. This
amount is inversely proportional to soil temperature and moisture. That is to say,
wetter and colder soils can maintain higher equilibrium amounts of organic matter.
Anything added beyond that amount will break down to carbon dioxide and water.
The equilibrium amount can be raised to some degree by additions of organic
matter, such as in organic gardening situations, but even then it will only go so high.
Tropical soils, for example, tend to be nutrient- and organic-matter poor; the nutrient
pool tends to be stored in the above-ground biomass (leaves and branches). The
muskeg areas of temperate regions, however, contain large amounts of organic
matter.

5.6 Nitrogen Factor

The nitrogen factor is a term to express the extent to which a material is deficient in
N for decomposition. It is defined as the number of units of inorganic N that must be
supplied to 100 units of organic material in order to prevent a net immobilization of N
from the environment.

Example
29
 Assume that 100 Kg of straw contains about 40 Kg of carbon and 0.5 kg of N.
Assuming that 35% of the carbon will be assimilated by microbes and that an
amount of N equal to a tenth of assimilated carbon will also be assimilated. Calculate
the N factor for the straw.

Amount of C assimilated 

The amount of N assimilated 

There is already 0.5 Kg N in straw, therefore N needed;

For every 100 Kg of straw, you need to add 0.9 Kg N to prevent immobilization.

The addition of 0.9 Kg of inorganic N to soil at the time 100Kg of straw is

incorporated into the soil should prevent the immobilization of N from the soil
environment and competition for N between crops and microbes.

5.7 Maintenance of soil organic Matter

i. Animal manure
Animal manures are the solid and liquid excreta of animals. When mixed with
litter such as straw then it as called farm yard manure. The importance of animal
manure as a source of plant nutrient and organic matter cannot be over
emphasized. Many farmers especially in developing countries rely on animal
manure for the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. Manure can supply
plant nutrient and improve soil structure.
ii. Straw
Straw (dry stalks of wheat, barley, rice and other grains) is fresh manure
containing coarse cellulose litter. It is useful as a soil amendment, however, straw
contains only small amounts of plant nutrients. The C:N ratio of straw is very
large about 100. This may cause inhibition of decomposition because microbes
lack nitrogen compensating supplies. Therefore, nitrogen is required when straw
is to be applied into the soil.
iii. Green manure

30
 Green manure is crops grown especially for incorporation into the soil without
removing any part of the crop for commercial purposes. The essential
characteristics of green manure crops are rapid growth, vigorous root
development, and abundant tops. Cheap, reliable and rapidly germinating seed is
essential and the crop must not present difficult husbandry problems.

iv. Compost
They are materials produced through composting process. Composting is a
controlled biological oxidation of organic matter. After composting, plant or animal
refuse loses its original structure and undergoes drastic biochemical changes
similar to those occurring in the rotting of farmyard manure. Compost resembles
ordinary FYM in appearance and in its effect on the physical soil properties. As a
source of plant nutrients, its value will largely depend on the composition of the
materials used in its preparation. If these are poor in plant nutrients, the resulting
compost will not have very high value and cannot be expected to give the
increase in crop yield which can be expected from the use of FYM from well fed
animals.

31
 CHAPTER 6: SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
6.1 Essential elements
Comprises of macro and micro elements: macronutrients are the one required in
large amounts by plants while micronutrients are required in small amounts. They
must be present in certain amounts because in case of deficiency or excess, plant
growth is affected.
 Macro nutrients are; C, H, O2, N, P, K, Mg, S, Na and Ca. Nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the three major macronutrients
commonly supplied as fertilizers.
 Micro nutrients are; Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, Cl, Fe,
Generally, nutrients/elements are released in the weathering of parent material and
taken in by plants. Supplies of plant nutrients to replace those removed at harvest
may come from:
i. soil mineralization (i.e. the transformation of soil minerals or organic
matter from non-available into available nutrients);
ii. manures and fertilizers, or
iii. fixation from the air, in the case of some of the nitrogen.
Losses occur from leaching, fixation in unavailable forms and demineralization, etc.

6.2 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is second only to water in importance as a factor affecting the yields of most
crops. It is one of the essential elements required by plants. This is because it is the
basis of the protein and the enzymes therefore N is important for plant growth.
Deficiency of N leads to
i. Stunted growth. This may lead to low yield or poor quality of the yield.
ii. Yellowing of the plant.
Total N in the soil ranges from <0.02 % in subsoil to > 2.5% in peats (organic
matter).Most cultivated soils contain N between 0.06% to about 0.5% N.
Soils can be classified on the basis of N as;
 <0.2% - low N
 0.2-0.4% N - moderate N
 >0.4%N - High N

32
Generally, Kenyan soils are deficient in N therefore it is the major element limiting
plant growth. The amount of N present in the soil is determined by the following
factors;
i. Climate
ii. Vegetation
iii. Topography
iv. Parent material
v. Man’s activities

6.2.1 Addition of N to the soil

i. Rain and dust
During rain storms, when lightning occurs, N is oxidised in presence of water
N2 + H2O  HNO3
Dust is blown from one point to another. 4 to 8 kg is added per hectare per
year
ii. Non-symbiotic process
Free living organisms e.g. derxia which is a bacteria is able to fix N into the
soil
Associative organisms e.g. azobacter associated with cereals
iii. Symbiotic N2 fixation
iv. Animal and human waste
v. Fertilizers
NB; the last three are the main sources, but 3 is the main contributor

6.2.2 Losses of N in the soil

i. Volatilization – N is lost through gaseous form i.e. ammonia (NH3).
ii. Leaching – movement of soil N through soil profile beyond root zone
iii. Denitrification – form of reduction of N as N2, N2O or NO.
iv. Erosion
v. Plant uptake

The main considerations in deciding how much nitrogen should be applied to obtain
a given yield are:
i. the amounts of nitrogen removed by the crop;
33
 ii. the initial nitrogen content of the soil;
iii. the contribution from nitrogen fixation;
iv. the losses of nitrogen from leaching, denitrification, etc.
6.2.3 Nitrogen transformations
Refers to the various changes that N undergoes in the soil whereby N is changed
from one form to another one. These transformations are the chemical reactions that
are controlled by the microorganisms.
a) Mineralization
It is conversion of N from organic or combined form to inorganic. Most N in soils
occur in the organic form e.g. amino acids/proteins or polypeptides. The organic
form of N is converted to the inorganic form through the process of
mineralization. This is a (2)3 stage reaction
 1st step is amminization Conversion of proteins to amines.
 2nd is ammonification  Amines are converted to ammonia (NH4) which
might be the end but mostly...
 3rd Nitrification  Ammonia (NH4+) – nitrates NO3 or NO2- (nitrites)
Factors influencing mineralization rate;
i. Aeration
ii. Presence of organic matter
iii. Inorganic N
iv. C:N ratio
v. pH
vi. presence of lignins/phenols/clays
vii. moisture
b) Immobilization
Results from microbial assimilation of inorganic N. Immobilization is a
consequence of the incorporation of ammonia and nitrates into proteins, nucleic
acids and other organic complexes contained within microbial cell. Immobilization
can lead to low levels of N and hence N deficiency in plants. The process of N
immobilization continuous so long as the N supply by the soil does not exceed
the demand by microbes.
c) Nitrification

34
 It is the biological formation of nitrate from compounds containing the used N.
This process is important because it leads to formation of nitrates (NO 3) which is
the form in which plants obtain N. Formation of NO3- is a two stage reaction.
1st is the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite (reduced N)
NH4+ + 1.5O2  NO2 + 2H+ + H2O
It is carried out by bacteria, in general nitrosomonas.
2nd nitrite is converted to nitrate
NO2- + 0.5O2  NO3-
The end product of nitrification is the nitrates. This is important because plants
absorb N in this form.
The disadvantages of nitrification include
i. Cause imbalance in plant nutrients because some plants prefer NH 4
in some stage of life
ii. Nitrification converts NH4 to nitrates which are more mobile and
subject to leaching and available for denitrification. (NH 4 is not
easily leached).
iii. It causes acidification of the soil giving rise to problems of low pH.
iv. Causes nitrate pollution

6.3 Phosphorus
Phosphorus is an important plant nutrient which will affect crop production in its
deficiency. It is a macro nutrient. The P fertilizer is normally applied as starter
fertilizer. It forms the major component of ADP and ATP. ATP is a source of energy
in the plants and drives all metabolic reactions. Lack of ATP means slowed
metabolic reactions or none at all hence plants cannot transport nutrients. There will
also be marked reduction in transpiration and photosynthesis.

6.3.1 Phosphorus Deficiency

Phosphorus deficiency most commonly occurs on highly weathered tropical soils,
calcareous soils, and peat and muck soils but there is a response to fertilizer
phosphorus on a very wide range of soils. Highly weathered tropical acid soils
include some that absorb phosphate so strongly that its concentration in the soil
solution remains too low for the crop to benefit from it without massive applications.
Yet some crops (e.g. cassava) can utilize the phosphate on such soils. Acid soils
35
usually require more added phosphorus than neutral and calcareous soils, and rock
phosphate is effective on acid soils. Excess phosphorus in species such as citrus
that are sensitive to phosphorus excess may induce both copper and zinc deficiency
symptoms on calcareous soils.
The symptoms include;
i. Stem and base leaves develop purple colour (called anthocyanin). The top
leaves are not affected instantly (because P in plants is quite compact)
ii. Slow growth of the plant, stunted growth,
iii. Dark green coloration with leaves beginning to dry,
iv. Poor grain, fruit or seed development,
v. Delayed maturity
The soil analyses can generally detect gross deficiency but do not have much
general predictive value in deciding phosphorus fertilizer requirements to achieve
various yields unless first proved suited to a particular area. The uptake of available
soil phosphorus by crops depends on many factors including:
i. how fast the unavailable forms of phosphorus are transformed into
exchangeable forms and vice versa;
ii. the rate at which the available and exchangeable forms are released
into the soil solution;
iii. the soil water content and solution concentrations during the period of
growth;
iv. the crop requirement for phosphorus;
v. how effectively the root system explores the soil volume and absorbs
and utilizes the phosphorus present.
6.4 Potassium
Potassium is taken in large amounts by plants. It has various physiological functions
in plants especially opening and closing of the stomata. Plants can take up
potassium in large quantities hence regulation needed but excess is not toxic.
6.4.1 Sources of Potassium
Potassium is derived from primary minerals mainly;
 the micas (biotites and muscovites)
 feldspars (Orthoclase and microcline)
 and from secondary clay minerals (Illites)

36
Weathering of the above minerals is a very important source of K. In highly
weathered soils, the source becomes insignificant. These areas include mining areas
and sea shores (after the sea recedes leaving behind K). Potassium deficiency, as
indicated by low exchangeable potassium, commonly occurs on:
i. sandy soils that leach excessively;
ii. acid sandy soils;
iii. organic soils;
iv. soils that have been heavily cropped, leached or eroded;
v. highly leached ferralsols.
In contrast, soils in many arid and semi-arid areas have more than sufficient plant
available potassium to meet the nutritional requirements of irrigated crops. This is
because of the relatively small impact of weathering and leaching on dry-region soils.

6.3.4 Factors that determine availability of K to plants

1. The kinds of clay minerals. The greater the proportion of clay minerals high in
K, the greater the potential availability of K in a soil e.g. soil containing
predominantly kaolinite clays which are more highly weathered are very low in
K.
2. Cation exchange capacity (CEC).
This is related to amount and type of clay and the amount of organic matter.
Finer textured soils usually have higher CEC and hold greater amounts of
exchangeable K. However, a higher level of exchangeable K does not always
imply that a higher level of K will be may be maintained in soil solution. In fact
soil solution K in the finer textured soils (silt and silt loams) may be
considerably lower than that in coarse textured soils (sandy) at any given level
of exchangeable K.
3. Amount of exchangeable K
Determination of exchangeable K is the universal measure for predicting K
availability and K needs. It is a useful tool and many studies show the
relationship between soil test K and response to applied K.
4. Soil moisture and aeration
With low soil moisture, water films around soil particles are thinner and
discontinued. This slows down movement of K to roots by diffusion. However,
with higher moisture content and/or increased K levels in the soil, K diffusion
37
 is accelerated. Respiration and the normal functioning of roots are much
depended on an adequate oxygen supply. Under high levels of moisture or in
compacted soils, O2 supply is lowered and absorption of K and other minerals
elements is slowed. Cropping systems that are detrimental to soil tilth and
which cause reduced soil porosity and increased compaction have been
found to impair K uptake.
5. Soil pH
In very acid soils, toxic amounts of exchangeable alumina and manganese
create an unfavourable root environment for the uptake of K or any other
element. When acid soils are limed, the exchangeable alumina i.e. hydroxyl
aluminium cations such as Al(OH)2 are converted to insoluble gypsum
(AlOH)3. This exchange removes the aluminium ions from cation exchange
competition with K+ and it frees blocked binding surface so that K + can
compete with Ca2+ for them. As a consequence, much greater amounts of K
can be held by clay colloids and removed from the soil solution. Leaching
loses of K will also likely to be reduced. Raising the pH from 5.5 to 7.0 will
favour the collapse of silicate layers of expanded clay and trap K already
present in the interlayer. Hydroxyl alumina keep the clay layers wedged apart
but lose this ability when they are changed to gypsite Al(OH) 3.. K trapped in
this manner un-accessible to plants. Liming soils with pH 6.0 to 7.5 will usually
decrease exchangeable and water soluble K levels in the soil and decrease
the K uptake by plants. However, raising the pH from 5.0 to 6.0 will increase
the effective cation exchange capacity for as much as 50%. This pH related
change enhances the ability of soils to retain K. Greater retention of
exchangeable K should reduce leaching loses and generally improve the
availability of K to plants.
6. Presence of Ca and Mg
Effectiveness of soil solution K for crop nourishment is influenced by the
presence of other cations particularly Ca and Mg. It may also be desirable to
consider alumina ions in very acid soils and Na in salt affected soils. Both Ca
and Mg compete with K for entry into plants. Therefore, it is expected that
soils high in one or both of this basic cations will require high levels of K for
satisfactory nutrition of the crops.

38
6.3.5 Potassium losses
1. Leaching
Considerable amounts of K can be lost by leaching especially from coarse
sandy soils with low CEC. The finer textured soils e.g. clays, silty loams etc
have a much higher CEC than the sandy soils and therefore they can be able
to hold a much larger amount of K.
2. Crop removal
Under ordinary field conditions and with adequate nutrient supply K removal
by crops is high. Often being 3-4 times that of P and equalling that of N.
Moreover this situation is made even more critical by the fact that plants tend
to take up soluble K far in excess of their needs if sufficiently large quantities
are present. This tendency is termed luxury consumption because the excess
K absorbed apparently does not increase crop yields to any extent. Under
field conditions, luxury consumption becomes particularly wasteful. For
example to save labour, one may be tempted to supply K only during the 1 st
year of a three or four year perennial hay crop. Much of the K added this way
is likely to be absorbed wastefully by the first crop of hay or even in the first
cutting. Consequently, too little of the added K will remain for subsequent
crops.

Quiz
What are the symptoms of K deficiency in plants?

6.5 Magnesium
Magnesium deficiency commonly occurs on acid, sandy soils in areas of moderate to
high rainfall. Magnesium deficiency may be induced by applying too much potassium
fertilizer, and occasionally even by mulching with grasses rich in potassium. The
application of nitrogen tends to promote the uptake of magnesium. In sandy soils
subject to leaching, soils with equal amounts of available magnesium may be more
subject to magnesium deficiency at a low pH than at a higher pH.
Soils with high exchangeable magnesium and exhibiting the morphology and
problems of sodic soils occur mostly in arid and semi-arid areas. Low permeability
and intractable working conditions are more important than excess magnesium on
these soils.
39
6.6 Zinc
Zinc deficiency is very widespread in neutral to alkaline soils. Excessive soil
phosphorus aggravates zinc deficiency. Some crops are affected more than others.
For example, phaseolus beans, maize, potato, onion, citrus, cherry and peach are
susceptible, whereas alfalfa, wheat, barley and grasses are rarely affected. For field
crops in arid and semi-arid areas, 10 kg zinc per hectare broadcast and incorporated
into the soil will control zinc deficiency for three or four years. Foliar applications of 1-
2 kg Zn/ha/yr to tree crops are very effective.

6.8 Iron
Iron deficiency, or lime-induced chlorosis, on calcareous soils is a very complex
problem influenced by many physical, chemical and biological factors. Iron is
absorbed by plants as Fe (II) which is relatively soluble, but in the pH range of
neutral to alkaline soils this is rapidly converted to Fe (III) which is very insoluble.
Foliar deficiency symptoms are quite specific for iron. Additions of ferrous sulphate to
soils which are grossly deficient in iron can sometimes produce substantial increases
in yields; the response is dependent on microbial activity and the presence of
organic matter.

6.9 Sulphur
Sulphur deficiency occurs on old deeply weathered land surfaces where the soils
have been strongly leached for a long period of time, and is only rarely found in arid
areas. The sulphur supplying power of a soil can be estimated from the amount of
water-soluble and absorbed sulphate in the root zone, for crops can use this
absorbed sulphate quite readily. Sulphur deficiency is readily corrected by sulphate
containing fertilizers (e.g. sulphate of ammonia).
Sulphur toxicity occurs on acid-sulphate soils.

6.10 Boron
Boron deficiency does not usually occur on arid and semi-arid land where boron
toxicity is a much more probable occurrence. It frequently occurs on calcareous
soils, or on acid soils that have been limed, particularly when plants such as
sugarbeet are under water stress in dry periods.

40
6.11 Copper
Copper deficiency occurs on many ancient strongly-weathered soils which are low in
copper, and on some sandy soils, especially calcareous sands and peats.

6.12 Manganese
Manganese deficiency in neutral to alkaline soils is often associated with deficiencies
of iron and zinc but rarely, if ever, both. Manganese deficiency, either alone or in
combination with other elements occurs much less often than zinc and iron
deficiencies. It is rarely found in field or vegetable crops in irrigated regions but is
commonly a limitation in citrus and deciduous tree crops.

6.13 Molybdenum
Molybdenum deficiency is usually found only on acid soils and it can often be cured
by liming or, more cheaply, by applications of sodium or ammonium molybdate to the
soil, crop or seed. Poor nitrogen fixation by legume crops is associated with
molybdenum deficiency.

6.14 Calcium
Calcium is absorbed by plant roots in the form Ca2+. It is a component of cell wall in
plant physiology therefore helps in the formation of new cells. It is also believed that
Ca2+ counteract some toxic effects of oxalic acid to form calcium oxalate hence
neutralise its effect. It is non-mobile in plants hence deficiency observed in younger
leaves. Young tissues are affected first in case of deficiency. Ca fertilisers are
usually applied as solid but can also be sprayed as foliar (effective in celery crop). It
is normally done to prevent a disorder called ‘brown checking’. Ca occurs in large
amounts in the soils.

6.14.1 Symptoms of Ca deficiency in plants

i. Death of growing points (terminal buds). Root tips are also affected
ii. Abnormal dark green appearance of foliage,
iii. Premature shading of blossoms and buds,
iv. Weakened stems.
41
Examples of Ca related disorders are 1) blossom end rot and 2) bitter pit of apples.

42
 CHAPTER 7: SOIL BIOLOGY
7.1 Introduction
Through agriculture, the sun’s energy is converted into food, feed, and fibre. Figure 1
shows how energy is recycled repeatedly through belowground soil organisms. The
soil food web is part of energy, nutrient, and water cycles. The energy cycle begins
when the sun’s energy is captured by the plant-based (aboveground) food web.
Nutrient availability is governed by the detritus-based (belowground) food web. The
water cycle is also influenced by the interaction of plants, soils, and soil organisms.

7.2 Functions of soil microorganisms

i. Nutrient cycling
In a healthy soil ecosystem, soil biota regulates the flow and storage of
nutrients in many ways. For example, they decompose plant and animal
residue, fix atmospheric nitrogen, transform nitrogen and other nutrients
among various organic and inorganic forms, release plant available forms of
nutrients, mobilize phosphorus, and form mycorrhizal (fungus-root)
associations for nutrient exchange. Even applied fertilizers may pass through
soil organisms before being utilized by crops.
ii. Soil stability and erosion

43
 Soil organisms play an important role in forming and stabilizing soil structure.
In a healthy soil ecosystem, fungal filaments and exudates from microbes and
earthworms help bind soil particles together into stable aggregates that
improve water infiltration, and protect soil from erosion, crusting, and
compaction. Macro-pores formed by earthworms and other burrowing
creatures facilitate the movement of water into and through soil. Good soil
structure enhances root development, which further improves the soil.
iii. Water quality and quantity
By improving or stabilizing soil structure, soil organism dynamics help reduce
runoff and improve the infiltration and filtering capacity of soil. In a healthy soil
ecosystem, soil organisms reduce the impacts of pollution by buffering,
detoxifying, and decomposing potential pollutants. Bacteria and other
microbes are increasingly used for remediation of contaminated water and
soil.
iv. Plant health
A relatively small number of soil organisms cause plant disease. A healthy soil
ecosystem has a diverse soil food web that keeps pest organisms in check
through competition and predation. Some soil organisms release compounds
that enhance plant growth or reduce disease susceptibility. Plants may exude
specific substances that attract beneficial organisms or repel harmful ones,
especially when they are under stress, such as grazing.

7.3 Complexity and function

Many soil biological functions emerge from the complex interactions of soil
organisms and are not predictable by adding up the activity of individual soil
organisms. How well the soil community performs each of these functions depends
in part on the complexity of the biological community. Complexity is a factor of both
the number of species and the different kinds or functions of species. Greater
complexity may imply more diversity of functions and more redundancy of functions,
and therefore more stability. For example, when multiple populations of microbes
convert ammonium to nitrate, even if one population dies out, the function
(nitrification) will continue to be performed. Functional redundancy is the underlying
idea behind the "insurance hypothesis," which states that biodiversity insures
ecosystems against declines in function.
44
7.4 The underground community
Soil organisms can be grouped by functions or by size (Fig. 2) as described;
8.4.1 Decomposers
Bacteria, actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria), and saprophytic fungi degrade plant
and animal residue, organic compounds, and some pesticides. Bacteria generally,
but not exclusively, degrade the more readily decomposed (lower C:N ratio)
materials, compared to fungi, which can use more chemically complex materials.
Bacteria often degrade what they can of a particular material; then fungi decompose
the remainder.
7.4.2. Grazers and predators
Protozoa, mites, nematodes, and other organisms “graze” on bacteria or fungi; prey
on other species of protozoa and nematodes; or both graze and prey. Grazers and
predators release plant-available nutrients as they consume microbes. Often
organisms specialize in one type of prey, such as either bacteria or fungi. Certain
collembolans (springtails) even specialize on specific species of fungi. Other
organisms are generalists and will feed on any microbial species they encounter.

7.4.3 Litter transformers

Arthropods are invertebrates with jointed legs, including insects, spiders, mites,
springtails, centipedes, and millipedes. Many soil arthropods shred and consume
plant litter and other organic matter, increasing the surface area accessible to
decomposers. The organic matter in their fecal pellets is frequently more physically
and chemically accessible to microbes than was the original litter. Some litter
transformers, especially ants, termites, scarab beetles, and earthworms, are
“ecosystem engineers” that physically change the soil habitat for other organisms by
chewing and burrowing through the soil. Microbes (decomposers) living within their
guts break down the plant residue, dung, and fecal pellets consumed along with the
soil.

7.4.4 Mutualists
Mycorrhizal fungi, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and some free-living microbes have co-
evolved together with plants to form mutually beneficial associations with plants.
Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and plant roots in which the fungus
45
supplies nutrients and perhaps water to the plant, and the plant supplies food to the
fungi. These fungi can exist inside (endomycorrhizae) or outside (ectomycorrhizae)
the plant root cell wall. The common arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM or VAM fungi) are
endomycorrhizae.

7.4.5 Pathogens, parasites, and root feeders

Organisms that cause disease make up a tiny fraction of the organisms in the soil,
but have been most studied by researchers. Disease-causing organisms include
certain species of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, insects, and mites.

7.5 What controls soil biology?

Soil biological activity is determined by factors at three different levels:
i. At the scale of individual organisms, biological activity is determined by
conditions such as temperature and moisture in the microbial habitats.
ii. At the scale of populations, biological activity is determined by the amount
of habitat diversity, the types of habitat disturbances, and the diversity and
interactions among various soil populations.

46
 iii. At the scale of biological processes, functions such as nutrient cycling or
pest control are affected by the interaction of biological populations with
physical and chemical soil properties.

For example, consider the effect of tillage on earthworms at each of these scales. At
the scale of individual organisms, a single tillage event may kill as many as 25
percent of individual earthworms. At the scale of populations, a single tillage pass
may have little effect after a few months as the earthworms reproduce and rebuild
their population. At the scale of soil processes, tillage will weaken soil structure over
time and reduce the amount of surface residue available to fungi and earthworms.
As fungal and earthworm activity declines, soil stability declines and alters the
microhabitats for other organisms.

7.6 Microscale factors

The following environmental factors affect the types and activity levels of soil
organisms. These factors may vary over short distances in the soil. Consider how
each factor is impacted by climate, soil texture, time of day or season, and
management practices including tillage, crop rotation, and irrigation.

7.6.1 Food (nutrients and energy)

All organisms require a source of food that supplies nutrients and energy. “Primary
producers” are organisms that use photosynthesis to make their own food from
sunlight and CO2. “Consumers” are organisms that use organic compounds from
other organisms as their source of both carbon and energy. A small group of bacteria
get their energy from inorganic nitrogen, sulfur, or iron compounds, rather than from
sunlight or organic compounds. These bacteria are important in cycling some
nutrients required by plants. Soil organisms also require varying amounts of
macronutrients (N, S, and P) and micronutrients (e.g. Fe, Cu, Zn). The amount of all
these nutrients and the quality of nutrient sources will favor some organisms over
others, depending on each species’ requirements and preferences.

7.6.2 Oxygen
Animals and most soil organisms are obligate aerobes, meaning they require
oxygen. Some bacteria are obligate anaerobes, meaning they require oxygen-free
47
conditions to function. Many organisms are facultative anaerobes, meaning they can
switch metabolic pathways and function as either aerobes or anaerobes depending
on environmental conditions. Anaerobes use nitrate, sulfate, or iron instead of
oxygen as an electron acceptor. Aerobic respiration is the most common form of
metabolism and typically produces ten times more energy per unit of organic matter
than that generated through anaerobic metabolism. Anaerobic conditions and
anaerobic microbes dominate in marshes and other saturated soils. However, even
well-drained soils can have anaerobic and aerobic microsites within millimeters of
each other. The following are examples of aerobic and anaerobic processes:
(a) Anaerobic soil biological processes
Fermentation – Conversion of sugar to alcohol.
Denitrification – Reduction of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen.
Methane production – Reduction of CO2 to methane (CH4) in marshes and rumens.
Sulfur reduction – Reduction of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide or sulfur.
(b) Aerobic soil biological processes
Respiration – The conversion of oxygen eventually to carbon dioxide and water.
Ammonification – The creation of ammonia from organic compounds. May also
slowly occur anaerobically.
Nitrification – The oxidation of ammonium to nitrite and then nitrate.

7.7 Management Strategies

Four broad management strategies are presented below. The diversity and
functioning of a soil biological community are likely to improve when these strategies
are used. Management plans should consider both the timing of management
practices and disturbances, and the duration and degree of their effects on soil
biology. The effects of management and disturbances vary by season, and the
capacity of the soil community to recover from a particular practice or disturbance
ranges widely.

7.7.1 Organic matter management.

Regular inputs of organic matter are essential for supplying the energy that drives
the soil food web. Each source of organic matter favours a different mix of
organisms. Thus, a variety of sources may support a variety of organisms. The

48
location of the organic matter - whether at the surface, mixed into the soil, or as roots
- also affects the type of organisms that dominate in the soil food web.
Under any land use, organic matter inputs to the soil can be increased by improving
plant productivity and increasing annual biomass production. In particular, good root
growth is important for building soil organic matter. High biomass production should
be combined with other organic matter management practices including minimizing
residue removal and tillage, growing cover crops, and adding manure, mulch, or
other amendments.

7.7.2 Diversity management.

The diversity of plant assemblages across the landscape and over time promotes a
variety of microbial habitats and soil organisms. Up to a point, soil biological function
generally improves when the complexity or diversity of the soil biological community
increases.
Many types of diversity should be considered, such as diversity of land uses (buffers,
forest, row crops, grazing land), plant types (perennial, annual, woody, grassy,
broadleaf, legume, etc.), root structures (tap, fibrous, etc.), and soil pore sizes.
Diversity is desirable over time as well as across the landscape. Land managers can
increase diversity with appropriate grazing management, patchy or selective tree
harvest (in contrast to broad clear-cutting), vegetated fencerows, buffer strips, strip
cropping, and small fields. These landscape features provide refuges for beneficial
arthropods. Diversity over time can be achieved with crop rotations. Rotated crops
put a different food source into the soil each year, encouraging a wide variety of
organisms and preventing the build-up of a single pest species.

7.7.3 Ground cover

Ground cover at or near the surface moderates soil temperature and moisture;
provides food and habitat for fungi, bacteria, and arthropods; and prevents the
destruction of microbial habitat by erosion. Minimize the length of time each year that
soil is bare by maintaining a cover of living plants, biological crusts, or plant residue
at the surface. Living plants are especially important as cover because they create
the rhizosphere - that area within one or two millimeters of living roots where soil
biological activity is concentrated. Microbes around roots take advantage of plant
exudates and sloughed-off root cells. Maintaining a rhizosphere environment is one
49
of the important benefits of using cover crops. In addition to preserving microbial
habitat, cover crops help build and maintain populations and diversity of arthropods
by preserving their habitat for an extended portion of the growing season.

7.7.4 Soil disturbance management.

Some soil perturbations are a normal part of soil processes, or are a necessary part
of agriculture and other land uses. However, some disturbances significantly impact
soil biology and can be minimized to reduce their negative effects. These
disturbances include compaction, erosion, soil displacement, tillage, catastrophic
fires, certain pesticide applications, and excessive pesticide usage.
7.7.4.1 Compaction
Ideally, soils are approximately 50 to 60% pore space comprising a variety of pore
sizes and lengths. The size and continuity of pores controls whether larger microbes,
such as protozoa, can prey upon bacteria and fungi. Compaction reduces the
diversity of pore sizes and the amount of space and pathways available for larger
organisms to move through the soil. This favors bacteria and small predators over
fungi and the larger predators. Arthropods are severely affected by compaction.
Compaction changes the movement of air and water through soil, can cause a shift
from aerobic to more anaerobic organisms, and may increase losses of nitrogen to
the atmosphere (denitrification). Rooting depth may be limited in highly compacted
soils. This restricts the depth of the rhizosphere environment that supports microbes.

7.7.4.2 Erosion and sedimentation

Most soil organisms – especially larger ones – live in the top few centimetres of soil.
Erosion disrupts and removes that habitat. Sedimentation buries the surface habitat
and deprives organisms of space and air.

7.7.4.3 Soil displacement and tillage

Displacement and mixing of the soil occur during many activities including tillage,
land leveling, grading, intense grazing, and site preparation and harvesting on
forestlands. Some soil displacement can be useful such as tillage for seedbed
preparation in cropland, limited disturbances in highly productive grassland systems,
and soil scarification to ensure success of some types of reforestation. However, soil
disturbances significantly change the biological habitat of the soil. If the extent of the
50
disturbance is limited to small areas, the overall impact will also be limited. Broadly
applied practices such as tillage, grazing, or clear-cutting can impact large areas.
Even a single tillage or compaction event can significantly affect the location and
quantity of the food supply and the physical habitat of soil organisms. If enough
nitrogen is present, tillage and other practices that mix the soil usually lead to a flush
of microbial activity and nutrient release, and loss of soil organic matter via CO 2
respiration. Where there is a loss of soil organic matter, microbial activity will
eventually drop to a rate that is lower than the initial rate. Over time, tillage shifts the
food web from being dominated by fungi to being dominated by bacteria.

7.7.4.4 Pesticides and herbicides

All pesticides impact some non-target organisms. Heavy pesticide use tends to
reduce soil biological complexity. Total microbial activity often increases temporarily
as bacteria and fungi degrade a pesticide. However, effects vary with the type of
pesticide and species of soil organism. Labels generally do not list the non-target
organisms affected by a product. In fact, few pesticides have been studied for their
effect on a wide range of soil organisms. Pesticides that kill aboveground insects can
also kill beneficial soil insects. Foliar insecticides applied at recommended rates
have a smaller impact on soil organisms than fumigants or fungicides. Herbicides
probably affect few organisms directly, but they affect the food and habitat of soil
organisms by killing vegetation. A pulse of dead vegetation may trigger a flush of
biological activity and decomposition. Crop rotations are useful for breaking pest
cycles, reducing pesticide application rates, and for varying the families of pesticides
used.

51
 CHAPTER: 8. SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION

8.1 Soil Genesis

8.1.1 Rocks
Rocks make up the mineral matter of soils (sand, silt, & clay). The products of rock
weathering that are near surface of the earth produce the solid mineral particles of
the soil. Rocks are any mineral or aggregate of minerals that form an essential part
of the earth - or rocks are a combination of minerals.

8.1.1.2 Minerals are elements in various combinations. Minerals are the building
stones of the earth's crust. A formula for a particular mineral is the same, no matter
where the mineral is found. The quartz sand of a beach in Mombasa has the same
chemical formula as does the quartz sand of the Sahara Desert, (1 part Silicon and 2
parts of Oxygen)SiO2.

8.1.1.3 Rocks, on the other hand, can be defined as extensive mineral bodies,
composed of one or more minerals in varying proportions. The chemical formula for
one rock may vary widely from that of another rock, even though the two rocks were
broken off from the same outcrop.
Rocks are classified on the basis of their origin:
 Igneous - from molten rock;
 Metamorphic – re-crystallized in the solid state from heat and pressure;
 Sedimentary - formed from particles of other rocks or from solution.
 Organic


8.1.1.4 Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are the primary rocks from which all other rocks have been directly or
indirectly derived. These rocks have solidified from molten magma and their present
structural characteristics are due to variations in the conditions when they solidified.
Rocks with large crystals cooled slowly under the earth's surface while small
crystalline rocks cooled faster near the surface. Light coloured igneous rocks like

52
granite contain more quartz and are considered acidic. Dark coloured igneous rocks
have an appreciable amount of iron and magnesium compounds and have little or no
quartz. They are generally considered basic igneous rock.

8.1.1.5 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks may be formed by different processes. Generally, they are re-
crystallized in the solid state by pressure and heat and may be influenced by the
introduction of chemically active solutions. Igneous, sedimentary, and pre-existing
metamorphic rocks may become new metamorphic rocks. The change may be
partial and some of the original characteristics retained, or it may be so complete
that new minerals are formed and the texture of the rock is altered.

8.1.1.6 Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks may be formed from particles of igneous, metamorphic, or other
sedimentary rocks. These rocks weather by undergoing disintegration or solution
and the resulting particles are transported by wind, water or ice. The new
sedimentary rocks are formed by sedimentation or precipitation.

8.1.1.7 Organic Rocks

Rocks formed from the compaction of plant remains (such as coal) are termed
organic rocks.

8.1.2 Rocks into Soil

When a rock is close to the surface of the earth, the soil will weather directly from it.
The resulting soil is termed to be a residual soil, in that the soil horizons form from
the rock as it weathers.

8.2 Soils Classification

 Our understanding and management of soils would be difficult if we did not
know how one soil differs from another.
 Through classification universal language of soils is created that enhances
communication among users of soils around the world.

53
  Profile characteristics are used to classify soils and thus soil is divided into
parts that can be quantified.

8.2.1 Diagnostic horizons

Comprise a set of properties used to identify soil units. The different soil forming
units give certain characteristics used to separate different soil units in soil mapping.
The organized units can then be placed into groupings that have similar properties.
When groups of soils have similar properties the soils can be placed into the same
category or taxon. However, soils change gradually over the landscape and the zone
where one soil stops and another soil starts may be one to 20 meters wide. This
makes mapping soils a real challenge. The first step in classifying soils is looking at
the characteristics of the surface and the second step is to determine the
characteristics of the subsurface. Note that surface and subsurface do not refer to
specific horizons though surface is mostly A horizons and subsurface is mostly B
There are two kinds of diagnostic horizons;
i. epipedon and
ii. endopedon horizons

Epipedon is a horizon (or horizons) that form at or near the surface. It is darkened
by organic matter or shows evidence of eluviation. An epipedon is not the same as
an A horizon. The epipedons may include part or all of an illuvial B horizon if the
darkening by organic matter extends from the soil surface into the B horizon.

Endopedons are horizons that occur below the surface.

Transition horizons indicates the horizon that have properties of two horizons i.e.
AB, AE. The first letter indicates master horizon with dominating properties to which
transition analysis is more similar

Mixed horizon is one with equal portions of two horizons and is written e.g. A/B.

Illuviation is the accumulation of clay and clay coating in a horizon.

8.2.2 The Twelve Soil Orders
Based on the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classification system,
each of the world's soils is assigned to one of the twelve orders, largely on the basis
54
of soil properties. The properties are a result of the five soil forming factors acting on
the parent material over time. Emphasis for placing a soil into a soil Order is
determined by the presence or absence of the diagnostic features. It is interesting to
note that other countries may have different classification systems, but most are
similar to the system used in the USA. The United Nations FAO Soil Map of the
World (FAO-UNESCO - now widely recognized) uses a different system that has 31
major soil groups while USDA has twelve orders.
i. Entisols: Soils that have little or slight development and properties that reflect
their parent material (ent root from the word recent). They include soils on
steep slopes, flood plains, and sand dunes. They also form on very resistant
rock or deep deposits of sand. They occur in many environments.
ii. Gelisols: Soils that commonly have a dark organic surface layer and mineral
layers underlain by permafrost ( el root from the Latin word gelare for to
freeze ). For many soils the slow decomposition of the organic matter due to
cold temperatures results in the formation of a peat layer at the surface.
iii. Histosols: Dark soils that have slightly decomposed to well decomposed
organic materials derived from the sedges, grasses, leaves, hydrophytic
plants and woody materials (root ist from the Greek histos for tissue). These
soils dominantly are very poorly drained and occur in low-lying areas, like
swamps, coastal marshes or deltas. Histosols form many areas of valuable
wetlands. If drained they decompose rapidly but are valuable agronomic soils
for vegetables or turf.
iv. Vertisols: Vertisols are clayey soils that shrink and develop cracks when they
dry and swell shut when they are moist ( the root ert comes from the Latin
word Vertare for turn over). The shrinking and swelling damage buildings and
roads. The mineral montmorillonite in the clay fraction causes the soil to have
these properties. The soil develops shiny surfaces in the subsoil called
slickenslides as a result of the peds rubbing against each other as they swell
The diagnostic feature for the soil order is the high clay percentage and the
presence of montmorillonite, a 2:1 clay that causes the shrinking and swelling
feature.
v. Andisols: Andisols form in material that has recently ejected from volcanoes
(ash). Since volcanoes have erupted several times during the past hundred to
million years the soils often have distinct layers. The soils have high porosity,
55
 particle surface area and water-holding capacity. They also have a very low
bulk density or are very light in weight. The diagnostic feature is the low bulk
density of volcanic ash soils.
vi. Inceptisols: Inceptisols have altered horizons but have not weathered
enough to become illuvial horizons ( the word ept comes from the Latin word
inceptum for beginning). These are young or in the beginning stage of soil
formation. Many are shallow to bedrock, or occur on steeply sloping land.
These soils occur in a wide range of temperature and moisture environments.
vii. Aridisols: Aridisols are the dry soils of deserts (the word arid or id comes
from the Latin aridus for dry). They do not receive enough rain to permit
normal agriculture. They may have a clay enriched subsoil and /or cemented
to non cemented deposits of salts or carbonates. Salinization, or salt buildup
is the greatest danger in using Aridisols for irrigated agriculture. Most areas of
true desert are retained as wilderness though the margins may be used for
grazing.
viii. Mollisols: Mollisols have a distinctive dark surface (mollic epipedon) that is
enriched with organic matter. The surface layer has a soft, fluffy feel. These
soils are formed from nutrient-rich parent materials and are commonly found
in grasslands. They are naturally fertile and generally hold large amounts of
water. These soils are prized for agriculture.
ix. Alfisols: Alfisols form in semiarid to humid areas that have a clay enriched
and nutrient enriched subsoil (argillic horizon). They commonly have a mixed
vegetative cover but were dominantly forested soils. Alfisols have the potential
to be very productive if conserved, but can also degrade rapidly if eroded.
x. Ultisols: Ultisol are similar to Alfisols however they are highly weathered and
thus low in nutrients (the word ult comes from the Latin ultimus for ultimate).
They have lower pH and organic matter than Alfisols and often are redder in
color. With soil amendments they are productive. The surface soil is usually
coarser-textured, making it easy to till, while the clay-enriched subsoil stores
water for plant roots.
xi. Spodosols: Spodosols typically have a dark surface layer underlain by a light
eluvial horizon over a reddish, aluminum and /or iron enriched horizon (ochric,
albic, and spodic diagnostic features). The soil gets its name from the
bleached layer (E horizon) that looks like wood ashes or the Greek work
56
 spodos for wood ashes. The soils are acid and generally under forest.
Although some are used for agriculture, this requires careful water and fertility
management because they are very sandy. They are common in the
northeaster U.S., the higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains, and in
Florida.
xii. Oxisols: Oxisols are only in the tropics. The word comes from the French
word oxide for oxides. They are intensely weathered, resulting in colours that
are yellow to red from the accumulation of large amounts of iron oxides. Even
if they are clayey, their ability to retain nutrients is low as the clay fraction
consists of iron oxides and kaolinite. They frequently do not have very distinct
horizons and are very deep. A variety of tropical crops can be grown in humid
areas but generally much fertilizer is needed.

8.2.5 Soil Survey

8.2.5.1 What is a Soil Survey?
The soil survey is an inventory of the soil resource that involves three main
elements:
1) a map showing the geographic relationships of each soil
2) a text describing the soils
3) tables giving physical and chemical data and interpretations for various uses.
Modern soil surveys began in the late 1930s with the advent of aerial photography
which was used as a base for the soil map. Prior to that the survey was conducted
on a map created by the scientist. Many thousands of acres were mapped on photo
backgrounds by the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS, formerly the
Soil Conservation Service) for planning with individual landowners. Soil survey
publications with photo background soils maps were first issued in the early 1950s.
In more recent years, the value of soil survey information has been realized by many
non-farm users. Large sums of money, often several thousand dollars per acre, can
be saved through the use of soil surveys in locating proper land for construction. The
failure to consider soils information can prove to be a costly mistake. Experience
gained from selecting soils for farming and forestry is being applied equally well to
selecting sites for housing, highways, airports, schools, factories, parks, cemeteries,
recreational areas, and many other land uses.

57
Land use planning is a term used to deal with the planning of people's activities on
the land in an orderly fashion--not haphazardly. I am sure you only have to look
around your home town to see areas that have not been planned adequately. One of
the basic components in land use planning is using the soil resource according to its
capacity. Whatever the use of the land, knowing information about the soil is going to
be important now and in the future.
Land is a finite commodity - we have only so many acres. We also have only so
many acres of what is termed "prime" land. Once this land is used for other pursuits,
such as houses or shopping centres, it will never again be used for agriculture.

58
 CHAPTER 9: SOIL WATER AND SOIL TEMPERATURE

9.1 Soil Water

Levels

Saturation

During a rain shower or irrigation application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil pores
are filled with water the soil is said to be saturated. There is no air left in the soil. It is easy to
determine in the field if a soil is saturated. If a handful of saturated soil is squeezed, some
(muddy) water will run between the fingers.

Plants need air and water in the soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will suffer.
Many crops cannot withstand saturated soil conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days.
Rice is one of the exceptions to this rule. The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does
not last long. After the rain or the irrigation has stopped, part of the water present in the
larger pores will move downward. This process is called drainage or percolation.

The water drained from the pores is replaced by air. In coarse textured (sandy) soils,
drainage is completed within a period of a few hours. In fine textured (clayey) soils, drainage
may take some (2-3) days.

Field Capacity
After the drainage has stopped, the large soil pores are filled with both air and water while
the smaller pores are still full of water. At this stage, the soil is said to be at field capacity. At
field capacity, the water and air contents of the soil are considered to be ideal for crop
growth
Available Water Capacity (AWC)
Definition: Amount of water that the soil can hold that is available for plant growth
AWC is the difference between the amount of water in the soil at field capacity and
the amount of water in the soil at wilting point.
 Field capacity: The amount of water the soil can hold against the flow of
gravity. (1/3 bar or 33 kPa)
 Wilting point: The moisture level at which the soil can no longer provide
moisture for growth of most agronomic plants. (15 bar or 1500 kPa)
Permanent wilting point

With time, the water stored in the soil is taken up by the plant roots or evaporated from the
topsoil into the atmosphere. If no additional water is supplied to the soil, it gradually dries
out.

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The dryer the soil becomes, the more tightly the remaining water is retained and the more
difficult it is for the plant roots to extract it. At a certain stage, the uptake of water is not
sufficient to meet the plant's needs. The plant looses freshness and wilts; the leaves change
colour from green to yellow. Finally the plant dies.

The soil water content at the stage where the plant dies, is called permanent wilting point.
The soil still contains some water, but it is too difficult for the roots to suck it from the soil.
(Hygroscopic water)

9.1.3 Properties influencing water holding capacity

i. Texture
Soils that are high in sand content tend to have a lower available water capacity.
Soils that are high in clay content tend to have a higher available water capacity.
However, if the clay content is too high or the clay particles are too fine, then the
AWC might be reduced because the tiny pores may hold onto the water so tightly
that the plants can’t extract it.

ii. Salts
Salts reduce the Available Water Capacity of the soil. A soil that is salty can be wet
and yet not have any water available for plant growth. This is because the salts have
such a strong attraction for the water that the roots cannot overcome it.

iii. Organic matter

Organic matter is desirable in the soil, not only because it improves soil fertility, but
because it can also improve the Available Water Capacity.

iv. Compaction
When a soil is compacted, the soil particles are pressed together, which reduces the
pore space. This means there is less space for the water to occupy.

v. Soil depth
Rooting depth is the depth to rock or other layer in the soil that restricts root depth.
Natural hard pans as well as man-made pans may restrict root growth. The presence
of a root-restricting layer reduces the available water capacity of the soil, since it
reduces the amount of soil that is available for plant roots. One also needs to

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consider the natural rooting depth of the plants. For example, if the plant roots will
only go to a depth of half a metre in a soil with no root restrictions, then soil below
half a metre should not be considered when calculating available water capacity for
that crop.

vi. Coarse fragments

“Coarse fragments” refers to gravel, cobbles, stones and boulders in the soil—
anything larger than 2 mm. Since coarse fragments do not hold water, their presence
in the soil reduces its water holding capacity

9.1.4 Permeability
Definition; permeability is the rate at which water moves down through the soil. It is
usually measured in cm or mm per hour.
Infiltration is the rate at which water enters the soil. It is similar to permeability,
except that it also takes into account surface conditions such as soil crusting.
Permeability and infiltration rates affect the rate at which water can be safely applied
to the field. Applying water faster than the permeability and infiltration rates can lead
to sealing of the soil surface, which further decreases infiltration rates; it can also
cause ponding, which increases the possibility of diseases; and it can lead to runoff,
which causes erosion and possible fertilizer loss.
The permeability of a soil can be no faster than the permeability of the slowest layer.
For example, sandy loam has a permeability of 5.0 to 15.0 cm per hour. Sandy clay
loam has a permeability of 0.02 to 1.5 cm per hour. A soil that has a sandy loam
surface over a sandy clay loam subsoil will have a permeability of 0.02 to 0.1.5 cm
per hour.

Permeability Measurement (cm/hour)

Permeability is normally measured in cm per hour. A newer expression you will see
is Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (Ksat). It is measured in cm/hr.

9.1.4.2 Properties influencing permeability

A. Texture
Soil texture is usually the dominant soil property affecting infiltration. Soils that are
high in clay content tend to have a slower permeability. Soils that are high in sand
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content tend to have a faster permeability. Soil texture not only affects how fast
water moves through the soil, it also affects the pattern by which water moves
through the soil. Water will move almost straight down through a sandy soil, whereas
it will have more lateral movement in a heavier soil (one with more clay).

B. Structure
Soil structure has perhaps the greatest effect on permeability. The cracks and pores
between aggregates allow for the movement of air and water through the soil.
Anything that improves structure improves permeability and vice versa. Tillage and
irrigation affect soil structure. For example, heavy overhead irrigation or flood
irrigation breaks down soil structure, which can lead to a sealing of the soil surface.
This in turn makes it more difficult for any further water to enter the soil. Tillage can
help break up a soil that has become sealed, providing it is not done while the soil is
too wet or too dry. All of the following properties relate to soil structure:
i. Salts: Sodium salts cause soil particles to disperse and clog pores, which has
a negative effect on soil structure. Such soils tend to seal when wet, which
slows infiltration and permeability rates drastically.
ii. Organic matter: Organic matter (decayed plant material) is desirable in the
soil, not only because it improves soil fertility, but it also improves soil
structure, which has beneficial effects on permeability and infiltration.
iii. Compaction and pores: All soils contain pores. The pore spaces are occupied
by either air or water (plant roots need both air and water). Fine-textured soils
(soils with high clay content) contain more total pore space than coarse-
textured soils (such as sandy loam and sand), however the pore spaces are
smaller. Because of this, water moves more slowly through a fine-textured
soil.

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 iv. Calcium: Calcium improves soil structure by encouraging aggregation and
increasing pore size. As a result it improves permeability and infiltration.
v. Soil organisms: Microorganisms (e.g., bacteria and fungi) and
macroorganisms (e.g., insects and earthworms) in the soil contribute to
improved permeability and infiltration. They have a beneficial effect on soil
structure because they encourage the formation of soil aggregates and they
make pores in the soil.

9.1.5.1 Additional properties influencing infiltration

i. Dryness: Frequently, dry soils will repel water until they become moistened to
some degree. This is especially true of soils that have high amounts of
organic matter. (Peat moss demonstration)
ii. Surface fragments: A heavy cover of gravel and stones will prevent water
from entering the soil and increase runoff. However, these types of soil are
not usually cultivated.
iii. Fire: A hot fire can produce resins and waxy materials that repel water.
iv. Slope: Slope may cause water to run off rather than enter the soil

9.2 Soil temperature

Soil temperature is important in agriculture, especially when it comes to planting and
seed germination. Many seeds need a certain minimum temperature before they will
germinate.

9.2.1 Factors influencing soil temperature

i. Local climate: Soil temperature is highly correlated to air temperature
ii. Slope steepness and aspect: In the Northern Hemisphere, north-facing
aspects tend to be cooler than south-facing aspects. The effect is more
pronounced with steeper slopes and lower relative humidity.
iii. Topography: Topography influences microclimates. For example, cool air
flows down from mountaintops along drainages and settles in low parts of
valleys. Soil and air temperature in these drainages and low areas may be
lower than the elevated areas adjacent to them.
iv. Cover: Plants shade the soil, reducing the temperature. In addition, growing
plants cool the temperature through transpiration.
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 v. Soil color: Darker-coloured soils absorb heat more readily than lighted
coloured soils.
vi. Agricultural practices: Mulching reduces heat by reducing insolation – the
absorption of heat when it’s sunny and can also act as an insulator - holding
in heat in extremely cold weather

9.2.2 Soil temperature influences on soil properties

a) Biological activity: Lower temperature leads to lower biological activity. Below
about 4°C there is little biological activity.
b) Organic matter accumulation: Lower temperature can lead to higher organic
matter accumulation.
c) Weathering of parent materials: Fluctuating temperatures help break down
mineral grains. Warmer temperatures increase chemical weathering.
d) Nutrient availability: Many nutrients are unavailable or poorly available at low
temperatures, especially phosphorus. (This is primarily related to biological
activity.)

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 CHAPTER 10: SOIL MANAGEMENT
10.1 Salinity
The adverse effects of soil salinity on plant growth vary with the crop being grown.
The presence of salinity in the soil solution resulting from either indigenous salt in the
soil, or from salt added by irrigation water can affect growth by:
(i) reducing water available to the crop (the osmotic effect) and
(ii) increasing the concentration of certain ions that have a toxic effect on
plant metabolism (the specific ion effect).

There is an approximate tenfold range in salt tolerance of agricultural crops. The

wide choice of crops greatly expands the usable range of water salinity for irrigation
and emphasizes the fact that water quality and soil salinity are specific for the
intended use. Many plants, for example, barley, wheat and maize, are sensitive to
the osmotic effect during germination and the early seedling stages, but have greater
tolerances at later stages. Salt damage is aggravated by hot, dry conditions and may
be less severe in cool humid conditions.
Salinity tolerances for various crops are given in Figure 15 which also indicates
approximate yield reductions in relationship to increasing salinity of the soil
saturation extract ECe.
Figure 15 Salt tolerances of various crops to salinity as measured in the
saturation extract ECe. Vegetable crops.

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Source: Maas and Hoffmann 1977; James et al 1982.
10.2 Sodicity
The detrimental effect associated with sodium accumulation in soil can be divided
into two categories:
i) deterioration of the physical condition of the soil; and
ii) sodium toxicity.

10.2.1. Physical effects of sodicity

The presence of excessive amounts of exchangeable sodium in soil promotes the
dispersion and swelling of clay minerals. The soil becomes impermeable to both air
and water. The infiltration and hydraulic conductivity decrease to the extent that little
or no water movement occurs. The soil is plastic when wet and becomes hard (brick-
like) when dry. Tillage becomes difficult and soil crusting occurs. Dispersion blocks
soil pores, whereas swelling reduces pore sizes. The effect is most pronounced on
soils containing clays which swell and shrink. Soils containing non-expanding clays
such as kaolinite and sesquioxides are relatively insensitive to the physical effects of
exchangeable sodium.
10.2.2. Sodium toxicity
Plants vary considerably in their ability to tolerate sodium ions. Most tree crops and
other woody-type perennials are particularly sensitive to low concentrations of
sodium. Most annual crops are less sensitive, but may be affected by higher
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concentrations. Sodium toxicity is often modified and reduced if calcium is also
present.
Symptoms of sodium toxicity may appear only after a period of time during which
toxic concentrations accumulate in the plant: the symptoms appear as a burn or
drying of tissues first appearing at the outer edges of leaves.

10.3 pH, micronutrient deficiencies and toxicities

10.3.1 pH (General)
Crops vary in their response to pH; calcifuge plants dislike lime while calciphilous
plants are lime-loving. There are very few crops that grow well in calcareous soils
that do not grow equally well at a pH above 6 under lime-free conditions. Several
crops, such as tea, require acid conditions. Many crops are affected by micro-
nutrient deficiencies or toxicities at certain pH levels.
The pH of soil suspensions varies according to whether the soil is shaken with water,
or with an electrolyte such as normal potassium chloride. The pH of the latter may be
a whole pH unit lower than that measured by shaking with water, but closer to the
real pH on the soil particles themselves. It is best to use an electrolyte where the pH
of saline soils is to be measured, especially when comparisons are necessary with
nonsaline pHs.
In soil/water suspensions the pH may vary with the soil to water ratio. In the field, as
the soil gets drier, the concentration of salts in the soil solution may rise, causing a
fall in pH. If the soils contain substances susceptible to oxidation and reduction, the
pH will fall or rise accordingly. Thus the pH of waterlogged soils containing sulphides
will fall from pH 7 to below pH 4 if drained and aerated. The pH of a soil is also
influenced by the carbon dioxide concentration of the soil air; the higher this
concentration the lower the pH, the

10.4 Acid sulphate soils

Acid sulphate conditions may be anticipated where it is intended to drain submerged
soils high in sulphate and organic matter, e.g. in mangrove swamps. Aeration of
these soils when drained can lead to the oxidation of sulphur compounds and
acidification to a very low pH. This acidification is potentially a problem in many
coastal areas subject to tidal influence from saline sea water, especially mangrove
swamps that are to be drained and reclaimed. Many tens of thousands of hectares in
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the humid tropics could be brought under rice or oil palm cultivation provided the
soils are prevented from drying by careful water control all the year round. To
distinguish soils that are potentially hazardous from those that are not, the severity of
acidification on drying can be measured in the field or laboratory from changes in pH.

10.5 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the removal of soil mainly by the action of water and wind at the rates
in excess of soil formation. Erosion is a natural process but human being can
increase the rate at which it takes place by deforestation and cultivation among other
activities.

10.5.1 Problems caused by soil Erosion

i. Loss of valuable topsoil. When soil is removed from a field it includes: the soil
particles, nutrients, water, soil organic matter and reduction in water holding
capacity,.
ii. Damage due to deposition of soil from up-slope by burying more valuable land
with less valuable soil.
iii. Damage to fields because gully erosion reduces the field size and takes land
out of production.
iv. Pollution due to off site or Non-Point Pollution. Examples of non-point
pollution are; sediments, nutrients, and pesticides.
v. Erosion causes a steady but slow productivity decline. For example: if a soil
looses about 6 cm it would have a 5-15% decline in productivity and if the soil
looses 12 cm the decline in productivity would be 10-35% .

10.4.2 Causes of Soil Erosion

The impact of the raindrop breaks apart the soil aggregate leading to individual sand,
silt and clay particles being dispersed. These particles fill the soil pores and reduce
infiltration. The larger the raindrop, the greater the energy released at impact and
thus the more destruction of the soil aggregates. After the surface pores are filled
with sand, silt or clay, overland surface flow of water begins due to the lowering of
infiltration rates. Once the rate of falling rain is higher than infiltration, runoff takes
place.

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10.4.3 Erosion Types
Sheet Erosion - thin film of water over the entire field moving down-slope
Rill Erosion - collection of sheet erosion water into channels (rills) that erode the
bottom and side of the rill.
Gully erosion - increasing size of rills eventually lead to a gully or a channel too large
for crossing by farm equipment.
Wind Erosion - Wind erosion results in soil movement by three processes:
 Saltation - fine and medium sand-sized particles are lifted a short distance
into the air, dislodging more soil as they fall back to the ground
 Suspension - very fine soil particles are lifted from the surface by the impact
of saltation and carried high into the air, remaining suspended in air for long
distances,
 Surface Creep - the movement of large soil particles along the surface of the
soil after being loosened by the impact of saltating particles

10.4.4 Predicting Soil Loss

The universal soil loss equation (USLE) is used to determine how much soil is being
eroded from the land.

A=R × K × LS × C × P

 The rainfall factor (R) is an erosion index that measures the intensity and
quantity of rainfall.
 The K factor, or soil erodibility factor, is the erosion rate per unit of R. The K
factor is dependent on how easily soil can be broken down by the impact of
rain drops.
 The LS factor combines both the length and steepness of slope
 The C factor is the crop management factor.
 The P factor is the erosion control factor.
 The equation helps in determining the conservation practices that can reduce
erosion.

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Erosivity – refers to the properties of the rainfall i.e. its capacity to cause erosion.
These properties are those of size of raindrops (frequency, duration) and their
velocities of impact when multiplied together.

Erodibility – is the inability of soil to resist the bombardment of raindrops. A soil that
erodes quickly when hit by raindrops has a high erodibility. In other words, it is
susceptibility of soil to erosion.

Conservation practices include building of terraces, bunks, ploughing along contour

lines, strips, all year round plant/crop cover, improving soil infiltration rates, etc.

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