EXPERIMENTS WITH

G. M. COUNTER

Center For Medical and Radiation Physics

 CONTENTS

Title Page
1 GENERAL INFORMATION ON GEIGER - MULLER TUBES 3

2 DESCRIPTION OF G.M COUNTING SYSTEM GC602A 3

3 ACCESSORIES FOR GEIGER COUNTING SYSTEM 4-5

4 GEIGER MUELLER COUNTER - GC602A 5-6

5 Exp: 1. STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GM TUBE 6-9

6 Exp: 2. INVERSE SQUARE LAW: GAMMA RAYS 10-12

7 Exp: 3. TO STUDY DETERMINATION OF BETA PARTICLE RANGE 13-16

AND MAXIMUM ENERGY (BY HALF-THICKNESS METHOD)

8 EXP: 4. BACKSCATTERING OF BETA PARTICLES 17-18

9 Exp: 5. PRODUCTION AND ATTENUATION OF BREMSSTRAHLUNG 19-20

2
GENERAL INFORMATION ON GEIGER - MULLER TUBES

Geiger-Muller radiation counter tubes (G.M. tubes) are intended to detect alpha particles,
beta particles, gamma, or X-radiation. A G.M. tube is a gas-filled device that reacts to
individual ionizing events, thus enabling them to be counted. A G.M. Tube consists of an
electrode at a positive potential (anode) surrounded by a metal cylinder at a negative
potential (cathode). The cathode forms part of the envelope or is enclosed in a glass
envelope. Ionizing events are initiated by quanta or particles entering the tube through the
window or the cathode and colliding with the gas molecules. The gas filling consists of a
mixture of one or more rare gasses and a quenching agent. Quenching is the termination of
the ionization current pulse in a G.M. tube. Effective quenching in the G.M. tube is
determined by the combination of the quenching gas properties and the value of the anode
resistor.

DESCRIPTION OF G.M COUNTING SYSTEM GC602A

Geiger Counting system type GC602A is an Advanced Technology based versatile integral
counting system designed around an eight-bit microcontroller chip. This system is highly
recommended for research work, apart from its usefulness in the academic field of
teaching. This system, along with wide-end window G.M. Tube Type GM125 and Lead
Castle, will be an excellent Beta Counting System useful for swipe sample counting by
Health Physics Labs. This counting system is useful for carrying out a number of Nuclear
Physics experiments.

G.M Counting System GC602A Front & Rear panel

view

3
ACCESSORIES FOR GEIGER COUNTING SYSTEM:

G.M Detector Stand for G.M Detector Source kit

Sliding bench for G.M Experiments

Aluminium Absorber Set Copper & Lead Absorber Set

4
 Scatterer Set (For Scattering of Beta Particles Experiment)

Geiger Mueller Counter - GC602A

The G.M. Detector, also known as the Geiger-Mueller counter, is a Gas-filled tube that
detects various types of ionizing radiation. This device is named after the two physicists
who invented the counter in 1928, and Mueller was a student of Hans Geiger. G.M.
Detector is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection,
experimental physics, and the nuclear industry. A Geiger counter (GM Counting system)
consists of a Geiger-Mueller tube (the sensing element that detects the radiation) and the
processing electronics display the result.

Geiger counter can detect ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger-Muller tube, which gives its
name to the instrument. The voltage of the detector is adjusted so that the conditions
correspond to the Geiger-Mueller region.

Applications - Detection of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation.

G.M. Detectors are mainly used in portable and installed radiation measuring instruments
due to their sensitivity, simple counting circuit, and ability to primarily detect low-level to
high-level gamma radiations. Although the major use of Geiger counters is probably in

5
individual particle detection, they are also used in gamma Survey Meters, Contamination
Monitors, Area Gamma Monitors, and a host of Health Physics instruments.

They can detect almost all the basic types of radiation, but there are slight differences in
the construction of the Geiger-Mueller tube. Depending on the application to detect low or
high gamma radiation, the construction of the wall material size of the detector varies, and
for Beta-Gamma detection thin-walled G.M. Detector is employed. Whereas thin-end
window detectors are used for Beta detection, G.M. Detectors are almost never used for
Alpha detection. Also, the Geiger-Mueller tube cannot distinguish between different types
of radiation, such as Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation. However, detection efficiency
varies depending on the type of radiation.

There are two main types of Geiger tube construction:

End-Window type: For alpha and beta particles to be detected by Geiger counters, they
must be given a thin window. This "end-window" must be thin enough for the alpha and
beta particles to penetrate. However, a window of almost any thickness will prevent an
alpha particle from entering the chamber. The window is usually made of mica with a
density of about 1.5 -2.0 mg/𝑐𝑚2 to allow low-energy beta particles (eg., from carbon-14)
to enter the detector. The efficiency reduction for alpha is due to the attention though the
distance from the surface being checked also has a significant effect. Ideally, a source of
alpha radiation should be less than 10mm from the detector due to attenuation in the air.
Tubular Windowless type: Gamma rays have very little trouble penetrating the metal walls
of the chamber. Therefore, Geiger counters may be used to detect gamma radiation and X-
rays (thin-walled tubes) collectively known as photons, and for this, the windowless tube
is used.

A thick-walled tube is used for gamma radiation detection above energies of about 25 KeV,
and this type generally has an overall wall thickness of about 1-2 mm of chrome steel.

A thin-walled tube is used for low-energy photons (X-rays or gamma rays) and high-energy
beta particles. The transition from thin-walled to thick-walled design occurs at 300-400
KeV energy levels. Above these levels, thick-walled designs are used, and beneath these
levels, the direct gas ionization effect is predominant.

Sometimes, a "pancake" design of the Geiger-Mueller tube is preferred. This detector is a

flat Geiger tube with a thin mica window of a larger area. Flat Geiger tubes like this are
known as "pancake" tubes. Such tubes are fitted with a wire screen to protect them. This
design provides a larger detecting area and, thus higher efficiency to make checking
quicker. However, the pressure of the atmosphere against the low pressure of the fill gas
limits the window size due to the limited strength of the window membrane.

6
Exp: 1. STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A G.M. TUBE
1.1 PROCEDURE
• Make the connection between the counting system and G.M. Detector by MHV to
UHF co-axial cable. Also, connect the main chord from the counting system to 230V
A.C. Power.
• Place a Gamma or Beta source facing the end window of the detector in the source
holder of the G.M. stand or optical bench at about 2 cm (for Gamma source) or four
cm (for Beta source) approximately from the end window of the detector. (For Beta
source, ensure the count rate is less than 200 CPS at 500V), As shown in figure 1.1.
• Now power up the unit and select menu options to PROGRAM On the keypad of
the G.M. Counting System and select 30-sec preset time typically (It can be in the
range of 30 to 60 sec.) [ For all command button functions, refer to G.M. Counting
System GC601A/GC602A user manual.

Experiment Setup for Characteristic of GM Tube (Figure 1.1)

• Now press the "START" button to record the counts, and gradually increase the HV
by rotating the HV knob until the unit starts counting. Now, Press the "STOP"
button.
• Now, take a fresh reading (STARTING VOLTAGE) and record the observations in
the format in Table 1.1.
• Also record for each HV setting, corresponding background counts without keeping
the source.

7
 • Continue to take these readings in steps of 30V and for the same preset time, keep
observing counts & tabulate the data, with and without source.
• Within 2 to 3 readings, counts will steeply increase and remain constant with
marginal increase (maybe within 10%). After a few readings, one will find a steep
increase as one enters the discharge region. Take just one or two readings in this
region and reduce the HV bias to O volts. It is important to note that operating the
G.M detector in the discharge region for a longer time can reduce the life of the tube
or can result in permanent damage to the detector.
• Now tabulate the readings and plot a graph of voltage against counts (corrected
counts). This graph should look as shown in Figure 1.2.
• Identify from the graph / tabulated data
• Starting Voltage
• Lower threshold voltage (V1)
• Upper threshold voltage (V2). It is called the Breakdown threshold voltage
• Discharge region
• Calculate plateau length, percentage slope, and operating potential.
Table - 1.1: G.M. Characteristics Data

Sl. EHT(Volts) Counts in 30 sec Background Counts 30- Corrected Counts

No. N sec 𝑁𝑏 𝑁𝑐 = (N-𝑁𝑏 ) 30 sec

1 343 0 29 29

2 373 6003 31 5972

3 403 6379 33 6346

4 433 6446 35 6411

5 463 6577 38 6539

6 493 6636 41 6595

7 523 6843 44 6799

8 553 7082 46 7036

9 583 7183 49 7134

10 613 7352 50 7302

11 643 7585 55 7530

12 673 13200 59 13141

8
1.2 ANALYSIS & COMPUTATIONS
Estimate from the tabulated readings:
𝑉1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑢 = 403 𝑉
𝑉2 = 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑢 = 613 𝑉
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑢 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 210 𝑉
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉0 = 𝑉1 + = 508 𝑉
2
𝑁2 − 𝑁1 100 7302 − 6302 100
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑋 = 𝑋 = 7.2 %
𝑁1 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 6302 613 − 403

Net Count (Nc ) vs applied voltage (V)

14000

12000

10000
Net Ciunt (Nc )

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
320 370 420 470 520 570 620 670
Applied Voltage (V)

Figure 1.2

9
Exp: 2. INVERSE SQUARE LAW: GAMMA RAYS
1. PROCEDURE
• Make detector-source arrangement and power up the unit.
• Without a source, make a few (about 5 readings) background measurements and
take an average of them for a preset time of, say 60 sec.
• Compute Average background counts in 60 sec Ba = (b1+b2+b3+b4+b5) /5. Compute
Background rate = Ba/t (t =60 sec).
• Place a gamma source in the source holder, and adjust the distance (d) from the
detector end window to be 7 cm away from the center of the source holder as shown
in Figure 2.1.

Experiment Setup for Inverse Square Law (Figure 2.1)

• Set the HV to Operating Voltage (say 500 V), program 'preset time' to 60 sec, and
record the data counts by pressing the ‘START’ button.
• Increase the Distance (d) in steps of 1 cm, and for each step, record the observations,
and tabulate the data as shown in Table (2.1) till you reach 16 to 17 cm from the
detector face.
• Subtract the background counts from the recorded counts, resulting in "corrected
counts" (N) in 60 sec. From this, obtain Net Count Rate (R) per second.

10
2. COMPUTATION & ANALYSIS

1. Compute and tabulate 'Net count rate' (R), 'Distance,’ transformation (1/d²), etc., as
shown in Table (2.1). Plot a graph of Net count rate (R) Vs. distance (d) in cm.
(Figure 2.2). It can be seen from the figure that the product, R.d² is a constant.

2. An alternative analysis method involves transforming the data so that the results lie
in a straight line. For this purpose, “Net Count Rate” vs. “Reciprocal of the distance
square” (1/d2) are plotted (refer to Figure 2.3). This will be a straight line passing
through the origin (0, 0) as this point corresponds to a source-detector distance of
infinity.

Table (2.1): Data for Inverse Square Law Experiment

Sl. No. Distance Net Counts Net Count 1/d2 in 1/m2 Log d Log R R.d2

in cm (d) in 60 sec. Rate

1 7 1061.5 17.691 204.081 0.845 1.247 866.89

2 8 842.5 14.041 156.25 0.903 1.147 898.66

3 9 672.5 11.208 123.456 0.954 1.049 907.87

4 10 566 9.433 100 1 0.9746 943.33

5 11 497.5 8.291 82.644 1.0413 0.9186 1003.29

6 12 400 6.666 69.444 1.0791 0.823 960

7 13 337.5 5.625 59.171 1.1139 0.750 950.62

8 14 258 4.3 51.020 1.1461 0.633 842.8

9 15 217 3.616 44.444 1.1760 0.558 813.75

10 16 216.5 3.608 39.062 1.2041 0.557 923.73

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 Count Rate vs Distance
20
18
16
14

Count Rate
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Distance (cm)

Figure 2.2

250

200
Distance

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Net Count Rate

Figure 2.3

1.4

1.2

0.8
Log d

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Log R

Figure 2.4

12
Exp: 3. TO STUDY DETERMINATION OF BETA PARTICLE RANGE AND
MAXIMUM ENERGY (BY HALF-THICKNESS METHOD)

1. PROCEDURE
• Make standard connections and arrangements between the G.M. Counting system
detector, absorber, and source.
• Set the GM voltage at the operating voltage of the GM tube.
• Without source, make a few (about 5 readings) background measurements and take
an average of them for a preset time of say 60 sec.
• Compute Average background counts in 60 sec (Ba = (b1+b2+b3+b4+b5)/ 5).
Compute Background rate = Ba/t (t = 60 sec).
• Place a Beta source in the source tray at about 3 cm from the end window of the
GM tube.
• Place an aluminum absorber of zero thickness in the absorber holder at about 2 cm
from the end window of the GM tube and record the counts. Make a setup
arrangement as shown in figure 3.1.

Experimental Setup for Beta particle Range (Figure 3.1)

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 • The absorber thickness is increased in steps of 0.05 mm and every time counts are
recorded.
• This process is repeated until the count rate becomes less than half the count rate
with zero absorber thickness.
• Data will be collected for the standard and second sources.
• In this case, the standard source is Tl -204 and the second source is Sr-90.
• Tabulate the data as shown in table 3.1 and 3.2.
• Density of Aluminium =2.71g/cm³ (g/cm. cube).
• The below data is taken with Thallium (Tl-204).

Table :3.1
Counting Time : 120 sec Absorber : Aluminium
Background : 145 counts Source : Tl-104 (3.7KBq)

Absorber Thickness (in Absorber Thickness in Counts Net counts

mm) mg/cm^2 (counts - BG)

0 0 15220 15075

0.06 16.26 11087 10942

0.12 32.52 8614 8602

0.18 48.78 6408 6263

0.24 65.04 4979 4834

0.30 81.3 3763 3618

0.36 97.56 2734 2589

0.42 113.82 1967 1822

0.48 130.08 1421 1276

0.54 146.34 1030 885

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 Net Counts vs. Absorber Thickness
16000

14000

12000

10000
Net Counts

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Absorber Thickness

Figure 3.2

The below data is taken with Strontium ( 𝑆𝑟 90 - 𝑌 90 )

Table : 3.2
Counting Time : 120 sec Absorber : Aluminium
Background : 145 counts Source : Sr-90

Absorber Thickness (in Absorber Thickness in Counts Net counts

mm) mg/cm^2 (Counts - BG)

0 0 16557 16412

0.06 16.26 13571 13426

0.12 32.52 11868 11723

0.18 48.78 10252 10107

0.24 65.04 9324 9179

0.30 81.3 8386 8241

0.36 97.56 7716 7571

0.42 113.82 7254 7109

0.48 130.08 6671 6526

0.54 146.34 6369 6224

15
 Net Counts vs. Absorber Thickness
18000

16000

14000

12000
Net Counts

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Absorber Thickness

Figure 3.3

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EXP: 4. BACKSCATTERING OF BETA PARTICLES

1. PROCEDURE
• Make standard setup by connecting G.M. Counting System (GC602A) with G.M
Detector (GM125).
• In this experimental setup, the detector, Beta source, and scatterer stand with the
scatterer placed, as shown in Figure 4.1.
• A lead block is placed between the Beta source and Detector so the detector does
not receive any direct radiation from the Beta source.
• Switch ON the GC602A Electronic Unit and set the operating High voltage at 500V.
• To start with, remove the scatterer stand and measure the counts for 200 secs.
• Now place the scatterer stand and load Aluminum foil (scatterer) of thickness
0.05mm.
• The apparatus is first set up to give maximum count rate by adjusting the source/
detector positions.
• After doing this, record the counts for 200 secs. Then increase the thickness of the
scatterer in steps of 0.05mm by adding one foil to the previous scatterer, and observe
the counts each time for 200 secs. Tabulate the data as shown in Table 4.1

.
Experimental setup
Figure 4.1

17
2. EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Source Sr-90 Unit GC602A

Activity 3.7KBq Detector GM125
Preset Time 200 Sec Sliding Bench

Table 4.1

Sl. No Material Thickness Net counts

(mm)
i ⅱ Average

1 Al 0 304 322 322 313

2 Al 0.05 356 340 348 35

3 Al 0.10 371 350 360.5 47.5

4 Al 0.15 377 365 371 58

5 Al 0.20 378 386 382 69

6 Al 0.25 392 380 386 73

7 Al 0.30 379 399 389 76

8 Al 0.35 378 422 400 87

9 Al 0.40 401 418 409.5 96.5

10 Al 0.45 402 423 412.5 99.5

11 Al 0.50 424 421 422.5 109.5

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Exp:5. PRODUCTION AND ATTENUATION OF BREMSSTRAHLUNG

5.1 PROCEDURE
● Make a standard setup by connecting GM Counting system GCG02A with G.M
Detector (GM125) placed in the optical bench, As shown in figure 5.1.

Experiment setup for production and attenuation of Bremsstrahlung (Figure 5.1).

● Switch ON the GC602A Electronic Unit and set the operating High Voltage at
500V. An absorber consisting of two materials with widely different atomic
numbers, say, Perspex (1.8mm thick) and Aluminum (0.7 mm thick) is used and the
count rate is measured with the absorber and then with the absorber reversed.
● The absorber thickness must be such that each sheet of absorbent material has about
the same mass per unit area.
● The experiment is conducted with following three combinations of materials
• Al (0.7mm) & Perspex (1.8mm)
• Perspex (1.8mm) & Cu (0.3mm)
• Al (0.7mm) & Cu (0.3mm)

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5.2 EXPERIMENTAL DATA & RESULTS

Source: Sr-90 Distance between source and detector: 6cm.

𝑏1+𝑏2+𝑏3+𝑏4+𝑏5
Activity: 0.1 mCi Preset Time: 300 sec BG: = 353
5

For Al (0.7mm) & Perspex (1.8mm) combination:

Sl. No Absorber position Counts Net Counts

1 Without Absorber 10070 9717

2 Perspex facing source 655 302

3 Al. facing source 928 575

For Perspex (1.8mm) & Cu (0.3mm) combination:

Sl. No Absorber position Counts Net Counts

1 Without Absorber 10070 9717

2 Cu facing source 576 223

3 Perspex facing source 547 194

For Al (0.7 mm) & Cu (0.3mm) combination:

Sl. No Absorber position Counts Net Counts

1 Without Absorber 10070 9717

2 Al facing source 532 179

3 Cu facing source 566 213

20