ASSIGNMENT: SOCIOLOGY

 Define Deviance.
 Find out any five behaviors that are considered deviant.
Discuss them and relate them with the sociological
theories of your choice.
Course: Sociology
Assigned by: Miss Batool Jafry
Submitted by: Haya Kadri
Semester: 1st
Cms ID: 2561-2023
Due date: 11th December, 2023

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DEFINITION OF DEVIANCE:
“Deviance is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways,
mores, or codified law (1906). It can be as minor as picking your nose in public or as major as
committing murder. Although the word ‘deviance’ has a negative connotation in everyday
language, sociologists recognize that deviance is not necessarily bad (Schoepflin 2011). In fact,
from a structural functionalist perspective, one of the positive contributions of deviance is that it
fosters social change. For example, during the U.S. civil rights movement, Rosa Parks violated
social norms when she refused to move to the ‘Black section’ of the bus, and the Little Rock
Nine broke customs of segregation to attend an Arkansas public school.”
(Introduction to Sociology 3e7.1 Deviance and Control)

FIVE BEHAVIORS THAT ARE CONSIDERED DEVIANT:

1. DRUG ADDICITON

This topic investigates the prevalence of illegal drug use in the United States as a distinct form of
deviant behavior, emphasizing various aspects such as associated risks, types of psychoactive
drugs affecting the central nervous system, regulatory attempts, and resulting consequences. The
six distinct categories of drugs, including stimulants, depressants, opiates, hallucinogens,
dissociative anesthetics (PCP and ketamine), and marijuana, are explored. Despite its unique
classification, drug use is acknowledged to bring significant harm to users, those in their vicinity,
and society as a whole. There exist over 40 positivist theories addressing various facets of drug
use, particularly focusing on why certain individuals are more prone to drug use or abuse. These

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explanatory theories fall into three main categories: biological, psychological, and sociological.
I’m going to relate this topic with a few sociological theories.
Akins, S., & Mosher, C. J. (2015). Drug Use as Deviance. In E. Goode (Ed.), The Handbook
of Deviance (pp. 20). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/9781118701386

Economic Deprivation Theory:

After reviewing various studies conducted on drug use since the early 1950s, Elliott Currie
(1993) concludes that “the link between drug abuse and deprivation is one of the strongest in 40
years of careful research.” More specifically, he writes,
“Forty years of accumulated research, then, confirms that endemic drug abuse is
intimately related to conditions of mass social deprivation, economic marginality, and
cultural and community breakdown—in Europe as in the United States, in the eighties and
nineties as in the sixties, among poor whites and Hispanics as well as inner-city blacks.”
Currie provides insights into why individuals facing poverty may turn to drugs in response to the
social conditions associated with economic deprivation. Firstly, drugs offer a means of fulfilling
the need for status that is often denied to the poor in mainstream society. In impoverished
neighborhoods, a drug culture emerges as an alternative source of esteem and respect. Secondly,
drugs become a coping mechanism for dealing with the harsh realities of poverty, providing an
escape from daily problems, alleviating emotional distress, and relieving stress. Thirdly, in the
absence of stable employment or a secure family life, drugs can offer a semblance of structure or
purpose to otherwise disrupted lives, helping alleviate monotony and purposelessness. Lastly, the
pervasive presence and easy accessibility of illicit drugs in poor communities contribute to
passive entry into drug use without a full consideration of its consequences. In summary, this
theory suggests that the dire circumstances of poverty can drive individuals to use drugs as a way
of fulfilling normal human needs that societal structures have systematically hindered.

Cognitive Association Theory:

The economic deprivation theory looks at why people use drugs and become addicted, while the
cognitive association theory specifically explores the reasons behind drug addiction. As Alfred
Lindesmith (1968) explains,
“The power of the [drug] habit is derived basically from effects which follow when the drug
is removed rather than from any positive effects which its presence in the body produces.
Addiction occurs only when [drugs] are used to alleviate withdrawal distress, after this
distress had been properly understood . . . . If the individual fails to conceive of his distress
as withdrawal distress brought about by the absence of [the drugs], he does not become
addicted, but, if he does, addiction is quickly and permanently established through further
use of the drug.”
Lindesmith did some research, and he found interesting stuff supporting the idea that people get
addicted to drugs because of what they think. He looked at patients who got morphine after
surgery - some got hooked on it, and some didn't. The big difference was whether they knew that

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feeling sick when they stopped taking morphine was because of the drug. If they knew, they
asked for more morphine and got addicted. But if they didn't know and the doctor said feeling
sick was normal, they didn't get hooked. Lindesmith says addiction happens when you connect
feeling sick with using the drug before. He also noticed that people who can't understand
withdrawal symptoms, like the mentally ill or young kids, don't usually get addicted.
Additionally, it explains why people with average intelligence can easily become addicted once
they experience withdrawal distress, highlighting a deeper societal inclination to seek instant
relief rather than endure distress stoically.

Social-Psychological Theory:
Various studies reveal sociological and psychological factors that lead people from diverse
backgrounds into drug use. Societal influences, like the legal drug culture, play a significant role,
with substances such as alcohol, tobacco, and sedatives being actively promoted through
advertising and doctor recommendations. The public, facing physical and psychological
challenges, often turns to legal drugs, creating a familiarity that makes trying illegal substances
easier. Social factors, rooted in deviance theories, contribute to drug use, including a lack of
attachment to conventional figures or institutions, having drug-using friends, belonging to a
drug-using subculture, and easy access to drugs.
Psychological reasons behind drug use include poor self-concept, low self-esteem, distress,
powerlessness, rebelliousness, a willingness to embrace uncertainty, and the expectation that
drugs will enhance status or alleviate life's problems. Clinical evidence suggests that individuals
with specific personal issues tend to prefer and regularly use a particular drug that helps address
their unique problems, such as heroin for calming effects or cocaine for increased energy and
sociability. Those concerned about athletic performance may turn to steroids and human growth
hormone.
Thio, A., Taylor, J. D., & Schwartz, M. D. (2012). Deviant Behavior (11th ed., pp. 315-317).
Pearson.

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2. RITUALISM

In sociology, ritualism describes a scenario where individuals persistently engage in activities or

rituals, even when their values and beliefs no longer align with the original goals associated with
those actions. This concept, stemming from the idea of ritual observance, suggests that
individuals may reject traditional cultural goals while still adhering to the established routines or
courses designed to achieve those goals. From a deviance perspective, ritualism reflects a form
of nonconformity where individuals diverge from mainstream societal expectations by rejecting
the pursuit of conventional success while adhering to the means or rituals associated with it. In
this way, ritualism represents a deviant adaptation to the strain between societal goals and
available means, as outlined in Robert K. Merton's strain theory.

Strain Theory:
Strain Theory suggests that crime arises when individuals lack sufficient legal avenues to
attain the standard success goals set by society. When there's a disconnect between these goals
and the available means to achieve them, a 'strain' is created, leading some individuals to resort
to criminal activities as an alternative means of achieving success. Originating in the 1940s,
Robert Merton first developed Strain Theory to account for the increasing crime rates in the
USA. Today, this theory remains influential among contemporary sociologists.
Merton argued that when individuals are faced with a gap between their goals and their current
status, strain occurs. When faced with strain, people have five ways to adapt:
1. Conformity: pursing cultural goals through socially approved means.
2. Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally
approved goals. Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security.

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 3. Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more
modest and humble).
4. Retreatism: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to
escape it.
5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them.

Revisesociology.com. (2023, November 16). Merton’s Strain Theory of Deviance.

Retrieved from https://revisesociology.com/2016/04/16/mertons-strain-theory-
deviance/#google_vignette
"The culture makes incompatible demands. In this setting, a cardinal American virtue
—'ambition'—promotes a cardinal American vice—'deviant behavior'."
The inherent contradiction highlights how the cultural emphasis on ambition may inadvertently
contribute to deviant practices, such as ritualism, as individuals navigate the complex landscape
of societal expectations.
Merton (1957) Social Theory and Social Structure

Ethno-methodology:
The study delves into the creation and performance of rites of passage in Neopagan Witchcraft
and reformed Christianity, such as the "first blood" ceremonies and modern confirmations.
Applying the ethno-methodology approach, it examines how individuals invent and carry out
these rituals, drawing inspiration from indigenous cultures, feminist spirituality, and the
insights of anthropologists and religious scholars.
In the context of ritualism, ethnomethodology can be applied to study how rituals contribute to
the construction of social reality. Ethno-methodologists might explore how individuals, through
their actions and interactions, establish and reinforce ritualistic behaviors, examining the shared
meanings and social order that arise from these rituals.

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Ethno-methodology is used to unravel the cultural appropriation and transformation of these
rituals, investigating how people shape and interpret knowledge in their social contexts. The
research suggests a shift from essentialist perspectives on knowledge to an acknowledgment that
knowledge is context-dependent and continually evolving, particularly within the religious and
educational practices of these communities.

Salomonsen, J. (2003). "The Ethno-Methodology of Ritual Invention in Contemporary

Culture—Two Pagan and Christian Cases." Journal of Ritual Studies, 17(2), 15-24.
Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368992

3. SUICIDE

Suicide is considered a deviant behavior as it involves intentional, self-inflicted harm leading

to one's death, contravening societal norms that value preservation of life. The act
challenges cultural taboos surrounding death and contradicts the instinct of self-preservation
deeply ingrained in human evolution. While mental health factors like depression may
contribute, the decision to end one's life often results from a complex interplay of social forces
such as lack of support, societal expectations, and individual struggles. The various forms of
suicidal experiences, from explicit threats to completed acts, highlight the multifaceted nature of
this deviant behavior within a sociological context.
Sociological theories of suicide diverge from psychiatric perspectives by emphasizing social
factors over individual pathology. Sociologists reject the idea that certain demographics, such as
gender, race, or age, are inherently abnormal. Positivist sociological theories delve into social
causes, seeking to understand why certain groups have higher suicide rates. In contrast,
constructionist sociological theories focus on unraveling the meanings associated with suicide,
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exploring how societal structures and interactions contribute to this complex deviant behavior.
These sociological frameworks highlight the importance of examining suicide within the broader
context of social structures and group dynamics.

Classical Durkheimian Theory:

Émile Durkheim's classic theory on suicide underscores the impact of social integration and
regulation on suicidal behavior. Social integration involves individuals voluntarily affiliating
with groups, while social regulation entails constraints imposed by these groups. Durkheim
categorizes suicide into four types: egoistic (due to insufficient integration), altruistic
(stemming from excessive integration), anomic (linked to insufficient regulation), and
fatalistic (resulting from excessive regulation). For instance, unmarried individuals may be
prone to egoistic suicide, while members of close-knit terrorist groups might commit altruistic
suicide.
Durkheim posits that both too little and too much social integration or regulation increase the
likelihood of suicide, compared to moderate levels. This theory provides a comprehensive
framework to understand how varying degrees of social cohesion and control influence suicidal
tendencies.
Durkheim's classical theory remains influential, offering insights into the intricate relationship
between social dynamics and suicide, highlighting the nuanced interplay of integration and
regulation.

Phenomenological Theories:
The validity of Durkheimian theories, classical and modern, relies on official suicide statistics,
assumed to be reasonably reliable. Phenomenological sociologists challenge this assumption,
viewing official statistics as seriously unreliable. Two key distinctions exist between
Durkheimian and phenomenological theories.
Firstly, Durkheimian theories are positivist, seeking the causes of group differences in suicide
rates, while phenomenological theories are constructionist, concerned with the meanings
and actions of the suicidal individual. Secondly, Durkheimian theories rely on abstract official
statistics, while phenomenological theories examine suicide up close through suicide notes and
interviews.

Theory of Suicidal Meanings

Jack Douglas proposes the Theory of Suicidal Meanings, highlighting the disparity between
personal meanings constructed by suicidal individuals and society's shared meanings of suicide.
Society attributes meanings such as motives or societal issues, considering suicide unnatural.
However, suicidal individuals construct meanings like transporting the soul, changing
perceptions, achieving fellow-feeling, or seeking revenge, making suicide more acceptable to
them.

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Theory of Suicidal Process
Jerry Jacobs' Theory of Suicidal Process, classified the meanings of suicide as social prohibitions
against the act because suicide is frequently defined by society at large as “a violation of the
sacred, God-given trust of life.” derived from the analysis of suicide notes, emphasizes
overcoming social prohibitions against suicide. Suicidal individuals undergo a process involving
facing intolerable problems, perceiving death as the only solution, absolving themselves of guilt,
and seeking forgiveness through prayer or suicide notes. Jacobs argues that societal definitions of
suicide as a violation of sacred trust must be overcome for suicide to occur.
Thio, A., Taylor, J. D., & Schwartz, M. D. (2012). Deviant Behavior (11th ed., pp. 168-174).
Pearson.

4. FAMILY VIOLENCE

Family violence, including acts like marital rape, woman abuse, child abuse, and elder abuse,
is considered deviant behavior within societal norms. The diverse range of violent actions
within families deviates from accepted standards of interpersonal conduct. The prevalence of
such violence, despite definitional challenges and underreporting, emphasizes its deviant nature.
The deviation is not only in the range of behaviors but also in the significant impact on
individuals within families, making it a serious social problem. The concept of family violence
as deviant behavior underscores its departure from accepted norms of family interactions.
It is this commonality among various types of family violence that has led some sociologists and
other social scientists to develop positivist theories that can simultaneously explain different
forms of family violence. Here I will discuss only a few theories.

Social Learning Theory:

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The theory posits that individuals are more prone to engage in family violence if they have been
exposed to such behavior, either as perpetrators or victims, or by witnessing violence in their
social environment. Through these experiences, individuals learn that violence is an acceptable
means of addressing interpersonal problems, leading to its repetition within the family context.

Stress Theory:
While everyone experiences stress, individuals facing elevated stress levels are more likely to
resort to violence. However, the likelihood of violence under stress depends on personal
resources and social support. Those lacking these resources and support systems are more
susceptible to succumb to stress and resort to violence against family members.

Exchange Theory:
This theory operates on the principle of cost and benefit, resembling the law of reward and
punishment. It suggests that individuals are inclined to commit family violence when the
perceived benefits, such as exerting power and control over the victim, outweigh the potential
costs or punishment. In families, where the private nature often discourages law enforcement
involvement, the perceived rewards may surpass the risk of legal consequences.
Thio, A., Taylor, J. D., & Schwartz, M. D. (2012). Deviant Behavior (11th ed., pp. 132-134).
Pearson.

5. SHOPLIFTING

The research focuses on understanding deviant behavior in modern supermarkets, specifically

examining shoplifting. Rather than exploring the causes of deviation, the study delves into the
processes through which individuals are labeled as deviant within the organizational structure.

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Economic factors such as poverty contribute to shoplifting, but the motivations extend beyond
financial need. Many shoplifters, including frugal customers, are driven by the desire to stretch
their budgets through bargain hunting, influenced by a consumption-driven society.
Social-psychological motivations play a significant role, with the thrill and excitement of
shoplifting being a common motive. Additionally, the desire for social acceptance, especially
among youngsters influenced by peer pressure, contributes to the prevalence of shoplifting.
Rationalizations, such as denying responsibility, minimizing the impact on victims, or blaming
the store, serve as coping mechanisms for shoplifters to justify their actions. These economic
and social-psychological motivations, coupled with the readily available opportunities for
shoplifting and lax law enforcement, make it a deviant behavior. Shoplifting violates societal
norms, has economic repercussions, and is driven by complex psychological factors, classifying
it as deviant within the broader social context.
The conceptualization of deviant behavior and its processes within systems can be related to
various sociological theories, providing insights into shoplifting as a deviant act.

Strain Theory (Merton):

Merton's Strain Theory suggests that individuals turn to deviance when they face a disjunction
between societal goals and the means available to achieve them. In the context of shoplifting,
individuals experiencing economic strain or the inability to afford desired goods may turn to
theft as a deviant means of achieving material goals.

Structural-Functionalism (Parsons):
Parsons' Structural-Functionalism emphasizes the role of deviance in maintaining social order.
In the case of shoplifting, the deviant act can be seen as a response to social expectations and
norms related to consumerism. Shoplifting disrupts the expected functioning of the economic
system by challenging the conventional means of acquiring goods.

Conflict Theory (Clinard):

Conflict Theory, as presented by Clinard, focuses on power differentials and social inequalities.
Shoplifting, particularly by economically disadvantaged individuals, can be viewed as a form
of resistance against the economic disparities perpetuated by the capitalist system. It is an
expression of discontent and a response to unequal access to resources.

Newberg, P. M. (1961). Shoplifting: A Study in Deviance (p. 132). Northwestern University.

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