8.

3 Sexual reproduction in Humans

1. Identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system: the testes, scrotum, sperm
ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis, and state the functions of these parts.
• The male reproductive system includes all the organs responsible for the production
of sperm (the male gamete)
• It also includes the organs that are involved in synthesising the semen in which the
sperm is transported during copulation
The male reproductive organs
Figure 3 shows the male reproductive organs. Sperm
cells are produced in the testes. The testes are held outside the body in
two sacs of skin called the scrotum. The scrotum ensures that the
testes are maintained at the best temperature for sperm production,
slightly below normal body temperature. The testes contain thousands
of tubules in which sperm are made. Sperm production starts in
puberty and new sperm are made continually. The sperm are stored
short term in the epididymis. The epididymis leads to the sperm
ducts that join with the urethra below the bladder. As the sperm
travel along the sperm duct, they mix with fluid from the seminal
vesicles and prostate gland.
The seminal vesicles produce a liquid that contains fructose to
nourish the sperm while the prostate gland produces a basic liquid to
neutralize acids in the female reproductive tract. The liquids from the
prostate gland and seminal vesicles together with sperm are known as
semen. The urethra opens at the end of the penis and carries either
urine or semen at different times.
Structures of the Male Reproductive System
The following structures all contribute to the production of sperm and semen as
part of the reproductive process in males
•Structures are organised according to the path taken by sperm (from production
to release)

Testis
•The testis (plural: testes) is responsible for the production of sperm and
testosterone (male sex hormone)

Epididymis
•Site where sperm matures and develops the ability to be motile (i.e. ‘swim’) –
mature sperm is stored here until ejaculation

Vas Deferens
•Long tube which conducts sperm from the testes to the prostate gland (which
connects to the urethra) during ejaculation

Seminal Vesicle
•Secretes fluid containing fructose (to nourish sperm), mucus (to protect sperm)
and prostaglandin (triggers uterine contractions)
Prostate Gland
•Secretes an alkaline fluid to neutralise vaginal acids (necessary to maintain
sperm viability)

Urethra
•Conducts sperm / semen from the prostate gland to the outside of the body via
the penis (also used to convey urine)
3. Identify on diagrams of the female reproductive system: the
ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina, and state the functions of
these parts.
Structures of the Female Reproductive System
The following structures all contribute to the production and maintenance of an
egg as part of the female reproductive process
•Structures are organised according to the path taken by egg (from production to
implantation or elimination)

Ovary
•The ovary is where oocytes mature prior to release (ovulation) – it also
responsible for estrogen and progesterone secretion

Fimbria
•Fimbria (plural: fimbriae) are a fringe of tissue adjacent to an ovary that sweep a
oocyte into the oviduct

Oviduct
•The oviduct (or fallopian tube) transports the oocyte to the uterus – it is also
typically where fertilisation occurs

Uterus
•The uterus is the organ where a fertilised egg will implant and develop (becomin
an embryo)
Endometrium
•The mucous membrane lining of the uterus, it thickens in preparation for
implantation or is otherwise lost (via menstruation)

Vagina
•Passage leading to the uterus by which the penis can enter (uterus
protected by a muscular opening called the cervix)
The uterus is composed of two layers, the outer muscle wall and the
inner lining or endometrium.
A ring of muscle called the cervix closes the base of the uterus. The
vagina is also made of muscle and opens into the vulva. The urethra
in women is not connected to the reproductive organs but opens
separately into the vulva, i.e. the reproductive organs are independent
of the excretory organs.
 4. Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the uterus and
ovaries.
The menstrual cycle repeats approximately every 28 days and involves changes in
pituitary hormones, ovarian hormones, preparation of the uterus and ovulation (fig. 6 ).
At the beginning of the cycle, levels of estrogen and progesterone are low and this
stimulates the breakdown of the uterus lining or endometrium. The loss of the uterus
lining and some blood is called menstruation and continues for approximately 5 days.
The pituitary gland starts to produce follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) that
stimulates one ovarian follicle to develop. One ovum matures inside the follicle and the
follicle cells start to produce estrogen. The increasing levels of estrogen stimulate the
repair of the uterus lining.
When estrogen levels are high (day 11) it inhibits further FSH secretion and stimulates
the pituitary gland to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH). Levels of luteinizing hormone
(LH) rise just before ovulation and stimulate ovulation (day 14). After ovulation, the
follicle cells turn into a corpus luteum (yellow body.) LH stimulates the corpus luteum
to produce progesterone. Progesterone stimulates further development and
maintenance of the uterus lining. This is to prepare the uterus for implantation.
Stages of the Menstrual Cycle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjsiJZR3A6w

If fertilization and implantation do not occur, the corpus luteum slowly

degenerates causing levels of progesterone to decrease. This initiates
menstruation. If implantation does occur, the corpus luteum does not
degenerate immediately, so levels of progesterone remain high. This
maintains the uterus lining and maintains the pregnancy. By the end of
the third month of pregnancy, the placenta produces sufficient estrogen
and progesterone to maintain the pregnancy. If the placenta fails to
produce sufficient progesterone, the uterus lining degenerates and a
miscarriage results.
During pregnancy, the menstrual cycle stops and ovulation is inhibited.
As a result, sexual intercourse during pregnancy will not lead to a
second implantation.
5. Describe fertilisation in terms of the joining of the nuclei of male
gamete (sperm) and the female gamete (egg).

Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals. Humans

reproduce by sexual reproduction, that is reproduction involving
gametes and fertilization. Gametes are defined as haploid sex cells
that cannot develop further unless fertilization occurs.
•Sperm are deposited in the vagina during sexual
•intercourse (mating). Before mating, increased blood flow into the
erectile tissue, of the penis, makes the penis erect. This enables the
penis to enter the vagina easily. The vagina produces mucus for
lubrication. Sperm are released by a reflex action called
ejaculation. One ejaculation releases up to 500 million sperm cells
but only one sperm can fertilize an ovum. Sperm cells survive for 2
or 3 days before disintegrating. Ova only survive for 24 hours.
Therefore every month there is only approximately five days when
fertilization is possible.
Fertilization is defined as the fusion (joining) of the sperm nucleus
with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote. This returns the
chromosome number to the diploid number and brings together
chromosomes from two different sources, so increasing variation in
the population. A zygote is a diploid cell that results from fertilization
and it will divide by mitosis to form an embryo. If fertilization is to be
successful, it must occur at the beginning of the oviduct (near the
ovaries.) To reach the oviduct, the sperm cells must swim from
where they are deposited at the top of the vagina, up the uterus to
the oviduct.
 2 Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, numbers and
mobility.
The female gamete is called an ovum (fig. 1) and has a large volume of
cytoplasm to supply materials for the development of the embryo. The
male gametes are sperm or spermatozoa (fig. 2). A sperm cell has a
flagellum or tail to enable it to swim towards an ovum. Ova release
chemicals to attract sperm cells.
 One ejaculation releases up to 500 million sperm cells but only
one sperm can fertilize an ovum. Sperm cells survive for 2 or 3
days before disintegrating. Ova only survive for 24 hours.

a) Complete the table below by placing ticks in the appropriate

columns.
6. Outline early development of the zygote simply in terms of the
formation of a ball of cells that becomes implanted in the wall of the
uterus.
7. Indicate the functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.
• After implantation, the cell in the embrio continue to
divide . As the embrio grows also a placents grows, which
connects the embrio to the wall of the uterus. The Placenta
is where substances are exchanged between the embrio
and the mother‘s blood.
• After 11 weeks the embrio has developped into a fetus.
The placenta is joined to the fetus through the umbilical
cord. Inside the cord there are two arteries and a vein. The
arteries take the blood from the fetus to the placenta and
the vein return blood to the fetus.
• The fetus is surrounded by a stong membrane colled the
amnion. This makes a liquid collaed the amniotic fluid,
this help to support the embrio and to protect it.
8. Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to
exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products (no
structural details are required).
Uterus lining (endometrium)
Oxygenated Uterus lining (endometrium)
blood (from
mother) Amnion

Umbilical artery
(deoxygenated
Villi of blood)
placenta
Umbilical vein
(oxygenated blood
Deoxygenated
blood Umbilical cord
In addition to the exchange of nutrients for waste products and the
exchange of gases, the placenta protects the baby from the mother’s
high blood pressure and prevents some harmful substances reaching the
fetus. Unfortunately, some harmful substances can pass through the
placenta, such as nicotine from tobacco smoke, alcohol and the rubella
(German measles) virus. By the end of the third month, the placenta
also acts as an endocrine organ and produces the hormones estrogen
and progesterone.
9. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of breast-feeding
compared with bottle-feeding using formula milk.

Feeding the new born baby

After a baby is born, the mother starts to produce milk.
This is called lactation. The milk contains the right proportion of
protein, fat, sugar, vitamins and salts for the baby to grow. Only
iron is missing from breast milk because a baby is born with
sufficient iron in its liver. Human milk also contains antibodies
that defend the baby’s body against any infections that the mother
has recently been in contact with. The mother’s milk is supplied
at the correct body temperature and is free from bacteria because
it is produced inside the body. In addition to these benefits, breast
feeding gives emotional and psychological support to both the
baby and its mother.
Cow’s milk is the ideal food for baby cows but has less
vitamin A, vitamin C and sugar than human milk. The
content of cow’s milk can be altered to make it more suitable for babies
and such manufactured baby milks are useful when a mother is unable to
feed a baby herself. Care has to be taken to keep artificial milk and bottles
free from bacteria, even so, bottle fed babies are more likely to suffer
illness than naturally fed babies since artificial milks cannot supply
antibodies.
Babies remain dependent on their parents for many years, so having
children represents a big commitment in terms of time and money.
10. Describe the methods of transmission of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), and the ways in which HIV / AIDS can be prevented from
spreading.
11. Outline how HIV affects the immune system in a person with HIV /
AIDS.
AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
It is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus, (HIV). HIV invades
and destroys some of the body’s lymphocytes. This reduces resistance
to infection and an infected person eventually dies from a second
disease such as pneumonia or skin cancer. There is no cure yet.
Some people who become infected with HIV do not develop AIDS.
Those who do develop AIDS may do so in a few weeks or it may take 10
years. The symptoms include most common symptoms of any disease
such as fatigue (tiredness), swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, fever,
cough, diarrhea, purple patches on the skin and depression.
A blood test can detect HIV infection by recording the presence of
antibodies in the blood. If HIV antibodies are present the person is HIV
positive.
Treatment with antiviral drugs can delay the progress of the disease
and vaccines have been tried on animals with limited success.
HIV is transmitted in body fluids such as blood and semen. In the
early days of AIDS 90% of all transmissions in the UK were from male
homosexual activity. However today transmission by heterosexual
activity is very common.
Some people were infected through contaminated
blood transfusions. Now all blood in the UK is heated
to destroy the virus. Some hemophiliacs were infected through
contaminated blood clotting agent (Factor VIII) but all Factor VIII now
comes from genetically engineered bacteria.
Intravenous drug users are at risk if they share needles. In some cities
there are needle replacement programs where registered addicts can
obtain free needles. Hospitals now use disposable syringes to prevent
transmission through improperly sterilized equipment.
Children born to HIV positive mothers may also contract HIV. The
chance of this can be reduced by caesarean section since the virus
does not always cross the placenta. It is also possible for HIV to be
transmitted through breast feeding.
There is no evidence to suggest that this disease can be passed by
droplet infection, insects or everyday social contact. Education
programs in some countries have slowed the spread of AIDS, however
on a global scale the number of infected individuals is still increasing
rapidly.