UNIT 6

Beef Cattle Production and Management

Key terms
Beef is meat from bovines, especially domestic cattle (cows, bulls, heifers, or steers).

Fattening or finishing is the laying of fat or muscle.

Beef cattle are those breeds of cattle that have been primarily used to produce meat.

Dual/multi-purpose breed are breeds selected for both beef, dairy production, work, etc.

6.1. Beef cattle breeds and methods of selection

There is as such no specialized beef cattle breed in the tropical countries. However, some cattle breeds
such as Boran, Africander, Brahman, Gir, Nelore, Guzerate, Red Sindhi, Indo-Brazilian and Ankole-Watusi
are used as beef cattle.

The following table shows the cattle breeds used for meat production.

Breed name Boran

Other name None
Breed purpose Mainly meat
Special notes Strong, very hardy, excellent meat quality, grow relatively faster
Breed size Small to medium
Bulls weight 250-395 kg (the improved Kenya Boran cattle may range from 500 to 850
kg)
Cow’s weight 225 – 355 kg
Climate Tolerance Native Climates
Coat Color Black, fawn, red, white
Horned Yes
Milk Yield Poor
Place of Origin Southern Ethiopia

Breed name Brahman

Other name None
Breed purpose Meat, milk, drought
Special notes Very strong and hardy, known for their extreme tolerance to heat and are
widespread in tropical regions. They are also resistant to insects due to their
thick skin.
Breed size Medium to large
Bulls weight 800 – 1000 kg
Cow’s weight 500 – 700 kg
Climate Tolerance All climates
Coat Color Mainly gray and red, other colors also available
Horned Yes
Milk Yield Good
Place of Origin India

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 Breed name Afrikander
Other name Africander
Breed purpose Mainly meat
Special notes Well-muscled, good resistance to tick-borne diseases, economical to raise,
good temperament, good fertility, cows are very maternal.

Breed size Medium to large

Bulls weight 820 -1090 kg
Cow’s weight 450 – 600 kg
Climate Tolerance Native climates
Coat Color Usually deep red colored
Horned Yes
Milk Yield Good
Place of Origin South Africa

The temperate cattle breeds refer to cattle found in the temperate zones especially in the USA and in
Europe. Temperate cattle breeds include Hereford, Angus, Shorthorn, South Devon.

Breed name Hereford

Other name None
Breed purpose Meat
Special notes Very hardy, active, well adapted to almost all climates
Breed size Medium to large
Bulls weight Around 1200 kg
Cow’s weight Around 800 kg
Climate Tolerance All climates
Coat Color Dark red to red-yellow
Horned Yes, or polled
Milk Yield Poor
Place of Origin England

Breed name Angus

Other name Aberdeen Angus
Breed purpose Meat
Special notes Very hardy and strong, well-adapted to cold climates
Breed size Medium to large
Bulls weight Around 850 kg
Cow’s weight Around 550 kg
Climate Tolerance All climates
Coat Color Black or red
Horned Pooled
Milk Yield Poor
Place of Origin Scotland

Breed name Charolais

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 Other name None
Breed purpose Mainly meat, also draught
Special notes Extremely hardy, strong, easy calving, excellent maternal qualities, good
quality meat.
Breed size Large
Bulls weight Around 1100 kg
Cow’s weight Around 900 kg
Climate Tolerance Native climates
Coat Color Mainly white
Horned Yes or pooled
Milk Yield Poor
Place of Origin France

Beef Cattle Traits

There are various traits for consideration in the selection of beef cattle. The traits need to be carefully
considered during the selection in order to achieve improved beef cattle. Below is a list of some
essential traits to consider:

 Weaning weight is a weight that is taken when a contemporary group (same-sex, age-range,
and management) of calves’ averages about 205 days of age. It is used to evaluate differences in
the growth potential of calves and the milking ability of dams.
 Dressing percentage/yield is the ratio of dressed carcass weight to the weight of the live animal
expressed as a percentage.
 Birth weight is the first weight of calf, taken just after born.
 Pre-weaning weight is a weight that is taken before an animal is weaned.
 Post weaning weight is a weight that is taken after an animal is weaned.
 Yearling weight is a measure of combined pre-weaning and post-weaning growth, taken
between 320 - 410 days of age.
 Carcass weight is the weight of the carcass of an animal at the packing plant after the internal
organs have been removed.
 Carcass grade is the definition of beef quality, cutability and undesirable carcass.
 Carcass fat thickness is measured between the 10th and 11th ribs at the “three quarter”
position as in beef.
 Carcass loin-eye-area is the number of square inches of muscle in a cross section of the
longissimus dorsi muscle.
 Carcass tenderness is a quality of meat gauging how easily it is chewed or cut. Tenderness is a
desirable quality, as tender meat is softer, easier to chew, and generally more palatable than
harder meat.
 Carcass rib-eye-area is the surface area of the longissimus dorsi (eye) muscle between the 12th
and 13th rib of a beef or lamb carcass.
 Marbling is defined as the flecks of fat within the muscle (i.e., intramuscular fat) and is
associated with the flavor and juiciness of meat.

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  Meat quality is normally defined by the compositional quality (lean to fat ratio) and the
palatability factors such as visual appearance, smell, firmness, juiciness, tenderness, and flavor.

Carcass Traits
Carcass traits describe the characteristics of beef. Broadly, carcass traits are divided into carcass quality
(composition) and carcass quantity traits. Carcass quality traits include marbling score, fat thickness,
kidney, pelvic, heart fat percentages, ribeye, and yield grade. Carcass quantity traits comprise pre-
slaughter live weight, hot carcass weight, and dressing percentage.

Beef Cattle Selection methods

Selection is one of the genetic improvement options in the beef cattle production system. Beef animals
with good performances are selected to be the parents of the next generation.

Beef cattle can be selected based on the preset objectives. Producers need to achieve their interest by
selecting animals of good performances. Good performance refers to high meat yield. Quality meat, fast
growth rate, high feed intake, disease and heat tolerance, foraging ability, etc. can be mentioned as
some examples beef cattle criteria.

6.2. Beef Cattle Feeds and Feeding Methods

These feed resources are commonly grouped into three forms as shown below.

 Dry feeds: This type of feed resources includes hays, grains, oilseed meals, straw, stover, corn
cobs, corn husks, soybean hulls, soybean mill feeds, cottonseed hulls, peanut hulls, oat hulls, rice
hulls
 Green feeds: This feed resource includes pasture and green chop. (Feeds are roughages daily
chopped in the feed and brought to livestock for feeding).
 High moisture feeds: Feed resources like high-moisture grain, haylage, wet byproduct feeds,
roots and tubers, fresh milk, silage, cactus, Enset, etc

6.2.2. Beef Cattle Feeding Methods

Beef cattle require nutrients to support maintenance, reproduction, lactation, and growth. From these
components, requirements for energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins are calculated for animals. The
level at which each nutrient is required by an animal depends on whether the animal is being fed for:

 Maintenance
 maintenance + production
 maintenance + production + reproduction

Factors determining the level of nutrient requirement

 Age and Weight: The aged or the larger the animal, the greater its maintenance requirement,
mainly energy, and protein.
 Breed: Extremely heavy-muscled breeds will have greater maintenance requirements than light-
muscled breeds.

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  Level of production: Heavy milking breeds have an increased nutritional requirement. Nutrient
requirements for lactation are based on the amount of milk at peak lactation and the
composition of the milk. Animals that produce more milk, and milk with more fat and protein,
will have higher nutrient requirements.
 Activity: Increased activity or rough land will increase maintenance energy needs as will
extremely cold, hot, wet, or muddy conditions.
 Environment conditions: high environmental temperatures and weather conditions can impact
feed intake. As temperatures increase above the animal’s thermal neutral zone, the point at
which heat stress begins, dry matter intake decreases.
 Physiological status: Pregnancy and lactation increase basal metabolism, so maintenance
requirements are altered accordingly. Adjustments to requirements for reproduction are based
on expected birth weight and stage of gestation.

6.3. Beef Cattle Housing

Housing gives protection to the animals from various environmental stresses such as solar radiation, rain
shower, cool, strong wind, predators, and so on. An appropriate housing system enhances the
performances of the animals. The housing system depends on the location of the farm. For example, the
housing system suitable to tropical environment is different from that needed in temperate regions.

factors to consider prior to establishing beef cattle farms are:

a) Location: this refers to the place where the farm is to be located in relation to soil structure,
drainage, road access and proximity to other farmhouses, etc.
b) Ventilation: the farm must be located in high areas that can secure sufficient ventilation.
Sufficient ventilation allows air circulation within the house. This keeps the heat stress and
relative humidity to the minimum.
c) The direction of the house: Animal house should be in the east-west direction to protect them
from morning and afternoon sun and rain.
d) Roof: A gable roof is highly preferred for its protection from the sun and the rain. A well-
designed roof is quite important in reducing heat and cold stresses.

In Ethiopia, open overhead shelter with enclosures is the predominant type of animal housing system
across all the commercial cattle fattening system. Among the medium and small scale fattening farms,
however, a housing system with open enclosure is available.

6.4. Major Disease of Beef Cattle and Methods of Their Control

There are various diseases that commonly affect beef cattle. These are infectious and non-infectious
diseases. Infectious diseases are divided into three: viral, bacterial and protozoal. The division is based
on the causes of the diseases. Examples of viral diseases are rinderpest, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD),
rabies, bovine viral diarrhea, etc. Some examples of bacterial diseases are contagious bovine
pleuropneumonia (CBPP), tuberculosis, anthrax, blackleg, etc. Protozoa diseases include
trypanosomiasis, coccidia, cryptosporidium, etc. In additions to the diseases, ruminants particularly, the
beef cattle, are victims to various internal and external parasites that live within or on the surface of the
animal body.

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6.4.1. Viral Diseases
Rinderpest (RP)
Rinderpest is an acute, highly contagious, fatal viral disease of cattle. Manifested by inflammation,
haemorrhage, erosions of the digestive tract, wasting and often bloody diarrhea. Some swine species
are also susceptible. Man is not susceptible to RP virus.

Symptoms:

 High fever
 Nasal discharge and excessive salivation
 Punched out erosions in the mouth
 Loss of appetite and depression.
 abdominal pain (grunting, arched back)
 Constipation followed by bloody diarrhea and straining
 Dehydration and rough hair coat
 Marked debility
 Abortion
 The classical “milk fever position” in cattle

Mode of transmission:

 Direct contact with infected animals or their excretions and secretions and fomites. The virus
appears in the blood and in secretions before the onset of clinical signs and this may cause
infection in abattoirs and stockyards.

Treatment:

 No known treatment

Prevention:

 Vaccination
 destruction of infected and contact animals
 disposal of carcasses and infective materials
 sanitation and disinfection.

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

FMD is an acute viral and extremely contagious disease of cloven-footed animals such as cattle, sheep,
and goats. It is manifested by vesicles and erosions in the muzzle, nares, mouth, feet, teats, udder, and
pillar of the rumen.

Symptoms:

 Fever
 Dullness

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  Lack of appetite
 Drastic reduction in milk production
 Uneasiness and muscle tremors
 Smacking and quivering of lips
 Extensive salivation and drooling
 Shaking of feet and lameness
 The vesicles and later erosions are commonly found on the muzzle, tongue, oral cavity, teat and
on the skin between and above the hoofs of the feet.
 In more chronic cases in cattle the hoof become loose and the animal may walk with
characteristic “clicking” sound.

Mode of transmission:

 Direct and indirect contact with infected animals and their secretions including saliva, blood,
urine, feces, milk and semen, aerosol droplet dispersion, infected animal by-products, swill
containing scraps of meat or other animal tissue.

Treatment:

 There is no specific treatment for FMD. The conventional method of treating infected animals
mainly involves the use of antibiotics.

Prevention:

 Vaccination

Rabies
This is an acute infectious viral disease of the central nervious system in animals.

Symptoms:

 Restlessness
 Aggressive, may attack other animals
 Sexual excitement
 Bellowing
 Paralysis and death
 Sagging and swaying of the hind quarters
 Drooling and salivation
 The tail is held to one side
 Tenesmus or paralysis of the anus
 Paralysis
 The animal falls to the ground

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Mode of transmission:

It is usually transmitted through the saliva by a bite from a rabid animal, commonly the dog or jackal.
Man is infected the same way.

Treatment:

 No known treatment

Prevention:

 Vaccination
 Identify and control the source of virus introduction
 Restrict the movement of animals.

Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD)

BVD is a disease of cattle caused by the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus This is an infectious viral disease of
cattle manifested by active erosive stomatitis, gastroenteritis and diarrhea.

Symptoms:

 Fever
 Congestion and erosions in the mucous membranes of the oral cavity
 Depression and anorexia
 Cough, polypnea and salivation
 Dehydration and debilitation
 Foul-smelling diarrhoea
 Cessation of rumination
 Reduced milk production
 Abortion in pregnant cows
 Laminitis
 Congenital anomalies of the brain (cerebellar ataxia) and arthritis in young calves

Mode of transmission:

 Direct contact with clinically sick or carrier animals, indirect contact with feedstuffs or fomites
contaminated with urine, nasal and oral secretions or faeces and contact with aborted fetuses.
Transmission through aerosol droplet dispersion or by insect vectors may also be a possibility.
The virus may persist in recovered and chronically ill cattle which are considered a potential
source of infection.

Treatment:

 No known treatment.

Prevention:

 Vaccinate with BVD vaccine two weeks prior to moving

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6.4.2. Bacterial Disease
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP)
This is an acute, subacute or chronic highly infectious disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma mycoides
var, mycoides.

Symptoms:

 Fever
 Lack of appetite and loss of weight
 Coughing on exercise
 Shallow rapid respiration, grunting and gurgling
 Extended neck, lowered head and open mouth
 Arched back and outward rotated elbow
 Arthritis in young animals

Mode of transmission:

 Aerosol and droplet infection from the infected animals. The recovered animal called “lungers”
act as carriers and shedders, especially under stress.

Treatment:

 Treatment is recommended only in endemic areas because the organisms may not be
eliminated and carriers may developed. There are drugs to treat CBPP such as Tylosin and
danofloxan.

Prevention:

 Vaccination.

Bovine Tuberculosis (TB)

Tuberculosis is a chronic disease of many animal species and poultry caused by bacteria of the genus
Mycobacterium. It is characterized by the development of tubercles in the organs of most species.
Bovine tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. It is a significant zoonotic disease.

Symptoms:

 Low grade fever

 Chronic intermittent hacking cough and associated pneumonia
 Difficult breathing
 Weakness and loss of appetite
 Emaciation
 Swelling superficial body lymph nodes

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Mode of transmission:

 An infected animal is the main source of transmission. The organisms are excreted in the
exhaled air and in all secretions and excretions.
 Inhalation is the chief mode of entry and for calves, infected milk is an important source of
infection.

Treatment:

 Bovine TB is usually treated with antibiotics.

Prevention:

 There is no proven effective prevention mechanism.

Anthrax
Anthrax is a peracute disease of ruminants manifested with septicemia, sudden death, and tarry blood
from the body openings of the cadaver. It is caused by Bacillus anthracis.

Symptoms:

 staggering,
 trembling,
 Edematous swelling of the throat and neck
 swallowing and breathing difficulty,
 convulsions, and death

Mode of transmission:

 Man may contract anthrax by inhalation, ingestion and through a wound in the skin. Biting flies
have been shown to be transmitters.

Treatment:

 Antibiotics

Prevention:

 It is prevented through vaccination.

 Condemnation of the carcass and its parts by burning or burial. If disposed by burial, the carcass
should be buried at least 1.8 meters below ground. The site should be surrounded by a foot-
thick layer of quicklime.

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 Black leg
Black leg is an acute infectious disease of cattle and sheep manifested by severe inflammation of the
muscle with high mortality. It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei.

Symptoms:

 High fever (41°C)

 Lameness
 depression
 Loss of appetite
 Discoloured, dry or cracked skin
 Stiff gait and reluctance to move
 Crepitating swellings often on the hips and shoulder
 Rapid breathing

Mode of transmission:

 The organisms of blackleg are found in the soil. During grazing, organisms may enter the
digestive tract of a susceptible animal. Clostridium chauvoei is also found in the digestive tract of
healthy animals.

Treatment:

 Treatment is ineffective.

Prevention:

 Vaccination of all calves at an early age

 Carcasses of animals affected with black leg should be condemned. It is prohibited to slaughter
and dress an animal diagnosed with this disease at antemortem examination.

6.4.3. Diseases caused by protozoa

Trypanosomiasis
Symptoms:

 Fever
 Weakness
 Lethargy and anemia
 Reduction in fertility and milk production

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Mode of transmission:

 Bovine trypanosomosis transmitted by tsetse flies is a major constraint to cattle health and
productivity in all sub-Saharan countries.

Treatment:

 If detected early, Trypanosomosis can be treated with trypanocidal drugs for therapeutic and
prophylactic purposes. Therapeutic drugs for cattle such as diminazene aceturate, homidium
chloride and homidium bromide.

Prevention:

 Killing parasites or vectors with Trypanocides or insecticides

Coccidia
Symptoms:

 Loss of appetite,
 Diarrhoea (from green to slimy bloody)
 Dehydration,
 Straining,
 abdominal pain,

Mode of transmission:

 Coccidiosis is transmitted from animal to animal by the fecal–oral route. Infected fecal material
can contaminate feed, water or soil; therefore, cattle can contract the disease by eating and
drinking from contaminated sources, or by licking themselves or other animals.

Treatment:

 Antibiotics

Prevention:

 Clean water tanks regularly, with more regular cleaning when new animals are introduced.
 Clean feces from feed bunks before each feeding.
 Clean and disinfect holding areas between groups of cattle. ...
 Do not overcrowd animals.
 Reduce manure buildup

Cryptosporidium

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Cryptosporidium parvum, commonly referred to as Crypto, is a protozoan (a one-celled organism) that
causes diarrhea in calves (as well as other mammals).

Symptoms:

 Watery diarrhea
 Feces can contain mucus , blood, or undigested milk.
 Stomach cramps or pain
 Dehydration
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Fever
 Weight loss

Mode of transmission:

 Cryptosporidium oocysts are transmitted between hosts via the fecaloral route, either directly
via contact with feces from infected hosts, or indirectly through environmental contamination
or ingestion of contaminated food or water.

Treatment:

 Antiprotozoal drugs

Prevention:

 Cleaning calf housing and feeding equipment with soap or detergent as well as ensuring bedding
is changed frequently can prevent the spread between calves.

6.4.4. Parasites
Parasites suck the animal’s blood and compete for blood nutrients. The diseases cause a great economic
loss to the farm animal by reducing the animal’s weight, feed intake and carcass quality.

Internal and External parasites

Internal parasites: Internal parasites include nematodes (round worms), tapeworm, liver fluckes, etc.
Cattle are infected with parasites while feeding on grazing lands. The eggs and larvae of the parasites are
found in the pasture.

External parasites: horn flies, face flies, stable flies, grubs, ticks, lice, and mites are examples of external
parasites.

6.4.5. Strategies of disease control in beef cattle

Effective strategies of controlling the major beef cattle diseases may include, the availability of adequate
information, proper diagnosis of diseases, vaccines of appropriate quality and a functional veterinary
services. Vaccines and anthelminthic drugs are used in the treatment of animal diseases. Animal house
cleaning, proper drainage, rotational grazing, etc. are effective measures to control the diseases.

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6.5. Meat production and processing
In Ethiopia, a significant proportion of beef comes from old oxen kept for draft purposes, culled cows,
and surplus young bulls. In most farms, beef production is not a primary objective. Meat production per
head of livestock is low by the standards of other significant livestock-producing African countries.
Despite the huge size of the livestock population in the country, there is still a shortage of production of
meat in the country. Ethiopia contributes only about 0.2 percent of the world’s total meat production.
This is due to low off-take rates, the inability to fulfill international standards, and the presence of legal
and illegal live animal export in the country. Ethiopia’s average per capita meat consumption is
approximately 8 kg, which is low, compared to averages in developing countries (25 kg) and developed
countries (77 kg). This is because of low per capita incomes.

6.5.2. Meat processing

Meat Processing starts with slaughtering animals and processing carcasses (cutting, inspecting,
packaging, and processing it into other products) for sale as fresh meat (to consumers and to the food
processing industry).

Slaughtering Beef Cattle

After stunning, animals are usually suspended by a hind limb and moved down a conveyor line for
slaughter procedures. They are typically bled by the insertion of a knife into the thoracic cavity and
severance of the carotid artery and jugular vein. This method allows for maximal blood removal from
the body.

Meat processing involves a wide range of physical and chemical treatment methods, normally
combining a variety of methods. Meat Processing also takes the meat in its raw form and turns it into
another product that is marketable, safe for consumption, and attractive to consumers.

Physical/technical processes are: Chemical or biochemical processes are:

- cutting, chopping, comminuting - salting and curing
- mixing, tumbling - utilization of spices and additives
– Stuffing/filling of semi-fabricated meat mixes - smoking
into casings, synthetic films, cans, etc. - freezing and refrigeration, and
- heat treatment. - drying

Salting: The water holding capacity of meat can be increased with the addition of salt up to a
concentration of about 5% to lean meat. Sodium chloride (NaCl) has only a very low capacity to destroy
microorganisms. Its preserving power is attributed to its capability to bind water and deprive the meat
of moisture.

Curing: Curing is the treatment of muscle meat with salt (NaCl) and sodium nitrite (NaNO2). To achieve
the desired red or pink color, meat or meat mixes are salted with salt (NaCl). Curing often results in ared
or pink color.

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Smoking: Smoke is produced from thermal destraction of raw wood components. The principle of
smoking is that the smoke infiltrates the outside layers of the product to develop flavor, color, and a
certain preservation effect.

Meat Drying: In physical terms, drying is the lowering of the water activity in meat and meat products.

Meat canning process involves two essential operations:

 The product must be heated at a sufficiently high temperature and for long enough to make it
fully or commercially sterile,
 It must be sealed in a hermetic container which will prevent recontamination of the product.

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