EED502/05 ICT in Education

Unit 2 Integrating Technology in Curriculum Transaction

Contents

Unit Overview ............................................................................................................................ 2

Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Theoritical Basis of Learning Designs ................................................................................. 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 2
Learning outcomes ................................................................................................................. 3
Supporting theoretical background ........................................................................................ 4
Learning theories and learning domains ................................................................................ 9
Online learning by adults ..................................................................................................... 15
Enhancing meaningful interaction in online learning .......................................................... 19
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 24
2.2 Instructional Technology ................................................................................................... 26
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 26
Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................. 26
What is instructional technology? ........................................................................................ 27
Considerations and constraints in using technology for instruction .................................... 33
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 33
Self-test 2.1 .......................................................................................................................... 34
2.3 Computer Mediated Instruction ......................................................................................... 35
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 35
Learning outcomes ............................................................................................................... 36
Computers and communication ........................................................................................... 36
Computer Managed Instruction (CMI) ................................................................................ 41
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) .................................................................................. 45
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 49
Self-test 2.2 .......................................................................................................................... 49
2.4 ICT in Teacher Training .................................................................................................... 49
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 49
Learning outcomes ............................................................................................................... 51
Professional development of teachers .................................................................................. 51
Purpose of using technology ICT in teacher training .......................................................... 53
Teacher training: Malaysian scenario .................................................................................. 55
Distance education for teacher training ............................................................................... 57
Challenges and hindrances in using ICT in teacher training ............................................... 62
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 63
Self-test 2.3 .......................................................................................................................... 63
Summary of unit 2 ................................................................................................................... 64
References ................................................................................................................................ 65
Unit Overview
In the previous unit, we deliberated on the role of Information Communications and
Technology (ICT) and its implications in the field of education. In this unit, we will look into
more details on ICT, and specifically technology, regarding its role and implications of its use
in the spectrum of teaching and learning.

To begin with, we will examine the theoretical basis of learning designs which places
emphasis on the various theories, approaches, principles and domains in designing effective
and conducive learning environments. In this connection, we will also examine the concepts
androgogy and pedagogy, and attempt to understand how these concepts translate in the
promotion of meaningful learning interaction.

In the subsequent section, we will channel interest towards scrutinising the role of technology
in the context of delivering instruction. Instructional technology, in essence, is the study of
facilitating the teaching and learning process which involves effective instructional design
and implementation, and utilisation of relevant learning resources to enhance and sustain
content delivery and heightened interaction in the classroom.

The focus of the third section is on the various manifestations of computer-mediated

instructions, namely, computer-managed instruction and computer-assisted instruction, which
aim to highlight the role of computers and technology in supporting the learning experience.

In the last section of the unit, we will observe the role, benefits and challenges of using ICT
in teacher training and professional development of teachers. In this regard, you are
encouraged to understand and appreciate the breadth and depth of ICT, and its subtle
integration in augmenting the professional roles of teachers and relevant stakeholders.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the theoretical basis of learning designs.

2. Explain the role of technology in facilitating the teaching and learning process.
3. Analyse the role of computer-mediated instruction in assisting and managing the
teaching and learning process.
4. Discuss the utilisation of ICT in teacher training and professional development of
teachers.

2.1 Theoritical Basis of Learning Designs

Introduction

This section provides a perspective on the theoretical positions underlying different principles
and approaches to designing effective learning environment in different contexts. These
theoretical positions may be applicable to varying degrees in diverse educational contexts
with or without application of technology. While traditional learning theories such as
behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism do contribute to designing learning
environments, with the emergence of new technology and new theoretical paradigms such as
connectivism also becomes relevant in designing networked learning environment. New
theoretical understanding and assumptions regarding how adults learn and how principles
based on different learning theories contribute to creating effective learning designs are also
discussed in this section.

This section will be presented in four parts as illustrated in the table below:

Title Text Resources Media Resources

Supporting George Siemens (2004) Connectivism: A
Theoretical Learning Theory for the Digital Age
Background http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/conne
ctivism.htm
Learning George Siemens (2005) Learning
Theories and Development Cycle: Bridging Learning
Domains of Design and Modern Knowledge Needs
Learning http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.ht
m
Designing for Andragogy (Adult Learning)
adult learning
A short video from the PC3
team focusing on Malcolm
Knowles‟ theory of andragogy
or adult learning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=vLoPiHUZbEw
Enhancing Mohamed Ally (2004) „Foundations of Designing Online Learning
meaningful EducationalTheory for Online Learning' in
Interaction in Anderson, T and Fathi Elloumi (eds.) Interview with Richard Culatta
On-line Theory and Practice of Online Learning, about the importance of
Learning Athabasca University, 18-26. developing interactive online
http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/T learning. Online learning should
POL_book.pdf connect learners with each other
and with experts and not just
content. The more online
leverages social learning
practices the more effective it
will be. Instructional design is
essential to effective online
learning http://youtu.be/Zv-
_GCFdLdo

Learning outcomes

By the end of the section, you should be able to:

1. Describe how the different theoretical positions such as behaviourism, cognitivism,

constructivism and connectivism contribute towards designing effective learning
environments.
 2. Describe the inadequacies in traditional learning theories as compared to the
connectivist paradigm in understanding creating online networked learning
environment.
3. Describe various learning domains and their relationship with the different learning
theories.
4. Define the term „andragogy‟ as a theoretical paradigm for adult learning.
5. Explain the assumptions regarding adult learning and how these assumptions decide
the instructional techniques and processes for designing learning environments for
adults.
6. Explain how principles emerging from different learning theories can create
interactions between the levels of the various types of learning, leading to enhanced
effectiveness in learning in an online environment.

Supporting theoretical background

Behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism are the three broad learning theories most
often used in explaining learning situations and in the creation of instructional environments.
A detailed presentation of these theoretical positions is given in section 1.3 of Unit 1. These
theories, however, were developed in a time when learning was not impacted through
technology. Over the last twenty years, technology has reorganised how we live, how we
communicate, and how we learn. Learning needs and theories that describe learning
principles and processes should be reflective of underlying social environments.

Reading 2.1

Read the article „Connectivism: A Learning Theory for Digital Age‟ which presents the
insufficiency of traditional learning theories in explaining learning in a technology mediated
environment.

George Siemens (2004) Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age,
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

The article you read attempts to provides a detailed analysis of the traditional learning
theories – Behaviourism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism and interprets how a new
theoretical paradigm such as Connectivism can only explain the collective learning that takes
place in a digital networked environment.

All of the three traditional learning theories hold the notion that knowledge is an objective (or
a state) that is attainable (if not already innate) through either reasoning or experiences. These
theories attempt to address how it is that a person learns.

1. Behaviourism states that learning is largely unknowable, that is, we cannot possibly
understand what goes on inside a person (the “black box theory”). Gredler (2001)
expresses behaviourism as being comprised of several theories that make three
assumptions about learning:

a. Observable behaviour is more important than understanding internal activities.

 b. Behaviour should be focused on simple elements: specific stimuli and responses.
c. Learning is about behaviour change.

2. Cognitivism often takes a computer information processing model. Learning is

viewed as a process of inputs, managed in short term memory, and coded for long-
term recall. Cindy Buell details this process: “In cognitive theories, knowledge is
viewed as symbolic mental constructs in the learner‟s mind, and the learning process
is the means by which these symbolic representations are committed to memory.”
3. Constructivism suggests that learners create knowledge as they attempt to understand
their experiences (Driscoll 2000, 376). Behaviourism and Cognitivism view
knowledge as external to the learner and the learning process as the act of
internalising knowledge. Constructivism on the other hand assumes that learners are
not empty vessels to be filled with knowledge. Instead, learners are actively
attempting to create meaning. Learners often select and pursue their own learning.
Constructivist principles acknowledge that real-life learning is messy and complex.
Classrooms which emulate the „fuzziness‟ of this learning will be more effective in
preparing learners for life-long learning.

(Source: George Siemens 2004)

Check your progress 2.1

What is the interpretation of „learning‟ according to the following theories:

1. Behaviourism:
2. Cognitivism:
3. Constructivism:

Suggested answers:

1. Behaviourism: Learning is unobservable behaviour change happening through

specific stimuli and responses.
2. Cognitivism: Takes a computer information processing model for defining learning.
Learning is viewed as a process of inputs, managed in short term memory, and coded
for long-term recall.
3. Constructivism: Learning is a process through which learners create knowledge as
they attempt to understand their experiences.

You would have now seen that behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism are theories of
learning which attempt to explain how an individual learns:

1. Behaviourism and cognitivism view knowledge as external to the learner and the
learning process as the act of internalising knowledge.
2. Constructivism assumes that learners are not empty vessels to be filled with
knowledge.
 Reflection 2.1

More recently, some instructional theorists believe that the theories of behaviourism,
cognitivism and constructivism are inadequate to explain the collaborative learning process
within an electronically networked environment. Do you agree with this?

Reflect on this issue. You may like to discuss with other classmates or with your tutor.

Limitations of behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism

A central tenet of most learning theories is that learning occurs inside a person. Even social
constructivist views, which hold that learning is a socially enacted process, promotes the
principality of the individual (and her/his physical presence – i.e., brain-based) in learning.
These theories do not address learning that occurs outside of people (i.e., learning that is
stored and manipulated by technology). They also fail to describe how learning happens
within organisations.

Learning theories are concerned with the actual process of learning, not with the value of
what is being learned. In a networked world, the very manner of information that we acquire
is worth exploring. When knowledge is abundant, the rapid evaluation of knowledge is
important. Additional concerns arise from the rapid increase in information. In today's
environment, action is often needed without personal learning – that is, our actions require us
to draw on information that is outside of our primary knowledge. The ability to synthesise
and recognise connections and patterns is a valuable skill.

Many important questions are raised when established learning theories are seen through
technology. The natural attempt of theorists is to continue to revise and evolve theories as
conditions change. At some point, however, the underlying conditions have altered so
significantly, that further modification is no longer sensible. An entirely new approach is
needed.

Knowledge explosion

Knowledge is growing exponentially. In many fields, the shelf life of knowledge can now be
measured in months and years. Gonzalez (2004) describes the challenges of rapidly
diminishing lifespan of knowledge:

“One of the most persuasive factors is the shrinking half-life of knowledge. The „half-
life of knowledge” is the time span from when knowledge is gained to when it
becomes obsolete. Half of what is known today was not known 10 years ago. The
amount of knowledge in the world has doubled in the past 10 years and is doubling
every 18 months according to the American Society of Training and Documentation
(ASTD). To combat the shrinking half-life of knowledge, organisations have been
forced to develop new methods of deploying instruction.”

Some significant trends in learning

We are observing some significant trends lately due to rapid technological development and
social changes. These include:

1. Many learners will move into a variety of different, possibly unrelated fields over the
course of their lifetime.
2. Informal learning is a significant aspect of our learning experience. Formal education
no longer comprises the majority of our learning. Learning now occurs in a variety of
ways – through communities of practice, personal networks, and through completion
of work-related tasks.
3. Learning is a continual process, lasting for a lifetime. Learning and work related
activities are no longer separate. In many situations, they are the same.
4. Technology is altering (rewiring) our brains. The tools we use define and shape our
thinking.
5. The organisation and the individual are both learning organisms. Increased attention
to knowledge management highlights the need for a theory that attempts to explain
the link between individual and organisational learning.
6. Many of the processes previously handled by learning theories (especially in
cognitive information processing) can now be off-loaded to, or supported by,
technology.
7. Know-how and know-what is being supplemented with know-where (the
understanding of where to find knowledge needed).

Reflection 2.2

Recent technological developments have led to changes in some social trends. Can you
identify some of these trends in your community? How do these trends impact on learning?

Discuss with your colleagues and reflect on this issue.

Let us now read the following paragraphs taken from George Siemens (2004) Connectivism:
A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.

An alternative theory

Including technology and connection making as learning activities begins to move learning
theories into a digital age. We can no longer personally experience and acquire all the
learning that we need to actin order to carry out our actions in the modern world. We derive
our competence from forming connections. Karen Stephenson (undated) states:

“Experience has long been considered the best teacher of knowledge. Since we
cannot experience everything, other people‟s experiences, and hence other people,
become the surrogate for knowledge. „I store my knowledge in my friends‟ is an
axiom for collecting knowledge through collecting people (undated).”

Connectivism

Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and
self-organisation theories. Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of
shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as
actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organisation or a database),
and is focused on connecting specialised information sets. The connections that enable us to
learn more are more important than our current state of knowing.

Connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering
foundations. New information is continually being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions
between important and unimportant information is vital. The ability to recognise when new
information alters the landscape based on decisions made yesterday is also critical.

Principles of connectivism:

1. Learning and knowledge rests in a diversity of opinions.

2. Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or information sources.
3. Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
4. Capacity The capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.
5. Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
6. Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
7. Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning
activities.
8. Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning
of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a
right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information
climate affecting the decision.

Connectivism also addresses the challenges that many corporations face in knowledge
management activities. Knowledge that resides in a database needs to be connected with the
right people in the right context in order to be classified as learning. Behaviourism,
cognitivism, and constructivism do not attempt to address the challenges of organisational
knowledge and transference.

Our ability to learn what we need for tomorrow is more important than what we know today.
A real challenge for any learning theory is to actuate known knowledge at the point of
application. When knowledge, however, is needed, but not known, the ability to plug into
sources to meet the requirements becomes a vital skill. As knowledge continues to grow and
evolve, access to what is needed is more important than what the learner currently possesses.

Connectivism presents a model of learning that acknowledges the tectonic shifts in society
where learning is no longer an internal, individualistic activity. How people work and
function is altered when new tools are utilised. The field of education has been slow to
recognise both the impact of new learning tools and the environmental changes in what it
means to learn. Connectivism provides insight into learning skills and tasks needed for
learners to flourish in a digital era.

Check your progress 2.2

 1. Established learning theories such as Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism
explains learning as a process within an individual. Is it a correct statement? Yes/No,
please explain your answer.
2. What are the principles of Connectivism? Give at least five principles.

Suggested answers:

1. Yes. A central tenet of most learning theories is that learning occurs inside a person.
Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism are theories of learning which attempt to
explain how an individual learns. Behaviourism and Cognitivism view knowledge as
external to the learner but the learning process is within an individual learning process as
the act of internalising knowledge by an individual. Constructivism assumes that learners
are not empty vessels to be filled with knowledge but each learner creates knowledge
through an internal process of understanding one‟s experiences. Even social constructivist
views, which hold that learning is a socially enacted process, promotes the principality of
the individual in learning. These theories do not address learning that occurs outside of
people (i.e., learning that is stored and manipulated by technology). They also fail to
describe how learning happens within organisations.
2. You should have listed five of the following principles

a. Learning and knowledge rests in a diversity of opinions.

b. Learning is a process of connecting specialised nodes or information sources.
c. Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
d. The capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.
e. Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
f. Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
g. Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning
activities.
h. Decision-making itself is a learning process.

Learning theories and learning domains

In this section, we considered four learning theories (behaviourism, cognitivism,

constructivism and connectivism) which could explain the learning process in an individual
as well as in a collaborative networked situation. In this section we will learn about different
“domains of learning” and see the contribution of the four learning theories to these domains.

Reading 2.2

Read the following article „Learning Development Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and
Modern Knowledge Needs‟. You may like to take short notes while you read the article.

George Siemens (2005) Learning Development Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and
Modern Knowledge Needs, http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.htm

Learning domains
(Note: Paragraphs from George Siemens (2005) Learning Development Cycle: Bridging
Learning Design and Modern Knowledge Needs.CC license – has been as such used here
with minor changes.)

Learning can be classified according to various domains. Figure 2.1 depicts learning as
consisting of:

1. Accretion
2. Transmission
3. Acquisition
4. Emergence domains

These terms do not appear to have a clear origin, though they have been used by Wilson
(1997) and Calhoun (undated) without clear attribution to the originating source. Classifying
learning in these domains assists designers in evaluating the object of each design task by
first determining the nature of learning required.

Accretion Transmission

Learning is continuous Traditional view of learning

 Function of environment  Courses

 At the point of need  Lectures
 Variety of sources “learning foraging”  Instructor-in-control

Benefits: Tight link to need, high relevance, Benefits: Good for structured information,
broad range of learning (tacit, explicit). building core knowledge, compliance
Continuous, modelled after “real life”. training.

Drawbacks: Learners often unaware of Drawbacks: Instructor-based, learner viewed

learning (the process is devalued), at odds as “container to be filled”, long development
with how learners have learned in the past time, at odds with how much learning
(unfamiliar with process). happens.
Acquisition Emergence

Learning choose to learn Learning reflection and reasoning

 Exploratory  Metacognition
 Inquiry-based  Reflection on life experiences
 Learner-in-control  Cognition

Benefits: Learner highly motivated, Benefits: Tacit learning, deep learning,

relevance, related to personal interests. relevance, higher order thinking skills,
fosters creativity and innovation.
Drawbacks: Learners may not be learning
“right” skills, feedback from experts may be Drawbacks: Time consuming, difficult,
lacking. requires high competence of subject matter.
Figure 2.1 Domains of learning
Source: George Siemens (2005)
Each unique learning domain serves a different purpose, and carries a different combination
of benefits and drawbacks. A designer‟s first task is to evaluate the nature of the learning
required. Different knowledge needs require different models or approaches. For example,
someone new to a particular field or in need of compliance training will benefit most from
courses. Short-term knowledge needs (requirements which are not a part of a particular field,
but needed for cross-over understanding when dealing with other professionals or a particular
project) can often be provided by more information sources like magazines, websites,
journals, and newsletters. More developed knowledge need (but with less structure than a
course) can be met through apprentice-models like communities of practice.

More advanced and continual learning can best be provided through a networked or
ecological view of learning. Capable, self-aware learners are able to identify and meet their
own knowledge needs. This level of learning often occurs as a result of “living life”. The
process of living is in itself a learning experience that can result in the creation of a dynamic
knowledge network, allowing learners to integrate new information with existing knowledge,
enabling more effective decisions in work and personal affairs.

Check your progress 2.3

The four domains of learning are as follows: 1. Accretion; 2. Transmission; 3. Acquisition;

4. Emergence. Please match them to the following:

Nature of learning Indicate your answer by giving the

number 1, 2, 3 or 4 corresponding to the 4
domains.
Learner in control
Learning is continuous
Reflection on life experiences
Instructor in Control
Learning by enquiry
Learning from variety of sources
Cognitive process

Suggested answers:

Nature of learning Indicate your answer by giving the

number 1, 2, 3 or 4 corresponding to the 4
domains.
Learner in control 3
Learning is continuous 1
Reflection on life experiences 4
Instructor in Control 2
Learning by enquiry 3
Learning from variety of sources 1
Cognitive process 4
Characteristics of learning domains

Each learning domain possesses certain characteristics in relation to the nature of learning,
the role of the designer, and the level of control over content and structure. Figure 2.2
provides a summary of each learning domain and design influence which is discussed below.

(Source: George Siemens 2005)

1. Transmission domain

The instructional process is the object of design in the transmission domain. Traditional
instructional design models attend to transmission through focus on explicit learning
objectives, content analysis, content sequencing, and blueprinting the instructional flow.
This model has particular value in creating courses, programs, and workshops. The
instructor is kept at the centre of the instructional process.

Transmission is particularly useful when introducing new bodies of knowledge or

meeting compliance-training needs. Much of today‟s educational system is built on this
model of learning. Education is constructed with start and end points (courses, programs,
degrees). Learners are exposed to key ideas within a knowledge field by an instructor
who is competent in the domain. Transmission occurs through readings, lectures, and
more recently, group work and collaborative activities. Behaviourism and cognitivism are
the predominant learning theories utilised in conjunction with the transmission domain of
learning.

2. Emergence domain

The capacity for reflective and critical thinking is the object of design in the emergence
domain. Emergence is a less common form of learning, but its effects are significant. In a
sense, emergence opens doors to new fields of knowledge, leading into the selection of
accretion or acquisition domains to continue knowledge development. Reflection and
cognition provide learners with the capacity to explore new realms. Serendipitous
learning is also an important aspect of the process. The formulation of innovative
approaches and new perspectives are functions of emergence learning. Cognitivism and
constructivism are the learning theories most reflective of how learning occurs in the
emergent domain.

3. Acquisition domain

Access to resources is the object of design in the acquisition domain. Acquisition is a

large part of learning. Designers also seek to improve the abilities of learners to manage
and navigate knowledge resources. It is a largely unstructured process where learners
select their own objectives and intent for learning. Often, personal interest is the
motivating factor. Of all the learning domains, acquisition is the most “fun”. Subject
matter being explored is highly relevant to the learner‟s interest and use. Learners may
reach beyond current resources to connect with others in the creation of virtual
communities. The Internet has made the formation of communities based on interest (not
geography) possible. Connectivism (Siemens 2004) and constructivism are the learning
theories that most adequately inform the nature of acquisition learning.
4. Accretion domain

Networks, environments, and ecologies are the object of design in the accretion domain
of learning. Most learning happens in this domain. Learning at this level is a function of
creating connections, foraging for needed knowledge, and “plugging in” to learning
sources (as compared to possessing learning). Knowing where to find needed information
is valued above possessing information, due to how quickly information evolves and
changes. The designer‟s role in this domain of learning is to create the construct and
opportunities for learners to pursue and provide for their own learning. The network itself
is the critical learning element. Connecting learners to networks and communities ensures
that knowledge is relevant and current.

Figure 2.2 Characteristics of learning domains

Source: George Siemens (2005)

Most models assume that the creation of an instructional process is the intent of design. This
view only addresses the transmission domain of learning. The domains of accretion,
emergence and acquisition are often unattended in traditional design. As previously stated,
each domain has different object of design. Each different design object is indicative of a
different view or theory of learning. Figure 2.3 expresses the link between learning domain
and suited learning theory.
Figure 2.3 Learning theories and domains
Source: George Siemens (2005)

Reflection 2.3

Some models of instructional design assume that the creation of an instructional process is
the intent of design. Is this view held by all domains of learning or does each domain have
different object of design. Discuss this with your colleagues and reflect on it.

Check your progress 2.4

Describe the characteristics the following domains and indicate the learning theory and the
underlying traits and in each case.

1. Accretion domain:
2. Transmission domain:
3. Acquisition domain:
4. Emergence domain:
Suggested answers:

1. Accretion:

Learning is a continual/embedded process. Theory of connectivism. Underlying traits

are: learning is in the network, rapidly shifting core elements, connection making.

2. Transmission:

Learning as courses. Theories of behaviourism and cognitivism. Underlying traits are:

learning is receiving content, exploring ideas, pursuit of set targets.

3. Acquisition:

Learning as a self-selected process. Theories of cognitivism and constructivism.

Underlying traits are: learning is learner motivated, collaborative, varied sources.

4. Emergence:

Learning is cognition and reflection. Theories of cognitivism and constructivism.

Underlying traits are: learning is learner constructed, personal, subjective, and
cognitive.

Online learning by adults

This section examines the characteristics of adults and their implications on online line
connected learning by adults. The first part of this section presents a discussion on adult
learning. Most of the time adults follow the same general patterns of learning as children do.
But while there are similarities between child and adult learning, there are also additional
features of adult learning, which will help you while planning online learning for adult
population.

Watch the following video. Take notes while you watch the video to enable you to recall the
main points presented in the video.

Multimedia 2.1

A short video from the PC3 team focusing on Malcolm Knowles‟ theory of andragogy or
adult learning.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLoPiHUZbEw

After watching the video and listening to the narration carefully, use the notes you have taken
down to summarise what you have learnt from the video.
 Activity 2.1

Give the main points discussed in the video under the sections indicated below. You could
use the notes you prepared while seeing the video. If needed see the video again. You may
pause the video where ever needed to make sure that you have understood the content
correctly and completely.

1. Meaning of androgogy as compared to pedagogy.

2. Who is considered to be the first to formulate a theory of adult learning based on the
concept of androgogy?
3. Six assumptions of adult learning (Write the assumption with a short description in one or
two lines)

a. Assumption 1:
b. Assumption 2:
c. Assumption 3:
d. Assumption 4:
e. Assumption 5:
f. Assumption 6:

4. Will androgogic techniques of learning be applicable to children too? Give reasons why
or why not.

Now read a summary of the video script and see whether your answers correspond correctly
to what was presented in the video.

Meaning of androgogy

1. Androgogy (adult learning) refers to methods and techniques for teaching adults. This
compares to pedagogy, which refers to methods and techniques for teaching children.
2. The term androgogy was popularised when it was adopted by Malcolm Knowles in the
later part of the twentieth century, to describe his theory of adult learning.
3. Knowles proposes six assumptions about adult learners which determine how teaching of
adults should proceed.

Six assumptions about adult learners

1. The need to know: Adults need to know why they are learning something, what the
benefits are of knowing it and what they risk by not learning it. By knowing these they
will respond more positively to learning experiences. This leads to a need to include
adults in deciding what it is they learn and setting goals and plans for their learning.
2. Self concept: Adult learners have a self concept of being responsible for their own
decisions. They are naturally self-directed in their lives and in their thinking, which may
lead to self-management of learning. This has two elements viz. one, taking ownership of
learning in terms of making decisions about what and how to learn and two, self-direction
which includes self management, motivation and on assuring. Self concept is likely to be
context dependent, that is, it will vary between different learning situations.
3. Experience: Adult learners have experience and that experience is more diverse than is
the case of children. Learning can, therefore, draw on this experience much more fully.
However adults might also have ingrained ideas from this experience leading to bias or
single mindedness. Adults tend to associate experience with who they are. Their identity
is defined in terms of what experiences they have had. All of this means that learning
needs to be associated with existing knowledge and learning activities situated in real
experience. Learning should be active, constructive and collaborative and learners also
need to recognise that, sometimes, unlearning is required.
4. Readiness to learn: Adult learners need learning to be timely and relevant and focus on
what is useful in that particular context and situation. Pratt identifies two dimensions
along which adults vary in different learning situations.

a. Direction is how much assistance is needed and is a factor of the learner‟s competence
in the subject area and their general dependency.
b. Support is how much encouragement is needed from others and is a factor of their
commitment and their confidence in their ability to learn.

5. Orientation to learn: Adult learning is life centred and focuses on tasks and problems
rather than on subjects, so learning needs to be contextualised and experiential learning is
most affective. Kolb proposed an experiential learning cycle where learners have concrete
experiences of the here and now.

a. They observe and recall their own experiences as well as that of others.
b. Reflect on those experiences.
c. Generalise from those experiences to develop concepts and theories.
d. Test these generalizations in new situations.

6. Motivation to learn: This may be extrinsic, for example, through rewards and grades but
in adults it is more likely to be intrinsic due to self satisfaction, enjoyment, having choice
and control of what is learned and value, feeling that what is learned is worthwhile.

Pedagogy and androgogy

1. Knowles argues there is an assumption in pedagogy that the teacher leads and makes keys
decisions and the learners are dependent with natural dependency decreasing from
childhood to adolescence. The learners own knowledge and experience is not considered
important. Knowledge comes from teachers and text books. The readiness to learn is
focused on what they are told they need to know. The learning is subject centred, and the
motivation is extrinsic, focusing on good grades and pleasing others.
2. Knowles characterised andragogy as process model of learning. A facilitator considers the
activities and steps needed for learners to acquire knowledge and skill rather than a
content model as in pedagogy where the teacher decides on what will be taught and how
it will be presented to the learner.
3. Knowles work has its critics. Some argue that the assumptions do not apply equally to all
adult learners or a diverse group with a huge range of backgrounds and experiences, or
even to any one individual all of the time.
4. Others argue that Knowles creates a false dichotomy between adult and child learners,
arguing that children have experiences that shape their learning as well, and benefit from
contextualised experiential learning. It can be argued that andragogy is not so much a
theory of adult learning, but a framework for good teaching.
5. Later, Knowles did adjust his position, acknowledging the need to look at which
assumptions apply when looking at a particular learning context, rather than looking
specifically at the age of the learner. The andragogist, he argued, even if starting from a
pedagogic perspective will try to move to andragogic practice as soon as possible.
6. This approach can be applied regardless of the age of the learner and suggests that
andragogy could be viewed simply as good teaching practice.

In the part of this section, you learnt about androgogy and the assumptions regarding adult
learners. These assumptions are applicable in whatever model they learn. The next part
discusses the importance of developing interactive online learning through connecting
learners and learners, learners and experts and learners and content.

Check your progress 2.5

1. Define the term andragogy.

2. What are the six assumptions about adult learners: Describe each in one sentence.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Suggested answers:

2. The assumptions about adult learners are:

a. The need to know: Adults need to know the purpose for learning something, the
benefits that can be expected from that learning, and also the risks of not learning it.
b. Self concept: Adult learners are expected to possess a self concept for being
responsible for what they decide and do.
c. Experience: Adult learners have diverse experiences, much more than in the case of
children.
d. Readiness to learn: There is a need to have timely learning for adult learners and
what they learn should be relevant to their needs in a particular context and situation.
e. Orientation to learn: Adult learning is life-centred and hence should be built around
tasks and problems rather than on subjects matter and hence their learning so needs to
be contextualised and emerging from experience.
f. Motivation to learn: Motivation in adults it is more intrinsic due to self satisfaction
and enjoyment as they have the choice and control of what is learned, and they value
their learning with the feeling that what is learned is worthwhile and relevant to them.

This section presented the meaning of andragogy as the theory of adult learning. It also
examined the six assumptions about adult learners. The next section is about the importance
of developing interactivity in online learning.
Enhancing meaningful interaction in online learning

A good learning design should provide for more learner-learner interaction and leaner-expert
interaction, than learner-content interaction.

An online platform by itself will not enhance human interaction. The tools can be the same
but the effectiveness for learning will depend on the extent to which the environment
facilitates human interaction.

Multimedia 2.2

View the following video and read the next part of this section. Do take notes while you view
the video. You may pause the video at appropriate places in order to make sure that you
understand the content well.

http://youtu.be/Zv-_GCFdLdo

Interview with Richard Culatta about the importance of developing interactive online
learning. Online learning should connect learners with each other and with experts and not
just content. The more online learning leverages social learning practices the more effective it
will be. Instructional design is essential to effective online learning.

You should have found the short video quite informative. The focus of the video is to look at
learning as a social activity and how individuals learn by engaging in social interaction.
Michael Moore talks about three types of interaction:

1. Learner-content interaction
2. Learner-expert interaction
3. Learner-learner interaction

Activity 2.2

Observe a regular classroom or a virtual group situation as web-conference or the

WawasanLearn in WOU and analyse the interactions in the given context. Calculate what
percentage of the interactions are “learner-learner” interaction and “learner-
teacher/tutor/expert” interaction.

What was the nature of these interactions? What percentage of the interactions was related to
the content and learning outcomes? What percentage was related to organisational matters?
Discuss the result of your activity with your colleagues and in the tutorial.

Check your progress 2.6

1. Consider a scenario where most of the interaction happening in an online learning
situation is „learner-content‟ interaction, where the learner passively learns from the
material provided and little, if any, interaction takes place among the learners and
between the learners and the tutor/experts. Is this a desirable situation? Yes/No
2. Give reasons for your answer:

Suggested answers:

1. No.
2. There should be increased academically meaningful interaction both among the learners
and between the learners and the tutors/experts. Effective learning happens during social
engagements with fellow learners and tutors and others.

This sub-section presents the implications of active interaction in an online learning situation.
Read the pages indicated in the online book given below.

Reading 2.3

Mohamed Ally (2004) „Foundations of Educational Theory for Online Learning‟ in Terry
Anderson and Fathi Elloumi (ed) Theory and Practice of Online Learning, Athabasca
University, 18-26.

Source: http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdf

All learning theories do emphasise the need for interaction. Principles underlying the theory
of constructivism are considered to be very relevant and useful for designing an online
learning environment. Let us see below what are these principles which will enhance
effective and meaningful learning.

Implications of constructivism for online learning

1. Learning should be an active process. Keeping learners active while participating in

meaningful activities results in high-level processing, which facilitates the creation of
personalised meaning. Asking learners to apply the information in a practical situation is
an active process, and facilitates personal interpretation and relevance.
2. Learners should construct their own knowledge rather than accepting that which is given
by the instructor. Knowledge construction is facilitated by good interactive online
instruction, since the students will have to take the initiative to learn and to interact with
other students and the instructor.
3. Collaborative and cooperative learning should be encouraged to facilitate constructivist
learning. Working with other learners gives learners real-life experiences of working in a
group, and allows them to use their metacognitive skills.

Learners will also be able to use the strengths of other learners, and to learn from others.
When assigning learners for group work, membership should be based on the expertise
level and learning style of individual group members, so that individual team members
can benefit from one another‟s strengths.
4. Learners should be given control of the learning process. There should be a form of
guided discovery where learners are allowed to make decisions on learning goals, but
with some guidance from the instructor.
5. Learners should be given time and opportunity to reflect. When learning online, students
need the time to reflect and internalise the information. Embedded questions on the
content can be used throughout the lesson to encourage learners to reflect on and process
the information in a relevant and meaningful manner; or learners can be asked to generate
a learning journal during the learning process to encourage reflection and processing.
6. Learning should be made meaningful for learners. The learning materials should include
examples that relate to students, so that they can make sense of the information.
Assignments and projects should allow learners to choose meaningful activities to help
them apply and personalise the information.
7. Learning should be interactive to promote higher-level learning and social presence, and
to help develop personal meaning. Interaction is also critical to creating a sense of
presence and a sense of community for online learners, and to promoting transformational
learning. Garrison (1999) claimed that it is the design of the educational experience that
includes the transactional nature of the relationship between instructor, learners, and
content that is of significance to the learning experience.

Activity 2.3

You have learnt a number of reasons why on-learning situation should involve active
interaction. Is this equally relevant to a classroom?

Observe a classroom situation and record the different kinds of interactions occurring in the
class.

How does the teacher manage to create/facilitate such interactions?

Check your progress 2.7

Explain at least 4 implications of the constructivist learning theory on effective organisation

of online learning:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Suggested answers:

Your answer could be any four of the following:

1. Learning should be an active process.

 2. Learners should construct their own knowledge rather than accepting that which is
given by the instructor.
3. Collaborative and cooperative learning should be encouraged to facilitate
constructivist learning.
4. Learners should be given control of the learning process.
5. Learners should be given time and opportunity to reflect.
6. Learning should be made meaningful for learners.
7. Learning should be interactive to promote higher-level learning and social presence,
and to help develop personal meaning.

Types of interaction

Different kinds of interaction will promote learning at different levels. Hirumi (2002)
proposed a framework of interaction in online learning that consists of three levels.

1. Level one is learner-self interaction, which occurs within the learner to help the
learner monitor and regulate their own learning.
2. Level two interactions are learner-human and learner-non-human interactions, where
the learner interacts with human and non-human resources.
3. Level three is learner-instruction interaction, which consists of activities to achieve a
learning outcome.

We should go one step further and propose interactions that go from lower-level to higher
level interactions based on behaviourist, cognitivist, and constructivist schools of learning.
See Figure 2.4.

Learner-Interface interaction: At the lowest level of interaction, there must be learner-

interface interaction to allow the learner to access and sense the information. The interface is
where learners use their senses to register information in sensory storage. In online learning,
the interface is with the computer to access the content and to interact with others.

Learner-Content interaction: Once learners access the online materials, there must be
learner content interaction to process the information. Learners navigate through the content
to access the components of the lesson, which could take the form of pre-learning, learning,
and post-learning activities. These activities could access reusable learning objects from a
repository or they could use content that has been custom created by the designer or
instructor. Students should be given the ability to choose their own sequence of learning, or
should be given one or more suggested sequences.
Figure 2.4 Learner-content interaction

As online learners interact with the content, they should be encouraged to apply, access,
analyse, synthesise, evaluate, and reflect on what they learn (Berge 2002). It is during the
learner-content interaction that learners process the information to transform it from short-
term to long-term memory. The higher the level of processing, the more associations are
made in long-term memory, which results in higher-level learning.

Learner-support interaction: As learners work through the content, they will find the need
for learner support, which could take the form of learner-to-learner, learner-to-instructor,
instructor-to-learner, and learner-to-expert interactions (Moore 1989).

Learner-context interaction: There should be strategies to promote learner-context

interaction to allow learners to apply what they learn in real life so that they can contextualise
the information. Learner-context interaction allows learners to develop personal knowledge
and construct personal meaning from the information.

Check your progress 2.8

List the four types of interactions starting from lower-level to higher level interactions based
on behaviourist, cognitivist, and constructivist schools of learning. Describe each with an
example.

Type 1: ……………………………………………………..
Description:
Example:

Type 2: ……………………………………………………..
Description:
Example:
Type 3: ……………………………………………………..
Description:
Example:

Type 4: ……………………………………………………..
Description:
Example:

Suggested answers:

Level 1: Learner-interface interaction

Description: At the lowest level of interaction, there must be learner-interface interaction to
allow the learner to access and sense the information.
Example: In online learning, the interface is with the computer to access the content and to
interact with others.

Level 2: Learner-content interaction

Description: Once learners access the online materials, there must be learner content
interaction to process the information.
Example: Learners navigate through the content to access the components of the lesson,
which could take the form of pre-learning, learning, and post-learning activities. These
activities could access reusable learning objects from a repository or they could use content
that has been custom created by the designer.

Level 3: Learner-support interaction

Description: Learners interacting with all types of human and non-human support.
Example: Learner-to-learner, learner-to-instructor, instructor-to-learner, and learner-to-
expert interactions.

Level 4: Learner-context interaction

Description: There should be strategies to promote learner-context interaction to allow
learners to apply what they learn in real life so that they can contextualise the information.
Example: A teacher applying the knowledge of ICT in classroom learning and reflecting on
its effectiveness in helping students learn.

Summary

In this section, you have learnt the theoretical perspectives underlying the four learning
theories viz. behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and connectivism. These form the
“Supporting Theoretical Background” for explaining the learning process in an individual as
well as in a collaborative networked situation. While traditional learning theories such as
behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism do contribute to designing learning
environment, the emergence of new technology new theoretical paradigms such as
connectivism also becomes relevant in designing a networked learning environment. You
have also learnt about the different „domains of learning‟ and seen the contribution of the
four learning theories to these domains. New theoretical understanding and assumptions
underpinning how adults learn and how principles based on different learning theories
contribute to creating effective learning designs are also discussed. All learning theories
emphasise the need for interaction. The principles underlying the theory of constructivism are
considered to be particularly relevant and useful for designing an online learning
environment. The section ends with a detailed discussion on how different kinds of
interaction will promote learning at different levels.
2.2 Instructional Technology

Introduction

This section on Instructional Technology makes an attempt to highlight the implications of

technology in the context of delivery of instruction. This section also discusses in detail how
technology tools could be used by teachers to make their classroom teaching more effective
in achieving the learning objectives. The steps in designing instruction and the potentials of
media in transacting content in the classroom are also presented. Finally, certain criteria to be
mindful of while selecting the technology for classroom instruction are discussed.

This sub-section will be presented in three parts as illustrated in the table below:

Title Text Resources Media Resources

What is Lumsdaine, A A (1996) 'Educational Instructional Technology:
Instructional Technology, Programed Learning, and Looking Backward, Thinking
technology? Instructional Science‟, Classic Writing Forward
on Instructional Design, http://youtu.be/KdwEIi22Dv8

Section: The Systematic Design of Addie Instructional Design

Instruction Process
http://youtu.be/0vXegHDzrBg

Technology in the Classroom

http://youtu.be/4oEgxwLhvV8
Why use different Office of Distance Learning (2011) Top 10 Reasons to Use
media/technology Instruction at FSU: A Guide to Teaching Technology in Education: iPad,
for Instruction and Learning Practices, The Florida State Tablet, Computer, Listening
University,http://distance.fsu.edu/docs/in Centres
struction_at_fsu/Chptr9.pdf http://youtu.be/mzi2RIt8_nk

Chapter 9: Instructional Media: ITC - Understand Integrating

Chalkboards to Video (pp. 103-112) Technology In The Classroom -
Teacher Professional
Development
http://youtu.be/OzpACGwXNl
Q
Considerations Waleed Mustafa Eyadat and Yousef
and constraints in Ahmed Eyadat (2010) Instructional
using technology technology and creativity among
for instruction university students: The missing
link,World Journal on Educational
Technology, 2(2): 87-99,
http://www.world-education-
center.org/index.php/wjet/article/view/16
4/pdf_13

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate between instructional technology and educational technology.

2. Explain the evolution of instructional technology.
3. List the potentials of technology tools for teaching.
4. Provide rational to use media in teaching.
5. Identify the issues and concerns in technology integration in teaching.

What is instructional technology?

The term instructional technology came in to being in the late 1960s and James D. Finn
Professor at the University of California, is considered to be proponent of this term. During
those years the term in use was audio-visual media, which included radio and television
films. But over a period of time new technologies came into being and found its place in
education; and this trend is continuing. If you notice whenever a new technology arrives,
people try to find its potential to deal with problems in education and teaching. Most of the
technologies were imported to education. There is a view that no technology was developed
to deal issues in education. Probably this is debatable issue.

Multimedia 2.3

Watch the film to understand how new technologies have emerged and been integrated into
education over a period of time (reference).

„Instructional Technology: Looking Backward, Thinking Forward‟

http://youtu.be/KdwEIi22Dv8

When we hear or read the term instructional technology (IT) the first thing which probably
comes to our mind will be that it constitutes two words viz. instruction and technology. You
might have come across many terms in the literature and also in this course which has one
common word „technology‟, including terms such as Information Technology, Information
and Communication Technology, Teaching Technology. Each of these have very few
differences between each other and, in fact, have more in common with each other than not.
When we use the term instructional technology, it refers to the technology used for providing
instruction. Can any technology be termed as instructional technology? Probably the answer
is that not all technologies can be called as instructional technology. The reason for this will
be clearer when we look at the definition of Instructional Technology.

According to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT)

Definitions and Terminology Committee, instructional technology is: “The theory and
practice of design, development, utilisation, management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for learning”. In this you may notice that instructional technology involves the
application of theory from different fields, developing learning materials and using it, and
evaluating the outcome from the point of learner and professional teachers. Here the focus of
technology is to enhance or facilitate learning.
When you read the definition of educational technology, on the face of it you may feel that
both words are synonyms of one another. But when you look at the definitions critically, you
will see that there are differences between the two. According to Razavi (2005) “Educational
technology covers instructional technology. It includes instructional technology and the field
study in human teaching and learning”.

The focus of instructional technology is in using tools to facilitate student learning and the
teaching-learning process in general. It is not simply application of tools but beyond that as
well. The tools that are being used by teachers for instruction are wide and varied, and range
from writing boards to the iPad. It includes a range of tasks, such as designing and organising
the teaching content in relation to the tools being used for effective learning. In case the
teacher is not able to achieve the desired outcome, then he/she may analyse, modify the
design, reorganise the content, and change the tools by going through a number of steps
similar to the steps followed in action research.

To use the appropriate technology to teach a concept or a lesson, a teacher has to plan the
instruction of design an instruction which she/he would like to deliver. Teacher training
programmes often teach certain steps and develop various skills so trainees are equipped to
prepare lesson plans. A lesson plan will include the objectives to be achieved, strategy to be
adopted, teaching aids to be used, learning activities to be provided to students and evaluation
strategies and techniques to be adopted. Also some hands on experience will be incorporated
so as to try out their plans under supervision. This follows all the steps that will be discussed
in the in the next part covering the concept of instructional design.

Instructional design

To plan the delivery of instruction to the students in the actual classrooms or through distance
learning, it is always necessary to follow certain systematic and sequential steps to achieve
the desired goals .The process of doing this is known as instructional design. There are many
models available for developing an instructional design. Here we will discuss one model,
namely the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model.
These phases are:

1. Analyse – This phase involves analysing the characteristics or profile of students, tasks to
be learnt by students, the environment in which it is to be taught, and the goal to be
achieved.
2. Design – In this phase a teacher is required to develop instructional/learning objectives,
choose the teaching strategy including the methods to be followed, choose the selection of
technology tools and resources, and choose tools to assess the outcome which could be a
questionnaire, check list, interview schedule, etc.
3. Develop – Once the learning objectives and teaching strategy are decided in the context
of the environment and student profile, the next phase will be to develop materials to be
used, including the learning activities, and check for its appropriateness and feasibility
through formative evaluation. This phase is important from the point of view of
instructional technology. Here the teacher has to identify the technology and the media to
suit the required content and context.
4. Implement – In this phase the instruction is delivered to the intended target group, that is,
the students using the materials and activities developed in the previous stage.
5. Evaluate – This last phase assesses the outcome of the instruction and whether the
intended instructional/learning objectives were achieved using the assessment tools
 developed. If the objectives are not achieved, then one may have to re-examine all the
previous. This does not mean that the entire design has to be modified unless the
instruction performed especially poorly in achieving the goal. The exercise of examining
is meant to help in making the next lesson better. In this context it is necessary to note
that no teacher can ever deliver a perfect lesson, but is constantly striving to get as close
to perfection as possible. So it is always a learning process.

Another instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. The
model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled
The Systematic Design of Instruction. You may go through the following for details to gain a
detailed understanding of various instructional design models.

If you have time and access, go through the video film listed below. The film is 2 minutes
and 44 seconds. The film explains all the steps and some sub-steps in the process of
instructional design.

Additional references

Visit the following website and video clip to learn more about instructional design.

Instructional Design, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-

DickCarey2005-29

Addie Instructional Design Process, http://youtu.be/0vXegHDzrBg

Reflection 2.4

Look at the definition of instructional technology given here and compare it with the
definition of educational technology (ET), given by AECT as “Educational technology is the
study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources”. Find the differences
between the two. In this context you may recall or refer to the exercise you did in the section
1.5.

The Educational Technology is a broader term and deals with creating a system to improve
performance of students and it is based on a systems approach where as Instructional
Technology is more specific and attempts to identify the educational problems and challenges
of students, reorganises the content in the context of available technology resources and
delivers the instruction so as to ensure acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes etc. among
students as per the plan developed by the teacher.
Evolution of instructional technology

Over the times, technology has evolved from pencils to pens, slates to chalk boards, radio to
televisions, and computers to iPads. All these items are available for teachers to use, each
with its own potential. Each one of these had its own time of dominance and importance.
Here is the list and approximate year:

1650 – The Horn-Book

1850-1870 – Ferule
1870 – Magic Lantern
1890 – School Slate
1890 – Chalkboard
1900 – Pencil
1905 – Stereoscope
1925 – Film Projector
1925 – Radio
1930 – Overhead Projector
1940 – Ballpoint Pen
1940 – Mimeograph
1950 – Headphones
1950 – Slide Rule
1951 – Videotape
1957 – Reading Accelerator
1957 – Skinner Teaching Machine
1958 – Educational Television
1959 – Photocopier
1960 – Liquid Paper
1965 – Filmstrip Viewer
1970 – The Hand-Held Calculator
1972 – Scantron
1980 – Plato Computer
1985 – CD-ROM Drive
1985 – Hand-Held Graphing Calculator
1999 – Interactive Whiteboard
2005 – iClicker
2006 – XO Laptop
2010 – Apple iPad
Table 2.1 Jeff Dum – The evolution of classroom technology
Source: http://edudemic.com/2011/04/classroom-technology

Multimedia 2.4

Watch this video „Technology in the classroom‟ to learn more about technology in the
classroom.

http://youtu.be/4oEgxwLhvV8
Why use different media/technology for instruction?

If you notice any typical classroom, there is a tendency to use the chalk-talk method to teach.
But as a teacher, we also know the students have different abilities, come from different
homes and backgrounds and have acquired different learning styles. The question is how to
deal with these heterogeneous classrooms?

The learning theories covered earlier help us in understanding the complexities of classrooms
and provided some solutions to handle such situations. Of course one of the solutions is to
use technology in instruction. The research has indicated that there are possibly three learning
styles, namely visual learners, auditory learners and tactical/kinaesthetic learners. Further one
can notice by studying the following figures from Dale‟s Cone of Experience (Figure 2.5)
that people remember 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see
50% of what they hear and see, 70% of what they say and write, and 90% of what they say
and perform at a task. In this context it is obvious that the teachers should provide different
kinds learning experiences so as to meet the requirements of all categories of students and to
achieve the optimum learning outcomes.

Multimedia 2.5

Go through the video clips and list out the reasons to use technology in education, and
explain in brief each of the reasons.

„Top 10 Reasons to Use Technology in Education: iPad, Tablet, Computer, Listening

Centres‟ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzi2RIt8_nk

„ITC – Understand Integrating Technology in the Classroom – Teacher Professional

Development‟ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzpACGwXNlQ

Utilisation of media technology is no longer unfamiliar to the educational community. With

the recent developments of media technology in education, there are many benefits of
integrating media into the teaching and learning process, among these include:

1. to draw the attention of students;

2. to help students to recall what they had learnt;
3. to present new and complex content;
4. to provide examples and illustrations;
5. to generate interaction and discussion;
6. to ensure retention of knowledge;
7. to facilitate application of knowledge; and
8. to cater to the individual needs of all the students.
Figure 2.5 Edgar Dale Cone of Experience Media by Jeffrey Anderson
Source: http://www.edutechie.ws/2007/10/09/cone-of-experience-media/

Activity 2.4

Try to recollect your experience with respect to remembering things, then check with the
information given in Figure 2.5. Which cone of experience best fits your case?
There are many media materials are available in the system for use by teachers. Teachers
with some background of training could be able to develop, adapt certain kind of materials
such as handouts, drawings, charts, graphs, overhead transparencies, slides, audio tapes etc.,
whereas other materials like filmstrips, video films, computer software etc. developed by
professional agencies and organisations can also be used. Each type has its own merits and
use in the type and nature of instruction delivered.

Reading 2.4

Please read Chapter 9: Instructional Media: Chalkboards to Video of the following book:

The Florida State University (2011) Instruction at FSU: A Guide to Teaching and Learning
Practices Office of Distance Learning,
http://distance.fsu.edu/docs/instruction_at_fsu/Chptr9.pdf

Chapter 9 (FSU 2011) discusses different issues regarding the types of media that can be used
for instruction, the reasons to use each media type, and various instructional strategies
involving media. The chapter provides tips for using each media type, from chalkboards to
clickers and video. In addition it also provides an explanatory note on Dale‟s Cone of
Experience.

Considerations and constraints in using technology for instruction

In using any technology, one has to pay attention to certain practical issues which include:
access – whether the technology is available to the learner; cost – whether it is affordable for
the students and the institutions; and whether the technology meets the requirement to deal
with instructional objective – is it complicated which requires higher end skill development
among the users, or user friendly and simple to handle. In this context, you may also refer to
Unit 1, Section 2, Technology for Education – The Parameters. The seven parameters
discussed explain how each type of technology has its own limitations and works best under
certain conditions.

What does research say about the impact of using instructional technology?

In the article „Instructional technology and creativity among university students: The missing
link‟ published in the World Journal on Educational Technology, the authors Waleed
Mustafa Eyadat and Yousuf Ahmed Eyadat (2010) commented that students who were taught
through the use of instructional technology showed a significantly higher level of creativity
across many dimensions, including intuitive awareness, external locus of control, self
confidence, and originality. You may go through the full article to understand the details of
procedures adopted and the findings.

http://www.world-education-center.org/index.php/wjet/article/viewArticle/164

Summary
This section discussed the meaning of instructional technology and its relevance in designing
instruction for delivery in the classrooms. The section attempted to highlight the need to
select media which is appropriate to the content to be delivered, learning objectives to be
achieved, the context, and the learning styles of students for maximum impact. These aspects
should be considered while selecting the appropriate technology for instruction.

Self-test 2.1

1. List the steps in involved in designing instruction for classroom teaching. Explain any one
step with appropriate examples.
2. Even today the teachers use predominantly the chalk board as classroom technology even
though the sophisticated technologies are available. Mention any three reasons for this.
3. Explain the importance of using media for teaching.
4. Look at the Figures 2.5 and explain:
a. If a teacher uses only lecture method, what learning outcomes he/she is likely to
achieve?
b. Explain how the students could be made more active learners in the classrooms

Suggested answers:

1. The five steps in designing instruction are

a. Analyse
b. Design
c. Develop
d. Implement
e. Evaluate
2. The reasons for using the chalk board could be
a. Cost effective
b. User friendly
c. Easy access
d. Familiarity
e. Not much prior preparation required
3. The probable answer could be the media materials have the potential to provide
opportunities for multi channel and multi sensory learning. It helps to hold attention. It
helps to create interest. Possible to make difficult concept easy to understand by visuals,
etc.
4. a. The lecture usually involves only hearing and reading. So this will result in enabling
students to perform the questions of the types describe, explain, define list etc.

b. To make students active learners the teachers have to provide opportunities for hands
on experience, projects, collaborative leaning, workshops.

_____________________________________
2.3 Computer Mediated Instruction

Introduction

Though teachers have used various technologies ever since the invention of the printing press
(itself a technology of sorts), it was perhaps not until the eighties that the term Computer
Based Learning (CBL), Computer Based Education (CBE), Computer Assisted Instruction
(CAI) and Computer Mediated/Managed Instruction (CMI) all became part of the language of
Educational Technology. Though each one of these terms has a slightly different connotation
they are by and large referred to the way teachers use the power of the computer for the
purpose of teaching and learning.

Early interest in the application of computers to education is based on the dual beliefs that
instruction adapted to the needs of the learner is desirable, and that computers make this
individualisation of instruction easier. The machines could do this because of their enormous
capacity to store data of individual student‟s learning progress and use this as a basis to
present new learning objects for them to achieve. Scholars were also able to apply
sophisticated mathematical models of student learning to help design instructional materials
and strategies to achieve a high level of individualisation. Systems like PLATO1 were already
using time-sharing computers to allow large numbers of people to interact with lesson
modules created by a programming language called TUTOR 2 . Buttressed on theories of
behaviourism3, by 1973, computers began to be used in drills, skills practice, programmed
and dialog tutorials, testing and diagnosis, simulation, gaming, and various forms of
information processing, storage, management and display. Computers, in the early days, were
not used to enable communication between people. That came later and with that the
opportunity to mediate learning using these machines.

In section 2.3 we shall move from looking at the history of computer mediated instruction to
now focus on the practical ways computers have been put to use in and out of the classroom
to support teaching and enrich learning. This module will be presented in three parts as
illustrated in the table below:

Title Text Resources Media Resources

Computers and Poole et al. (2009) Education for the Network Components
communication Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized http://youtu.be/v1e-
Classroom, 7th edn, 9DNcczc
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEditio
n/Chapter7.pdf

Chapter 7: Computers and Communications

(pp. 179-206)

1
PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) was the first computer assisted instruction
system originally designed at the University of Illinois.

2
TUTOR is an authoring language for designing instructional material and was applied to the PLATO systems.

3
See section 2.1.
Why use different Office of Distance Learning (2011) Instruction Top 10 Reasons to Use
media/technology at FSU: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Technology in
for instruction Practices, The Florida State University, Education: iPad, Tablet,
http://distance.fsu.edu/docs/instruction_at_fsu/C Computer, Listening
hptr9.pdf Centres
http://youtu.be/mzi2RIt8
Chapter 9: Instructional Media: Chalkboards to _nk
Video (pp. 103-112)
ITC – Understand
Integrating Technology
In The Classroom –
Teacher Professional
Development
http://youtu.be/OzpACG
wXNlQ
Considerations Waleed Mustafa Eyadat and, Yousef Ahmed
and constraints in Eyadat (2010) „Instructional technology and
using technology creativity among university students: The
for instruction missing link‟, World Journal on Educational
Technology, 2(2): 87-99, http://www.world-
education-
center.org/index.php/wjet/article/view/164/pdf_
13

Learning outcomes

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Describe the role of computers in mediating teaching and learning.

2. Define the purpose and functions of programmes such CMI, CAI, CAL and CBT.
3. Critically analyse the role of various tools available to instructors.
4. Describe the benefits derived and the challenges confronted by learners in using computer
mediated learning.

In section 2.3 we shall move from looking at the history of computer mediated instruction to
now focus on the practical ways computers have been put to use in and out of the classroom
to support teaching and enrich learning.

Computers and communication

In this section you will mostly work through Chapter 7: Computers and Communications
(C&C) (Poole et al. 2009, 179-206). Chapter 7 consists of 3 sections and the synopses of the
various sections can be found on page 180.

(Source: http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter7.pdf)

In Chapter 7, we are introduced to the idea of communication. An understanding of what

communication means is essential to how computers began to be used for purposes of
communication. This would mean getting computers to „talk‟ with each other. The
proposition that machines communicate with each other is interesting; even more interesting
is the distances over which this communication can travel. The chapter is separated into three
parts. These are:

1. Scope of communications

As you are reading this unit, you are probably alone in your room sitting at your table.
But if you are reading this in the staff room or the school library, pause for a moment and
look around you. While many like you would be absorbed in their own work, others may
be in conversation. Observe the individuals in conversation. Besides just talking there are
also hand gestures, laughter and physical contact like holding hands. People are
communicating all the time. It is a very human trait. Most animals in the animal kingdom
communicate – some, like Homo sapiens use language, others motor behaviour (bees,
birds, mammals), and yet others chemical signals (termites and ants). In the digital era the
ability to communicate seems to have been bestowed by human beings through digital
technology.

In the early days of computing machines worked in isolation. With rapid digitisation of
communication technologies the transfer of data from one appliance to another became
possible. Since there are literally millions of computers with enormous amounts of data in
them, the most efficient way to move the data from one computer to another, from one to
many, or from many to many is to simply get the machines to „talk‟ to each other. We
have done this through creating various machine languages (the binaries of 0s and 1s),
codes (protocols) and pathways (the networks).

Additional references

To learn more about Binary numbers and computers, please click at the link given below:

http://www.ghacks.net/2011/08/12/the-importance-of-binary-numbers-in-computing/

In Chapter 7, Section: Technology Transfer and the Challenge Posed by User Demand
(pp. 182-183) describes this development elegantly. Take note of the following as you
read this section:

a. The move from analogue (copper) based technology to digital (fiber) technology. This
single evolution of the technology instantly made possible all the communication
activities we undertake both in volume and speed.
b. Educational services are among the major beneficiaries. The new tools of
communication permitted interesting innovations in pedagogy.
c. How technology facilitated creative ways in which services in education could be
developed to make learning available for all in an exciting, rewarding and fascinating
way.

Activity 2.5
Consider how computer communications have enabled you as a teacher and your school as an
institution to enhance teaching and learning in the school.

Suggested answers:

The following are some ways in which computer communication has supported the
university:

 Email.
 File transfers between various departments.
 The Learning Management system (WawasanLearn).
 Public relations (Online version of Wawasan Link).
 University announcements to its registered students.

Can you think of any others?

2. Computer networks

If your school is similar to the way we have connected all the computers in our university
to „talk‟ with each other, then there are a number of amazing things we do that I could not
have imagined when I first joined the University Sains Malaysia as a young Assistant
Lecturer in the year 1969!!. Then, the only technological device we had was the telephone
in my office. Besides the telephone we also had a photocopying machine in the main
administrative centre which also contained a FAX machine. Simple tasks such as sending
a file from one person to another or sending a letter from my university to another meant
carrying these documents physically, location to location. Not so today at WOU. From
my office I connect to the entire world, and send and receive documents as well as other
data within a matter of seconds just sitting in front of my computer. We can do this
because the computer that I work with is connected through a NETWORK to all others
both within my university and the rest of the world.

In this section, we shall consider what networks are, how they function and what are their
potential uses and benefits to educational systems. To get an insight into computer
networks, I suggest you read the section on „Computer Networks‟ (Poole et al. 2009, 185-
200) of Chapter 7. As you read through this section, take note of the following:

a. The components of a computer network

For a computer to function within a network, its environment should be made up of

different components that are connected by cables and modems. It is not necessary for
you to know the technology behind each component but knowledge of the functions
of the various components is useful. You are probably aware of some of these
components such as modems and routers but others like file servers and client servers
may be new. Table 2.2 below is a simple description of the functions and Figure 2.6
is a graphical representation of the connections.

Component Function
Hub The Hub allows computers to share data packages.
Cables Cables connect various parts of the components.
Client/Image/Print/File A machine that provides a service for other users. There include
Server print servers, image servers, client servers, etc.
Gateways Gateways convert data passing between different types of networks
so that each component can communicate with each other.
Modem Modems convert analogue data between computers and telephones.

Table 2.2 Functions of the major components of a computer network

Figure 2.6 Components of a computer network

b. The types of networks

Local Area Network (LAN) is a network, which is limited to a single building, college
campus etc. A Wide Area Network (WAN) spans over multiple geographic locations,
which is composed of multiple LANs. A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) refers
to a network, which is located in a city or metropolitan area. If an organisation has
multiple offices in a city, the network used is the MAN.

c. The applications of computer networks perform the following system-wide functions:

i. File sharing: Networking of computers which helps users to share data files.
ii. Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-
ROM drives, hard drives etc.
iii. Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, which
allows the implementation of client/server applications.
iv. User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups and video conferencing etc.
 v. Network gaming: Lots of multi-user games are available.

d. A case for networked computing in schools

It is likely that the school you work in already has all of its computers networked
through LAN. Some among you may not be as privileged. There may not be a LAN in
your school but using a modem through a subscribed telephone service provided by
one of the many telecommunication companies (e.g., DiGi, Celcom, Maxis, YES) you
are connected to the rest of the world. As we become more and more a networked
society there is a strong case to be made for school wide LAN.

e. Strategies for emplacing computer networks in schools

While most of the planning in Malaysian schools is carried out centrally by the
Ministry of Education, it is important that each school develops its own strategy as
well, configuring the size, structure and operating arrangements for itself.

f. What is the impact of networked computing on educational systems

The introduction of new technologies often always changes the way things were done
before the introduction of the new technology. Networked computing is no different.
Most times the impact is positive but there are times when it is disruptive.

Multimedia 2.6

Watch the video from CISCO at http://youtu.be/v1e-9DNcczc to get a broad overview of

computer networking.

3. Home-school communications.

a. At the end of this section, as an activity, you will be invited to develop your school‟s
strategy for a computer network. As one of your strategic goals you may wish to
consider such a network facilitating communication between the school and the home.
One of the many challenges our school systems face is the lack of regular and
informal communication between the school and the home. It is not a peculiarly
Malaysian situation – it is fairly widespread. Schools generally limit their interactions
to formal situations via the Parent Teacher Associations rather than a more informal
personal approach of keeping parents informed of their child‟s progress in schools via
personal communication channels. While the tedium of maintaining communication
between school and home in earlier times was not encouraging, today‟s networked
environment makes it convenient and possible. There is clearly much value to be
derived through a more personalised communication environment between home and
school. In this section (Chapter 7, 200-205), Prof. Poole presents a strong case to
develop a much more proactive strategy to link the home and the school. As you read
this section pay particular attention to the following:

i. The interdependency of the school and the parent to foster and nurture the
overall development of the child.
 ii. Many parents need help from the school to support their child‟s (especially
academic) development. In a nation like ours where the levels of educational
attainment, especially in non-urban areas is not high, this support is even more
critical.
iii. As we progress towards a more egalitarian and fair society, schools must
assume a greater share of the responsibility to nurture the child‟s intellectual
development in association with the parent.
iv. The school-child-parent triangular relationship provides a much stronger
framework working together for the child‟s development than as separate lines
– “a triangle is greater than the sum of the three line segments that form it.
This is because of its Gestalt.” (Wertheimer‟s Gestalt psychology).
v. The TransParent School Model proposed by Jerold Bauch of Vanderbilt
University considers a “voice-based information exchange between teachers
and parents” as a simple technology based system that benefits from today‟s
computer networked environment. E-mails, school websites and other
computer controlled devices all make it possible to bring school and home
together. Built within the model are also choices that can be applied in
situations where some homes may not have access to computer
communication facilities. Under those circumstances, other options such as
voice mail, facsimiles and ultimately the old fashion method of face-to-face
interaction can be used.

Activity 2.6

Develop a case and strategy for a networked computing environment for your school. List
down all of the required components to establish the network and present the positive impacts
you expect to derive from the investment and also how would you reduce any negative
consequences.

Suggested answers:

Table 2.2 and Figure 2.6 list the components as well as a configuration in an ideal situation.
It is likely that your school may not have an ideal situation and neither would it require a
sophisticated environment if the use is limited to exchanging e mails, presenting staff notices
and doing tasks such as word processing. When staff and students start exchanging files,
storing curriculum materials, organise learning management systems, student records and
manage all administrative documents, a full blown integrated system as illustrated in Figure
2.6 will be required. The benefits derived are greater administrative efficiencies and most
importantly improved teaching and learning.

Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

Have you experienced WawasanLearn as part of your experience with this University? If you
have not, you should! WawasanLearn is referred to as a learning management system (LMS)
in all of our University‟s literature. Learning management systems are not unique to our
university; it is fairly common in most Malaysian universities and colleges but may not be the
case in our school system. The LMS is an example of a computer managed instruction (CMI)
system. It has been around for a while, gaining popularity in use as sophisticated computers
and software to support them became cheaper and easily available.

The early beginnings of CMI can be traced back to Stanford University (1967) with various
developments remaining a side stream activity till the late 70s, and becoming more or less
mainstream as part of higher education in the early 90s. There is no single definition that
describes CMI comprehensively. At the end of this section I have put together a short power
point presentation summarizing what we know about CMI that you may wish to view.

A comprehensive account of CMI is presented in Chapter 5 of Education for an Information

Age (Poole et al. 2009, 103-141,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter5.pdf). This chapter is about how
the tools of computing are used to support and provide learning objectives, learning
resources, assessment of learning performance as well as tracking student progression. It is an
aid in the classroom. In all likelihood many of you will be familiar with a number of tools
(both hardware and software) mentioned in this chapter. What we will do in this section is to
highlight those aspects of CMI technologies that have a special value for learning, teaching
and administering activities.

“Good tools do not make a good teacher, but a good teacher makes use of good tools”. While
the teachers of yesteryear had blackboard, chalk, flip charts and overhead projectors, today‟s
teachers have available an arsenal of tools that help to increase productivity, save time and
relieve overburdened teachers with some leisure time. The chapter presents the CMI story in
two parts. The first is about tools that assist productivity and the second about other
applications that assist in matters of curriculum, content, assessment, planning and
communication between school and home. Before we continue, list 4 or 5 „computing tools‟
that you have personally used as a teacher and the purpose for using them.

Activity 2.7

Make a list of all the productivity tools that you have used as a teacher in your school and
state for what purpose you used these tools.

Productivity tool Purposes

(E.g.) Microsoft Word Writing lecture notes, exam questions etc.

Suggested answers:

 Excel – for managing class records;

 Photoshop – for improving and enhancing images;
 Power Point – increase production of instructional material;
 Calendar – to keep track of appointments;
 Project Tracking such as Gantt charts.
Productivity tools

The Ministry of Education Malaysia has continuously invested in providing computing

technologies to almost all national type schools in the country. The Government has also
provided free personal computers to thousands of teachers and invested in both formal
training of teachers to use computers both as tools to improve pedagogy and productivity.
Such investments are part of the strategy to ensure that Malaysian teachers benefit from the
capacities of computing by increasing productivity and students from quality of improved
instruction. As you have read in the Malaysian case studies presented in Unit 1, our track
record on realising the full potential has been somewhat modest for a variety of reasons. We
are not the only country that suffers from these shortcomings. In pages 104 and 105 of
Chapter 5 the authors Poole and Mclivan allude to some of the challenges faced by the US
system as well. One obvious solution to the greater and more effective use of computers to
manage instruction is to ensure that there is more regular and intensive re-training provided to
our teachers.

Thousands of software applications have been developed over the years, many for free, to
meet specific educational objectives, including:

1. Strengthening subject matter competence.

2. Providing drill and practice activities for different subjects.
3. Enhancing logical thinking and problem-solving skills.
4. Enriching research and writing activities.
5. Simulating complex or dangerous processes that enable students to change variables
and visualise how processes are changed.
6. Providing opportunities for students to extend learning beyond the scope of classroom
activities.

There are literally hundreds of programmes like the one you have listed and more are
available in the market ever year. While the most popular productivity tools are proprietary
(e.g. Microsoft) there are also Open Source programmes. It is more than likely that you have
used a number of productivity tools in both your professional as well as personal lives. Word
processing comes to my mind as the most commonly used tool by most Malaysians having
access to computers. However, there are others as well.

You will find from page 105 of Chapter 5 descriptions of all the productivity software that
teachers mostly commonly use. Listed on the table below are the tools and the purposes for
which they are used in a typical school.

Productivity tool Purposes

Word Processor Creating documents from writing textbooks to letters,
reports, and memos.
The Database Storing and retrieving data such as all kinds of students
information.
The Spreadsheet Crunching numbers besides financial management.
Drawing and painting Creating visual aids for instruction, manipulating
applications illustrations, photographs.
Clip Art Storing pre-drawn images that can be inserted into texts etc.
Learning assets Similar to clip art but capturing and storing multi-media.
Charts and graphs Programmes that turn numerical information into graphics.
Integrated applications Integrated tools that have capacity to integrate elements like
text, art, graphs.
Presentation (authoring) Programmes to create presentations from transparencies,
software including Power slides to digital movies with capacities to mix texts, images,
Point Presentation videos and audio.
Web based presentation These are alternatives to Microsoft‟s Power Point software
which are available on the web such as Google Docs.
Multimedia applications A whole range of tools are available to produce multimedia,
e.g., Quick Time Pro, i-Movie, Audacity, Garageband.
Graphical organisers Permits users to organise ideas and concepts into a
graphical form.
Utilities Calendars, memos, address books, calculators.

Besides productivity tools to support teachers in a variety of functions, there are other equally
valuable computer programmes that teachers can benefit from (read pp. 122-139 of Chapter
5). These programmes are useful in undertaking the tasks described below.

1. Electronic templates: a simple example of a template is a „memo‟ created with your

school letterhead and stored in the computer. You can use this letterhead to generate
memos for different purposes. Templates can be more complex than this simple
example.
2. Curriculum related work: Designing curriculum and writing a syllabus for it is a
complex task. Since curricula often require updating, revisions can be expedited if
earlier versions were stored electronically and retrieved. Designing the original
curriculum and revising them regularly would involve at least three tasks, .i.e.,
content development, outcomes, and assessment. Mind mapping using tools like
Inspiration (http://www.inspiration.com/) help planners to clarify the
interrelationships of the various aspects of the curriculum.
3. Lesson planning: Lessons or lectures will require revisions depending on changes in
curriculum, diversity of participating students, revisions or new editions of text books,
etc. Using templates, school teachers can design, revise and update their lessons as
needed and store them. This makes life a lot easier for many of us.
4. Content development: Similar to lesson planning, content development requires
regular updating. With information becoming available almost by the minute
everyday on the web in many formats the benefits of digitising content from design
through development is huge.
5. Electronic Boards (EB): These are used extensively in developed countries in place of
the old chalk and board. Connected to the Internet, the EB has tremendous versatility
but to maximise its potential, schools must have excellent and low cost connectivity.
The cost issue places limitations on the use of EBs in our country.
6. Desktop publishing: With the range of cheaply available printers and software like
Pagemaker, teachers can create almost textbook quality lesson notes.
7. Assessment and Test: Computerised tools to create banks of test items provide great
advantages to teachers. The advantage of manipulating test items digitally will
increase production of test items, permits refreshing the items and also individualising
them if necessary. Public examination authorities in most countries will have in
storage thousands of test items that permit them to produce test materials speedily and
efficiently. Increasingly on-line testing is also becoming available in some systems.
8. Rubrics: This is a template of sorts. Teachers can create templates to record individual
achievements of cohorts of students based on a scale of defined tasks or skills.
 9. Portfolios: These are hard copies normally of individual student‟s learning experience
and outputs. These can also be digitised permitting regular updating of student
performance.
10. Counselling: With increasing use of social media teachers are in an excellent position
to individualise advice and help students through the use of social media. However,
some caution is expected here of teachers who act as counsellors. Digitised exchanges
can be circulated through the net and meanings of messages misconstrued. Advice is
available to teachers on the „proper‟ way to handle such counselling exchanges.

Reading 2.6

Finally, for a quick review let us view the power point presentation (CMI Tour) summarising
the highlights of this section on CMI.

Activity 2.8

A useful exercise would be for you to get together with a few classmates or colleagues and
brainstorm to come up with a list of as many template possibilities as you can think of
(consider using a graphical organiser for this task!) and discuss them in WawasanLearn. Go
through the resulting list to separate critical from non-critical templates. The next step would
be to go ahead and create the templates, trying to use the best productivity tool for the task.
Save your templates and share them.

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)

“Computer-assisted (or aided) instruction” (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation

presented on a computer. These tools improve instructional qualities. CAI‟s were also known
as CBTs (Computer-based training) when they were used to “train” individuals for vocations.
CAI programmes have the following features:

1. Interactive and can illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound, and
demonstration.
2. Allow students to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve
in a group.
3. Provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct. If
the answer is not correct, the programme shows students how to correctly answer the
question.
4. Offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group
instruction.
5. Improve instruction for students with disabilities because students receive immediate
feedback and do not continue to practise the wrong skills.
6. Capture the students‟ attention because the programmes are interactive and engage the
students‟ spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores.
7. Move at the students‟ own pace and usually do not move ahead until they have
mastered the skill.
 8. Provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average or gifted.

Development history of CAI

1. The earliest computer-aided instruction was invented in 1925 – Pressey‟s multiple-

choice machine (developed by Sydney Pressey, Professor of Psychology at Ohio State
University). Pressey‟s multiple-choice machine presented instruction, tested the user,
waited for an answer, provided immediate feedback, and recorded each attempt as
data.
2. In 1950, Norman Crowder developed a process for the U.S. Air Force in which a CAI
programme presented some content as text, tested the user, provided some feedback,
and then branched to corrective instruction or new information based on supplied
responses. Branching was thought to be an advance on Pressey‟s multiple-choice
machine.
3. Much influenced by theories of behaviourism, in 1954 at the University of Pittsburgh,
Psychologist B. F. Skinner demonstrated a teaching machine for „reinforcing‟ – and
not just teaching – spelling and arithmetic with a machine. In addition, users as
reinforcement, may also access auditory material, listen to a passage as often as
necessary then transcribe it. The machine then reveals the correct text. Students may
listen to the passage again and again to discover the sources of any error and self-
correct themselves.

Developers applied principles of data transmission and reinforcement theory to a

variety of educational situations. Skinner used reinforcement theory to downplay the
role of punishment in changing behaviour. He was convinced that behaviour could be
altered by simply using positive and negative types of reinforcement. Positive
reinforcers presented rewards (good grade or congratulatory comment) after the user
achieved a desired behaviour. Negative reinforcers remove aversive stimuli after the
user failed to achieve a desired behaviour.

Crowder applied these ideas to “intrinsic programming” so that a user‟s responses

determined the material to be presented next. The main advantage of intrinsic
programming was that it did not waste the time of the fast learner with unnecessary
repetition. Its disadvantage was that it required a large amount of content to present
even a relatively small amount of material.

4. By the late 1950s, early computers were available and promised to offer a better
platform than mechanical devices for teaching machines. However, it was not until
the 1980s before there was widespread interest in the computer as an instructional
tool. These early applications of computers to education were mostly demonstrations
to show the potential of computers in education. Researchers extended Skinner‟s work
and used sophisticated mathematical models of student learning to help design
instructional materials and strategies to achieve a level of individualisation.
5. Early computer based teaching system to enter commercial production was the Self-
Adaptive Keyboard Instructor (SAKI), developed by Gordon Pask and Robin
McKinnon-Wood in 1956.
6. A project “The Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO)”
commenced at the University of Illinois in 1959. By the late 1960s, the PLATO
system was using time-sharing computers to allow large numbers of people to interact
with lesson modules created by the TUTOR programming language.
 7. Subsequent developments in programmed instruction (CAI) arise from perspectives
influenced by behaviourism and cognitive science. While teachers have mostly used
CAI for drill and practice especially in teaching mathematics and languages, there
have been other users of CAIs as well.

Reading 2.5

Please read Chapter 6: Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) (pp. 158-176) of the following
book.

Poole et al. (2009) Education for the Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized
Classroom, http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter6.pdf

This chapter describe some of the uses of CAIs and issues relating to their use. Pay particular
attention to the seven categories of CAI each of which will require a different type of CAI.
They are tabulated below in Table 2.3.

CAI types Highlights

Drill and practice (pp. 155- Drill and practice provide opportunities for students to
161) repeatedly practise the skills that have previously been
presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
Tutorials (pp. 161- 163) Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information
and its extension into different forms of work, including drill
and practice, games and simulation.
Simulations (pp. 163-167) Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality
that does not require the expense of real life or its risks.
Critical thinking and This approach helps children develop specific problem
enrichment (pp. 167- 169) solving skills and strategies.
Computer based laboratories Discovery approach provides a large database of information
(pp. 170-171) specific to a course or content area and challenges the learner
to analyse, compare, infer and evaluate based on their
explorations of the data.
Integrated learning systems This is made up of two components, computer aided
(pp. 173-174) instruction (CAI) modules (often called courseware) and a
management system to manage the learning. The learning
management systems are more recent innovations.

Table 2.3 Types and use of CAI types

Activity 2.9

Having read the various applications of CAI, list in Table 2.4 below the weaknesses of CAI.
The strengths are already listed for you.

Strengths Weaknesses (your response)

Modular – easy to revise as the situation
requires
Self administered – available on call
Feedback available immediately or delayed;
comprehensive or partial
Individualised
Automatic record maintenance
Programming allows controlled access and
interactivity
Feedback assists reinforcement and
motivation

Table 2.4

Commercial CAI products

The market for CAI products has been growing by leaps and bounds, almost in tandem with
the ITC industry itself. School administrators and teachers are presented with a wealth of
choices and making those choices is challenging. In a very centralised system like the one we
have in our country, such choices are often made at a much higher level than teachers in the
classrooms; however, teachers also do have access to many freely available CAI products on
the WWW. In exercising your choice a few simple guidelines are presented in Chapter 6
(Poole et al. 2009, 175-177).

The CAI experience in Malaysia

As remarked, in the last section, decisions on the use of computer assisted programmes,
particularly in schools, are made at a higher level than teachers. It is however not the case in
institutions of higher learning. I want you to read the studies conducted by Malaysian
academics on the use of CAI at schools and universities. The university level programme is
centred around medical education and the school level programme on languages. After
reading these two experiences you will watch a video of a North American training workshop
on CAI.

Activity 2.10

Please read the studies done by Malaysian academics on the use of CAI in schools and
universities.

1. Govindrarja, C et al. (2011) „Computer Assisted Learning: Perceptions and

Knowledge Skills of Undergraduate Medical Students in a Malaysian Medical
School‟, National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy & Pharmacology, vol. 1, issue 2,
63 – 67.
2. Faizah bt Mohd Nor (et al.) (2008) Teachers‟ Perceptions Of Lessons Using
Computer Assisted Language Learning.
3. Watch Barbara Glessner-Fines describe her experience designing CAI at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJmn764oRMc
For a quick review let us view the PowerPoint presentation on a CAI tour by Nancy Dowdle.
You can retrieve the articles in WOU MyDigitalLibrary, E-course reserves.

Summary

This section brought to attention the various ways in which computers have been used to
mediate and support teachers and learners. In the discussion, we explored how technology is
becoming an integral part of the teaching and learning environment providing mediation
between learners and the school. Clearly, technology provides another channel for teachers
and students to interact in very meaningful ways, and those who have used technology find
that teaching becomes effective especially in terms of quality when technology are used
sensibly. In this connection, we also studied the potential of computer-managed instruction
and computer-assisted instruction in permitting the learners and instructors to explore
individualised learning to suit the learning requirements, frequencies and styles of the learner.
All in all, with the proliferation of available instructional technologies, exercising the right
choice is crucial as it makes all the difference between puzzling content delivery to effective
execution of the teaching and learning process.

Self-test 2.2

Make a list of the differences between computer managed instruction and computer assisted
instruction.

Computer Managed Instruction Computer Assisted Instruction

Suggested answers:

Computer Managed Instruction Computer Assisted Instruction

CMI is a productivity tool CAI is an instructional strategy
CMI supports the teacher CAI supports the learner
CMI improves administration CAI improves learning
CMI supports integrating administration CAI assists in integrating learning

2.4 ICT in Teacher Training

Introduction

We have studied the concept and importance of educational technology and how technology
could be used in transacting the curriculum in the classrooms. Also discussed in the previous
unit are the potentials and parameters of technology for education, and educational
technology as a system approach to education.
Now in this section we look at the ICT from a different perspective that is how the
technology is used in teacher training. For a person to enter a teaching profession, he or she is
required to have a certificate, diploma or degree in teaching depending on the level in which
the individual would like to teach. After joining the teaching profession, one is required to
undergo frequent training or orientation of different durations which may be once every year
or two depending on the Government policies or the policies of the institution in which an
individual works. If teaching is considered as a profession then it is critical that every teacher
updates his/her knowledge and skill in the field as things do change over a period of time due
to many factors including the exponential growth of knowledge, education and technological
advancement and its influence on everyday life.

In this context this section looks at the ICT tools from the view point of its potentiality and
current practices of teacher professional development which is also referred to as teacher
preparation and education. We will also discuss the role of distance education in teacher
professional development and probable challenges and hurdles in using ICT in teacher
training.

This section will be presented in three parts as illustrated in the table below:

Title Text resources

Professional Carlson and Gadio (2002) Technologies for Education: Potentials,
development of Parameters and Prospects,
teachers http://www.ictinedtoolkit.org/usere/library/tech_for_ed_chapters/08.pd
f

Chapter 8: Teacher Professional Development in the Use of

Technology
Technology and Jung, I (2005) „ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training:
teacher training Application Cases Worldwide‟, Eductaional Technology & Society,
8(2): 94-101, http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_2/8.pdf
Teacher training: Hazri Jamil et al. (2009) Teacher Professional Development in
Malaysian scenario Malaysia: Issues and Challenges, http://aadcice.hiroshima-
u.ac.jp/e/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf

UNESCO (2007) Malaysia's Experience in Training Teachers to Use

ICT, ICT in Teacher Education: Case studies from the Asia Pacific
Region, Bangkok,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf

UNESCO (2007) Microsoft Partners in Learning programmes in Five

ASEAN Countries, ICT in Teacher Education: Case studies from the
Asia Pacific Region, Bangkok,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf
Distance education Burns, M (2011) Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes,
for teacher training Models, and Methods,
http://idd.edc.org/sites/idd.edc.org/files/DE%20Book-final.pdf

Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education:

 Potential, Parameters and Prospects.

Chapter 8: Teacher Professional Development in the Use of

Technology (pp. 118-132)
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf

Using Technology to Train Teacher: Section 2 of ICTs for Teacher

Professional Development at a Glance,
http://www.infodev.org/en/Document.297.pdf
Challenges and Ananiadou, K and Rizza, C (2010) ICT In Initial Teacher Training
hindrances in using First Findings and Conclusions of an OECD Study,
ICT in teacher http://crell.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download/ananiadou-rizzaVF.pdf
training
Wikibooks (n.d.) Key Challenges in Integrating ICTs in Education,
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ICT_in_Education/Key_Challenges_in_In
tegrating_ICTs_in_Education

Bismillah Khatoon Binti Abdul Khader (2007) Malaysia‟s Experience

in Training Teachers to Use ICT, 10-22
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf

Learning outcomes

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Explain the need for using the ICT tools in pre-service and in-service teacher training.
2. Identify the potential of radio, television and video conference in teacher training.
3. Identify the relative advantages and limitations of radio, television and video conference
in teacher training.
4. Identify the challenges in using ICT in teacher training.
5. Explain the advantages of using open distance education method in training untrained/un
qualified teachers.
6. Describe the initiatives of Malaysia in training teachers in using ICT.

Professional development of teachers

As mentioned earlier, teaching is a profession and people in the profession require training
and retraining to keep them up to date with the content they transact, pedagogy they use and
delivery mechanism they adopt. If we look at the definition of professional development as
mentioned by The Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), it tells
all. It defines professional development as “a body of systematic activities to prepare teachers
for their job, including initial training, induction courses, in-service training, and continuous
professional formation within school settings”.

Teacher training as professional development happens at two levels, one prior to the entry to
the profession (pre-service) and another after the entry (in-service). The duration of the
training varies from a few days (in service) to 2 to 4 years (mostly pre service) depending on
the policy of a given country. In some countries like India, China and Malaysia due to non
availability of qualified/trained persons, people are appointed first and then after a few years
of working they are enrolled in a training course lasting 2 or 4 years. To take care of the
qualification requirement and upgrade the knowledge and skills of the untrained/under
qualified teachers, they are encouraged/sponsored to take up the degree programmes of Open
Universities. Let us see how ICT facilitates the professional development of teachers.

Technology and teacher training

The training of teachers in the use of technology is critical and essential. The use of
technology in education should result in imparting quality education and to facilitate the
acquisition of knowledge and skills among students. The training could happen at the pre
service level and also at the in service level. In the pre service, level the focus of training is
more about making them to develop competency in teaching, managing classes,
reinforcing/enriching, content and knowledge and skills in using teaching aids. As part of
using teaching aids to cater to multi-channel learning, some efforts are made by the pre
service institutions in providing skills in the appropriate integration and effective use of
writing boards, posters, charts, audio and video tapes, transparencies etc for transacting the
content. So the skills developed in pre service stage to use technology sometimes may not be
comprehensive. Hence many agencies like Microsoft, Intel, etc. in collaboration with various
government agencies conduct short term in-service teacher training programmes to develop
competency in identifying and integrating technology in teaching.

Chapter 8 (Carlson and Gadio 2002)discusses the theoretical frame work in which the
professional development of teachers in the use of technology should be planned to make
them shift from one end of the continuum to the other on the ten dimensions of interactive
learning. For example with respect to pedagogical philosophy, the move is from instructivist
to constructivist, and similarly on the teacher role from didactic to facilitative.

Chapter 8 also details out what the training on using technology should accomplish and also
the key elements for the success of the training programme. The other issues discussed
include motivation and incentive to teacher participants, certification by the Ministry of
Education, reduced isolation, increased professional satisfaction (intrinsic), and enhanced
productivity (extrinsic).

Activity 2.11

Read Chapter 8: Teacher Professional Development in the Use of Technology (pp. 120-123)
of the following book.

Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education – Potential, Parameters and
Prospects, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf

Attempt the following activities to further strengthen your understanding on professional

development of teachers:

1. List out all the ten dimensions of interactive learning. In case you had received training
on using technology for education either as part of pre-service or in-service training,
identify which of the dimensions have been attempted and to what degree the shift has
taken place in the continuum of interactivity.
2. Briefly explain any two key elements found to be responsible for the success of the
programme that you attended. In case you have not got any input on educational
technology in your training, discuss with your professional colleagues to identify the two
elements.

Suggested answers:

Your answer will have two sections. One section deals with the ten dimensions (listed below)
and the other deals with the extent of the shift as a result of having undergone training.

The ten dimensions are:

1. Pedagogical philosophy.
2. Learning theory.
3. Goal orientation.
4. Task orientation.
5. Source of motivation.
6. Teacher‟s role.
7. Meta- cognitive support.
8. Collaborative learning strategies.
9. Cultural sensitivity.
10. Structural flexibility.

The two key elements could be from among the list given, with some explanation:

1. Incentive.
2. Certification by accredited agency or government.
3. Recognition by supervisors.
4. Professional satisfaction from having learnt something new and useful.
5. Enhancement of academic productivity of the teachers.

Purpose of using technology ICT in teacher training

The way technology is used in training depends on its purpose. The purpose could vary from
simple orientation to classroom technology, to having access to educational resources,
training on using technology for delivery of content, and networking with fellow
professionals to share ideas and views concerning his/her areas of work.

Activity 2.12

Go through Chapter 15: Teacher training with Technology: Notes from the field (pp. 177-
179) of the following book.

Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education – Potential, Parameters and
Prospects, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf

List at least two training purposes for which the technology was used in Morocco, Namibia
and Brazil.
Suggested answers:

Training purposes served by the use of technology in Morocco, Namibia, and Brazil include:

Countries Training purposes for which the technology was used

Purpose 1 Purpose 2 Purpose 3
Morocco Improve education Develop communication Promote ICT use in
quality network education
Brazil Links schools to Write reports on projects, Install 24-hour help desk
promote professional activities and experiences facility to respond to
collaboration among for sharing and questions concerning
educators generating online information and
discussion resources relating to
learning technologies
Namibia Design prototype Develop communication Develop computer-
curriculum based network assisted training
training materials programmes for teachers
and educators

How ICT is used in teacher training

There are two ways the ICT are used across the world in professional development of
teachers.

1. Training teachers to use ICT for transacting school curriculum.

Teachers are provided with short term training on some basic inputs for understanding
ICT and focusing more on the potential of tools like audio, video tapes, multimedia
programmes for transacting the subject content in the classrooms. Opportunities are
provided for some hands on experience. This type of training is done by a group of well-
trained educators in association with certain qualified agencies like what is being
practiced in Malaysia.

2. Transacting of training curriculum facilitated by ICT

In this scenario, the whole or part of teacher training curriculum is transacted through
ICT. The best example is online programmes offered to teachers to enhance their
knowledge and skills. The open university courses/programmes are delivered through the
use of ICT. The under qualified/trained teachers enrol in open universities so that they
need not be away for years from their work place.

In the article „ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training: Application Cases

Worldwide‟ (http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_2/8.pdf), Prof. Insung Jung discusses four
different teacher training approaches in which ICT is used. A few case studies are
presented and discussed to illustrate the nature of ICT used in each of the approaches.

Approaches Focus Example

ICT use as main content Selecting appropriate ICT in Singapore‟s initial teacher
focus of teacher training facilitating learning and training
evaluation of students‟
 performance Inputs in basic ICT skills, ICT
foundation and elective course
ICT use as part of Use ICT to learn about ICT Resource developed in USA for
teaching methods skills and ICT integrated K-12 teachers. Video tapes and
pedagogy CD ROM to explain how to use
technology
ICT as core technology ICT used to provide learning Virtual High School in USA.
for delivering teacher experience of teacher training. Training teachers as course
training Emphasis more on application instructors on line tutors
of ICT and not on ICT skills through internet
ICT used to facilitate ICT used to support ongoing UK Virtual Teacher Center US
professional teachers professional teachers network
development and development by making
networking available resource Korea‟s EduNet

Providing teaching and learning

resources and networking with
fellow professional teachers

The standing committee meeting on „Teacher Education, North and South Challenges to
Teacher education and Research North and South‟ held on 9-10 October 2003 in Dublin,
Ireland commented that IT in Teacher Education is used for three different reasons:

1. Provision of appropriate ICT skills, as part of teacher education.

2. Development of the student‟s capacity to make appropriate use of ICT in their teaching.
3. Use of virtual environment to provide support to students and teachers.

Reading 2.6

Read through the following article by Prof. Insung Jung „ICT-Pedagogy Integration in
Teacher Training: Application Cases Worldwide‟ to understand the details about the ways the
ICT is used in teacher training and also to understand the possible challenges one has to come
across in the implementation.

Source: http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_2/8.pdf

Teacher training: Malaysian scenario

In Malaysia, secondary school teachers are trained by Government funded universities and
primary school teachers through 27 Institutes of Teacher Education located across the
country. In the pre service level students are required to take a compulsory course on
technology and teaching and learning and an additional subject of computer aided instruction.
The study of these courses and subjects enables them to acquire competencies in using ICT
based materials for transacting the content in the classrooms.
At the in-service level, the training programmes of one- to five-day duration are organised to
update teachers about the content, new development and practices. Also provision has been
made for the non graduate teacher to acquire a degree thorough an open university.

Among the initiatives undertaken by the Malaysian Government to improve professional

development of teachers in the context of ICT include:

1. The Smart Teacher Training Course.

2. 14 weeks of Professional Development of teachers in ICT.
3. A one year full time specialist training.

The Ministry of Education with support from different agencies such as Microsoft and
UNESCO has made an attempt to develop the capacity of persons to work as ICT leaders,
who could use ICT in teacher training courses. Through the Malaysian grid for learning
programme, teachers are able to have access to teaching learning materials. To overcome the
funding constraints the Government made a budget provision of RM 12,888 million for ICT
related programmes.

Reading 2.7

Read through the article „Teacher Professional Development in Malaysia: Issues and
Challenges‟ by Hazri Jamil, Nordin Abd. Razak, Reena Raju and Abdul Rashid Mohamed.

Source: http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf

Activity 2.13

Go through the article „Malaysia‟s Experience in Training Teachers to Use ICT‟ by

Bismullah Khatoon Bhinti Abdul Khader and list:

1. The objectives of Teachers‟ Continuing Professional Development in ICT (BBPT).

2. The anticipated skills to be acquired by the teachers in using ICT.
3. The feedback of the teachers who participated in BBPT Programme.

Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf

Suggested answers:

1. Objectives of BBPT:

 To increase standards of students‟ achievement.

 To create national resource data on technology enhanced teaching learning materials.
 To provide teachers to national data bank on resources.
 To enable teachers to make judgment about when and how to integrate ICT in the
classrooms.
  To make them competent to use and to integrate ICT in their lesson plans.

2. The anticipated skills:

 To evaluate and select ICT resources to suit the subject.

 To integrate ICT into teaching.
 To evaluate the effect of ICT on teaching and learning on the part of students.

3. Feedback of teacher participants of BBPT programmes:

 Awareness of the importance of using ICT in teaching.

 Eye opener to new ways of teaching.
 Benefits in teaching and learning.
 Helps in lesson planning.
 Positive impact on professional practice.

Reading 2.8

Please read the report titled „Microsoft Partners in Learning Programmes in Five ASEAN
Countries‟ (pp. 23-27). This article discusses the case studies of training teachers of ASEAN
countries to use ICT. The study examines the impact of the programme in facilitating the
integration of ICT into education among five countries, namely Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.

Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf

Distance education for teacher training

One of the ways of looking at ICT use in teacher training is how it is used in distance
education (DE) modes of training. DE has been employed by various government and non-
government agencies so as reach the unreached. With the concept of providing credits and
certificates distance education started and progressed over a period of time with the
establishment of open universities with the main aim of providing learning opportunities for
those who could not continue education due to various reasons. Also in a broader sense the
focus of DE in the teacher training context is not necessarily the certificate based
programmes. It aims to reach the nooks and corners of a country so as to meet the training
needs of teachers through the use technology.

As Burns (2011) rightly said distance education, at its very essence, has always been about
helping individuals fulfil their professional dreams and aspirations – whether to be an office
worker or a para-teacher or a certified teacher.

Distance Education has taken the advantage of tradition and emerging technologies to reach
learners and provide cost effective quality education. The main technologies which is being
used in distance education include print, radio, television, web based technology, and mobile
technologies. Basing on the case studies of various distance education programmes of various
countries and regions such as United States, Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean,
Europe, and Australia, Mary Burns has identified the potential role of technology in teacher
professional development, its strengths and limitations. While the technologies used to
support distance learning are important for a well-functioning distance education programme,
more critical for teacher learning are the type and quality of instruction offered with and
through these technologies (Jegede, Fraser and Fischer 1998). Let us look at the three key
technologies which are being used predominantly in Distance Education programmes of most
of the courtiers. They are: print, audio and televisual.

1. Print

Print-based correspondence courses used in upgrading the skills of unqualified or

untrained teachers. The print is least expensive but probably only feasible in some
countries like Ghana (e.g., Untrained Teachers Diploma in Basic Education) and in
Tanzania‟s National Correspondence Institute, combined print study guides with radio
broadcasts, with residential programme. It is the same in India (IGNOU), where teachers
content and skills are upgraded through print materials as main stay with some additional
support through contact programme and school based activities.

2. Audio

It includes radio broadcasts; Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI); one- and two-way audio
instruction. In many programmes of audio, the teachers are secondary target group. It has
the advantage of being affordable, being capable of reaching any part of the country and
capable of focusing on issues perceived as difficult by teachers to handle.

3. Televisual

Televisual methods include visual broadcast media as television, video and

videoconferencing. It provides opportunities to see trainers and trainees in action and
leads to credibility as it is said seeing is believing. Actual classrooms could be created. It
can provide models. It also has the potential to explain the difficult concepts to make an
individual understand.

The choice of technology in Distance Education is required to be based on learners‟ needs,

nature of curriculum content and student support system, which leads to the consideration of
certain factors. The eight factors listed in the book Distance Education for Teacher Training:
Modes, Models, and Methods by Mary Burns is given below in the box for your reading.

1. Support the goals of the instructional program. Distance learning programs should not
start with the question, “How can we teach teachers using online learning?” Rather, the
first question should be, “What should teachers know and be able to do as a result of this
instructional program?” The second question should be, “How best can we do this: face-
to-face, via distance, or both?”
2. Select the instructional system – distance or non-distance. Once these programmatic
goals have been defined, policymakers and planners should consider the delivery system
that can best help teachers attain these knowledge and skills. The technology or
technologies selected must serve as the best vehicle to address the needs and goals of the
teachers the distance education program is designed to serve.
3. Facilitate learning. The technology/technologies selected must be appropriate for
curriculum delivery and support teacher effectiveness (Farrell and Isaacs 2007). Initial
 development of distance learning programs should begin with two fundamental questions:
What should teachers know and be able to do as a result of this distance program? What
is the best possible way to help them attain that knowledge and those skills? Neither of
these questions have anything to do with hardware, software, or connectivity – nor should
they.
4. Support best practices in instruction. The technology or technologies selected must
support best practices in learning: learner-centred instruction, interactivity with content
and people, communication, collaboration, reflection, accessing and constructing
information in multiple formats, exposure to new opportunities and practices, and
assessment (Farrell and Isaacs 2007; Kleiman 2004; Capper 2003; Mayer 2001).
5. Include backup and support. Technology breaks down. When computers lie unused
because of unavailable tech support, when television broadcasting ceases because of
storm damage to a broadcast tower or satellite dish, when IRI broadcasts stop because of
broken radios, education and professional development efforts are lost and money wasted
(Gaible and Burns 2007). Any technology-based distance education system must plan for
such contingencies and eventualities.
6. Build on existing infrastructure. The technology or technologies selected for distance
learning must build on a country‟s available communications, networked or broadcast
infrastructure, available equipment, physical infrastructure, and human infrastructural
supports – content developers, instructional designers, and instructors within that
particular distance education medium – as well as distance technology-specific
assessment systems.
7. Design with ease of use in mind. Different distance technologies require different
technical skills and dispositions on the part of potential users. The existing skills and
readiness of distance instructors and learners is a critical consideration in selecting a
particular mode of distance education delivery. The technology medium identified must
be easy enough for instructors and learners to use so that technology – and difficulties
operating it – do not obscure the focus on teaching and learning. The use of any
technology will obviously and necessarily involve some form of technology training. But
fluent technology skills do not guarantee fluency in teaching and learning with
technology (McGhee 2003; Dimock et al. 2001). Any distance learning program must
devote less time, effort, and resources to teaching about technology and more time, effort,
and resources to helping its teachers and learners teach and learn with and through
technology.
8. An eye to the future. New technologies offer options to expand educational
opportunities and improve educational quality. In selecting, designing, and making
technology-related decisions, no entity should begin planning a distance/education
program without thinking very carefully about the convergence among technologies,
trends in technology (hardware, software, types of computing, use, and digital content),
and how they impact teacher training programs.

Figure 2.7 Factors to be considered while selecting a technology

Source: Mary Burns (2011)

Additional References

There are other modes of distance learning that include Multimedia-based Distance Learning,
Web-based Models for Distance Learning. For details you may go through the chapter 5, 6
and 7 of the book of Mary Burns Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models,
and Methods.

Source: http://www.sabes.org/resources/dl/edc-distance-ed-methods-2011.pdf

Activity 2.14

Read through the pages 16-17, 30-31, 47-48, 61-62, 89, 105-106, 121-122 of the book
Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models, and Methods and Section 2 of
„ICTs for Teacher Professional Development at a Glance‟. Mention any three strengths and
two limitations for each of the key technologies in the box given below:

Technology/Strengths Print Audio/ Televisual/ Online/Web Multimedia

/Limitations Radio Television based
Strength 1

Strength 2

Strength 3

Limitation 1

Limitation 2

Suggested answers:

Technology/ Print Audio/Radio Televisual/ Online/Web Multimedia

Strengths/ Television based
Limitations
Strength 1 Easily portable Can reach far- Powerful The internet Flexible
off places medium blends all
print, audio,
videos
Strength 2 Does not Address equity Can reach Can interact Games and
involve and access large and with experts simulations
sophisticated issue distant and peer group can bridge
Instructional population gaps in content
 Design knowledge of
teachers
Strength 3 Works any Audio/ Radio Could bring Supports to Supports
time, any place production viewers to site varied learning collaborative
skills are of events and styles learning
available phenomena
Limitation 1 Success Value of Always access Regular Complex
depends on content may to electrical accessibility to software
high reading degrade over a power could internet require skills
ability period time be difficult
Limitation 2 Difficult to Dissatisfaction Requires Computer and Accessibility
explain or boredom if sophisticated language skills to hard ware
abstract used daily skills in required to use and soft ware
concepts production and interact by every
institution

The role of technology in the new distance education model has changed from broadcast,
information delivery, static media presentation to interactive, explorative and information
exchange. Likewise other aspects relating to role of instructors and learners, learning,
assessment has changed. For details on this refer to Figure 8.1 Paradigm Shift in Distance
Learning Models (Burns 2011, 123) (adapted from Naidoo and Ramzy 2004, 96; Trilling and
Hood 1999).

Activity 2.15

Go through Chapter 10: Television for Secondary Education: Experience of Mexico and
Brazil (pp. 146-149) of the following book.

Haddad and Draxler (2002) Technologies for Education: Potentials, Parameters and
Prospects, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001191/119129e.pdf

Briefly describe how television was used in Mexico to carry the teaching load and enabling a
single teacher to handle all subjects.

Suggested answers:

Your response could include the process involved in using television by teachers in the
classroom and their preparation to do so. Some of the points could be:

 The programmes (Telesecundaria) are beamed through satellite from 8 am to 2 pm

with a repeat at 2 to 8 pm.
 Students will watch a programme lasting 15 minutes along with their teachers.
 At the end of the 15 minutes, the TV is switched off and teachers will take over.
 The teachers will use text books and handbooks to handle the class of 45 minutes
which continues from the lesson already beamed.
 The book contains the concepts and explanation of the lesson covered by the
television. The student learning guide used to engage students in group activities to
facilitate to apply the concepts learned to practical situations.
  Teachers use the guide book to understand the learning objectives of the lesson and
instructions to be adopted.
 At the end, evaluation of what has been learnt by the students is assessed followed by
the review of material taught.

Challenges and hindrances in using ICT in teacher training

Hindrances in the integration of ICT in education

Sometimes, programmes can fail due to certain factors. These factors could be related to
curriculum, facilities, staff involved in implementation, and institution. One of the articles
published in the Computer and Education, titled „Obstacles to the integration of ICT in
education from a worldwide educational assessment‟ (p.173,
http://users.ntua.gr/vvesk/ictedu/article5_pelgrum.pdf) lists out various factors considered as
obstacles in the integration of ICT in Education based on the data of 20 countries. The list
includes: insufficient number of computers, teacher's lack of knowledge, difficulty to
integrate software due to cultural incompatibility. For details, go through the article which is
available in WawasanLearn.

Some of the challenges which require particular attention are:

1. Ensuring teacher training programmes for integrating ICT into teaching are well-
designed.
2. Cost effective strategies for sustaining programmes.
3. Support for teacher trainer training institutions.
4. Forming national and international partnership to share resource, knowledge and
experiences.

Reading 2.9

Here is another article „ICT In Initial Teacher Training First Findings and Conclusions of an
OECD Study‟ which you should like to go through which details about Barriers and
Obstacles in the context of ICT in Initial Teacher Training by Katerina Ananiadou and
Caroline Rizza.

Source: http://crell.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download/ananiadou-rizzaVF.pdf

Additional reference

You may refer to the following link for getting more details regarding the challenges in
Integrating ICT in Education.

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ICT_in_Education/Key_Challenges_in_Integrating_ICTs_in_Ed
ucation#Key_Challenges_in_Integrating_ICTs_in_Education
 Activity 2.16

Go through the article „Malaysia‟s Experience in Training Teachers to Use ICT‟ (pp. 10-22)
by Bismillah Khatoon Binti Abdul Khader
(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf) and attempt the following
activity:

List the obstacle and challenges encountered in the implementation of Smart school
Integrated Solution (SSIS) programme.

Suggested answers:

Some of the points may include:

 Lack of connectivity.
 Delay in producing and supply of courseware materials due to lengthy procurement
procedures.
 Teachers are unable to develop materials as they are not trained and they are used to
use supplied materials.
 Lack of support system to teachers in case of malfunctioning of technology.

Summary

This section sheds light on the undiscovered potential of technology in the promotion of
teacher training and professional development of teachers. Clearly, these are two aspects that
are absolute necessary where up-skilling of knowledge and skills are concerned. To this
effect, we learn to understand and value the role of ICT in pre-service and in-service teacher
training and in the larger context of professional development of teachers. While we do
establish consensus that ICT definitely plays a critical role and projects many advantages in
these aforementioned processes, yet we acknowledge that these come with minor challenges
that we must tackle by exercising the right decisions.

Self-test 2.3

1. Describe the steps initiated by the Malaysian Government to train teachers in using
ICT for teaching.
2. List any three challenges that must be looked into while using ICT for the
professional development of teachers.
3. Differentiate between training in using ICT to deliver content and ICT to deliver
content in teacher training programme.
4. List the eight factors that require attention while choosing a technology for DE
environment.

Suggested answers to self-test 2.3

1. You answer could include the three programmes initiated by the Government with a few
lines explaining each one of them highlighting the issues covered. For example the first
 one, smart teacher training course. The course is aimed at integrating ICT into education
with materials developed in four subject areas of English, Malay, mathematics and
science. Eighty-seven teachers underwent training with inputs on introduction to
computers, related applications, software and courseware into classrooms and teaching
and learning process.

 The Smart Teacher Training Course.

 14 weeks of Professional Development of teachers in ICT.
 A one-year full time specialist training certificate.

2. Challenges that required to be looked into while using ICT for professional development
of teachers:

 Well-designed teacher training programme.

 Cost effective strategies for sustaining programmes.
 Technical support at the time of technology failure.
 Continuous and sustainable support for teacher trainer training institutions.
 Network to share resources, knowledge and experiences.

3. The training in using ICT will include hands-on experience in handling ICT tools,
integrating tools to deliver instruction to students whereas the ICT delivered content will
focus on the delivery of content to the trainee and training will focus mostly how to use
technology to receive content and interact through ICT.
4. The eight factors that required to be looked into while choosing a technology for DE
environment.

 Support the goals of the instructional programme.

 Select the instructional system – distance or non-distance.
 Facilitate learning.
 Support best practices in instruction.
 Include backup and support.
 Build on existing infrastructure.
 Design with ease of use in mind.
 An eye to the future.

Summary of unit 2
This unit addressed some important concerns regarding the use of technology in the teaching
and learning process. We have learnt the theoretical perspectives of designing an active
learning environment that promotes encouraging learning interactions among students.
Subsequently, we extended this awareness into the context of instructional technology where
we deliberated on several key aspects for effective delivery of instruction, including: learning
objectives, learning approaches, students' learning styles and relevant learning resources. In
the following section, we explored how technology is rapidly advancing to become a critical
face of any teaching and learning process. On this note, we also explored how technology is,
and can be, projected into other forms such as computer-managed instruction and computer-
assisted instruction that allow us tremendous flexibility to facilitate instructions more
effectively. Finally, the unit shed some light on how technology is utilised for teacher training
and in the promotion of professional development of teachers.
References
Bismullah Khatoon Bhinti Abdul Khader (2007) „Malaysia‟s Experience in Training
Teachers to Use ICT‟, ICT in Teacher Education,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf

Haddad, W D and Draxler, A (2002) Technologies for Education: Potential, Parameters and
Prospects, http://www.ictinedtoolkit.org/usere/library/tech_for_ed_book.pdf

Hazri Jamil, Nordin Abd. Razak, Reena Raju and Abdul Rashid Mohamed (2010) Teacher
Professional Development in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges, http://home.hiroshima-
u.ac.jp/cice/publications/sosho4_2-08.pdf

Jung, I (2005) „ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training: Application Cases

Worldwide‟, Educational Technology & Society, 8 (2), 94-101.

Ananiadou, K and Rizza, C (2010) „ICT In Initial Teacher Training First Findings and
Conclusions of an OECD Study‟, Proceedings of EDULEARN10 Conference, Barcelona.

Mahmud, R and Ismail, M A (2010) „Impact of Training and Experience in Using ICT on In-
Service Teachers‟ Basic ICT Literacy‟, Malaysian Journal of Educational Technology, 10(2):
5-10.

Burns, M (2011) Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models, and Methods,
Education Development Centre, Inc. Washington, DC.

Mohamed Ally (2004) „Foundations of Educational Theory for Online Learning‟ in

Anderson, T and Fathi Elloumi (ed.) Theory and Practice of Online Learning, Athabasca
University, 18-26, http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdf

Poole, B J (2009) „Chapter 7: Computers and Communications (C&C)‟, Education for an

Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized Classroom,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter7.pdf

Poole, B J (2009) „Chapter 5: Computer Managed Instruction‟, Education for an Information

Age: Teaching in the Computerized Classroom,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter5.pdf

Poole, B J (2009) „Chapter 6: Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)‟, Education for an

Information Age: Teaching in the Computerized Classroom,
http://www.pitt.edu/~edindex/InfoAge7thEdition/Chapter6.pdf

Siemens, G (2004) Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age,

http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

Siemens, G (2005) Learning Development Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and Modern
Knowledge Needs, http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ldc.htm
The Florida State University (2011) Instruction at FSU: A Guide to Teaching and Learning
Practices Office of Distance Learning,
http://ctl.fsu.edu/explore/onlineresources/docs/chptr9.pdf

The World Bank (2005) „Chapter 2 – ICTs for Teacher Professional Development at a Glance
in Using Technology to Train Teachers‟, Appropriate Uses of ICT for Teacher Professional
Development in Developing Countries The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, N.W., Washington, D.C.

Vincent Quah (2007) „Microsoft Partners in Learning Programmes in Five ASEAN

Countries‟, ICT in Teacher Education,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001567/156757e.pdf

Waleed Mustafa Eyadat and Yousuf Ahmed Eyadat (2010) „Instructional technology and
creativity among university students: The missing link‟, World Journal on Educational
Technology.

Dick, W and Carey, L (1978) The Systematic Design of Instruction,

http://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=a0gdmLZwI8IC&oi=fnd&pg=PA71&dq
=The+Systematic+Design+of+Instruction&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20Systematic
%20Design%20of%20Instruction&f=false

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Cycle: Bridging Learning Design and Modern Knowledge Needs”
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Creative Commons License.

“Supporting Theoretical Background” is an adaptation of “Connectivism: A Learning Theory

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George Siemens, used under a Creative Commons License.

“Supporting Theoretical Background” is an adaptation of “Learning Development Cycle:

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