LITERACY ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT 1................................................................................................................................... 2
THE CONCEPT AND IMPORTANCE OF LITERACY ACROSS THE
CURRICULUM ................................................................................................................... 2
Definition and Examples of Literacy Across the Curriculum ............................................. 22
Importance of Literacy Across the Curriculum ................................................................... 23
Principles and Practice of Literacy Across the Curriculum Including Ways of Assessment
.............................................................................................................................................. 23
Cross-Curricula Literacy in Teaching and Learning of Other Disciplines .......................... 23
Misconception of Literacy Across the Curriculum .............................................................. 23
UNIT 2................................................................................................................................. 25
USING APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE REGISTER/VOCABULARY IN SUBJECT
AREA .................................................................................................................................. 25
Use of Appropriate Language Register in the Various Disciplines. .................................... 25
UNIT 3................................................................................................................................. 31
APPLYING LITERACY ACROSS THE CURRICULUM ........................................... 31
Ways of Applying Literacy Across the Curriculum (Action Research) ............................. 31
UNIT 4................................................................................................................................. 33
INTEGRATING LITERACY ACROSS THE KG –P3 CURRICULUM .................... 33
Ways of Integrating Literacy Across the Disciplines in The KG – P3 Curriculum ............ 33
UNIT 5................................................................................................................................. 39
LITERACY ACROSS THE KG – P3 CURRICULUM ................................................. 39
Interpreting the KG – P3 Curriculum in Relation to Developing Literacy Across the
Curriculum ........................................................................................................................... 39
Designing s Lesson Plan for Literacy Across the Curriculum ............................................. 39
Co-Teaching Literacy Across the Curriculum with Lesson Plan Designed ........................ 39
 UNIT 1
THE CONCEPT AND IMPORTANCE OF LITERACY ACROSS THE
CURRICULUM

LITERACY
Literacy means the ability to read, write, speak, and listen effectively. These skills allow us to
express ourselves clearly, listen to others, gain knowledge, and build an understanding of the
world around us. Developing literacy is an important part of a child’s education.
English literacy means the ability to read, write, speak, and listen. It helps us to communicate
with others, express our thoughts and ideas and learn new things.
When many people think of literacy, they tend to think of reading and writing. While those
are certainly important parts of literacy, being able to listen to others also has an important
role to play.
Literacy is critical in helping us make sense of our world. From the time we wake up to the
time we go to sleep, we are constantly making meaning of the world around us.
Literacy has traditionally been thought of as reading and writing. Although these are essential
components of literacy, today our understanding of literacy encompasses much more. Alberta
Education defines literacy as the ability, confidence, and willingness to engage with language
to acquire, construct and communicate meaning in all aspects of daily living. Language is
explained as a socially and culturally constructed system of communication.
To help us answer the question of ‘what is literacy?’, let’s break down each of the key skills
that make up literacy:
• Reading consists of two dimensions: language comprehension and word reading.
• Language comprehension (necessary for both reading and writing) starts from birth. It
only develops when adults talk with children about the world around them and the
books (stories and non-fiction) they read with them and enjoy rhymes, poems, and
songs together.
• Skilled word reading, taught later, involves both the speedy working out of the
pronunciation of unfamiliar printed words (decoding) and the speedy recognition of
familiar printed words.
• Writing involves transcription (spelling and handwriting) and composition
(articulating ideas and structuring them in speech, before writing).
Examples of Literacy
Now that we’ve tackled the question of ‘what is literacy?’, let’s look at where literacy skills
might be needed.
English literacy can be demonstrated in multiple ways through speaking, reading and writing.
English literacy examples can also include such things as awareness of the sounds of
language, awareness of print and the relationship between letters and sounds. Other English
literacy skills include vocabulary, spelling, and comprehension.
Examples of English literacy include:
• Speech or spoken language: Speech is something that develops gradually, and this can
be different in everyone. Speech and language difficulties may be deemed to be
present if a child's skills are behind those expected of someone in their age group.
• Writing and reading: Traditional definitions of English literacy usually refer to the
ability to read and write. These are skills that can be developed over time, and they
should be practised regularly.
• Phonics: Phonics instruction is teaching children that specific sounds belong to
specific letters and letter patterns. Phonics instructions help children recognize and
associate the sounds of the letters and letter patterns in the words they read.
COMPONENTS OF LITERACY
1. Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear that a spoken word is made up of a series of
discrete sounds. This is not just important in English, but phonemic awareness is critical for
any language that has an alphabetic writing system. Phonemic awareness is an important
component of a good literacy program for a few reasons:
• Teaching phonemic awareness allows for greater printed word recognition.
• Teaching phonemic awareness teaches children to identify, understand, and
manipulate sounds in spoken words.
• Teaching phonemic awareness helps teachers recognize if students will have trouble
with reading and spelling.
According to the National Reading Panel, the amount of phonemic awareness that a child has
been exposed to before the start of school is a strong factor in how well that child will read by
the end of first grade.
Phonemic awareness is also the precursor to phonics instruction. Phonemic awareness is a
necessary component for phonics instruction to be effective because the students need to
connect the units of the written word to the sounds in the spoken word. Phonemic awareness
is also a vital component in a child’s success in learning how to read. The NRP suggests that
including phonemic awareness is a necessary component in the process of teaching children
how to read. The NRP states that those who promote the use of phonemic awareness believe
that including phonemic awareness as a component in literacy programs may finally prevent
the massive rehashing that English instruction goes through every five to ten years.
2. Phonics Instruction
Understanding phonics and the purpose of phonics instruction involves thinking about how
written language was created. Spoken language had existed for a very long time before the
need for written communication brought about the invention of various alphabets. When
people began inventing the letters of an alphabet to represent the sounds of their spoken
language, they eventually saw the need for a set of rules to make spelling consistent from
word to word.
That is, they understood it would be important for the same letter or letters to be used each
time a particular sound was represented. The rules they created to establish consistency in
how speech sounds are represented in print are what we now call phonics rules.
Therefore, we define phonics as a set of rules that specify the relationship between letters in
the spelling of words and the sounds of spoken language. For the English language, these
relationships are predictable, but not completely consistent. However, they are consistent
enough to be very useful to young children in helping them learn to decode unfamiliar words.
(Foorman et al., 1998).
Phonics instruction is teaching children that specific sounds belong to specific letters and
letter patterns. Phonics instructions helps children recognize and associate the sounds of the
letters and letter patterns in the words they read. Phonics instruction is a vital part of a
literacy program for these reasons:
1. Phonics instruction helps children decode words by recognizing the sounds that
accompany letters and letter patterns.
2. Phonics instruction increases fluency by helping children read more accurately and
with ease.
• Phonics instruction helps with reading comprehension. When a word is pronounced
correctly, it improves the understanding of the word.
• Phonics instruction helps children increase their everyday vocabulary. If children feel
comfortable in the correctness of the word that they are saying, they will use it more
often.
The NRP explains the goal of phonics instruction is to provide students with the knowledge
and ability to use the alphabet to make progress in learning to read, write, and comprehend
English.
3. Vocabulary
Vocabulary can be defined as the knowledge of words and their meanings. The purpose of
teaching vocabulary is for children to understand words and to use them to acquire and
convey meaning. Vocabulary is an important component of a literacy program because the
more words that a child knows and understands the more the child will comprehend when
reading. Vocabulary is an important component in a successful literacy program because:
• Vocabulary knowledge increases comprehension, which is vital to a child’s ability to
do well in school.
• A greater vocabulary increases a child’s ability to read and write with fluency.
A few ways to increase a child’s reading vocabulary is to have them learn high frequency
words and have them read from a wide range of sources of both fiction and non-fiction.
4. Fluency
Fluency is a child’s ability to read, speak, and write effortlessly, correctly at a pace. Fluency
in reading should include consistent speed, accuracy, and the use of proper expression.
Fluency is achieved when a child is no longer focusing on how to read. Helping children read
fluently is very important to a successful literacy program. Fluency is linked directly to
comprehension, and once it is achieved, a student can start focusing on the meaning of what
they read. Fluency can be achieved by using a literacy program that combines phonemic
awareness, phonics instruction, and vocabulary. The NRP suggests that there is a
commonality in fluency research, stating that fluency develops through lots of reading
practice.
5. Comprehension
Comprehension involves constructing meaning that is reasonable and accurate by connecting
what has been read to what the reader already knows and thinking about all this information
until it is understood. Comprehension is the final goal of reading instruction. While fluent
decoding is an essential component of skilled reading, (Block & Pressley, 2002) it should be
considered a prerequisite to strong comprehension rather than an end.
Comprehension refers to a child’s understanding of what what is being communicated to
them. It is connecting what you read and hear with your experiences. Having students attain
comprehension of what they are reading, and writing is very important. Comprehension is an
important component of an effective literacy program for a few reasons:
• Comprehension is important to success in academic and personal learning.
• Comprehension is important to becoming a productive member of society.
• Comprehension is important in obtaining and maintaining a job and being successful
in life.
The NRP explains that reading comprehension is not only important for academic learning,
but for learning in all other areas of a person’s life.
6. Writing
Writing is the process of students generating text, whether on paper or on a screen. Some
studies suggest that reading and writing are interconnected although they have been taught
separately for years. Writing is an important part of a literacy program:
• For younger children, writing helps to reinforce phonemic awareness and phonics
instruction.
• For older children, writing can help children understand the kinds of styles of text
they read.
• Writing about what a child has read helps develop their reading comprehension skills.
7. Awareness of Print
Knowledge of print refers to all the concepts related to how print is organized and used to
convey meaning.
Children begin to understand that print carries meaning but that written language is different
from oral language. They develop an understanding that
a. Print serves several purposes in our society (functions of print).
 b. Print has distinct features and forms (forms of print).

c. Print is organized in a particular way (print conventions).

Most print awareness begins at home and in the child's everyday environment. This is most
likely to be through reading books together with parents.
Reading to children is essential for developing this awareness and for introducing them to the
letters of the alphabet.
Print awareness can be picked up from anywhere, though - it does not have to be books!
When children look a road signs, cereal boxes or magazines, they will develop awareness of
letters and the alphabet too.
It is important for children to have at least some print awareness before starting school. If
they do not, they may fall behind when learning to read because they first must learn about
the alphabet and letters.
IMPORTANT OF LITERACY
We’ve answered the question of ‘what is literacy?’, so now let’s get into the question of why
it’s such an important part of any child’s learning journey!
We rely on being literate much more than we realise. If your English literacy had been
neglected, you wouldn't even be able to understand this text right now. Instead, it would just
look like a jumble of symbols!
Being able to read, write, speak, and listen (in other words, being literate) helps us to be
better communicators. It helps us to make sense of the world and connect with other people.
English literacy isn't just important for school - it's important for every stage of a child's life.
That's why it's so important to get English literacy right at a young age and help children to
develop their English literacy throughout their schooling. Supporting a child's English
literacy means supporting them through the rest of their life.
THE FOUR (4) LITERACY SKILLS
LISTENING
To listen is to give attention to sound or action. When listening, one is hearing what others
are saying, and trying to understand what it means. The act of listening involves complex
affective, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Affective processes include the motivation to
listen to others; cognitive processes include attending to, understanding, receiving, and
interpreting content and relational messages; and behavioral processes include responding to
others with verbal and nonverbal feedback.
Listening can be a useful skill for different problems, but it is essential to solve conflict, poor
listening can lead to misinterpretations thus causing conflict or a dispute. Other causes can be
excessive interruptions, inattention, hearing what you want to hear, mentally composing a
response, and having a closed mind. Listening is also link to our memory, according to a
study during a speech some background noises that were heard by the listeners could help
listeners recall information by heard it again. For example, when we’re doing something like
reading or following steps while hearing music, we can recall what that was by hearing the
music again later.
Active listening is listening to what someone is saying and attempting to understand what is
being said. It can be described in a lot of ways. Active listening is having good listening
skills. The listener is attentive, nonjudgmental, non-interrupting. An active listener analyzer
what the speaker is saying for hidden messages, and meanings contained in the verbal
communication. An active listener looks for non-verbal messages from the speaker in order to
indicate the full meaning of what is being said. With active listening, a person must be
willing to hear what someone is saying and the intent to try to understand what the meaning
of what the other person said. When active listening is used, there can be multiple benefits.
Being an active listener means that you have the possibility to become a more effective
listener over time, and your leadership skills will strengthen. Active listening is an exchange
between two or multiple people. When those people are active listeners, the quality of the
conversation will be better and clearer. They connect with each other on a deeper level with
each other in their conversations. Active listening can create deeper, and positive
relationship between the individuals. Active listening is important in bringing changes in the
speaker's perspective. Clinical research and evidence show that active listening is a catalyst in
a person's personal growth. The growth is specific with personality change and group
development. A person will more likely listen to themselves if someone else is allowing them
to speak and get their message across.
Active listening allows for us to be present in a conversation. Listening is a key factor in
cultivating relationships because the more we understand the other person, the more
connection we create, as taught in nonviolent communication Dharma teachings. As someone
recently stated, "we should listen harder than we speak."
GENERAL LISTENING TYPES:
The two main types of listening - the foundations of all listening sub-types are:
• Discriminative Listening
• Comprehensive Listening
Discriminative Listening
Discriminative listening is first developed at a very early age – perhaps even before birth, in
the womb. This is the most basic form of listening and does not involve the understanding of
the meaning of words or phrases but merely the different sounds that are produced. In early
childhood, for example, a distinction is made between the sounds of the voices of the parents
– the voice of the father sounds different to that of the mother.
Discriminative listening develops through childhood and into adulthood. As we grow older
and develop and gain more life experience, our ability to distinguish between different sounds
is improved. Not only can we recognize different voices, but we also develop the ability to
recognize subtle differences in the way that sounds are made – this is fundamental to
ultimately understanding what these sounds mean. Differences include many subtleties,
recognizing foreign languages, distinguishing between regional accents and clues to the
emotions and feelings of the speaker.
Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is happy or sad,
angry, or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually being said and, of
course, does aid comprehension. When discriminative listening skills are combined with
visual stimuli, the resulting ability to ‘listen’ to body-language enables us to begin to
understand the speaker more fully – for example recognizing somebody is sad despite what
they are saying or how they are saying it.
Comprehensive Listening
Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that are being
communicated. Like discriminative listening, comprehensive listening is fundamental to all
listening sub-types.
To be able use comprehensive listening and therefore gain understanding the listener first
needs appropriate vocabulary and language skills. Using overly complicated language or
technical jargon, therefore, can be a barrier to comprehensive listening. Comprehensive
listening is further complicated by the fact that two different people listening to the same
thing may understand the message in two different ways. This problem can be multiplied in a
group setting, like a classroom or business meeting where numerous different meanings can
be derived from what has been said.
Comprehensive listening is complimented by sub-messages from non-verbal communication,
such as the tone of voice, gestures, and other body language. These non-verbal signals can
greatly aid communication and comprehension but can also confuse and potentially lead to
misunderstanding. In many listening situations it is vital to seek clarification and use skills
such as reflection aid comprehension.
SPECIFIC LISTENING TYPES
Discriminative and comprehensive listening are prerequisites for specific listening types.
Listening types can be defined by the goal of the listening.
The three main types of listening most common in interpersonal communication are:
• Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)
• Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyze)
• Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and Emotion)
You may have more than one goal for listening at any given time – for example, you may be
listening to learn whilst also attempting to be empathetic.
Informational Listening
Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in informational listening. This is
true in many day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the news,
watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-through a
technical problem with a computer – there are many other examples of informational
listening too.
Although all types of listening are ‘active’ – they require concentration and a conscious effort
to understand. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of listening.
When we’re listening to learn or be instructed, we are taking in new information and facts,
we are not criticizing or analyzing. Informational listening, especially in formal settings like
in work meetings or while in education, is often accompanied by note taking – a way of
recording key information so that it can be reviewed later. (See Note-Taking for more
information.)
Critical Listening
We can be said to be engaged in critical listening when the goal is to evaluate or scrutinize
what is being said. Critical listening is a much more active behavior than informational
listening and usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision making. Critical
listening is akin to critical reading; both involve analysis of the information being received
and alignment with what we already know or believe. Whereas informational listening may
be mostly concerned with receiving facts and/or new information - critical listening is about
analyzing opinion and making a judgement.
When the word ‘critical’ is used to describe listening, reading or thinking it does not
necessarily mean that you are claiming that the information you are listening to is somehow
faulty or flawed. Rather, critical listening means engaging in what you are listening to by
asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main
argument being presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ from my beliefs, knowledge
or opinion?’. Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning.
Many day-to-day decisions that we make are based on some form of ‘critical’ analysis,
whether it be critical listening, reading or thought. Our opinions, values and beliefs are based
on our ability to process information and formulate our own feelings about the world around
us as well as weigh up the pros and cons to make an informed decision.
It is often important, when listening critically, to have an open-mind and not be biased by
stereotypes or preconceived ideas. By doing this you will become a better listener and
broaden your knowledge and perception of other people and your relationships.
Therapeutic or Empathic Listening
Empathic listening involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions of the
speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts.
Empathy is a way of deeply connecting with another person and therapeutic or empathic
listening can be particularly challenging. Empathy is not the same as sympathy, it involves
more than being compassionate or feeling sorry for somebody else – it involves a deeper
connection – a realization and understanding of another person’s point of view.
Counsellors, therapists, and some other professionals use therapeutic or empathic listening to
understand and ultimately help their clients. This type of listening does not involve making
judgements or offering advice but gently encouraging the speaker to explain and elaborate on
their feelings and emotions. Skills such as clarification and reflection are often used to help
avoid misunderstandings.
We are all capable of empathic listening and may practice it with friends, family and
colleagues. Showing empathy is a desirable trait in many interpersonal relationships – you
may well feel more comfortable talking about your own feelings and emotions with a
particular person. They are likely to be better at listening empathetically to you than others,
this is often based on similar perspectives, experiences, beliefs, and values – a good friend,
your spouse, a parent or sibling for example
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid or
only partially said.
Effective listening therefore involves observing body language and noticing inconsistencies
between verbal and non-verbal messages, as well as just what is being said at any given
moment.
For example, if someone tells you that they are happy with their life but through gritted teeth
or with tears filling their eyes, you should consider that the verbal and non-verbal messages
are in conflict. Maybe they don't mean what they say.
Listening is therefore not just a matter of using your ears, but also your eyes. There are ten
principles behind good listening.
1. Stop Talking
When somebody else is talking listen to what they are saying, do not interrupt, talk over
them, or finish their sentences for them. Stop, just listen.
When the other person has finished telling you may need to clarify to ensure you have
received their message accurately.
2. Prepare Yourself to Listen
Focus on the speaker. Put other things out of mind. The human mind is easily distracted by
other thoughts – what’s for lunch, what time do I need to leave to catch my train, is it going
to rain – try to put other thoughts out of mind and concentrate on the messages that are being
communicated.
3. Put the Speaker at Ease
Remember their needs and concerns. Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage them
to continue.
Maintain eye contact but don’t stare – show you are listening and understanding what is
being said.
4. Remove Distractions
Don’t doodle, shuffle papers, look out the window, pick your fingernails or similar. Avoid
unnecessary interruptions. These behaviors disrupt the listening process and send messages to
the speaker that you are bored or distracted.
5. Empathizes
Look at issues from their perspective. Let go of preconceived ideas. By having an open mind,
we can more fully empathize with the speaker. If the speaker says something that you
disagree with then wait and construct an argument to counter what is said but keep an open
mind to the views and opinions of others.
6. Be Patient
Be patient and let the speaker continue in their own time, sometimes it takes time to
formulate what to say and how to say it. Never interrupt or finish a sentence for someone.
7. Avoid Personal Prejudice
Don't become irritated and don't let the person’s habits or mannerisms distract you from what
the speaker is really saying.
Everybody has a different way of speaking - some people are for example more nervous or
shy than others, some have regional accents or make excessive arm movements, some people
like to pace whilst talking - others like to sit still.
Focus on what is being said and try to ignore styles of delivery.
8. Listen to the Tone
A good speaker will use both volume and tone to their advantage to keep an audience
attentive; everybody will use pitch, tone and volume of voice in certain situations – let these
help you to understand the emphasis of what is being said.
9. Listen for Ideas – Not Just Words
Maybe one of the most difficult aspects of listening is the ability to link together pieces of
information to reveal the ideas of others. With proper concentration, letting go of distractions,
and focus this becomes easier.
10. Wait and Watch for Non-Verbal Communication
We don’t just listen with our ears but also with our eyes – watch and pick up the additional
information being transmitted via non-verbal communication.
HURIER MODEL OF LISTENING
The acronym HURIER is sometimes used in academic texts to summarize a model of
effective listening skills. This model was developed by Judi Brownell of Cornell University.
H – Hearing
‘Hearing’ is used here in a very broad sense. Not only does it refer to the physical act of
hearing, but also to picking up on non-verbal and other signals, tone of voice, body language
and facial expressions, for example.
U – Understanding
Once the message has been ‘heard’, the next step is to understand. This means tying together
all the element of ‘hearing’ to create a coherent understanding of what was communicated.
Factors like language and accent may affect your understanding.
R – Remembering
Remembering requires focus. An effective listener needs to be able to remember the message
they are receiving in its entirety.
I – Interpreting
Interpretation of the message builds on, and enhances, understanding. Interpretation means
considering factors such as the context in which the message was sent. Importantly, here the
listener also needs to be aware of, and avoid, any preconceptions or biases that they may hold
that may affect how the message is interpreted.
E – Evaluating
Evaluating requires that the listener keeps an open mind on the messages they are receiving
and doesn’t jump to conclusions about what is being said. Evaluate all the information and
only then start to formulate a response.
R – Responding
Finally, your response should be well-measured and demonstrate that you have understood
what was communicated. It may be necessary to use techniques such as clarification and
reflection as part of the response.
SPEAKING
Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and
receiving and processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997). Its form and
meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants
themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for
speaking. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. However, speech is not always
unpredictable. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse
situations (e.g., declining an invitation or requesting time off from work), can be identified
and charted (Burns &Joyce, 1997). For example, when a salesperson asks, "May I help you?"
the expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need, response to the need, offer of
appreciation, acknowledgement of the appreciation, and a leave-taking exchange. Speaking
requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as
grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand
when, why, and in what ways to produce language (sociolinguistic competence). Finally,
speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from written language (Burns
& Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995; Cohen, 1996). A good speaker synthesizes this
array of skills and knowledge to succeed in each speech act.
This vocalized form of language usually requires at least one listener. When two or more
people speak or talk to each other, the conversation is called a "dialogue". Speech can flow
naturally from one person to another in the form of dialogue. It can also be planned and
rehearsed, as in the delivery of a speech or presentation. Of course, some people talk to
themselves! In fact, some English learners practice speaking standing alone in front of a
mirror.
FORMS OF SPEAKING
 • Informal speaking is typically used with family and friends, or people you know well.
• Formal speaking occurs in business or academic situations, or when meeting people
for the first time.
COMPONENTS OF SPEAKING
Welty states that 1976: 47 speaking is one of four basic skills of language, and it has
important role in daily life because it is the main skill in communication. Speaking must
fulfill these following criteria, they are:
1 Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way for students to produce clearer language when they are speaking. It
means that the student can communicate effectively when they have good pronunciation and
intonation even though they have limited vocabulary and grammar. Pronunciation refers to
the traditional or customary utterance of words. From that statement can be concluded that
pronunciation is the way for students to produce the utterance words clearly when they are
speaking (Kline, 2001:69). English pronunciation does not amount to mastery of a list of
sounds or isolated words. Instead, it amounts to learning and practicing the specifically
English way of making a speaker’s thoughts easy to follow (Gilbert, 2008:1).
Moreover, pronunciation includes all those aspects of speech which make for an easily
intelligible flow of speech, including segmental articulation, rhythm, intonation, and
phrasing, and more peripherally even gesture, body language and eye contact (Fraser,
2001:6). Based on the statement above can be concluded that Pronunciation includes many
aspects that include articulation, rhythm, intonation, and phrasing, and more peripherally
even gesture, body language and eye contact
2 Grammar
Grammar is needed for the students to arrange correct sentences in conversation both in
written and oral forms. Grammar is defined as a systematic way of accounting for and
predicting an ideal speaker’s or hearer’s knowledge of the language. This is done by a set of
rules or principles that can be used to generate all well-formed or grammatical utterances in
the language (Purpura, 2004:6). Moreover, the other definition of grammar stated by
Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:1) argue that Grammar refers to the set of rules that allow us to
combine words in our language into larger units.
The grammar of a language is the description of the ways in which words can change their
forms and can be combined into sentences in that language (Harmer, 2001:12). Thus, from
the statements above can be concluded that the function of grammar is to arrange the correct
meaning of sentences based on the context; in addition, it is used to avoid misunderstanding
in each communicator.
Moreover, Nelson (2001:1) states that grammar is the study of how words combine to form
sentences. Thus, from statement above can be concluded that grammar is a rule that is needed
for the students to combine correct sentences in conversation both in written and oral forms.
Grammar refers to the fundamental principles and structure of the language, including clear
and correct sentence construction and the proper forms of words (Batko, 2004:24).
3 Vocabulary
Vocabulary is essential for successful second language use because without an extensive
vocabulary, we will be unable to use the structure and function we may have learnt for
comprehensible communicative. It can be said that one key the success in communicative,
which is the power of words.
Vocabulary means the appropriate diction or the most important thing in a language
especially in speaking; furthermore, knowing many vocabularies we will be easier to express
our ideas, feeling and thoughts both in oral and written form. In spoken language, the
vocabulary tends to be familiar and everyday (Turk, 2003:87). It means that in spoken
language or speaking, the vocabulary used must be very familiar and it is used in everyday
conversation to understand the spoken discourse. Vocabulary is a basic building block of
language learning. Students need to know words, their meanings, how they are spelt and how
they are pronounced. Thus, when teaching vocabulary, the teachers must make sure that they
explain the meaning as well as the spelling and pronunciation. Vocabulary is the knowledge
of meanings of words. What complicates this definition is the fact that words come in at least
two forms: oral and written.
Oral vocabulary is the set of words for which we know the meanings when we speak or read
orally. Written vocabulary consists of those words for which the meaning is known when we
write or read silently. These are important distinctions because the set of words that
beginning readers know are mainly oral representations. As they learn to read, written
vocabulary comes to play an increasingly larger role in literacy than does the oral vocabulary
(Hiebert and Kamil, 2005:3).
Moreover, Vocabulary is a set of lexemes including single words, compound words and
idioms (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:580).
4 Fluency
Fluency is defined as the ability to speak communicatively, fluently, and accurately. Fluency
usually refers to express oral language freely without interruption. In teaching and learning
process, if the teacher wants to check students’ fluency, the teacher allows students to express
themselves freely without interruption. The aim is to help students speak fluently and with
ease. The teacher does not correct immediately whereas the idea being that too much
correction interferes with the flow of conversation (Pollard, 2008:16).
5 Comprehension
Comprehension is an ability to perceive, and process stretches of discourse, to formulate
representations the meaning of sentences. Comprehension of a second language is more
difficult to study since it is not; directly observable and must be inferred from overt verbal
and nonverbal responses, by artificial instruments, or by the intuition of the teacher or
researcher. Comprehension refers to the fact that participants fully understand the nature of
the research project, even when procedures are complicated and entail risks (Cohen et al.,
2005:51).
Functions of Speaking
In speaking, there are numerous attempts that have been made to classify the functions of
speaking in human interaction. Brown and Yule 1983 made a useful distinction between the
interactional functions of speaking, in which it serves to establish and maintain social
relation, and the transactional functions, which focus on the exchange of information. There
are three functions of speaking according to Brown and Yule 1983 in which each of the
speech activity is quite distinct in terms of form and function, and each requires different
teaching approach, as follow: 1. Speaking as Interaction Speaking as interaction refers to
what we normally mean by conversation and describes interaction that serves a primarily
social function. When people meet, they exchange greeting, engage in small talk, recount
recent.
READING
Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding symbols to arrive at
meaning. Reading is an active process of constructing meanings of words. Reading with a
purpose helps the reader to direct information towards a goal and focuses their attention.
TYPES OF READING
Skimming
It’s reading so fast or speedily through a text. That's looking for the gist or overview of the
text. Skimming may help to know what the text is about at its most basic level. You might
typically do this with a magazine or newspaper and would help you mentally and quickly
shortlist those articles which you might consider for a deeper read. You might typically skim
to search for a name in a telephone directory. You can reach a speed count of even 700 words
per minute if you train yourself well in this method. Comprehension is of course very low
and understanding of overall content very superficial.
Scanning
Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a name, date,
symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows what the item looks like and so,
knows when he has located what he was searching for. It is assumed then, that very little
information is processed into long-term memory or even for immediate understanding
because the objective is simply matching.
Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guidebook in hand. You would most probably just
scan the guidebook to see which site you might want to visit. Scanning involves getting your
eyes to quickly scuttle across sentence and is used to get just a simple piece of information.
Interestingly, research has concluded that reading off a computer screen inhibits the pathways
to effective scanning and thus, reading of paper is far more conducive to speedy
comprehension of texts. Something students sometimes do not give enough importance to is
illustrations. These should be included in your scanning. Pay special attention to the
introduction and the conclusion.
Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is the type of reading that involves learners reading in detail with specific
learning aims and tasks. It’s a kind of reading for academic or professional work to capture
something.
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember
this is going to be far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the
chronology of events in a long passage, you will need to read it intensively.
This type of reading has indeed beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand
vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It, moreover, helps with retention
of information for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from intensive reading
persists in your long-term memory. This is one reason why reading huge amounts of
information just before an exam does not work very well. Students tend to do this, and they
undertake neither type of reading process effectively, especially neglecting intensive reading.
They may remember the answers in an exam but will likely forget everything soon
afterwards.
Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading widely for pleasure or acquire more knowledgeable to
guide your life. Because there is an element of enjoyment in extensive reading it is unlikely
that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do not like. It also requires a fluid
decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of you. If the text is difficult and
you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or to look up new words in the
dictionary, you are breaking your concentration and diverting your thoughts.
STRUCTAGIES OF READING
SQ5R is a reading technique and stands for Survey, Question, Read, Respond, Record,
Recite, and Review. So, let’s discuss what these represent.
Survey:
Before you start reading your text, say a textbook chapter, you want to survey the text. This
means skimming through the chapter, reading the introduction and conclusion first, if
available, looking out for definitions and parts of the text highlighted in bold. Also, pay
attention to drawings and graphs illustrating the text. This will give you an idea of what ideas
and themes will be important.
Question:
After identifying the main topic of the text, and before actually reading it, ask yourself
questions about the topic. Essentially, you will ask yourself what you want to find out about
the items identified in the survey. As you have not read the text yet, your understanding
might be too limited to ask specific questions. Instead, focus on broader themes and questions
to guide your reading.
Read:
In the next step, you will get to read the text. Don’t be afraid to break it down into more
digestible sections if needed. Depending on where you are studying you might also want to
read the text out loud.
Respond:
After reading and learning about the themes, think back to the questions you asked yourself at
the beginning. Respond to them and apply what you have just read.
Record:
In the next step, you will get your pen and paper out and underline, scribble, take notes -
whatever works for you. You’ll use the text as a tool to record your understanding of the
topic.
Recite:
Without looking at your notes or the text, go over what you have learned and try to reproduce
the content - explain to someone else or to yourself what the text covered. When you do this
for the first time, you might not remember all the crucial information. You will go over the
text until you feel comfortable with the material learned.
Review:
After completing these steps, go over the text again and skim through it. Ideally, try to find
someone to explain the material to. At this point, you might want to go over your notes as
well to fill in any missing information or to edit them in a way that will make them more
accessible for later revision etc.
THE SIMPLE VIEW OF READING
The simple view of reading is a scientific theory that a student's ability to understand written
words depends on how well they sound out (decode) the words and understands the
meaning of those words. Specifically, their reading comprehension can be predicted by
multiplying their skill in decoding the written words by their ability to understand the
meaning of those words. It is expressed in this equation:
Decoding (D) x (Oral) Language Comprehension (LC)= Reading Comprehension (RC)
The parts of the equation are:
(D) Decoding: the ability of the student to sound-out or decode the written words using the
principles of phonics (e.g., /k - æ - t/= cat).
(LC) language (listening) comprehension: the ability of the student to understand the meaning
of the words (as if they had been spoken out loud).
(RC) Reading comprehension: The ability of the student to understand the meaning of
the written words.
To be clear, all of this can be done while doing silent reading.
The equation tells us the following:
• If students can decode (i.e., sound-out) the words accurately (so they make sense) and
understand the meaning of those words, they will be able to understand the written
words (i.e., reading comprehension).
• If students can decode the words accurately, but do not understand the meaning of the
words, they will not have reading comprehension. (e.g., A reader who can decode the
word “etymology” but does not know what it means, will not achieve reading
comprehension.)
• If students cannot decode the words accurately, yet understands the meaning of those
words, they will not have reading comprehension. (e.g., A reader who knows what a
 tyrannosaurus rex is, but cannot decode the words, will not achieve reading
comprehension.)
• To ensure their students are able to comprehend what they read, teachers and tutors
need to be sure their students can decode the words and understand the meaning of
those words.
It is important to note that the equation has a multiplication sign not an addition sign,
so reading comprehension (RC) is not the sum of the decoding ability (D) plus the language
comprehension ability (LC). Instead, when one element is strong a weak result in the other
area will significantly reduce the reading comprehension score (e.g., .25 (D) x 1.00 (LC)= .25
(RC)). And, if that same student improves in that weak area, it will result in an equivalent
improvement in the reading comprehension score (e.g., .50 (D) x 1.00 (LC)= .50 (RC).
Researchers tell us that, while the equation may be simple, learning to read is not so simple.
Beginning readers can already understand spoken language. The task, then, is to gain the
same understanding from print. This requires decoding skills and language comprehension.
For many students, learning to efficiently decode is only achievable with proper instruction,
feedback, and practice in phonics; and language comprehension is a “multidimensional
cognitive activity” that requires adequate content knowledge.
The simple view of reading was originally described by psychologists Philip Gough and
William Tunmer in 1986 and modified by Wesley Hoover and Philip Gough in 1990; and has
led to significant advancements in our understanding of reading comprehension.
WRITING
Writing is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation, and spaces) to
communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form. Generally, we write using a pen/pencil
(handwriting) or a keyboard (typing). With a pen/pencil we usually write on a surface such as
paper or whiteboard. A keyboard is normally attached to a typewriter, computer, or mobile
device. Voice recognition programs allow those who can't see or use their hands to have their
thoughts transcribed. To write clearly it is essential to understand the basic system of a
language. In English this includes knowledge of grammar, punctuation, and sentence
structure. Vocabulary is also necessary, as is correct spelling and formatting.
A writer may write for personal enjoyment or use, or for an audience of one person or more.
The audience may be known (targeted) or unknown. Taking notes for study purposes is an
example of writing for oneself. Blogging publicly is an example of writing for an unknown
audience. A letter to a friend is an example of writing for a targeted audience. As with
speaking, it is important to consider your audience when writing. There are many different
styles of writing, from informal to formal.
TYPES OF WRITING
Expository Writing
The word expository contains the word expose, so the reason expository is an apt descriptor
for this type of writing is that it exposes, or sets forth, facts. It is probably the most common
writing genre you will come across throughout your day. In an expository piece, a topic will
be introduced and laid out in a logical order without reference to the author’s personal
opinions.
Expository writing sets forth facts. You can find it in textbooks, journalism (except opinion
or editorial articles), business writing, technical writing, essays, and instructions.
Expository writing can be found in:
Textbooks Journalism (except for opinion and editorial articles) Business writing technical
writing Essays Instructions
All these kinds of writing are expository because they aim to explain and inform.
The municipal government of Hapeville unanimously approved the construction of sixty-two
miles of bike trails in 2017. Made possible by a new tax levy, the bike trails are expected to
help the city reach its sustainability and clean air goals while reducing traffic and congestion.
Eighteen trailheads with restrooms and picnic areas have been planned at a variety of access
points. The city expects construction to be complete in April 2021.
Because this paragraph supplies the reader with facts and figures about its topic, the new bike
trails, without offering the author’s opinion on it, it is expository.
Descriptive Writing
The aim of descriptive writing is to help the reader visualize, in detail, a character, event,
place, or all these things at once. The author might describe the scene in terms of all five
senses. Descriptive writing allows the writer a great deal more artistic freedom than
expository writing does.
Descriptive writing evokes images through rich description. You can find it in fiction, poetry,
journal writing, and advertising.
Descriptive writing can be found in:
Fiction Poetry Advertising Journal and diary writing
The children pedalled leisurely down the Hapeville Bike Trail, their giggles and whoops
reverberating through the warm spring air. Sweet-scented wildflowers brought an array of
colour to the gently undulating landscape, tempting the children to dismount now and then so
they could lie down in the spring, soft grass.
Through description, this passage paints a vivid picture of a scene on the new bike trail.
Persuasive Writing
The aim of persuasive writing, or argumentation, is to influence the reader to assume the
author’s point of view. The author will express personal opinions in the piece and arm him-
or herself with evidence so that the reader will agree with him or her.
Persuasive writing aims to sway the reader toward the author’s point of view. It is used
heavily in advertising and can also be found in opinion and editorial pieces, reviews, and job
applications.
Persuasive writing can be found in:
Advertising Opinion and editorial pieces Reviews Job applications
The bike trail is the glittering gem of Hapeville’s new infrastructure. It winds through sixty-
two miles of lush landscape, dotted by clean and convenient facilities. If you haven’t
experienced the Hapeville Bike Trail yet, ditch your car and head outside! Could life in
Hapeville get any more idyllic?
Several statements in this paragraph are opinion rather than fact: that the bike trail is a
glittering gem, that the facilities are clean and convenient, and that life in Hapeville is idyllic.
Clearly, the author’s aim here is to use these depictions to persuade readers to use the bike
trail.
Narrative Writing
The purpose of narrative writing is to tell a story, whether that story is real or imaginary.
Pieces in a narrative style will have characters, and through the narrative, the reader learns
what happens to them. Narrative writing can also include dialogue.
Narrative writing tells a story. It can be found in fiction, poetry, biographies, human interest
stories, and anecdotes.
Narrative writing can be found in:
All types of fiction (e.g., novels, short stories, novellas) Poetry Biographies Human interest
stories Anecdotes
As I cycled down the trail, I heard children giggling and whooping just around the bend. I
crested a small hill and coasted down the curving path until I found the source of the noise.
Three little girls sat in the grass by a big oak tree. They were startled to see me, and I smiled
kindly to put them at ease.
“What cha doing?” I asked.
“Nothing,” they chirped in unison.
In this passage, the author sets the scene on the bike trail from his or her own point of view
(which is referred to as narrating in the first person). Using both description and dialogue, the
story that takes place is laid out in chronological order.
Understanding Your Purpose Empowers Your Writing
Simply puzzling out which of these four types of writing best suits your purpose and adhering
to it can help you write more efficiently and effectively.
SIMPLE VIEW OF WRITING
The simple view of writing is a model of writing, developed by Berninger et al, (2002b) to
address the developmental processes of how children learn to write.
According to the Simple View of Writing concept, writing as a process is dependent upon
working memory that involves the Transcriptional, Executive Functions and Text Generation.
The Transcriptional elements include spelling and handwriting, the Executive Functions
include planning, reviewing, and revising, and the text generation elements include
knowledge and understanding of words, sentences, and discourse.
To be a good writer, all these elements need to be well coordinated in working memory.
Those who find writing difficult may have difficulty with an individual element or a
combination of elements.
Text generation skills involve vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, plus an understanding of
the needs of the reader.
These skills are underpinned by oral language skills. Therefore, pupils who experience
specific difficulties with language are likely to struggle with text generation (Berninger, &
Amtmann, 2003).
This implies that teachers need to ensure that learners develop skills in these areas of
ensuring effective writing.
IMPORTANCE OF READING AND WRITING
Critical thinking
The growth of digital media as a source of information has reduced the ability of children to
critically evaluate the information they are exposed to, says Professor Patricia Greenfield,
director of the Children's Digital Media Center at UCLA. Critical thinking skills are crucial in
helping students achieve more than a cursory understanding of any topic and help them form
their own opinions. Reading requires a person to think and process information in a way that
watching television may not. The more you read, the deeper your understanding becomes of
what you are reading and its application. Greenfield tells parents to encourage their children
to read and should read to their children. Developing writing skills can help you strengthen
your ability to make reasoned arguments on a variety of subjects, which is useful in school
and on the job.
Improved Communication Skills
Improving your reading and writing skills also go hand in hand with developing your
communication skills. The more you read and write, the more you broaden your vocabulary
and can articulate concepts accurately and more effectively to others. Increasing your ability
to communicate also helps make you a better worker or student.
More Opportunities.
Studies show that people with advanced reading and writing skills have more opportunities in
school and professionally than those who do not develop these skills. Children who are avid
readers will often find school more appealing. Literary readers are more likely "to engage in
positive civic and individual activities--such as volunteering, attending sports or cultural
events, and exercising" than non-readers, according to the NEA study.
Quenching Curiosity
My brain is already running around with different ideas and thoughts. Reading allows me to
focus my brain for a bit on certain topics I find interesting. This may just be me, but it gives
me some downtime for my brain despite it being an engaging activity. Writing also allows me
to put my messy thoughts into a more coherent piece that I can use to further refine ideas or
share them with others.
Perspective
Reading has given me the perspective of others in different careers, times of their lives, or
simply the perspective of a different century. I’ve been able to put myself in someone else’s
shoes through a book or through any written piece of work and I’ve been able to learn from
them. This ability has allowed my brain to think more creatively and openly about
possibilities at work, in school, in my home life, and any other facet of my life. Writing has
also given me this ability to a lesser degree but writing forces me to think from my reader’s
perspective and imagine what they are thinking or how a sentence may come off to them.
Challenging Myself
Lastly, reading and writing have given me more challenges (but good challenges) than
anything else. Reading a book on a topic I am 110% completely unfamiliar with has
challenged me to really think through the topic and put pieces together to stitch the book
together. Writing has also forced me to become a better writer but also work on something
that is not my strongest asset.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE LITERACY PROGRAM
• Is student-centered
• Responds to students' needs
• Includes ongoing practice; regular inclusion of reading and writing activities
• Focuses on positive outcomes
• Incorporates a variety of reading and writing strategies
Definition and Examples of Literacy Across the Curriculum
Literacy across the curriculum requires children and young people to have skills which
enable them to interpret and compose texts across different disciplines. This involves
teaching that prompts learning that
• Embeds a grasp of how different language choices and patterns represent and
document ideas and views of the world through a range of genres
• Develops a sense of the way disciplinary knowledge is organised (for example, in
science, history or geography).
Each subject or discipline, such as Science or History, has its own distinctive literacy
demands. The Toolkit promotes an informed understanding of texts common to various
disciplines, including English, which contributes to teachers’ capacity to support children’s
interpretation and composition of a variety of print based and multimodal.
Curriculum requires students to have literacy skills which enable them to interpret and
compose texts across different disciplines. This involves teaching about how different
language choices and patterns represent and document ideas and views of the world through a
range of genres. It requires developing a sense of the way disciplinary knowledge is
organised, for example in science or history or geography.
Importance of Literacy Across the Curriculum
• Learning in any subject area requires the use of language; therefore, reading and
writing are used as tools for learning that subject area. Connecting literacy learning to
other content areas reinforces learning in all areas.
• There is no question that reading, writing, speaking, and listening are interconnected
skills that develop synergistically. They are also the key to teaching thinking. The
more fluent students become as readers, writers, speakers, and listeners, the clearer,
more coherent, and more flexible their thinking will become.
• Reading transcends the mere transmission of information: It fosters an imaginative
dialogue between the text and the reader’s mind that helps people to think. Learning
to read is critical to a child’s overall well- being. If a youngster does not learn to read
in a literacy-driven society, hope for a fulfilling productive life diminishes.
Principles and Practice of Literacy Across the Curriculum Including Ways of Assessment
Cross-Curricula Literacy in Teaching and Learning of Other Disciplines

Misconception of Literacy Across the Curriculum

Literacy is acquired by children the same way they learn to talk:

It has been argued that children acquire literacy just as they learn to talk and that as the child
learns language which is a natural phenomenon, literacy such as reading, writing, listening
and speaking should either not be forced on the children and that they themselves will acquire
such skills one after the other as they grow naturally or it should not be a burden on the
language art facilitators or facilitators of other specific subject to force literacy skills on the
children, let alone providing modules, strategies and activities that would guide learners
prove mastery over such skills. This is not true,
Children learn to talk instinctively, if they hear speech and can practice it by interaction with
people. Children learn language by working very hard at it, every waking moment from
babyhood. They listen to the language of their family and copy it. Unfortunately, while
language is an essential base for the development of literacy, reading and writing, listening,
and speaking are not acquired by instinct – they must be taught, and children provided with
modules, principles, strategies, and activities to acquire them.
This because literacy is a complex task with several component skills that need to be learnt
separately and then coordinated, it must be taught directly and systematically. A few children
pick up the skills easily, but most need explicit direct instruction with plenty of supervised
practice.
Literacy is borne by intelligence:
There is also this misconception that, literacy skills are for children who are intelligent.
People who hold such belief argue that principles and practices of literacy skills require a
coordinated and systematic approach to their learning or acquisition and as such. children
with high level of intelligence acquire literacy, leaving children with low intelligence behind
who struggle to acquire or do not acquire such skills at all.
This is also not true, highly intelligent children can have difficulties with leaming to acquire
literacy skills. Often it is the very bright children with good visual memories who struggle
because they do not learn the essential principles needed to acquire literacy skills. So
therefore, children with average, high or low level of intelligence should be provided with the
laydown principles to help them master all the literacy skills in relation to their individual
learning needs. They should also be guided with the provision of modules and activities to
enable them to acquire these skills which are very essential to their learning so far as
classroom teaching and learning is concern.
Literacy is not the foundation to learning other subjects and that these subjects could be
learned independently:
It is also argued that literacy is not a basis for learning other subjects and that these subjects
have their own methodologies of teaching them for learners to understand. People with such
an idea believe that Science, mathematics, our world, our people, and other subjects have
contents and the requisite teaching methodologies to help learners' understanding hence,
learners do not require all the literacy skills before they can learn other subjects. They claim
that, for the rest of the subjects other than English language, literacy does not fit into their
instruction and that; these subjects could be studied independently. This is not true, because
literacy skills such as reading and writing or listening and speaking are required for learning
all other subjects.
Leaners require listening and reading skills to understand what they hear or read. Children
also require speaking and writing skills to provide feedback base on what they have learnt.
This is evident in any classroom teaching and learning and when learners fail to exhibit
literacy skills in the classroom, learning would not be achieved; hence learning outcome
would be low.
Literacy instruction is solely the charge of language arts teachers:
There is also the argument that, teaching literacy is solely the responsibility of the language
art teachers. People also hold the notion that, teachers who teach other subjects should not be
burdened with teaching literacy in addition to the content they teach and that, children who
struggle with reading and writing or listening and speaking should be referred to the
appropriate master(s) because they are not English or language masters. This is not true,
because teaching literacy should not only be the concern of the English or language master
but all teachers of other subjects and come across children who are struggling with any of the
Literacy skills should provide such learners with modules and guided activities and strategies
to the needed skills for effective learning. When such teachers encounter problems, they can
contact the language master(s) for guidance or assistance on activities they can provide the
learners to improve
 UNIT 2
USING APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE REGISTER/VOCABULARY IN SUBJECT
AREA

Use of Appropriate Language Register in the Various Disciplines.

The language register (also called linguistic register and speech register) definition describes
the way a person speaks in relation to their audience. A speaker modifies their language
register to signal levels of formality according to their relationship to their audience and
intended purpose of speech. In English, for example, a speaker might modify their speech to
fit a formal language register by using more complex vocabulary and clear articulation, and
by omitting any slang or informal speech. Any type of spoken or written communication uses
a language register because register is a type of linguistic variation. Linguistic variation
describes the complex ways speakers modify their language use according to social cues,
communication context, and personal expression. Language register, therefore, can be
defined as the type of linguistic variation that indicates level of formality and speaker-
audience relationship.
Language varies from one location to another, from one culture to another, and from one
situation to another. We use different varieties and registers of language to suit different
communication context. We need to use specialized features of words to clearly convey the
message.
Language registers refer to the range of language choice that are available for use in different
situations. So, it is very important to use appropriate varieties and registers of language in
certain communication because there are different situations and people that call for different
registers.
Varieties and registers of language is about appropriateness and context. It is important to
use appropriate varieties and registers of language in a certain communication context to
determine the level of ‘formality’.
Conveyance of language register involves complex, nuanced linguistic variation that differs
from language to language and within dialects of the same language. A higher register sounds
more official, formal, and standard; a lower register sounds informal, casual, and often uses
regional or dialectal phrasing that is not standard. Language register can be gauged on a scale
from the most formal (or highest register) to the least formal (or lowest register). Language
register is a sociolinguistic construct. Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics that
examines language as a social tool. Because language register is deeply enmeshed in social
norms, it is a component of sociolinguistic communication. This lesson only discusses
English (primarily Standard American English), so the examples used here do not necessarily
apply to other languages.
There are many types of language registers in linguistics, and linguists employ the term (and
their own definitions) differently depending on their research context. Generally, language
register can be divided into several types that describe a range of speech register from
extremely formal to extremely casual. Formal register, for example, describes language that
carries an objective, professional tone.
Martin Joos
American linguist Martin Joos (1907–1978) defined five main language register types.
These five types are not exhaustive, but rather aim to describe the most typical types of
language registers used by English speakers. Joos also defined four differentiating factors that
influence the use of language register.
These factors are:
• audience
• topic
• purpose
• location
They relate to the modification of language register because they each indicate to speakers
and listeners what is appropriate and influence acceptable uses of speech. For example, most
people speak differently to their grandparents than to their friends because they are very
different audiences. Audience describes the group listening to the speaker (in many
conversations the speaker is also a member of the audience because of conversational turn-
taking); topic describes what is being discussed; purpose describes the intentions of each
speaker (both what they intend to communicate and how they intend to communicate it);
location describes where an exchange is taking place.
TYPES OF REGISTER
1. Frozen Register
Frozen register describes speech that is so formalized that it is often produced via recitation
rather than spontaneous speech production. This can also be described as ritualistic speech
and is sometimes called static register because the utterances are spoken exactly the same
each time. Some examples of a frozen register include reciting a pledge, a prayer, or wedding
vows. The intended audience for this register varies, and its use is common in many public
situations. Usually, the audience knows what the speaker will say because utterances that use
frozen register are learned verbatim and do not change over time. The topic for these
utterances can be both formal and informal because these utterances are often verbal
recitations of collectively held beliefs. For example, reciting wedding vows is both formal as
a legally binding ceremony, but informal due to the intimate nature of a wedding. The
purpose of this register is usually to convey a clear legal or spiritual idea. These utterances
are often used in a public location, though this is certainly not always the case.
2. Formal Register
Formal register describes speech that is elevated, precise, and often professional, official, or
impersonal in nature. In English, many components of the formal register involve the use of
standard grammar. A speaker using formal register might, for example, ensure that they use
complete sentences, standard vocabulary, and exact pronunciation of words. Often, the
audience listening to a speaker using formal register does not participate in the conversation,
and rather is expected to listen without interrupting. The topics discussed using this register
vary but are usually official matters, such as a professional meeting, a graduation ceremony,
or an academic lecture. The professional nature of formal register means that it is not suitable
for discussing personal topics. The purpose for a speaker employing formal register is often
to inform an audience about a topic, but it can also indicate a lack of personal speaker-listener
relationship. Formal register is often used in public locations, especially in situations where
new people are meeting for the first time or where people are expected to follow official
protocols.
3. Consultative Register
Consultative register describes speech that involves the participation of all parties. A speaker
employs consultative register to discuss a topic, and the listener(s) must contribute feedback
to the speaker. The speaker and listener(s), when using consultative register, are both
members of the audience. In English, this register can use both standard and nonstandard
grammatical forms, the use of which is heavily reliant on social context. For example, it is
more appropriate to use nonstandard speech when addressing a cashier using consultative
register than with a professor. This type of discourse is usually used between a doctor and
patient, student and teacher, or boss and employee, though it can be used between peers. The
nature of consultative register renders it useful for both formal and informal topics of
discussion. The purpose of this register is to establish a conversational style that engages both
parties, often to inform the listener about a specific topic. Consultative register is appropriate
for many locations, but the location must be able to accommodate the listener to provide
feedback to the speaker.
4. Casual Register
Casual register (sometimes also called informal register) describes speech that is informal or
imprecise. This type of speech uses many nonstandard grammatical forms, such as slang,
incomplete sentences, or regional phrasing. This register is often used between people who
are already acquainted with one another and relies on a relaxed social context. The audience
of a speaker using casual register is most likely to be an acquaintance, friend, or peer. These
audience members are likely to contribute to the conversation using casual register as well.
The topics of discussion for casual register are those that are informal but not too personal.
This register primarily serves to accommodate normal conversations that do not require
complex explanations, are imbalanced in terms of speaker-listener participation, and move
from topic to topic naturally. Casual register is often used in public or semi-public locations
when formal or consultative registers are inappropriate, or in a private environment when the
topic of conversation does not require the use of intimate register.
5. Intimate Register
Intimate register describes speech that is about personal topics used between close
acquaintances, such as family members, close friends, or romantic partners, and can employ
standard or nonstandard grammatical forms. A listener will usually also use intimate register
to reply to someone also using this register. Intimate register is used to discuss topics that the
speaker does not wish to be public knowledge, such as personal stories, problems at work or
school, or secrets. The appropriate locations to use intimate register are those that are private
or can feel private to the participants. The purpose of intimate register is not just to convey
matters that are personal; it is also important in strengthening emotional connections between
individuals, as its mutual use between participants indicates an empathetic conversation.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE USE OF LANGUAGE REGISTER.
Many teachers and parents today lament a lack of formality in student language, especially
writing. Ask any educator about the use of so-called "texting language" in student writing,
and you will likely see eye rolls, a pained look on their face, hear a sigh or complaint about
the decline in language.
What students may not understand, however, is language register — different language and
levels of formality are used in different situations and scenarios. While most people have a
working understanding of the concept, students may need to be taught or reminded that
different scenarios call for different language.
Perhaps the first considerations for students, when speaking or writing, are audience, topic,
purpose, and location. Many students need to be explicitly taught about these ideas and how
to adjust their language use based on these considerations. When working with English
learners, explicit instruction in vocabulary and syntax is important.
Audience
Students need to understand that different audiences require differing types of language.
For example, the way they speak to their parents may differ from how they speak to their
siblings when they are alone. The language they use will likely change when speaking with
friends and should change again when speaking in school.
Similarly, when writing, students should adjust the formality, tone, and vocabulary used
based on who the writing is intended for.
Topic
Different subject areas in school and differing topics require differing styles of speech and
writing. Mathematicians, scientists, historians, artists, musicians, and others use differing
styles when speaking about or writing about the subject and topic at hand.
For example, when writing in science, students should avoid the use of metaphors or
unnecessary language, being as concise as possible while getting the appropriate principle,
finding, description, etc., across to the reader. It is critical that we, as educators, share with
students the differing language styles used in the subject areas we are discussing and learning
about.
Purpose
Students should clearly understand the purpose of their writing or speech. Is it to inform,
argue, persuade, describe, narrate, share cause and effect, or some other purpose? When
students are clear on the purpose of the writing or speech, they can more accurately choose
the language register to use.
Additionally, teachers will need to explicitly teach students the appropriate general academic
vocabulary that pertains to the specific language function. Teachers can include instruction
on specific sentence frames, starters, and signal words to help students choose the most
appropriate language for the purpose of their writing or speech.
Location
Location can, and often does, dictate the appropriate register to use. In a school setting, the
language and formality used in the classroom should differ from the language used in the
hallways or on the playground. Similarly, the vocabulary and syntax used to answer a simple
question versus giving a formal speech in the classroom differs.
Students should know that the way they speak and the words they use in a library versus a
restaurant versus a shopping centre differ, and they should adjust their language register
accordingly.
The considerations listed above will help students begin to understand how language should
be used in differing contexts. Once they understand these, or while learning about the
considerations, students can learn about and be given examples of the five language registers.
IMPORTANCE USING THE APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE REGISTER
Language varies from one location to another, from one culture to another and from one
situation to another. We use different varieties and registers of language to suit different
communication context. In writing, we need to use specialized features of words to clearly
convey the message. It is now the responsibility of reader or the receiver on how he/she will
be going to interpret the message. This is not possible when it comes to speaking. The
receiver can easily understand the message through the speaker’s level of voice, facial
expression, and body language. Therefore, varieties and registers of language is about
appropriateness and context in speaking and grammatical correctness of words in writing. It
is also important to use appropriate varieties and registers of language in a certain
communication context for us to determine the level of ‘formality’. We can now easily know
on how we are going to approach and deal with a certain person in a certain situation with a
certain purpose with the correct expression and correct manner. Like for instance, you would
not speak to your professor the same you would talk to your classmate. “Hey men!
Wazzup?”, you said to your classmate but when it comes to your professor “Good morning,
Sir, how’s your day?”, which means that there is proper etiquette when you’re dealing with a
certain person on his/her status in the society. In short, “Right words at the right time to the
right person with the right reason.”
In English we use different registers of politeness, although it is not nearly as overt as in, say,
Japanese, and although we lack a formal distinction between a familiar “you” and a polite
“you” as in the Romance languages and German among many others. Still, we have it.
Think about sitting at the dinner table and wanting the salt which is out of reach. You are
likely to use different registers of politeness to get the salt depending on who else is at the
table.
If a sibling or close friend is closest to the salt, you might say, “Hey, gimme the salt”. This is
a very informal way to request the salt. It is appropriate among siblings but would be
considered rude to make the request to, say, an adult or a guest.
To a parent, you might say, “Pass me the salt”. This is a neutral way of making such a
request.
To a grandparent or an aunt or uncle who is a familiar guest, you would probably make the
request more polite by adding “please”, as in, “Please pass me the salt.”
For more politeness, more etiquette words can be added: “Please pass me the salt…Thank
you.”
If your father's boss has come to dinner, even higher registers of politeness could be used:
“Could you please pass me the salt?” Here we've left the realm of requesting entirely and
have dressed it as a hypothetical statement.
Even higher levels exist: “Would you be so kind as to pass me the salt?” Or maybe even,
“Should it please your Magnificence, I would be ever so appreciative and humble if You
found it within your infinite compassion and spirit of magnanimity to pass so wretched and
unworthy a creature as myself the salt.”
Why we need to be mindful of register (not an exhaustive list)
• To successfully achieve our goal
• To avoid unintentionally offending people
• To ensure our audience understands us
• To attend to the face needs of both us and other participants
• To show we are sensitive to cultural mores (politeness strategies, sensitivity around
taboo topics, etc.)
• To avoid unintentionally alienating our audience by using language too simple or too
complex for a situation
• To establish our belonging within a group
• To establish our status within a group or in any other social setting, and/or establish
ourselves as an expert or authority
• To avoid excluding people from a discourse (and — less kind but something some
people do- to deliberately exclude people).
 UNIT 3
APPLYING LITERACY ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

Ways of Applying Literacy Across the Curriculum (Action Research)

An approach to cross-curricular literacy
Over the course of this five-part series, I will explore in greater depth the subject of cross-
curricular literacy and share some proven strategies for planning and teaching literacy within
the context of every school subject.
For example, a teacher of, say, science, has a responsibility to help pupils learn about science,
but they also have a responsibility to help them speak, listen, read, and write like a scientist.
In practice, this means that science teachers must possess some specialist knowledge of – for
example – the conventions of scientific report-writing and of the ways scientists themselves
write about science.
But, perhaps more importantly, it means they must develop an analytical self-awareness
which enables them to identify how they speak, listen, read, and write about science so that
those skills can be made explicit for their pupils. And this is best done by explaining,
demonstrating, modelling, teaching, and giving feedback.
So, as I say, in this series I will explore the subject of whole-school literacy and share some
proven strategies for planning and teaching literacy across the curriculum.
Of course, every school is different and, as such, is likely to face the challenge of improving
literacy in a different way, a way borne out of its unique context. Accordingly, your approach
to literacy should be influenced by the evidence of what works elsewhere but it should also
be informed by your unique context.
What is true of all schools, however, is that the best way to improve literacy is neither
extravagant nor exotic; it is always simple, and it is always concerned with the fundamentals.
For example, each school should:
• Involve all teachers and demonstrate how they are all engaged in using language to
promote learning in their subject.
• Identify the needs of all pupils in reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
• Make strong links between school and home.
• Plan for the longer term, emphasising the integral relationship between language for
learning and effective teaching in all subjects.
• What’s also true of all schools, is that literacy learning should:
• Be enjoyable, motivating, and challenging.
• Be actively engaging.
• Activate prior learning, secure understanding, and provide opportunities to apply
skills.
 • Develop pupils’ functional and thinking skills.
Literacy across the curriculum in all schools should also operate across three domains:
speaking and listening (or oracy), reading, and writing.
Next time we will look at some generic strategies for embedding literacy across the
curriculum and then, in the third, fourth and final parts of this series, we will consider each of
these three domains in turn: speaking and listening, reading, and writing.
To end this article, however, let’s consider some of the skills and techniques required of
literacy and language learning.
For our pupils to be literate, we need to:
• Activate prior knowledge to build on what pupils already know.
• Model to make language conventions and processes explicit.
• Scaffold to support pupils’ first attempts and build confidence.
• Explain to clarify and exemplify the best ways of working.
• Question to probe, draw out and extend pupils’ thinking.
• Explore to encourage critical thinking.
• Investigate to encourage enquiry and self-help.
• Discuss and engage in dialogue to shape and challenge developing ideas.
 UNIT 4
INTEGRATING LITERACY ACROSS THE KG –P3 CURRICULUM

Ways of Integrating Literacy Across the Disciplines in The KG – P3 Curriculum

Build awareness of disciplinary literacy

An initial step in developing effective practice is to build awareness of the literacy demands
within the context of each learning area. Awareness building might happen at a departmental
or school-wide level and could involve teachers sharing examples of the texts and tasks (oral,
written, and visual) that they use with students, whilst talking about the strengths and
challenges that students experience when using those texts. Teachers might also share
examples of lesson planning and talk about the expectations they have of what ‘good’
reading, writing, and communicating looks like in their own context.
At a department level, teachers might also discuss their expectations of students at the upper
end of secondary learning, and then examine how they are progressively building students’
literacy skills and knowledge from early to late secondary. This exercise supports teachers
making connections to the disciplinary literacy practices that are part of their everyday work.
As teachers develop their own understanding of disciplinary literacy, they increasingly share
this understanding wtih their students, leading to greater clarity about the norms and
expectations of each subject. Consequently, students increase their awareness of and practise
the types of reading, writing, and communicating that are valued by each discipline.
Provide opportunities to read, write and discuss
As teachers think about the literacy practices that are part of their learning area or subject,
they may also consider the opportunities that are provided for their students to read, write,
and discuss. Research conducted in a sample of New Zealand secondary schools found
inequities in terms of opportunities provided to students, particularly in relation to the types
of texts that are presented. The findings from this research indicate that students from lower
socio-economic (SES) schools had fewer opportunities to read longer texts, texts provided in
their original form, or texts written for adults rather than young people. The researchers also
noted that teachers in high and medium SES schools devoted more time to developing
students’ literacy skills than did teachers in low SES schools, including more opportunities
for discussion.
In secondary classrooms, reading is often assigned for homework and reviewed during class
time, but this may mean that students avoid the reading and wait for the review in class.
However, fluency, stamina and comprehension are all boosted through ongoing opportunities
to read, and as outlined later in this guide, reading also has a positive effect on writing.
Reading during class time has multiple benefits, and might involve several approaches such
as:
• Reading individually or in groups
• Working together to make sense of a piece of text
• Providing a choice of reading material
 • Linking reading to a writing task
Preview texts
An important component of effective literacy practice is teachers carefully previewing the
texts to be used for instruction. This includes digital and printed texts as well as visual texts
such as diagrams, posters, or videos. When previewing texts, teachers pay attention to the
structures, vocabulary and knowledge that supports learning through each text, so that they
can share that knowledge with their learners. For example, a social sciences article about
actions during World War Two may provide a model of writing using a cause-and-effect
structure. Students learn about the content of the article, but their attention is also drawn to a
model of writing used by that learning area that they can utilise in their own writing.
Similarly, a complex diagram might be used in science to illustrate the Water Cycle. Teachers
can draw attention to the content that is being shown, and the features of the diagram that
have been used to communicate effectively with the reader. Previewing material also
highlights any complex concepts or ideas that may need to be discussed prior to using the
texts and signals the key vocabulary that needs explicit instruction.
Make connections to prior knowledge and experiences
Making connections enables students to build on their prior experiences to further construct
knowledge, and to make meaning of the world around them. An explicit focus on making
connections provides opportunities for students to deepen their understanding of concepts and
ideas, and to build new knowledge in each learning area. This may involve teacher prompts
such as:
• ‘What do you already know about…?’
• ‘What does this remind you of?’
• ‘What is the same/different?’
A visual representation of a key concept can assist students to connect their existing
knowledge to new knowledge, such as a physical or digital ‘concept wall’ where new
vocabulary, definitions, and diagrams are added throughout the progress of a unit of work.
Explicitly teach vocabulary
The development of academic language in secondary school is critical, given the increasingly
specialised language of each learning area. As students navigate between subjects, they need
to adjust to different forms of reading, writing, and communicating. Sometimes they
encounter the same words that have different subject meanings, which can lead to confusion.
For example, ‘scale’, ‘value’ and ‘factors’ have different meanings in mathematics and
history.
Teachers need to identify and explicitly teach the challenging vocabulary in the material to be
used with students. This may include subject-specific and technical vocabulary that may be
new to students, such as ‘symbioses or ‘parameter’, as well as any complex general academic
vocabulary found in many disciplines, such as ‘contradiction’, ‘elaboration’ or ‘justify’.
Vocabulary instruction may involve:
 • Examining parts of words (prefixes, suffixes, and root words), for instance ‘anti-’,
‘photo-’, ‘pro-’
• Finding other words that start with the same prefix
• Matching root words with a prefix or suffix
• Creating word maps around key vocabulary – for example, including the word, a
definition, an example, a picture or diagram, and other similar words
• Providing multiple opportunities to introduce new vocabulary through reading a range
of texts
• Writing using new vocabulary, for instance: ‘Use these key words in your paragraph’
• Discussion using new vocabulary, for example: ‘Use these key words to talk about…’
Develop strategic readers
Within a disciplinary literacy approach, teachers identify the types of reading that students
are required to do in each subject and consider how they are supporting students to read. All
learning areas require some form of reading (print and/or digital). For example, in
mathematics, reading might be in relation to word problems, equations, graphs, reports and/or
diagrams. There are several strategies that teachers use to support students to read
strategically.
First, setting a clear purpose for reading supports students to be more strategic and focused
on their approach to reading a text. A general instruction such as ‘Read this and make a
summary of the key points may not provide enough direction to students. A more detailed
purpose for reading might be: ‘As you read this text, look for ways that friction could be
reduced between two solid surfaces’ (in science), or ‘As you read this article, look for two
different viewpoints about how the block of land should be used’ (in the social sciences).
Teachers can also check text navigation to ensure that students are able to confidently
navigate the texts they are using. Sometimes assumptions are made that students know how
to use the available cues in a text to aid their understanding, but this may not always be the
case. In a digital environment, check that students can use the functions available to them
such as hyperlinks, drop-down menus, and navigating within a website. In both print and
digital texts, check to see if students are noting textual cues such as words in bold or italics,
using footnotes, headings and sub-headings, dates, and source of publication, and linking
diagrams to print, to support their overall understanding. It may be necessary to point these
out to students and provide practice using them.
Co-construct approaches to making sense of text
Researchers have described this as ‘capturing the reading process’, whereby students notice
and share the strategies they use to make sense of challenging text in the context of each
discipline. The teacher first models the process by describing their own reading processes, as
in the following examples:
• ‘When I read this sentence about trialling for the sports team, I could picture that in
my mind’
 • ‘When I came to the pronoun “they” in the third sentence, I had to check back with
the first sentence to see who “they” were’
• ‘When I came across the word “antioxidants”, I broke it down into parts – “anti”
which means against and I know the word “oxidation”, so I could make sense of the
word’
Students then share their approaches to making sense of text, which may include such things
as re-reading, referring to other parts of the text, breaking down the word into parts, using a
glossary or online dictionary, or asking a peer. Recording students’ ideas about making sense
of text on a class chart or digital record provides a useful reference that they can use and add
to over time.
Foster quality discussion across the curriculum
Oral communication, including presentations, arguments, debates, informal talks and
discussion activities in small or large groups, is part of every discipline in some form. Each
learning area will have expectations around the ways in which students communicate orally.
For example, a subject such as English may invite students to talk about their personal
response to texts, whilst students of history may be asked to discuss the reliability of sources.
Improving classroom talk and discussion can improve outcomes in reading, writing and
understanding across the curriculum.
The quality of classroom talk can be improved and enhanced through teacher modelling, and
by paying attention to well-designed activities for students. Teachers promote quality talk by
modelling the use of subject-specific language, and by explaining complex ideas and
concepts clearly and accurately. In addition, students need opportunities to practise using new
vocabulary and to describe increasingly complex subject content by talking and by listening
to others. When students have had multiple opportunities to talk about and clarify subject
content, they are better prepared to write about it.
Teachers are generally familiar with scaffolding students through a writing task, but do not
often apply the notion of scaffolding to oral communication. In the same manner as a writing
task, students can be provided with sentence frames and prompts to help them form and
expand on their responses when they talk within a group. For example:
• English: ‘I think (character X) believes … because she says …’
• Maths: ‘The first thing I did to solve this problem was …’
• Music: ‘The musician has used … to create a mood of …’
Students may also be provided with subject-specific vocabulary and then offered the
challenge of using that word or phrase in a group discussion. Various other structured
prompts that encourage discussion may be provided to groups, such as open-ended questions,
taking sides in an argument, justifying a decision, evaluating an experience, or explaining a
complex process to each other. Students can also be given specific roles in a group in order to
structure and guide conversation, as in Reciprocal Teaching experiences. Reciprocal teaching
to improve reading comprehension involves four skills of clarifying, questioning,
summarising, and predicting. Teachers coach students to use each skill, and then provide
opportunities in small groups to discuss a text that has been read. Students may be provided
with prompts for each skill, for example:
• Clarifying: ‘Can anyone clarify what … means?’
• Questioning: ‘My question is …’
• Summarising: ‘This paragraph is about …’
• Predicting: ‘I think the next part will show …’
Supporting quality writing across the curriculum
Students across the curriculum write for several different purposes, according to the
expectations and conventions of each subject area. Whilst there may be some commonalities
across subjects, there are also unique differences in the expectations and requirements for
each discipline. For example, students in English may be expected to write using figurative
language and detailed description in creative writing, but in another context such as
economics may need to write concisely and with factual information when writing a report.
Consider:
• What are the types of writing that are common in my learning area?
• When do students write? (For example, mostly during class time, mostly for
homework?)
• What is usually expected in terms of structure, content, detail, vocabulary, length, and
accuracy?
• How do I currently support students to write well?
Students frequently experience writing as a product or outcome to demonstrate what they
know, and it is often associated with some type of assessment. However, writing can also be
viewed as a means of clarifying understanding, making meaning, expressing ideas, or
reflecting on learning. Viewed in this way, writing should occur frequently, with numerous
opportunities for both short and extended pieces being produced for different purposes.
Effective writing practice allows students to experience multiple opportunities to develop
their ideas and consolidate their understanding, prior to writing for the purpose of
assessment.
Reading and writing are complementary skills. Reading quality texts in each subject area
provides an opportunity for teachers and students to examine the discipline-specific aspects
of writing in that context. In a science text, for example, this might mean paying attention to
how the writer has produced an explanation of a scientific process using clearly illustrated
steps, symbols, diagrams, and written text that includes key vocabulary. One way to use
reading as specific means to support writing is to ask students to annotate exemplars of
written text, looking for specific features such as where evidence has been provided to back
up a statement, where quotations have been used effectively, or how the writer has shown
cause and effect.
Students may also be encouraged to ‘borrow’ features such as effective phrases, sentence
beginnings, or key definitions, and then try using them in their own writing. This practice is
not to encourage wholesale ‘cut and paste’ of long pieces of text from exemplars, but to
notice the ways in which written communication happens in each subject, and to
gradually align their own writing to the norms and conventions that are expected.
Teachers may choose to co-construct lists, charts, or word banks with their students to refer
back to when writing for different purposes.
Students may also benefit from constructing and co-constructing shorter pieces of
writing before being required to write extended texts. For example, teachers may ask
students to:
• Use key vocabulary in a sentence
• Record what they have observed today
• Write a paragraph with three details
• Reflect on their own experience of an event
Over a period, the practice of deepening understanding of a topic by writing a series of
shorter sentences and paragraphs can result in quality extended pieces of writing being
produced.
Extended writing usually involves planning and organising prior to writing and requires
practice and development over time. Teachers might consider what types of planning
strategies and tools are useful and appropriate to their own discipline, rather than assuming
that a generic approach or tool would be best. For example, writing in the social sciences
utilises structures such as cause and effect, chronological order of events, and explaining
different viewpoints, so the planning tools used prior to writing should also reflect the type of
writing required. To encourage independence and student agency, teachers could introduce
students to a range of planning approaches and tools over time, and then ask students to
choose the most appropriate strategy or tool to use for their particular writing task.
Teacher modelling of effective writing is another way to support improved writing
outcomes. Teachers can ‘think aloud’ on a whiteboard or shared screen as they demonstrate
subject-specific writing to their groups of students. When this happens, students see that
writing is not a linear process and that the writer is continually revising and editing as they
think about what to write. Teachers can also model the use of sentence starters, effective
phrases and vocabulary lists that may have been developed with the class. As with other
aspects of effective teaching practice, it is important to provide effective feedback and
feedforward to students about their writing. The more specific this is, the more impact it is
likely to have on improved practice.
 UNIT 5
LITERACY ACROSS THE KG – P3 CURRICULUM

Interpreting the KG – P3 Curriculum in Relation to Developing Literacy Across the

Curriculum.

Designing s Lesson Plan for Literacy Across the Curriculum

Co-Teaching Literacy Across the Curriculum with Lesson Plan Designed