VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 1

Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth Among Sign Language Interpreters

Maija Vizvary

Department of American Sign Language and Interpreting Education, RIT/NTID

INTP460.01: Issues in Interpreting, Summer 1, 2023

Instructor: Mani Garcia

June 30, 2023

VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 2

Abstract

Professional sign language interpreters working in a mental healthcare context are

responsible for facilitating sensitive and traumatic information (Bontempo & Malcom, 2012).

Considering the nature of this profession, repeated exposure to the traumatic experiences

presents a significant risk for mental health interpreters to experience vicarious trauma, which is

feeling as though someone else’s trauma is your own (Dean & Pollard, 2001; Stahbrodt, 2016, p.

9). However, with the proper education and training, interpreters can establish an effective

method of coping and furthermore experience vicarious posttraumatic growth (Macdonald, 2015,

p. 4-5; Knodel, 2018). The literature regarding vicarious posttraumatic growth suggests that in

instances where it occurs, interpreters benefit personally and professionally. The benefits of

vicarious posttraumatic growth can therefore lead to a more effective interaction between

interpreters and consumers, as well as result in more effective facilitation of information

(Splevins et al., 2010, p. 1709). To further investigate this notion, I propose a study in which

mental health interpreters are surveyed and interviewed regarding their experiences. The data

collected will be beneficial to better understand the factors that influence vicarious posttraumatic

growth and the overall impact it has on interpreters’ work. It is critical for the phenomenon of

vicarious posttraumatic growth to be investigated further to obtain a more comprehensive

understanding of how to provide support and education to interpreters to increase their potential

to experience vicarious posttraumatic growth.

Keywords: Vicarious Trauma, Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth, Mental Health Interpreting

VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 3

Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth Among Sign Language Interpreters

In a professional context, sign language interpreters facilitate communication in a diverse

range of settings, and as a result, are exposed to distinct forms of discourse specific to each

assignment (Bontempo & Malcom, 2012). Within the scope of interpreting, interpreters are often

presented with unique challenges in that the discourse between consumers is not within their

control (Bontempo & Malcom, 2012). Narrowing this framework to focus on a mental healthcare

setting, sign language interpreters are presented with facilitating highly sensitive and emotionally

charged material (Stahbrodt, 2016). The interpreter, as a member of the consumer’s healthcare

team, is anticipated to have repeated exposure to this form of information (Darroch and

Dempsey, 2018, p. 175). The repeated exposure to traumatic and sensitive information subjects

mental healthcare interpreters to a greater risk of experiencing vicarious trauma (Dean & Pollard,

2001). The phenomenon of vicarious trauma is feeling as though the traumatic experiences of

others are your own (Stahbrodt, 2016, p. 9). Vicarious trauma often impacts those working

closely with individuals who have experienced trauma (Stahbrodt, 2016, p. 9). The prevalence of

deaf individuals who have, and continue to, experience trauma suggests that interpreters,

specifically those working in mental healthcare, are at an exceptionally high risk for

experiencing vicarious trauma (Dean & Pollard, 2001). Those who experience vicarious trauma

can effectively mitigate the effects through appropriate training and coping mechanisms

(Macdonald, 2015, p. 4-5; Knodel, 2018). With the proper approach and knowledge regarding

vicarious trauma, mental health interpreters are subsequently capable of experiencing vicarious

posttraumatic growth (Macdonald, 2015, p. 4-5).

Vicarious posttraumatic growth is defined as experiencing a sense of personal growth

from witnessing other individuals heal from their traumatic experiences (Calhoun & Tedeschi,
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 4

2001; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Stahbrodt, 2016, p.9). In the occurrences of vicarious

posttraumatic growth, mental health interpreters report experiencing a positive shift in their

regard of self and their work (Splevins et al., 2010, p. 1709). The reported conditions of personal

growth can impact the quality of work provided by mental health interpreters in a positive

manner.

The topic of vicarious posttraumatic growth, although crucial for the well-being and

success of mental healthcare interpreters, is scarcely known throughout the community. The

central aim of this study is to bring attention to this vital topic that is largely understudied by the

majority of research regarding mental health interpreters and working in a trauma setting.

Furthermore, a greater understanding of the impact that vicarious posttraumatic growth has at the

individual and professional level can be obtained through additional research and exploration

regarding this subject matter. Through this research, vicarious posttraumatic growth can become

a more viable possibility for mental healthcare interpreters and profoundly alter the way

interpreting in this setting is approached.

The literature review to follow effectively describes the phenomenon of vicarious

posttraumatic growth. However, the research heretofore has not yet fully explored the impact of

vicarious posttraumatic growth on interpreting. To effectively research this topic, it is imperative

to consider the experience, training, and demographics of interpreters working in this field.

Through the surveys and interviews proposed in this study, this notion will be explored.

Literature Review

There is a dearth of research about vicarious posttraumatic growth and the impact it has

on mental health sign language interpreters on a personal and professional level. When selecting

literature to support this research proposal, contextual subject matter such as vicarious trauma,
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 5

vicarious posttraumatic growth, and the expectations of mental healthcare interpreters was taken

into consideration. Each of these components provide greater insight into deciphering the impact

of vicarious posttraumatic growth on a personal and professional level, and furthermore, how

these realms of inquiry influence one another.

Sign language interpreters, specifically those working in a mental health setting are held

to a standard of work and must follow a specific set of directives outlined in the Code of

Professional Conduct for mental health interpreters and in The Demand-Control Schema (RID,

2005; Dean & Pollard, 2001). The Code of Professional Conduct ostensibly holds interpreters to

a high standard to remain neutral and professional in their work. Tenet 2: Professionalism of the

CPC emphasizes the detachment and neutrality of interpreters to their work to achieve

professionalism (RID, 2005, p. 3; Knodel, 2018, p. 2-3). However, in a mental health setting

enforcing this regulation places “a significant barrier to developing an understanding of the

impact of vicarious trauma on interpreters is the machine model metaphor for the role of the

interpreter and the paradigm of thinking and behaviors this model precipitates” (Bontempo &

Malcom, 2012, p. 109).

Taking into account that mental health interpreters are continually faced with sensitive

material in their field of work, this setting can be classified as a “high-risk” environment. The

notion of “high-risk” in regard to interpreting means that errors made by the interpreter and

failure to effectively facilitate communication can have a severe impact on the consumer. As

addressed by Dean and Pollard in 2001, high-stress and high-risk environments often have a

high-demand/low-control dynamic. High demands refer to the extent of physical and

psychological efforts exerted within the nature of a job. Low controls refer to the diminished

ability of the interpreter to respond to the demands (Dean & Pollard, 2001).
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A dissertation titled “The Behavioral Health Medical Interpreters: Cluster Analysis of

Vicarious Traumatization and Posttraumatic Growth” provides a clear definition of vicarious

trauma that is consistent with other research. Vicarious trauma is defined as “...a cumulative

phenomenon experienced by treatment professionals who provide services to trauma victims and

survivors” (Stahbrodt, 2016, p. 9). Delving further into the discussion of this subject matter, a

parallel can be drawn between the symptoms of experiencing vicarious trauma and that of

experiencing trauma first-hand. The symptoms and indications of having experienced trauma,

either vicariously or first-hand include:

“flashbacks, dreams/nightmares, being easily startled, low self-image, withdrawal,

isolation, difficulty talking about feelings, change in eating habits, diminished joy and

sense of accomplishment, feeling trapped by work, blaming others, overworking,

rejecting closeness, poor communication, avoidance of traumatic assignments,

relationship difficulties, and decreased product quality (American Counseling

Association, 2011; Bontempo & Malcom, 2012; Vigor, 2012)” (Macdonald, 2015, p. 4-

5).

Despite the heightened risk of mental health interpreters experiencing vicarious trauma,

the article “Coping with Vicarious Trauma in Mental Health Interpreting” written by Rebekah

Knodel (2018) illustrates effective coping strategies that have the potential to mitigate the

effects of vicarious traumatization. Knodel concluded that active coping strategies such as

debriefing, which Knodel classifies as a variety of meetings between working interpreters post-

assignment, were the most effective method for managing the symptoms of and preventing

vicarious trauma (2018, p.12). However, an interpreter’s ability to cope with vicarious trauma is

contingent on the training they receive, as “interpreters who try alone to manage their exposure
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 7

to disturbing experiences face a more threatening risk of struggling with vicarious trauma”

(Anderson, 2011; Macdonald, 2015, p.11).

The data collected from this study involved a survey of 222 interpreters of which 83%

stated that they had experienced vicarious trauma and 58% expressed that they had not received

training on how to manage the psychological impact of difficult interpreting assignments

(Knodel, 2018, p.1). These findings are relative to those of Splevins et al. and Macdonald, which

indicate inadequate training for interpreters relating to vicarious trauma (2010, p.1711; 2015,

p.9). It has been reported that trying to cope and mitigate the effects of difficult interpreting jobs

without appropriate training increases the already heightened risk for vicarious trauma

(Macdonald, 2015).

However, when appropriate measures were taken such as proper training and awareness

regarding how to cope with exposure to trauma, research shows a heightened possibility to

experience vicarious posttraumatic growth (Calhoun & Tedeschi, 2001; Tedeschi & Calhoun,

2004; Stahbrodt, 2016, p.9). A consistent pattern has been recorded that in instances where

vicarious posttraumatic growth has occurred the interpreter initially felt negative emotions before

experiencing positive emotions and growth (Splevins et al., 2010, p. 1709). Through vicarious

posttraumatic growth, interpreters have reported feeling more connected to their work and a

higher appreciation for their work. In an article one respondent from the study stated,

“…participants spoke at length about the positive emotional responses they experienced

through both the identification process and the shock of witnessing growth in their

clients. The shock that clients who were initially ‘completely broken’ could recover,

filled interpreters with hope, admiration, and inspiration, and participants described

experiencing joy and a sense of growth which mirrored that expressed by their clients.
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 8

That the overall impact of the trauma work recalled was positive might indicate that

theories of VT fail to represent the full vicarious experience of interpreters working with

trauma survivors” (Splevins et al., 2010, p. 1709).

Although vicarious posttraumatic growth is a widely unknown phenomenon, research shows that

it has lasting, posting effects on interpreters (Splevins et al., 2010, p. 1709).

Materials and Methods

The proposed study will further explore the notion of vicarious posttraumatic growth in

mental health interpreters. Research for this study will consist of a mixed methods approach in

which interpreters who have experience working in a mental healthcare setting are interviewed

and surveyed regarding their experiences. A complete list of demographics, survey questions,

and interview questions can be found in the Appendix. The survey and interview questions have

been designed for the purpose of examining vicarious posttraumatic growth from a personal and

professional viewpoint. These questions will encompass potential areas for growth with regard to

the interpreter’s personal and professional life, and furthermore, will analyze how these factors

impact one another. Once the data has been collected the survey questions will be assessed using

a Likert scale (see Appendix), and the interview questions will be analyzed to find

commonalities among the experiences of the participants.

Sample Section

The participants for this study will include a minimum of 100 sign language interpreters

who have experience working in a mental healthcare setting. A central aim of this study is to

obtain a diverse range of experiences from interpreters working in this setting. Interpreters

participating in this study must have at least one year of experience working in a mental

healthcare setting. Additionally, the interpreters must have worked in this setting within the last
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 9

ten years. These limitations ensure that responses are both recent and relevant to current mental

healthcare practices.

Informed Consent

Consent will include informing participants of the potential risks of being involved in this

study. The content of this study may be triggering to some individuals as it discusses personal

experiences with vicarious trauma. Preliminary definitions and examples will also be provided

regarding vicarious trauma and vicarious posttraumatic growth. Participants will be provided

with a copy of the HSRO-approved, written English informed consent form.

Enrollment Procedures

Interpreters for this study will be recruited through two primary methods. Agencies will

be contacted regarding the study and asked to forward it to affiliated interpreters working in a

mental healthcare setting. Additionally, interpreters will be recruited through networking and

professional connections. The research study information emailed to the interpreters will include

contextual information surrounding the proposed study. It will provide interpreters with a basis

of knowledge surrounding the concepts of vicarious trauma and posttraumatic growth as well as

information about why this study is being conducted. Those who are interested in participating in

the study will be asked to contact the email address listed at the end of the preliminary study

information. Once they contact the provided email, someone from the research team will follow

up with them and explain the methods by which the study is being conducted.

Study Procedures

For interpreters who would like to proceed with participating in the study, a link will be

provided to the demographics survey. The demographic questions asked within the survey can be

located in the Appendix. The survey link will remain viable until over 100 interpreters have
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 10

submitted their responses. After the demographics survey portion has been completed, eligible

participants will be contacted by the research team regarding information on proceeding with the

study.

Participants involved in the research study will then be asked to complete a series of

survey questions regarding interpreting training they have received for working in a mental

healthcare setting. This series of questions includes general mental healthcare interpreting

training as well as more specific questions related to vicarious trauma. The subsequent list of

questions will evaluate the interpreter’s experience with personal growth while working in this

field. The last series of survey questions will assess the interpreter’s experience with professional

growth while working in a mental healthcare setting. A complete list of the survey questions can

be found in the Appendix. At the end of the survey, the participants will be asked if they would

like to participate in the interview portion of the study. Of the respondents who would like to

participate in the interview position, 10 participants will be selected. Care will be taken during

the selection process to ensure that the interview sample is diverse. Those who are selected will

be asked to schedule a 1-hour Zoom interview using a link to available time slots. The research

survey will remain open until each participant has submitted their responses. Once the survey has

been closed, each series of questions will be evaluated on the Likert scale which can be found in

the Appendix. The survey questions are intended to assess these fields of study with respect to

vicarious posttraumatic growth.

In the second part of the research study, the participants will meet with a member of the

research team during their scheduled Zoom interview. Interview questions are adapted from the

Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). The interview will consist of

general questions to obtain a more in-depth understanding of each participant's experiences while
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 11

working in a mental healthcare setting. The list of interview questions can be found in the

Appendix. During the interview participants will be given the opportunity to expand upon the

survey questions that were previously answered. Additionally, it will allow the participant to

discuss any matters that they feel are relevant to the research study. Incorporating an interview

portion within the research will allow for a more comprehensive and detailed exploration of the

personal and professional growth each individual has experienced. In addition, it will provide a

better understanding of the impact that interpreter training has on the experiences of interpreters

working in the field.

Compensation

Interpreters participating in this research study will be compensated $15 for every half

hour of involvement. The demographic and preliminary surveys will also be included in this

compensation plan.

Data Analysis Plan

Once the data has been collected the survey responses will be analyzed for presentation

of descriptive statistics. This will allow the research team to obtain a comprehensive summary of

the data samples. Correspondingly, the interview responses will be analyzed to see any parallels

and correlations between personal and professional growth.

Discussion

Through extended research of vicarious posttraumatic growth the complexities and

unanswered questions regarding the impact this topic has on mental healthcare interpreters would

be addressed. Using a mixed methods approach will provide more comprehensive data on the

impact that vicarious posttraumatic growth has on interpreters working in a trauma setting that

has not previously been addressed in the literature regarding this matter. While this proposed
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 12

study does not address each of the intricacies involved within this subject matter, it provides a

solid foundation for subsequent research and discussion.

Considering this methodology for obtaining data there are various limitations. A

significant limitation of this method of collecting data is the number of questions being asked in

the questionnaire and interview. While these questions allow for a deeper understanding of the

degree to which the participants experienced growth, they are broad and do not encompass the

areas of growth that could potentially be experienced. Additionally, the data collected could be

unreliable or biased depending on the number of interpreters interviewed or the lack thereof. In

accordance with this notion, the data could be skewed as a result of not having a diverse range of

interpreters involved within the study. Another limitation that should be taken into consideration

is the factor that this study is contingent on self-report data. Self-report data could lead to

unreliable results for a multitude of reasons. The research data is reliant on participants giving an

honest and truthful account of their experience. Due to the fact that self-report data is reliant on

memory, it is possible that individuals may forget or misremember parts of their experiences.

Additionally, the way individuals recount their experiences is heavily reliant on emotions and the

way they are feeling at the time of being surveyed and interviewed. It is also possible that

participants will respond in conformity with what they believe the research is trying to prove,

which is often referred to as a response bias. Additionally, participants may not be fully aware of

the impact their experiences have had on them and therefore not provide accurate responses.

To further investigate the impact of vicarious posttraumatic growth, a future research

study could be conducted in which individual elements of coping mechanisms can be measured.

The premise of this study does not contain specific information regarding which factors have the

most impact on an interpreter's ability to experience vicarious posttraumatic growth. This

VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 13

proposed study does not explore the individual areas of personal and professional growth but

rather assesses them as a whole. Further research could be implored to analyze prevalent areas of

personal and professional growth and the source of those trends in data. Furthermore, to extend

the boundaries of this proposed study, further studies could inquire upon how different methods

of training regarding vicarious trauma and vicarious posttraumatic growth impact mental

healthcare interpreters.

Insight concerning the working population of mental health interpreters is vital for not

only the interpreting community as a whole but also the consumers that request interpreting

services. Collecting data with respect to the impact of vicarious posttraumatic growth on mental

health interpreters furthers our discernment of how to better support sign language interpreters

and the training necessary to promote success. Providing sign language interpreters with

adequate training and awareness of this subject matter will in turn positively impact deaf

individuals seeing mental healthcare access through a higher quality of access.

VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 14

References

American Counseling Association. (n.d.). Vicarious trauma - counseling.org.

Counseling.org.

Anderson, A. (2011). Peer Support and Consultation Project for Interpreters: A Model for

Supporting the Well-Being of Interpreters who Practice in Mental Health Settings.

Journal of Interpretation, 21.

Bontempo, K., & Malcolm, K. (2012). An Ounce of Prevention Is Worth a Pound of

Cure: In Our Hands, 105–130. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2rcnmkt.9

Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2001). Posttraumatic growth: The positive lessons of

loss.

Darroch, E., & Dempsey, R. (2018, November 29). Interpreters' experiences of

transferential dynamics, vicarious traumatization, and their need for support and

supervision: A systematic literature review. The European Journal of Counseling

Psychology. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.2029

Dean, R. K., & Pollard, R. Q. (2001). Application of demand-control theory to sign

language interpreting: Implications for stress and interpreter training. Journal of Deaf

Studies and Deaf Education, 6(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/6.1.1

Knodel, R. K. (2018). Coping with vicarious trauma in mental health interpreting. Journal

of Interpretation.
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Macdonald, J. L. (2015). Vicarious Trauma as Applied to the Professional Sign Language

Interpreter. Montview Liberty University Journal of Student Research. Retrieved June 10,

2023, from https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/montview/vol1/iss1/6/

Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf. (2005). NAD-RID Code of Professional Conduct.

The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf.

Splevins, K. A., Cohen, K., Joseph, S., Murray, C., & Bowley, J. (2010). Vicarious

posttraumatic growth among interpreters. Qualitative health research, 20(12), 1705-

1716.

Stahlbrodt, P. N. (2016). Behavioral health medical interpreters: cluster analysis of

vicarious traumatization and posttraumatic growth (Doctoral dissertation, Walden

University).

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Helping bereaved parents: A clinician's guide.
Routledge.

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory:

Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of traumatic stress, 9, 455-471.

Vigor, J. (2012). Vicarious trauma and the professional interpreter. The Trauma &

Mental Health Report.

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Appendix

Demographic Survey For Interpreters:

1. Age

2. Race

3. Ethnicity

4. Gender

5. Education

6. Certifications if any

7. Years of experience interpreting

8. Years of experience in a mental health setting

9. Mental health interpreting training if any

Questions Regarding Training: Adapted from Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi &

Calhoun, 1996)

1. Do you feel as though your interpreting program effectively prepared you for working in

a mental healthcare setting?

2. What measures of your training effectively prepared you for working in a mental

healthcare setting?

3. What do you feel was absent from your training in regard to working in a mental

healthcare setting?

4. Did your training inform you about the risk of experiencing vicarious trauma?

5. Did your training inform you about the potential to experience vicarious posttraumatic

growth?
VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 18

Questions Regarding Personal Growth: Adapted from Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi

& Calhoun, 1996)

1. I have a greater appreciation for the value of my own life

2. I have a greater feeling of self-reliance

3. I am better able to accept the way things work out

4. I can better appreciate each day

5. I can better recognize my own needs

Questions Regarding Professional Growth:Adapted from Posttraumatic Growth Inventory

(Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996)

1. I have a stronger passion for my field of work

2. I have developed stronger connections with the consumers I work with

3. I now feel as though I am able to facilitate sensitive information more accurately and

effectively

4. I have more compassion for others and can engage with them in an empathetic way

5. New opportunities are available which wouldn’t have been otherwise”.

Likert Scale: Adapted from Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996)

● 0 implies – I did not experience this as a result of my crisis

● 1 implies – I experienced this change to a very small degree as a result of my crisis

● 2 implies – I experienced this change to a small degree as a result of my crisis

● 3 implies – I experienced this change to a moderate degree as a result of my crisis

● 4 implies – I experienced this change to a great degree as a result of my crisis

VICARIOUS POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH IN SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS 19

● 5 implies – I experienced this change to a very great degree as a result of my crisis.

Interview Questions: Adapted from Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun,

1996)

1. What areas of your personal and professional life have you experienced growth in?

2. What impact is that having on you?

3. In what ways has your professional life been impacted by experiencing growth?

4. Is there anything you would like to elaborate on pertaining to this subject and the

questions you have been asked?