oon eat / NABAR Institution, ~ ys DNAS (Contd.) ee 1 i i x hieseschemical-Cyctes—= — Di ular life forms, struct spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. © Vegetation types - Forest, grassland, etc. © Perhaps the closest synonym of vegetation is plant community, but vegetation can, and often does, refer to a wider range of spatial scales than that term does, including scales as large as the global. © It is broader than the term “flora” which refers to species composition ac > ase »such as an elevation range or environmental ‘commonality. oFvergreen forests of Western Ghats, Coastal mangroves, Desert plants, Roadside weed patches, Wheat fields, Cultivated gardens and lawns; all are encompassed by the term vegetation. 0 The contemporary use of vegetation approximates that of ecologist Frederic Clements’ term "earth cover", an expression still used by the Bureau of Land Management, USA. i. Prem PANDEYby humans in its growth and which, is controlled by the climatic conditions of that region. Ecosystems 4. Grasslands 0s Prem PANDEY4. Grasslands An area, as a prairie, in which the natural vegetation consists largely of perennial grasses, characteristic of sub- humid and semiarid climates. Warm or seasonal temperatures. Moderate or seasonal precipitation. Moderate net primary productivity. fropical (Savannas) Temperate Grasslands LocationsTropical Grasslands (Savannas) 0 Precipitation 90-150cm/year © Open, widely spaced trees, seasonal rainfall 0 Parts of Africa, South America & Australia © A eavanna ie a rolling graeeland scattered with ehrube| and isolated trees, which can be found between al tropical rainforest and desert biome. © Not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests. o Savannas are also known as tropical grasslands. Prem PANDEY Temperate Grassl © Precipitation: 10-60cm/year © Rich soil; tall dense grasses 3 Goal Akira Osea A ‘Temperate grasslands are located north of the Tropic of Cancer (23.5, degrees North) and south of the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees South). ‘© The major temperate grasslands include, © the veldts of Africa, ‘© the pampas of South America, © the steppes of Eurasia, and ©. Prairies- the plains of North America {tis the soil that makes the temperate grasslands such an integral part of human itis unusually rich and fertile, itis also deep. ‘The world’s most fertile soil is found in the eastern prairies of the U.S., the pampas of South America, and the steppes of Ukraine and Russia. ©. Prem PANDEYGrasslands Ecosystems | Tropical Grasslands — Africa, some parts of India a Warmer and wetter climate than temperate a Dry and wet seasons 3 More pronounced seasonal drought. 2 Temperate- huge temperate prairies © Cold winters and warm summers © Grasses have interconnected root systems o Well-suited to agriculture due to rich soils. ‘© Short grass prairies, which are drier and more drought- resistant o Temperate moist grasslands Prem PANDEY Scrub Grasslands aEm cose SS ea ee ota Reed Pecunia emeCCeuntaieee Ceca Temperature: Consistent etter) pauvia BR fe otal eet alee ay and permanently frozen soil called permafrost. Seok Precipitation: Moderate Para winters, and grazing 5 cone tt lal * lying due to permafrost, at seourenleIdentity the type of grassland present in each climatograph: Seasonal temperatures Seasonal temperatures Warm temperatures. Moderate rainfall Moderate presipitation ‘Seasonal precipitationoA desert is a barren area of landscape where |ittle precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. © The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid 0 Parts of Africa, Asia(India), Australia, North America Low precipitation (20cm/year) High temperatures. Lowest net primary productivity of all ecosystems. Dry, sparse vegetation; scattered grasses|__| 5. Desert Ecosystem oDeserts cover about one fifth of the Earth’s surface. orainfall is less than 20 cm/year. } oAlthough most deserts, such as: the Sahara of North Africa othe deserts of the southwestern U.S., Mexico, o Australia, occur at low latitudes, Another kind of desert, cold deserts, coccur in the basin and mountain range area of Utah Nevada and in parts of western Asia.,,,.Ladakh, Lahaul Spiti in India. a Deserts 0 Desert biomes can be classified according to several characteristics. There are four major types of deserts: and © Semiarid © Coastal © Cold Ladakh in India is a cold desert that lies in the Great Himalayas on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir. |_| It is also known as Khapa-chan, which means snow[, | land. Ladakh is enclosed by the Ladakh Range and the al Karakoram Range in the north, and the Zanskar Mountains and the Great Himalayas in the south: | - Lahaul Spiti Valley Pee Tz, PI Dy. rem PANDEYThe Atlantic is the westernmost eco-region in the Sahara Desert of North Africa. It occupies a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast E> the more frequent fog and haze generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. Be keel aay.)Deserts » Desert: low-precipitation extreme (< 200 mm) o Subtropical: in the two subtropical dry belts- Gobi, oTropical: Sahara, Thar Continental interior: far from any water source oRain shadow: where mountains create a barrier o Coastal: western coast of US, Eastern Africa oPolar/Cold: low precipitation due to cold sinking air;Lahaul Spiti in HP o Plant cover is sparse in all five types, but adapted to dry conditions, lack of water, stress. ‘Dr. rem PANDEY Deserts ¢ Drought © A region experiencing below-average rainfall for an extended period Often with emphasis on affected water supply or harvests o Semi-arid areas adjacent to deserts are highly susceptible to drought o Desertification o The prevailing desertic conditions into adjacent areas is called desertification. Arid and semi- arid regions experiencing desert conditions. Due to natural causes (drought) oOvergrazing and poor land-use practices"Deserts Ti Foca (dot aes SemisArizona and California (us)Sahara (Africa) India-Jodhpur ~JaisalmerDesert- Saudi Arabia Thar Desert Jaisalmer- sand dunespeeaiadRouen eae ene ei nr Re eaacaeS ackan ~ © \ sens © Coastal deserts ata 2 are the result of cag wind currents that Tun parallel a coastline. May bring fog, but no measurable precipitationPolar deserts are consistently cold and dry. eae © Adaptations of desert organisms: Ablity to store water (@.g. succulents) or fat (¢.g. camels). Reduced growth rate and/or herd se. Spikes and camouflage for defense. Energy conservation (dormancy, ccld-blooded) Deep taprootsWatch this clip of the Namib coastal desert., Unique ecosystem Watched the préVious cliplofithe Namit desert. What type of desert is it? w What is a behavioral adaptation present in each of the three animals shown?” Whatis the advantage of living in a zone of stress instead of the savanna?BIOME MAP a a ANGROVE SWANWhere Do Mangroves Grow? Look at the Map Showing the World Distribution — of Mangroves? Is There Anything That You Could Infer About Mangroves by Looking at the Map? aca sy Ecosystems Sustenance of Life Win an EcosystemWhat Sustains Life on Earth? + Solar energy, + the cycling of matter in Biosphere, anq gravity Matter Cycles The Earth ic a closed systom to matter. There is no waste in nature.Biogeochemical" PThe term "biogeochemical" tells us that biological, geological and chemical factors are all involved. b The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water, etc. through the biological and physical means is known as biogeochemical cycle. b Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to another through biogeochemical cycles. Dr. rem PANDEY SIOGEOCHEMICAL: |g] © In effect, che element is recycled. Hoy) © Although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the element is accumulated or held for a long period of time, such as: © an ocean or lake for water, and ocean and trees for carbon.BIOGEOCHEMI! (© In Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of substances is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic — geosphere (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) components of Earth. | © A biogeochemical cycle is the complete pathway that a chemical clement follows through the Earth system © A cycle is a series of change which comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated. opi, coosphore, wiosphore CYCLES IN NATURE. > Bio-geo-chemical cycles or nutrient cycles are the various elemental /gaseous cycles in the planetary system. such as maintenance of balance of specific elements/ gases in the atmosphere. > The natural cycles and the ecosystems operate in a well- managed way. This stabilizes the entire biosphere and sustains life on earth. > If human activities cause any imbalance in any cycle, there may eventually be degradation of the system and, life as in the present form, may not exist. crromensCYCLES IN N& oThe Hydrologic Cycle Carbon Cycle o Oxygen Cycle oNitrogen Cycle oCalcium Cycle o Sulfur Cycle © Phosphorus Cycle BIOGEOCHEMICAL CY © Water, for example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram. OThe water undergoes Oecvaporation, condensation, and © precipitation, falling back to Earth.TH WE Sr e vals O° ‘Sublimation . Water storage: ee reece Ta Coe Pea ee eee Gera Pemencacy een four Perc aaa Perc a hee Uptake eo ee cr Se CaySOC men = RU Cm CIM ae RR Cm nr id em trae tod Oe Ca oe eee re all the water we've got right now has been Every drink of w ONE Ele UR rele RR (oll) Reed ee eee cee ny Dee ecco Ia have ever had.” ELUM Eed Rain clouds Condensationhe Hydrologi YC Coy wt enna Penn alo Spy ee — etl The hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from oceans, rises through atmosphere, condenses fo form clouds, is then released {as precipitation that may flow over land in streams, sink underground, or be absorbed by | The Hydrologic Cycle > Water moves in and around the earth system, changing from one physical state (liquid. solid. vapor) to another. in a process called the hydrologic cycle. = Water in streams doesnt just come from rainfall! = The majority of precipitation re-enters the atmosphere as water vapor through evaporation. = Water vapor can enter the air when it released from plants through transpiration.The Hydrologic Cycle o> “9.013 in atmosphere (<0.01%) Values in millions of cubic kilometers ‘a, The vast majority of Earth’ water is in the oceans (97%) with only about 3% on land, The Hydrologic Cycle 77.3% ce 0B Soil moisture, plants, animals 0.3% streams and lakes bb. Most of the water on land is stored in ice or groundwater.The Hydrologic Cycle ee em Precipitation evaporation over land Evaporation 110: Values in 1,000 kmS/year C. Land receives more moisture by precipitation than it supplies by evaporation. The balance comes from evaporation from the oceans. This excess water is returned to oceans via surface streams. The Hydrologic Cycle + The majority of precipitation on land runs off to the oceans in steams. On average, the length of time that a given volume of water remains in streams is about 14 days. + Only a small amount of precipitation on land sinks into the ground, as infiltration rates are slow compared to run off rates.The Hydrologic Cycle © However, the volume of water stored in groundwater is 70 times ‘greater than the volume of water in streams and lakes. aa ® Ice stores about 3 times the volume of water found in groundwater. © Many rivers have their sources in springs that bring groundwater to the surface (e.g. che Nile (Egypt), Kaveri, Jhelum (India). | Many northern Indian rivers have sources in glacial melt water (og Brahmaputra, Ganges). The Hydrologic Cycle Regardless of where or how they start, streams: - flow down slope. - often join other streams to form a network. -empty into another body of water (another stream, a lake, an ocean, a reservoir, a wetland). -This lowest point to which a stream flows is called the base level.Coord CO, me To an and ces Burial ee ‘rust, eventual Aeris i ‘Combustion Contry Brio xy cS ees er Respiration ne Sere iy2. Carbon Cycle OThe series of processes by which carbon compounds are inter__converted in the environment, involving the incorporation of carbon dioxide into living tissue by photosynthesis and its return to the atmosphere through O respiration, © the decay of dead organisms, and the burning of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide-carbon yi ©Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric constituent that plays several vital roles in he environment. Olt is a greenhouse gas that traps infrared radiation heat in the atmosphere. Olt plays a crucial role in the weathering of rocks. Olt is the carbon source for plants. © It is stored in biomass, organic matter in sediments, and in carbonate rocks like limestone.Photosynthesis and Carbon Cycle © Photosynthesis © Plants and photosynthetic algae and bacteria use energy from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide (C02) from the atmosphere with water (H20) to form carbohydrates. © These carbohydrates store energy. © Oxygen (02) is a by-product that is released into the atmosphere. © This process is known as photosynthesis. © carbon dioxide + water + sunlight -> carbohydrate + oxygen meee! Respiration and Carbon cycle Respiration © Plants (and photosynthetic algae and acteria) then use some of the stored carbohydrates as an energy source to carry out their life functions. Some of the carbohydrates remain as biomass (the bulk of the plant, etc.) © Consumers such as animals, fungi, and bacteria get their energy from this excess biomass either while living or dead and decaying. (© Oxygen from the atmosphere is combined with carbohydrates to liberate the stored energy. (© Water and carbon dioxide are by-products. [ oxygen + carbohydrate -> energy + water + carbon dioxidePhotosynthesis and Respiration ©Photosynthesis _and_Respiration are essentially _ the opposite of one another. © Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere and replaces it with O2. Respiration takes O2 from the atmosphere and replaces it with CO2. © However, these processes are not in balance. Not all organic matter is oxidized. Some is buried in sedimentary rocks. (©The result is that over geologic time, there has been more oxygen put_into_the _atmosphere_and_carbon_dioxide removed by photosynthesis than the reverse. De baw BANDECarbon is in constant flux between all of Earth’s components Atmosphere - both a sink and a source of carbon compounds and carbon based gases > Carbon enters atmosphere vio: respiration (animals exhaling CO2) the burning of forests >the decay of dead organisms burning of fossil fuels natural volcanic activity release of dissolved gases from the ocean i Carbon Cycle Atmosphere - both a sink and a source of carbon compounds and carbon based gases > Carbon leaves atmosphere via: photosynthesis (used by plants) rock formation (limestone) absorption by the ocean other biological processes Overall, more carbon enters than exits the atmosphere by about 3.4 billion tons per year! ov. PemPaNeY=, Carbon Cycle Biosphere — Interacts with all other parts of the earth system through the carbon cycle Plants extract CO, from atmosphere by photosynthesis Animals eat plants thereby consuming carbon > Carbon Is returned to atmosphere when organisms die > Carbon can be held for millions of years if organic remains are buried and converted to fossil fuel deposits (coal, oil, natural gas) Carbon is retained in some marine animals as part of their shells, skeletons Dead marine organisms sink, getting buried, locked in sedimentary rocks, locking away their carbonCarbon Cycle Geosphere - The largest sinks for carbon on the planet are rocks and minerals of the solid earth Most is present as an element of calcium carbonate (limestone) When limestone undergoes chemical weathering it Teleases CO, to the atmosphere Chemical weathering is caused by acid rain, which takes CO, out of the atmosphere Some carbon is stored in fossil fuel deposits formed from = decayed organic material Dr. rem PANDEY Carbon Cycle Checkpoint “Carbon is stored in carbon reservoirs sinks, just as water is stored in a reservoir behind a dam. «The carbon is released from these reservoirs and ultimately ends up in another reservoir.Oxygen Cycle Dr. rem PANDEY Oxygen Cycle The oxygen cycle Is the blo-qeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere, the total content of biological matter within the biosphere, and the |ithosphere (Earth's crust). Oxygen Cycle Reservoirs & FluxOxygen Cycle in Nature Oxygen Cycle ‘The largest reservoir of Earth’ onygen s within the cust and mantle (99.59) Free cnygen inthe biosphere 0.01%) and atmasphere (0.36%). The main source of atmospheric free oxygen is photosynthes's, which produces sugars and free oxygen from corbon dioxide and water: 6 CO, + 6H,0 + energy —+ CyHlsOe +6 Oe Photosynthesizing organisms include the plant lfe of the land areas as well as ‘the phytoplankton of the oceans. An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide intocomponent atoms. The free H and N atoms escape into space leaving O, in the atmosphere: 21,0 + energy 4H +03 2N,O + energy 4 N+ 0 “The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmospheres via respiration and decay, ‘mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The lithosphere also consumes free oxygen via chemical weathering and surface reactions. An example of surface weathering chemistry is formation of io! oxides: D,Pem PANDEY —_ A ReO4.0, 9 BOInterconnection between carbon, hydrogen and oxygen cycle i metabolism of photosynthesizing plants ASSIMILATION “Lightindependent Independent “_ "Light dependent V Carbon gLucose Hydrogen = 4.9 0, 7 t=) ® “Glycolysis", “Terminal “citre acid eycle” oxidation” Prem PANDEY DISSIMILATIONer De ete) Deere. Peat Nera cy Ute ta f Conn pret Eee Serre mae ula oe Bee ee PMLCL) } q (NO3) and #] Peau Oy EN ace wre eee cu es HS eest Nitrogen Cycle The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted in various chemical forms through both biological and physical processes. Such processes include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, i) and denitrification. Atmospheric nitrogen (78%) has limited availability for biological use. The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest because it can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes (primary production and decomposition). fitrogen is present in the environment in a ide variety of chemical forms including . ammonium (NH,"), . nitrite (NO_), |. nitrate (NO, ), . nitrous oxide (N,O), . nitric oxide (NO) or . inorganic nitrogen gas (N,).Nitrogen Cycle Human activities - fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater- have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle. ©The importance of _bacteria_in the cycle is immediately recognized as being a key element in the cycle, providing different forms of _ nitrogen compounds assimilable by higher organisms. Nitrogen Cycle fT Ld “The series of processes by which nitrogen and its compounds are inter- converted in the environment and in living organisms, including nitrogen fixation and decomposition. Schematic representation of the flow of nitrogen through the land environment, ! aeTHIMIOMifIcation 1. Assimilation © Plants take nitrogen from the soil by absorption through their roots as amino acids, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, of ammonium io! (© Most nitrogen obtained by terrestrial animals can be traced back to the eating of plants at some stage of the food chain. 2. Ammonification S| © When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste (in the form of gas), the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen into ammonia ot ammonium (NH,") compounds, a process called ammonification or mineralization DePentoer Naoan Tuvenstry 3. Nitrification (© The conversion of ammonia to nitrate is perlormed primarily by soil- living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria, 1. NH4 to Nitrite -nitrfing bacteria called Nitros: 2. nitrite is converted into nitrate, by Nitrobacter. 4. Denitrification ‘© Denitrification isthe reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N;), completing the nitrogen cycle, (© This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudor 1d Clgscricium in anaerobic conditions. © NOs Nz —Pscidoasonasand Clstcidiuasin anaecobie ccnditions)Nitrogen Cycle The nitrates in the soil are taken up by the plants and converted into amino acids. NO3.. NEE... Amino acids © During the decay of dead plants, N2 is released and returned to the soil and in atmosphere in the form of NH3. Dead plants/animals,....:7=55..-.NH3 atmosphere e “Rasoit © The denitrifying bacteria (Pseudomonas) in the soil convert the nitrates into N2 and escapes in the atmosphere. NOs... EE. No Die POET Nitrogen Cycle In natural process (fixation), the gases N2 is converted into NO (during periodic thunderstorm and lightening), which is oxidized into NO2. N2 =. . Both oxides are washed down by sain and form nitric acid in the soil. Nitric acid combines with salt (Na, Ca, etc) and form nitrates. NO, NO2...R... f in Soil... HNO3 salt of Na, Ca... omNitrogen Cycle © Also, during lightening, N2 may also combine with H2 ro form NHB, which is washed down to form ammonium salts in the soil. oN2+H?2. ma NH3 (© In alternative, certain microorganisms including nitrifying bacteria (aerobic Azororobactor and anaerobic Clostridium) convert atmospheric N2 into ammonium ions. on2.. =. NH¢ ions (aerobic Azororobactor and anaerobic Clostriditum) | Nitrogen Fixation Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", inva cilble fortn to be taken tp 'by planes Between 5x10" and 10x10”? g per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs.An example of the free-living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. == such as Rhizobium usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas beans, shisham tree).. Phosphorus Cycle Phosphorus (P) CyclePhosphorus Cycle ©The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of — phosphorus through fj the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. © Unlike many other biogeochernical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus. Obecause phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. ©The production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions.Phosphorus Cycle [ee Plays two important roles in the biosphere OAs sugar-phosphate units forms the helical framework of DNA ©ADP ATP —one Adenosine , one ribose sugar and phosphates depending upon ADP ot ATP. Facilitates all of life's energy transactions © Occurs in its oxidized state as phosphate, forming minerals found in soils and water. © ADP — ATP Baad © Eroded from rocks, used by | temporarily available to plankton, then deposited on the seafloor on Tand, washed to the ocean, an UES Phosphorus Cycle } % Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. $ Phosphorus is a for aquatic organisms. limiting nutrient Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, fe{ remaining mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to [ make fertilizers De Pra ANDEY hehosphorus Cycle-Biological functions lo The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of , which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids and is only possible because of the thet binds the helix. lo Besides making bio-molecules, , whose strength is fy) derived from calcium phosphate in. the form of Hydroxylapatite. Reel ace sue TCR ou neouiet Erreusmn