doi: 10.29366/2018tlc.2.3.

Multilingualism language policy in the EU today:

A paradigm shift in language education
by Bessie Dendrinos

The paper explores European policy in language learning and teaching and frames a new paradigm that will
influence language teaching in schools and in adult education in the decades to come. The authors argue that
one of the greatest challenges of the EU, especially after its enlargement with the new nation states that emerged
in central and Eastern Europe in the early 90s, is embracing the European cultural mosaic and appreciating its
linguistic wealth. The challenge of managing the new multiracialism, multiculturalism and multilingualism, while
facilitating integration and maintaining social cohesion, is now even more demanding. The aim of this paper is to
explore how EU language policy is changing to meet this emerging environment by investigating the key
institutions and principles concerned with language management and development in policy, teaching and
learning. The paper explains the key initiatives taken by the EU to encourage language multilingualism, discusses
their implications and success, and concludes by offering a new paradigm for multilingualism in Europe to 2050
and beyond.

KEYWORDS: European Commission, multilingualism, Council of Europe, CEFR, language policy, language
teaching, language learning

1. INTRODUCTION linguistic divides is a critical competence. Even

According to the Salzburg statement for a partial knowledge of more than one language is
multicultural world published in 2017, the right to beneficial. Proficiency in additional languages is a
speak and learn other languages than your own is new kind of global literacy, and language learning
a critical competence and needs to be supported needs to be expanded for all – young and old.
by international and national language policy. It However, millions of people across the globe are
statement asserts: denied the inherent right to maintain, enjoy and
develop their languages of identity and
‘In today’s interconnected world, the ability to community. This injustice needs to be corrected in
speak multiple languages and communicate across language policies that support multilingual

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societies and individuals’ (Regester & Norton, of the strongest economies in the EU.
2018, p. 156).
Adding to this colourful and rich mosaic of
The range of languages spoken in the EU, which is Europe’s linguistic landscape are the foreign
one of the most institutionally multilingual polities languages that Europeans speak and many of them
in the world, is not confined to the 24 national or speak one or more foreign languages, while the
official languages used in each of the 28 EU educational systems of most member states require
member states and recognised as official that students learn foreign languages as part of
languages of the EU. Over 60 indigenous, regional their general education. Eurydice, which
or minority languages are spoken by some 40 systematically reports on how different member
million people including Basque, Catalan, Frisian, states deal with foreign language learning
Saami, Welsh and Yiddish, as well as the challenges at all levels of education (early
languages that populations of immigrating within childhood education and care, primary and
or to EU member states have brought with them. secondary education, higher and adult education),
Languages from Asia, Africa, the Middle East and reported in 2017 that increasingly more students
from European countries which are not in the EU, are learning languages in school so that it is
including Russian, which is the second or foreign considered that the 2020 goals are more or less on
language of people immigrating from eastern to their way to achievement (European Commission,
western European countries, are all now part of 2017). Besides a brief introduction about the EU
the EU polyglottal community (European policy context the Eurydice Report contains details
Commission, 2017). of the increasing number of early language
learners and students being offered two foreign
Though the 24 official languages of the EU are languages in European schools, which are the most
supposed to enjoy equal status, three of these widely learnt languages, the level of language
languages (English, French and German) have a teacher education and training, as well as the
higher standing because they are the procedural numbers of newly arrived immigrant students and
languages of the European Commission – i.e., used whether language support is available for them.
in the day-to-day workings of the EU institutions –
while two more languages (Italian and Spanish) According to information provided by EC officer
have special status as support languages. The status Kristina Cunningham at the ECML Colloquium in
of these five languages is contingent upon political December 2017, the proposal of the European
and economic power, as these are the languages Commission (EC) for a European benchmark for

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 Multilingualism language policy in the EU today: A paradigm shift in language education
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‘The range of languages spoken the EU know a foreign language, more than 80%
of primary school pupils in the EU are studying at
in the EU, which is one of the
least one foreign language (a language which is
most institutionally multilingual not a second official language in the country in
polities in the world, is not question or a family/community language for
confined to the 24 national or learners from immigrant backgrounds) and 59% of
official languages used in each general education students are learning two or

of the 28 EU member states and more foreign languages. Though the European
Survey on Language Competences (European
recognised as official languages
Commission, 2012a) – a study contracted by the
of the EU’
European Commission affording comparable data
concerning language learning in schools across
language competence is that by 2020 at least 50% the EU – provided evidence that students’
of 15-year-olds should attain the level of language competences still need to be significantly
independent user of a first foreign language improved, EU officials are maintaining that the EU
(compared to 42% in 2017) and at least 75% of is moving closer to its Europe 2020 goals on
pupils in lower secondary education should study education, which include language proficiency in
at least two foreign languages (compared to 61% one foreign language and at least basic
in 2017) (Cunningham, 2017). communicative competence in a second one (see
also Costa & Albergaria-Almeida, 2015).
The emphasis on ‘foreign’ is because the reference
is to languages commonly included in school The character of the multilingual European
curricula, with English having dominated the supranational state is thus very different from
foreign language teaching and learning scene for multilingual nations such as Singapore and
the last three decades with French and German Luxemburg, or from multicultural countries such
trailing behind. Specifically, on the basis of 2015 as the USA and Australia, though Australia has
Eurostat information, 97.3% students in lower never adopted the USA’s melting-pot ideology.
secondary schools across Europe are learning
English, 33.8% French and 23.1% German. 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Spanish, Russian and Italian are far behind with Language, in particular, has had an extraordinarily
13.6%, 2.7% and 1.1% respectively. Moreover, it significant role in nation-building in Europe from
is reported that two-thirds of working age adults in medieval times and has functioned as a strong

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symbol of cultural identity, shaping people’s ‘The character of the

national identity and their allegiances. Language
multilingual European
has served the purpose of construing social
subjects in European countries, where there is an
supranational state is thus very
overriding feeling of being at risk for political,
different from multilingual
economic or military reasons and where nations such as Singapore and
ideologies of national language protectionism Luxemburg, or from
have been strong, sometimes leading to the multicultural countries such as
assimilation of linguistic minorities and to
the USA and Australia, though
language or dialect death. In countries whose
Australia has never adopted the
economic and political power allows them to feel
more secure, the attitude to minority or
USA’s melting-pot ideology’
community language ranges from tolerating to
supporting them and from respecting to Foreign language departments in European
legitimising them by including them in the universities (Departments of English, French,
educational system. German and other ‘big’ EU languages) have been
regarded highly and have been offering not only
Foreign languages do not pose the same kind of language instruction and training but also
‘threat’ as minority languages do in some cases. undergraduate and postgraduate courses in
Besides, the so-called foreign languages are literature, culture and linguistics, most often
associated with the prestige gained by inclusion in offered through the foreign language. Though
the traditional discipline of foreign language graduates of modern language degrees have been
didactics. As a matter of fact, Europeans are very in demand across many sectors of business and
positive with regard to foreign language learning. industry, students in traditional single language
departments have declined in the UK. In several
The 2012 Eurobarometer survey on Europeans and other European countries, however, a foreign
their languages reveals that 98% say mastering language and literature degree is still desirable in
foreign languages will benefit their children, 72% the market. Universities across Europe, which are
agree with the EU goal of at least two foreign increasingly turning into businesses in the free-
languages for everyone and 77% say improving market European economy, are still offering
language skills should be a policy priority degrees, particularly in high-prestige languages. A
(European Commission, 2012c). recent trend is for institutions to move towards

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by Bessie Dendrinos

combined degrees, for example, a degree in two or have an impact on crushing different ways of
more languages, in two languages and translation thinking that are valuable especially in science,
studies, in languages and a field other than suppressing different theories or ways of theorising
language study, such as business administration. It which undeniably comes with the use of different
is noted that the European Commission has languages. Of course, science is not the only
established the European Master’s in Translation domain in which English has taken over (cf.
(EMT) – a label for European university translation Macedo et al., 2015) forcing many people to use a
programmes that meet agreed professional ‘lingua franca’ and have a ‘false sense of mutual
standards and market demands, hoping to intelligibility’ (García & Otheguy, 1989).
contribute to the improvement of the quality of
translator training. How does Brussels deal with EU’s rich linguistic
wealth and how are the ‘English-only’ tendencies
Of course, university students can take the or English plus French (especially at government
languages they wish to learn at university language level) tackled? Which are its language policies,
centres which offer languages on demand in what sort of recommendations does it make and
addition to or instead of the traditional foreign what kind of actions are taken to ensure that
languages, for example, languages such as language diversity and multilingualism in Europe is
Russian, which is the most popular non-EU secured? The official language policy, as it is stated
language, Mandarin Chinese and Arabic. However, in the European Parliament Facts Sheet of the
foreign languages other than English are rarely a European Union is the following:
requirement for a degree in any subject area in
either the sciences or the humanities, while proof ‘Languages are an integral part of the European
of English language competence is required very identity and the most direct expression of
often for entrance into postgraduate programmes culture’ (European Parliament Facts Sheet of the
of any discipline. In some parts of Europe, European Union). In an EU founded on the motto
especially the Nordic countries, university studies ‘United in diversity’, the ability to communicate in
are offered through the national language but often several languages is an important asset for
access and production of knowledge (reading and individuals, organisations and companies.
project work) is in English, the language which has Languages not only play a key role in the everyday
managed to take over and make the field of natural life of the European Union, but are also
sciences monoglossic. English is used almost to the fundamental for respecting cultural and linguistic
exclusion of other languages, which can and does diversity in the EU’ (Franke, 2017).

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Two important statements, ‘respect for linguistic tongue’ (Franke, 2017).

diversity is a fundamental value of the EU’ and the
‘respect for the person and openness towards other The EU’s interest in sustaining and efficiently
cultures’ are incorporated into the preamble to the managing multilingualism has been questioned
Treaty on European Union, while Article 3 of the and criticised by a number of language
Treaty states that the EU ‘shall respect its rich professionals (e.g. Krzyżanowski & Wodak, 2011;
cultural and linguistic diversity’ (European Phillipson, 2016; Romaine, 2013). Certainly, since
Commission, 2016, p. 17) and Article 165(2) Mr Juncker’s cabinet was announced Brussels has
emphasises that ‘Union action shall be aimed at moved from having one entire portfolio on
developing the European dimension in education, Multilingualism (Leonard Orban, 2007-2010), to a
particularly through the teaching and Commissioner for Education, Culture,
dissemination of the languages of the member Multilingualism and Youth (Androulla Vassiliou,
states’ (European Commission, 2016, p. 120). 2010-2014), to no portfolio whatsoever on
Multilingualism. This was the time also that the
In the aforementioned Facts Sheet, it is also stated European Civil Society Platform for
that ‘in 2013 the European Parliament adopted a Multilingualism which had been launched in 2009
resolution on endangered European languages and was no longer financially supported or assigned a
linguistic diversity in the European Union, calling mandate – a decision which led to the
on the member states to commit to the protection development of an autonomous NGO, i.e. the
and promotion of the diversity of the Union’s European Civil Society for Multilingualism, which
linguistic and cultural heritage’ (Franke, 2017). is struggling without funding to live up to its
mission statement European Civil Society Platform
Also recorded in the aforementioned Fact Sheets for Multilingualism. The condition of things with
on the European Union, is that ‘as part of its efforts regard to languages in the EU is indeed much too
to promote mobility and intercultural intricate to have no expert team or no responsible
understanding, the EU has designated language EU body in the driver’s seat. No wonder then that
learning as an important priority’ and that the EU does not seem to have a coherent approach
multilingualism ‘is an important element in for dealing with its wide-ranging and multileveled
Europe’s competitiveness [as well as] one of the multilingualism. However, it has occasionally
objectives of the EU’s language policy is therefore supported academic and hands-on research (or
that every European citizen should master two surveys) and language professionals in the hope
other languages in addition to their mother that the collaborative research will pave the way

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for a well worked-out approach, an across-the- and published in early 2017, investigates the
board methodology for managing European situation of minority languages in education in 13
multilingualism. The research programmes on states (Van Dongera et al., 2017).
multilingualism which have been funded in recent
years include major ones like D.Y.L.A.N. Another way in which the EU has been supporting
(Language Dynamics and Management of multilingualism is by maintaining the two cross-
Diversity) and MIME (Mobility and Inclusion in languages services. One of the two is the DG
Multilingual Europe), as well as smaller-scale ones Interpretation which services the Commission, the
like AThEME (Advancing the European Multilingual European Council, Council of the EU, and other
Experience) and LRE (Language Rich Europe). EU committees and agencies, provides support for
multilingual meetings and conferences and is
Also, the EU has been supporting two European supposed to help put the Commission's
centres which carry out practical research related multilingualism strategy into practice. The second
to languages. The first one, with which it began its service is the DG for Translation whose
collaboration a few years ago, is the European responsibilities include the translation of laws,
Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the correspondence, policy papers, reports, etc.,
Council of Europe, which is concerned with drafted by or sent to the Commission, provision of
language teaching and learning as well as the help to the Commission to communicate with the
training and professional development of language public, thereby helping citizens understand EU
teachers. The second institution is Mercator – the policies, advice to the Commission departments on
European Research Centre on Multilingualism and language and on managing multilingual websites,
Language Learning, which is part of a network of and help with the correct terminology in all official
five research and documentation centres EU languages, as documented in the inter-
specialising in regional and minority languages institutional database (IATE).
within the European Union, located in Friesland,
NL. Connected to the DG Translation’s amenities is the
Commission’s machine translation service. MT@EC
As part of its concern for minority languages, the can handle and translate texts and documents
European Parliament’s Committee on Culture and related to EU policy in the 24 official EU languages
Education published case studies. A study on but also allow (free of charge to public
‘Minority Languages and Education: Best Practices administration officials in the EU) rapid checking
and Pitfalls’, commissioned on behalf of the EU of the general meaning of the text inserted – with a

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‘Connected to the DG the request of Parliament’s Science and Technology

Options Assessment Panel.
Translation’s amenities is the
Commission’s machine One more move supporting multilingualism was
translation service. MT@EC can the 2016 European Parliament’s action to adopt a
handle and translate texts and resolution on sign languages and professional sign
documents related to EU policy language interpreters. Finally, there are several

in the 24 official EU languages’ ‘action programmes’ aiming at facilitating

multilingualism in the EU. Quite a bit of funding
has gone to the Erasmus+ Programme for
precision that the free Google or Microsoft Education (2014-2020), whose objectives include
machine translation service, for example, do not the promotion of language learning and linguistic
have. Along the same lines, a new network was diversity and, therefore, provides help (via
created, entitled ‘European Language Resource Erasmus+ Online Linguistic Support) to
Coordination: Supporting Multilingualism in participants in mobility actions to learn and assess
Europe’. It is an interesting network developed to themselves in the language of the host country. The
manage, maintain and coordinate the relevant language courses and the tests available through
language resources in all official languages of the Erasmus+ Online Linguistic Support have not yet
EU, especially public service documents, so as to been created in all EU languages but in many of
help improve the quality, coverage and them, while there is now also OLS for refugees to
performance of automated translation. An Europe. Erasmus+ however also encourages
additional activity related to translation, is the cooperation for innovation and exchange of good
‘Juvenes Translatores’ prize awarded to the best practices through strategic partnerships in the area
translation done by a 17-year-old student in the of language teaching and learning. Furthermore,
member states, translating from and into any funding for linguistic support can be provided
official language of the European Union. where necessary to beneficiaries of strategic
partnerships who organise long-term training and
Another related plan of the EP’s Committee on teaching activities for staff, youth workers and
Culture and Education is to work on an own- learners. The Erasmus+ programme also funds
initiative report on ‘Language equality in the numerous projects every year to support the
digital age: Towards a Human Language project’, teaching and learning of sign languages, and to
based on a study with the same title drawn up at promote linguistic diversity awareness and the

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protection of minority languages. Before 2014, when the Unit of Multilingualism

was still ‘alive’ (it was later disbanded), the
Other actions include the ‘Creative Europe management of multilingualism in Europe
Programme’ in the framework of which support is (multilingualism chiefly understood as polyglossia)
provided for the translation of books and was viewed as a mission that was mostly linked to
manuscripts under the Culture sub-programme, the 2002 Barcelona objective of ‘mother-tongue +
the European Day of Languages, celebrated every two’, which entailed gathering information about
year on 26th September, when all sorts of events to language education and training in ΕU countries
promote language learning throughout the EU take (Beadle & Scott, 2014),collecting data to monitor
place, including the European Language Label, an school students’ progress in language teaching and
award by the Commission designed to encourage learning with large projects such as the European
new initiatives in language teaching and learning, Survey of Language Competence, mentioned
to reward new language teaching methods, and to earlier, in an attempt to make ‘evidence-based
raise awareness of regional and minority policy’, and also encouraging Member states to
languages. When in 2013 the European Parliament adopt innovative, scientifically proven methods of
adopted the Erasmus+ and Creative Europe speeding up language learning (referring
programmes, a specific provision on funding for particularly to CLIL and CALL). For the 2014
the subtitling, dubbing and audio description of Report, where Content and Language Integrated
European films was added so as to facilitate access Learning (CLIL) referring to teaching subjects such
to, and the circulation of, European works across as science, history and geography to students
borders. Moreover, the European Parliament, In its through a foreign language and Computer Assisted
resolution of 24 March 2009 on ‘Multilingualism: Language Learning (CALL) are viewed as
An asset for Europe and a shared ‘innovative’ and ‘scientifically proven’ foreign
commitment’ (European Commission, 2008, p. language teaching methods (Scott & Beadle,
59), it reiterated its support for EU policies in the 2014). See also another report, having to do with
field of multilingualism and called on the Peer Learning Activity (Beadle, 2014).
Commission to draw up measures aimed at
recognising the importance of and promoting 3. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND
linguistic diversity. Its resolution on endangered LEARNING IN THE EU
European languages and linguistic diversity 3.1 ECML and CEFR
appealed to the Commission and the Member Lack of human resources and expertise in the
states to support endangered languages. Commission itself which would allow it to develop

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a cohesive language education policy, built on a outcome of the work which has been carried out
sound philosophy of language and language by the Council of Europe for more than 30 years –
learning that results in a coherent strategy for which is a document not immediately concerned
language education in European schools and with the contents of language teaching, but rather
language learning as a lifelong learning project. with the curricula and syllabuses for the teaching
The Lifelong Learning Platform: European Civil of languages (emphasis on the plural). Otherwise,
Society for Education issued a statement, as a the ECML which was establishes in 1994 as an
response to the second package of measures for ‘Enlarged Partial Agreement’ of the Council of
creating a European Education Area in July 2017 Europe, meaning that it was to operate as a form of
to which the ECSPM has contributed and co-operation allowing to pursue certain activities
specifically to the part which constitutes a not supported by all member states of the Council
proposal on Teaching and Learning of Languages of Europe. The CEFR provided a common basis for
therein. The recognition of lack of capacity an all languages (rather than for individual languages
expertise most likely played a role in the decision which had been usual practice before its
of the European Council to instruct the EC to begin publication) and aligned to the illustrative
collaborating with the ECML. Otherwise, the descriptors provided by it. That has had a
ECML which was established in 1994 as an significant impact on language teaching and
‘Enlarged Partial Agreement’ of the Council of testing across Europe, and not only, since its
Europe, meaning that it was to operate as a form of publication in 2001 by the Council of Europe.
co-operation allowing to pursue certain activities
not supported by all member states of the Council By 2012 – the year that the ‘Rethinking education:
of Europe. Investing in skills for better socio-economic
outcomes’ proposal put forth by the Commission
Therefore, only interested member states recommending the reform of education systems
participate in the Agreement and bear the cost, as across the EU so as to meet growing demand for
there is a considerable annual membership fee. higher skills levels and reduce unemployment
The ECML’s partial agreement is ‘enlarged’, which (European Commission, 2012b), the European
means that non-member states of the Council Council’s Conclusions regarding multilingualism
could also join – especially since additional and languages were articulating a more
financial support comes from the EU. This led to instrumental, utilitarian discourse than before,
adopting the idea of promoting the Common when multilingualism was characterised as ‘an
European Framework of Languages (CEFR) – an asset for Europe and a shared

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‘The CEFR provided a common Education and Culture (EAC) who had since the
dissolution of the autonomous Multilingualism
basis for all languages (rather
Unit, been transferred to a new post , a unit
than for individual languages entitled ‘Schools and Educators; Multilingualism’,
which had been usual practice had begun focusing attention to the language
before its publication) and management of classrooms which are increasingly
aligned to the illustrative multilingual, with a great range of cultural and

descriptors provided by it’ linguistic variability across Europe – however

unevenly spread the students from immigrant
backgrounds are and they are indeed.
commitment’ (European Commission, 2008). The
2011 and the 2014 Conclusions of the European According to Eurostat, the total number of EU
Council recognised the need ‘to enhance the migrants was 18.5 million in 2015 and their
social inclusion of citizens with disadvantaged proportion varies considerably across the Member
backgrounds, as well as to promote linguistic states ranging from about nearly 40% of foreign-
diversity and intercultural dialogue’ (Council of the born EU citizens in Luxemburg, to Poland that has
European Union, 2011, p. 28) but also that ‘a 0.6%. Education systems must respond to this
good command of foreign languages is a key diversity.
competence essential to make one's way in the
modern world and labour market’ (Council of the A good deal of work has been done in a relatively
European Union, 2011, p. 28). short period of time in this domain, with a view to
facilitating the EU’s scope of integrating
3.2 Migration and language learning immigrants in European societies (though anti-
Also, as the immigration flows to Europe were immigration, right-wing governments in certain
growing member states were invited with due countries want them gone – not even assimilated).
regard for the principle of subsidiarity and in Therefore, the European Commission and
accordance with national circumstances to specifically the DG EAC has outlined the goals,
develop measures to support children and adults articulated policies and proposed ways of
with migrant backgrounds in learning the achieving them. These are summarised in two
language(s) of the host country. reports published by the Commission, both
describing the context, recommending ways of
The language policy officers of the DG for dealing with children of immigrant background in

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schools and the community of the host country to their needs and interests, in at least two
(European Commission, 2015a; European languages in addition to the language of schooling,
Commission, 2015b). by the time they finish upper secondary education.

3.3 Meeting the challenges of a multilingual Also to be noted is that the Commission delegate
Europe at that meeting clearly stated that the primacy of
The major challenges in today’s multilingual English in everyday communication and in
Europe faced by the EU were outlined at a education should not be questioned. It is the status
consultation meeting held in Brussels early quo.
February 2018, which I participated in, along with
representatives from some 60 civil society To meet the challenges related to the linguistic
academic organisations, key stakeholders, and diversity in the educational systems of member
around 20 representatives from Ministries of states, caused by first and second generation
Education of the member states. The purpose of the immigrant families’ children, the policy officer at
meeting was to discuss the proposal which was the Brussels consultation meeting, Kristina
then being drafted and has now been circulated Cunningham, presented the participants with the
regarding languages in education. following priorities:

The Brussels meeting followed the Gothenburg (a) to develop support mechanisms for immigrant
Summit for ‘Fair Jobs and Growth’, leading to the children to learn the language of instruction in
Heads of State or Government reiterating in the school so as to use it competently in daily
European Council Conclusions of 14-12-2017 the situations alongside their home language(s) and
ambition to enhance the learning of languages, so have adequate literacy in the language of
that more young people will speak at least two schooling, and
European languages in addition to their mother
tongue. It is to be noted, however, that it was for (b) maintain their mother tongue, and useful
the first time that a Commission delegate at the literacy in this tongue, and (c) learn other
meeting made a clarification on the ‘mother European languages.
tongue’ issue, which has been a cause for concern
and critique. The ‘mother tongue + two objective’ With regard to the challenges regarding foreign
now means ensuring that young Europeans can languages, the priorities presented were (a)
communicate, at variable degrees and according creating common standards for the teaching,

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learning and assessment of languages by adopting ‘Also to be noted is that the

the CEFR referred to earlier, (b) support for more
Commission delegate at that
effective teacher education and training – in
collaboration with the Council of Europe and the
meeting clearly stated that the
ECML, (c) financing projects for languages and
primacy of English in everyday
multilingualism through the Erasmus+ programme communication and in education
and (d) supporting studies resulting to guidelines should not be questioned. It is
for education and training. the status quo’

4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Promotion of CEFR which are detailed ‘can do’ statements concern
On the basis of the above, and the consideration of the comprehension and production of oral and
all language policy documents in the EU as here written discourse at the six different stages of
reviewed, these two issues are considered as learning a foreign language. Since its publication
separate matters. As a conclusion to this paper this by the Council of Europe in 2001, the CEFR has
division will briefly discussed, but first I should like been criticised by several scholars as needing to
to bring to the reader’s attention to two points be substantiated by further research (e.g. Alderson,
included in the 2018 Recommendation of the 2007; Little, 2006), and as needing to document
Council of the European Union ‘On a its reference level descriptors on the basis of
comprehensive approach to the teaching and precise linguistic elements making the levels
learning of languages’, which ought to have an explicit for individual languages (e.g., Dendrinos
impact on the achievement of language education & Gotsoulia, 2015) in order for them to be less
goals for 2020-2025 (European Commission, vague and imprecise – to make explicit for
2018). example what it means to be able write clear,
detailed texts on a variety of subjects at B2 level.
The first point relates to the recommendation of
further supporting the promotion of the CEFR, However, it is the first and only document which
which I wish to endorse. It is a comprehensive has attempted to validate (though in an empirical
reference tool, which contains descriptors about way, rather than through linguistic research), on a
what the learners of different foreign languages can European level, explicit referential levels for
do at six levels of proficiency (with A1 being the identifying degrees of language competences and
lowest and C2 the highest). The reference levels communicative activities across languages,

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providing a basis for differentiated teaching in semiotic means available to him/her for the
diverse educational environments. In providing creation of meaning.
objective criteria for describing language
proficiency, the Council of Europe’s aim was to 4.2 EC investment in linguistic diversity
promote educational transparency and ‘to facilitate The second point, also included in the Council’s
the mutual recognition of qualifications gained in 2018 Recommendation, relates to Member states
different learning contexts, and thus aid European investing in the initial and continuing education of
mobility’ (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 1). language teachers and school leaders so that they
are prepared for linguistic diversity in the
More importantly, however, because of its classroom and that they encourage research in and
expansive use (and misuse) as an aid to defining use of innovative, inclusive and multilingual
levels for teaching, learning, and testing, the pedagogies. The issue here is of course is to define
Education Policy Division of the Council of Europe what constitutes a ‘multilingual pedagogy’. A
decided to commission an extended version of the quick review of the relevant literature points to
CEFR. In early 2018, the CEFR Companion Volume pedagogical practices with bilingual students, in
was published. It contains illustrative descriptors USA classrooms: e.g. accepting the hybrid
that complement the original ones at both lower language practices of bilinguals (García, 2011;
and higher levels but also includes descriptors for García & Sylvan, 2011), capitalise on bilingual
the important concept of mediation that was students’ linguistic and cultural resources
defined in the original CEFR which however (Catalano et al., 2015).
contained no validated-calibrated descriptors.
This raises the question of whether this is relevant
Specifically, there are descriptor scales provided in the European context. It also raises the question
for cross-language and interlanguage mediation, as of how it bridges the gap in the aforementioned
well as for the related mediation strategies and division between managing the teaching and
plurilingual/pluricultural competences, which are learning situation in classrooms with a small or
absolutely essential in a multilingual Europe which larger percentage of bilingual students acquiring
claims a dominant role in a globalised world, is school literacy in a language other than their home
desirable. As a concept, plurilingualism is language plus one or more additional languages
significant because it shifts attention from the and with a percentage of monolingual students
influential construct of the perfect ‘native speaker’ acquiring school literacy in their home language
and focuses on the language user who uses all and other foreign languages.

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 Multilingualism language policy in the EU today: A paradigm shift in language education
by Bessie Dendrinos

‘The issue here is of course is to also have a direct relationship to citizenship and
the development of linguistic repertoires as a
define what constitutes a
component of (language) education in a globalised
‘multilingual pedagogy’ world. Research has shown the interconnections
between multilingualism, globalisation, and
identity, illustrating the multidimensional ways that
4.3 Languages in a globalised world youth invest in language learning and socially
A third point I wish to bring forth before coming to construe their multiple identities within diverse
the conclusion of this paper is outside the contents contexts while weaving in and out of
of the Recommendation aforementioned but in particularistic and universalistic identifications.
many other EU documents. It relates to the But what does it mean to learn a language? In the
important role of languages in a globalised world. past, becoming fully proficient in a language
Worldwide labour mobility, trade, social meant becoming a social agent operating
integration of immigrants, language policies in according to its discursive rules by using language
multilingual countries and international according to the formal properties of language as
competitiveness of businesses are about languages designated by rules in grammar books. as to
and communication first and foremost. A construe social agents.
multilingual workforce for example is an
advantage as it provides companies with a Today’s societies, however, who wish to be players
competitive edge and it is necessary for them to in the global arena are in need of entrepreneurial
invest more in language and intercultural skills. social agents prepared for high-speed change –
The outcomes of the ELAN Report, a study change on all levels and social norms and
commissioned by the EC in 2006 investigating the institutions, but also change in language and ways
effects on the European Economy of the shortages of using it. Language itself is a social institution
of foreign language skills in enterprises, include (not a cognitive system), constantly developing
that: (a) amongst the 200 small and medium and changing to serve society, which is changing
enterprises that lost potential contracts for lack of at an overwhelmingly accelerated pace today. This
foreign languages, 37 valued the lost business change is inscribed on language, discourse and
8-13.5 million pounds; (b) a further 54 companies texts. Changes brought about by technology in this
had lost contracts 16.5-25.3 million for lack of digital age, for example, are encoded in the new
communication and intercultural skills to types of texts and textual forms that we have
capitalise on opportunities. However, languages replacing older equivalents (Table 1).

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Table 1
Textual parallels

Language has a different role today both for positions, and communities as uniform social
communities and for individuals. Within the formations are superseded by mobility and
autonomous states of the past, communities, multiplicity. Social actors take an active role in the
identities, processes and practices are key flows and transformations, contributing further to
concepts linked to the role of language in the globalisation, transnationalism, and the new
construction of social identities, social relations. economy.
Today, however, people experience a sense of
community, identity and loyalties away from All in all, it is more than evident that the world has
autonomous structures in spaces – such as, for changed enormously in the last 50 years or so. The
example, digitally created spaces – where European continent has witnessed the EU’s birth
linguistic and discursive variation are central to and its attempts to develop of a supranational
new forms of social organisation. Languages as political and economic structure, without cultural
bounded systems, identities in stable social and linguistic borders, but the paradigm of

24 Training Language and Culture

 Multilingualism language policy in the EU today: A paradigm shift in language education
by Bessie Dendrinos

language teaching remains more or less the same; politics, challenging the ideas that are at the very
and so do expectations regarding language core of reciprocity and the mutuality of societal
learning. obligation. In the midst of all these changes, which
are putting the inclusive Europe dream to the test,
5. CONCLUSION is the issue of the plurality of languages, cultural
The European project had from the start made a expressions, and ethoses of communication.
commitment to respect Europe’s cultural and
linguistic diversity, as well as the sovereign While the world – Europe included, of course – is
equality of states. By establishing a collective changing language teaching and learning are
identity as Europeans who are different but united, viewed in the same way, and teachers and students
tensions and conflicts between national interests continue to be domesticated subjects of the
and EU policy goals could perhaps be resolved, as dominant foreign language pedagogy discourse.
they are within a family where all members are Foreign language teaching, learning and
equally important despite the obvious inequalities assessment still aims at ‘native-speaker’
in geography, population size, GNP per capita etc. proficiency, emphasis is still on learning the target
However, members who are smaller in terms of language as though it were a stable structural,
power often complain that all states are equal but semantic and pragmatic system, and the focus is
some are more equal than others. In the view of still on sentence-level grammar and vocabulary.
some members some cultural patterns, discursive There is little concern with the new discursive and
practices and languages, for example, seem to be textual meanings, with communicative
more equal than others. effectiveness through the use of multimodal texts,
while the development of literacy in European
As if the management of Europe’s rich diversity schools (and not only) remains a monolingual
were not complex enough, the immigration flows enterprise.
from across MENA, which have accelerated in
speed and scale in recent years, have impacted the Alternatively, education for today’s linguistically
continent well beyond the initial stresses on the and culturally heterogeneous societies should be
infrastructure and organisational capacity of the aiming at plurilingualism and the development of
receiving countries. In reality, the immigration (multi)literacies in the languages and discourses
wave constitutes the most powerful driver of the which may be a part of learners’ repertoires. The
changes that are remaking Europe at levels ranging notion of plurilingualism has already been referred
from its ethnic and religious composition to its but I wish to make a distinction at this point

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Volume 2 Issue 3, 2018 rudn.tlcjournal.org

between plurilingualism, which is a notion distinct needed: language pedagogy which prepares
from that of (individual) multilingualism that refers learners to use the languages they already know
to someone who can use two different languages (and which are their own but should be shared
or more in different communicative events. cultural capital) and those they are learning as
Plurilingualism refers to the language user who has meaning making mechanisms, so as to increase
a repertoire of semiotic resources (be they different the quantity and quality of their communication
modes of communication, languages, language with speakers of other languages; a language
varieties, media) which s/he is able to use pedagogy oriented toward developing in learners
effectively to design meanings –a repertoire which the competence to operate at the border between
is dynamic, in the sense that it develops and a number of languages, manoeuvring their way
changes throughout one’s life. Having plurilingual through communicative events; a language
competence means that one is able to perceive pedagogy that trains them to use the sociocultural
and mediate the relationships which exist among knowledge and skills they have developed, by
languages and cultures, that one is able to mix and making maximal use of their communication
shift from one language to another with ease. strategies, their multiliteracy skills, their abilities to
deal with the multimodality of texts, and of their
What does this mean for schooling? It implies translinguistic and transcultural knowledge.
moving away from the monolingual paradigm in
education means that semiotics is at the centre of Interestingly, a group of experts who were invited
all subject areas; that European schools (which are by the EC as consultants in laying out the new
still monolingual institutions) become multilingual educational recommendations, prepared a very
topoi, where a single language or a single mode of interesting contribution which was submitted as a
semiosis does not dominate the curriculum but proposal for education policy design. It is entitled
where several languages and multimodality come ‘Rethinking Language Education in Schools’. The
into play and are used as resources for meaning experts’ contribution is to make a case for change
making; that new pedagogic practices are in current practices in schools from a human rights
employed for the development of students’ perspective, from and equity and inclusion
plurilingual competences, associated with perspective, from a public health perspective and,
intercomprehension, translanguaging, and finally, because there is intrinsic value to develop
mediation. and maintain the linguistic repertoire of
multilingual children with the view to value the
As a matter of fact, a new pedagogic paradigm is identity of each multilingual learner. The basic

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 Multilingualism language policy in the EU today: A paradigm shift in language education
by Bessie Dendrinos

point is the proposal is that in order to address however and to move from theory to practice
today’s societal, economic and technological requires the EU’s and member states’ willingness
challenges, it is important to rethink the following not only to support action research but also a
basic concepts and they explain what each implies major change in the programmes of initial teacher
(1) rethinking literacy; (2) rethinking multilingualis; training institutions and in the support to teacher
and (3) rethinking mother tongue. To do so professional development.

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