FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING CERTIFICATE:
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
ID 78965 LEVEL 4 – CREDITS 165
LEARNER GUIDE
SAQA: 14944
EXPLAIN HOW DATA IS STORED ON COMPUTERS
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Learner Guide Introduction
About the Learner This Learner Guide provides a comprehensive overview of the EXPLAIN
Guide… HOW DATA IS STORED ON COMPUTERS,and forms part of a series of
Learner Guides that have been developed for The series of Learner
Guides are conceptualized in modular’s format and developed They
are designed to improve the skills and knowledge of learners, and thus
enabling them to effectively and efficiently complete specific tasks.
Learners are required to attend training workshops as a group or as
specified by their organization. These workshops are presented in
modules, and conducted by a qualified facilitator.
Purpose The purpose of this Unit Standard is to Explain how data is stored on
computers
Outcomes Explain how data is stored on computers
Assessment Criteria The only way to establish whether a learner is competent and has
accomplished the specific outcomes is through an assessment process.
Assessment involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the
learner’s ability to perform a task.This guide may include assessments in
the form of activities, assignments, tasks or projects, as well as
workplace practical tasks. Learners are required to perform tasks on the
job to collect enough and appropriate evidence for their portfolio of
evidence, proof signed by their supervisor that the tasks were
performed successfully.
To qualify To qualify and receive credits towards the learning programme, a
registered assessor will conduct an evaluation and assessment of the
learner’s portfolio of evidence and competency
Range of Learning This describes the situation and circumstance in which competence
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must be demonstrated and the parameters in which learners operate
Responsibility The responsibility of learning rest with the learner, so:
• Be proactive and ask questions,
• Seek assistance and help from your facilitators, if required.
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Explain how data is stored on
1
computers
Learning Unit
UNIT STANDARD NUMBER : 14944
LEVEL ON THE NQF : 4
CREDITS : 7
FIELD : Physical, Mathematical, Computer and Life Sciences
SUB FIELD : Construction Information Technology and Computer
Sciences
This unit standard is intended:
PURPOSE: to provide conceptual knowledge of the areas covered
for those working in, or entering the workplace in the area of Information Systems and
Technology Management
as additional knowledge for those wanting to understand the areas covered
People credited with this unit standard are able to:
Describe the roles of IS departments in organisations
Describe the structures of IS departments in organisations
The performance of all elements is to a standard that allows for further learning in this
area.
LEARNING ASSUMED TO BE IN PLACE:
The credit value of this unit is based on a person having prior knowledge and skills to:
Demonstrate an understanding of fundamental mathematics (at least NQF level 3).
Demonstrate PC competency skills (End-User Computing unit Standards, at least up to NQF level 3).
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SESSION 1.
Demonstrate an understanding of computer data types.
Learning Outcomes
• 1. The demonstration distinguishes between data types and includes examples.
• 2. The description of the use of coding systems in a business environment
distinguishes categories of coding systems and includes examples.
• 3. The demonstration illustrates how data manipulation operations are performed on
data types.
The demonstration distinguishes between data types and includes examples.
A data type is a classification of the type of data that a variable or object can hold in
computer programming. Data type is an important factor in virtually all computer
programming languages, including visual basic, C#, C++ and JavaScript. When
programmers create computer applications, both desktop and web-based, data types
must be referenced and used correctly, to ensure the result of the application's
functions is correct and error-free.
PRIMITIVE DATA TYPE
- Boolean type
Boolean data type refers to those types of computer data which represent the values in
two forms i.e. true and false. All the values are represented as true and false or yes and
no. these are also known as logical data. In some software, it has been interpreted in
the form of numbers which indicates either its true or false, 0 is considered as false while
other digit is referred as true.
- Numeric type
Numeric data is one of the very common types of computer data which simply means
numbers. Numbers can be many forms including, integers, real numbers, currency
calculation, percentage, binary numbers etc. some software use different language for
such numeric type of data which includes, single, double or float.
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1. Integers: It is consisting of whole numbers and can be represented in negative as well
as positive. It doesn’t have any decimal values.
2. Real numbers: It contains decimal and fractional values as well and can be
represented in negative and positive.
3. Currency: It contains a specific symbol which refers to a particular country. This type
of numeric value is recorded till two decimal digits.
4. Percentage: Percentage values are recorded in a way that it is calculated out of 100
and can be denoted in a whole number as well as in decimal values. It has a specific
percentage symbol (%) which is used to indicate percentage value.
COMPOSITE DATA TYPE
Composite data type is a combination of primitive data type; they combine to form
composite data type which is also known as data structure. There are different types of
composite data, which serves different purposes like, array, union, record, sets, objects
and tagged union.
ALPHANUMERIC DATA TYPE:
Alphanumeric data simply means one of the types of computer data that contains
alphabets as well as numbers. It is very common type of data storage system, which
allows different type of computer data to store in one place. It contains alphabets,
numbers, symbols, space and punctuation marks. It records every bit of details you
want to store in your computer. It is also referred as text data.
ABSTRACT DATA TYPE:
Abstract data type is one of the rare types of computer data; it doesn’t have any
representation and implementation. It is just a vague term or language used which
don’t have any purpose. Array and records contain such types of computer data, they
are considered as concrete as they specify the elements present it a memory.
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The description of the use of coding systems in a business environment distinguishes
categories of coding systems and includes examples.
COMPUTER CODING SYSTEMS
To represent numeric, alphabetic, and special characters in a computer's internal
storage and on magnetic media, we must use some sort of coding system. In
computers, the code is made up of fixed size groups of binary positions. Each binary
position in a group is assigned a specific value; for example 8, 4, 2, or 1. In this way,
every character can be represented by a combination of bits that is different from any
other combination.In this section you will learn how the selected coding systems are
used to represent data. The coding systems included are Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), and American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII).
EXTENDED BINARY CODED DECIMAL INTERCHANGE CODE (EBCDIC)
Using an 8-bit code, it is possible to represent 256 different characters or bit
combinations. This provides a unique code for each decimal value 0 through 9 (for a
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total of 10), each uppercase and lowercase letter (for a total of 52), and for a variety of
special characters. In addition to four numeric bits, four zone bit positions are used in 8-
bit code as illustrated. Each group of the eight bits makes up one alphabetic, numeric,
or special character and is called a byte.
Figure 1. - Format for EBCDIC and ASCII codes.
When you look at figure 1, you will notice that the four rightmost bits in EBCDIC are
assigned values of 8, 4, 2, and 1. The next four bits to the left are called the zone bits.
The EBCDIC coding chart for uppercase and lowercase alphabetic characters and for
the numeric digits 0 through 9 is shown in figure 2, with their hexadecimal equivalents.
Hexadecimal is a number system used with some computer systems. It has a base of 16
(0-9 and A-F). A represents 10; B represents 11; C represents 12; D represents 13; E
represents 14; and F represents 15. In EBCDIC, the bit pattern 1100 is the zone
combination used for the alphabetic characters A through I, 1101 is used for the
characters J through R, and 1110 is the zone combination used for characters S through
Z. The bit pattern 1111 is the zone combination used when representing decimal digits.
For example, the code 11000001 is equivalent to the letter A; the code 11110001 is
equivalent to the decimal digit 1. Other zone combinations are used when forming
special characters. Not all of the 256 combinations of 8-bit code have been assigned
characters. characters DP-3 are represented using EBCDIC.
Figure 2.- Eight-bit EBCDIC coding chart (including exadecimal equivalents).
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. - DP-3 represented using 8-bit EBCDIC code.
DP - 31100 01001101 01110110 00001111 0011
Since one numeric character can be represented and stored using only four bits (8-4-2-
1), using an 8-bit code allows the representation of two numeric characters
(decimal digits) as illustrated. Representing two numeric characters in one byte (eight
bits) is referred to as packing or packed data. By packing data (numeric characters
only) in this way, it allows us to conserve the amount of storage space required, and at
the same time, increases processing speed.
Figure 4. - Packed data.
DECIMAL VALUE 92 73
EBCDIC 10010010 01110011
BIT PLACE VALUES 84218421 8421
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8421 BYTE1 BYTE2
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)
Another 8-bit code, known as the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII) (pronounced ASS-KEY), was originally designed as a 7-bit code.
Several computer manufacturers cooperated to develop this code for transmitting and
processing data. The purpose was to standardize a binary code to give the computer
user the capability of using several machines to process data regardless of the
manufacturer: IBM, HONEYWELL, UNIVAC, BURROUGHS, and so on. However, since most
computers are designed to handle (store and manipulate) 8-bit code, an 8-bit version
of ASCII was developed. ASCII is commonly used in the transmission of data
through data communications and is used almost exclusively to represent data
internally in microcomputers. The concepts and advantages of ASCII are identical to
those of EBCDIC. The important difference between the two coding systems lies in the
8-bit combinations assigned to represent the various alphabetic, numeric, and special
characters. When using ASCII 8-bit code, you will notice the selection of bit patterns
used in the positions differs from those used in EBCDIC. For example, let's look at the
characters DP3 in both EBCDIC and ASCII to see how they compare.
Character D P 3
EBCDIC 1100 0100 1101 0111 1111 0011
ASCII 0100 0100 0101 0000 0011 0011
In ASCII, rather than breaking letters into three groups, uppercase letters are assigned
codes beginning with hexadecimal value 41 and continuing sequentially through
hexadecimal value 5A. Similarly, lowercase letters are assigned hexadecimal values
of 61 through 7A.The decimal values 1 through 9 are assigned the zone code 0011 in
ASCII rather that 1111 as in EBCDIC. Figure 4-7 is the ASCII coding chart showing
uppercase and lowercase alphabetic characters and numeric digits 0 through 9.
Eight-bit ASCII coding chart (including hexadecimal equivalents).
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At this point you should understand how coding systems are used to represent data in
both EBCDIC and ASCII. Regardless of what coding system is used, each character will
have an additional bit called a check bit or parity bit.
PARITY BIT
This additional check or parity bit in each storage location is used to detect errors in the
circuitry. Therefore, a computer that uses an 8-bit code, such as EBCDIC or ASCII, will
have a ninth bit for parity checking. The parity bit (also called a check bit, the C
position in a code) provides an internal means for checking the validity, the
correctness, of code construction. That is, the total number of bits in a character,
including the parity bit, must always be odd or always be even, depending upon
whether the particular computer system or device you are using is odd or even parity.
Therefore, the coding is said to be in either odd or even parity code, and the test for bit
count is called a parity check.
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Now, let's talk about bits and bytes, primary storage, and storage capacities; or, to put
it another way, the capacity of a storage location. Sit back, keeps your memory
cycling, and we will explain the ways data may be stored and retrieved inside the
computer.
Q.6 what does the acronym EBCDIC stand for?
Q.7 by using an 8-bit code, how many characters or bit combinations can be
represented?
Q.8 what is the base of a hexadecimal number system?
Q.9 what term is used for the representation of two numeric characters stored in eight
bits?
Q.10 what does the acronym ASCII mean?
Q.11 what was the purpose of several computer manufacturers cooperating to
develop ASCIIcode for processing and transmitting data?
Q.12 Are there any differences in the concepts and advantages of ASCII and
EBCDIC?
Q.13 how is the parity bit in each storage location used?
Q.14 A computer or device that uses 8-bit ASCII or EBCDIC will use how many bits to
store each character?
A6. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
A7. 256.
A8. 16.
A9. Packing or packed data.
A10. American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
A11. To standardize a binary code to give the computer user the capability of using
several machines to process data regardless of the manufacturer.
A12. No, they are identical.
A13. To detect errors in the circuitry.
A14. Nine.
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Data manipulation involves performing calculations on numbers and manipulating
strings. Programs manipulate and use variables in many ways, often depending on the
type of the data. Each data type has a number of operations - things that you can do
to it. There are 3 major set of operators in most programming languages - Numeric or
Arithmetic operators, Comparison operators and Logical operators. Let's know each set
in detail.
Numeric or Arithmetic Operators
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
\ Integer division
Mod Modulus arithmetic
& String concatenation
Arithmetic operators for manipulating data include the familiar addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division operators. There are some interesting variations such as the
modulus (Mod) and integer division (\) available in visual basic.
Fortran data types
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As the following list shows, the type of the data determines the operations that can be
performed on it:
Data Type Operations
Real, complex, Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation,
integer, Boolean negation, comparison, masking expressions
Logical Negation, conjunction, disjunction, and equivalence
Character Concatenation, comparison
User defined User defined
Cray pointer, Cray Addition, subtraction, and LOC( ) function
character pointer
The intrinsic types have the appropriate built-in (intrinsic) operations. You must define
the operations performed on user-defined data types.
Bit manipulation in the C programming language
C has direct support for bitwise operations that can be used for bit manipulation. In the
following examples, n is the index of the bit to be manipulated within the
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variable bit_fld, which is anunsigned char being used as a bit field. Bit indexing begins
at 0, not 1. Bit 0 is the least significant bit.
Set a bit
bit_fld |= (1 << n)
Clear a bit
bit_fld &= ~(1 << n)
Toggle a bit
bit_fld ^= (1 << n)
Test a bit
bit_fld & (1 << n)
When using an array of bytes to represent set of bits, i.e., a bit array or bitset, the index
of the byte in the array associated with a bit n can be calculated using division:
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SESSION 2.
Describe computer data structures.
Learning Outcomes
• 1. The description distinguishes types of computer data structures and identifies
examples.
• 2. The description distinguishes types of computer files and identifies examples.
• 3. The description distinguishes types of computer databases and identifies
examples.
The description distinguishes types of computer data structures and identifies examples.
In computer science, a data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data
in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Different kinds of data structures are
suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific
tasks. For example, B-trees are particularly well-suited for implementation of databases,
while compiler implementations usually use hash tables to look up identifiers.
Data structures
Whereas control structures organize algorithms, data structures organize information. In
particular, data structures specify types of data, and thus which operations can be
performed on them, while eliminating the need for a programmer to keep track of
memory addresses. Simple data structures include integers, real numbers, Booleans
(true/false), and characters or character strings. Compound data structures are formed
by combining one or more data types.The most important compound data structures
are the array, a homogeneous collection of data, and the record, a heterogeneous
collection. An array may represent a vector of numbers, a list of strings, or
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Data structure, Way in which data are stored for efficient search and retrieval. The
simplest data structure is the one-dimensional (linear) array, in which stored elements
are numbered with consecutive integers and contents are accessed by these numbers.
Data items stored no consecutively in memory may be linked by pointers (memory
addresses stored with items to indicate where the “next” item or items in the structure
are located). Many algorithms have been developed for sorting data efficiently; these
apply to structures residing in main memory and also to structures that constitute
information systems and databases. Bits, Bytes, Characters, Fields, Records, Files, and
Databases are examples
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The description distinguishes types of computer files and identifies examples.
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The description distinguishes types of computer databases and identifies examples.
Types of Database Management Systems
DBMSs come in many shapes and sizes. For a few hundred dollars, you can purchase a
DBMS for your desktop computer. For larger computer systems, much more expensive
DBMSs are required. Many mainframe-based DBMSs are leased by organizations. DBMSs
of this scale are highly sophisticated and would be extremely expensive to develop
from scratch. Therefore, it is cheaper for an organization to lease such a DBMS program
than to develop it. Since there are a variety of DBMSs available, you should know some
of the basic features, as well as strengths and weaknesses, of the major types.
After reading this lesson, you should be able to:
• Compare and contrast the structure of different database management systems.
• Define hierarchical databases.
• Define network databases.
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• Define relational databases.
• Define object-oriented databases.
Types of DBMS: Hierarchical Databases
There are four structural types of database management systems: hierarchical, network,
relational, and object-oriented.
Hierarchical Databases (DBMS), commonly used on mainframe computers, have been
around for a long time. It is one of the oldest methods of organizing and storing data,
and it is still used by some organizations for making travel reservations. A hierarchical
database is organized in pyramid fashion, like the branches of a tree extending
downwards. Related fields or records are grouped together so that there are higher-
level records and lower-level records, just like the parents in a family tree sit above the
subordinated children. Based on this analogy, the parent record at the top of the
pyramid is called the root record. A child record always has only one parent record to
which it is linked, just like in a normal family tree. In contrast, a parent record may have
more than one child record linked to it. Hierarchical databases work by moving from
the top down. A record search is conducted by starting at the top of the pyramid and
working down through the tree from parent to child until the appropriate child record is
found. Furthermore, each child can also be a parent with children underneath it.
The advantage of hierarchical databases is that they can be accessed and updated
rapidly because the tree-like structure and the relationships between records are
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defined in advance. However, this feature is a two-edged sword. The disadvantage of
this type of database structure is that each child in the tree may have only one parent,
and relationships or linkages between children are not permitted, even if they make
sense from a logical standpoint. Hierarchical databases are so rigid in their design that
adding a new field or record requires that the entire database be redefined.
Types of DBMS: Network Databases
Network databases are similar to hierarchical databases by also having a hierarchical
structure. There are a few key differences, however. Instead of looking like an upside-
down tree, a network database looks more like a cobweb or interconnected network
of records. In network databases, children are called members and parents are
called owners. The most important difference is that each child or member can have
more than one parent (or owner).Like hierarchical databases, network databases are
principally used on mainframe computers. Since more connections can be made
between different types of data, network databases are considered more flexible.
However, two limitations must be considered when using this kind of database. Similar
to hierarchical databases, network databases must be defined in advance. There is
also a limit to the number of connections that can be made between records.
Types of DBMS: Relational Databases
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In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational, not hierarchical.
Hierarchical and network databases require the user to pass down through a hierarchy
in order to access needed data. Relational databases connect data in different files by
using common data elements or a key field. Data in relational databases is stored in
different tables, each having a key field that uniquely identifies each row. Relational
databases are more flexible than either the hierarchical or network database
structures. In relational databases, tables or files filled with data are
called relations, tuples designates a row or record, and columns are referred to
as attributes or fields. Relational databases work on the principle that each table has a
key field that uniquely identifies each row, and that these key fields can be used to
connect one table of data to another. Thus, one table might have a row consisting of a
customer account number as the key field along with address and telephone number.
The customer account number in this table could be linked to another table of data
that also includes customer account number (a key field), but in this case, contains
information about product returns, including an item number (another key field). This
key field can be linked to another table that contains item numbers and other product
information such as production location, color, quality control person, and other data.
Therefore, using this database, customer information can be linked to specific product
information.
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The relational database has become quite popular for two major reasons. First,
relational databases can be used with little or no training. Second, database entries
can be modified without redefining the entire structure. The downside of using a
relational database is that searching for data can take more time than if other methods
are used.
Types of DBMS: Object-oriented Databases (OODBMS)
Able to handle many new data types, including graphics, photographs, audio, and
video, object-oriented databases represent a significant advance over their other
database cousins. Hierarchical and network databases are all designed to handle
structured data; that is, data that fits nicely into fields, rows, and columns. They are
useful for handling small snippets of information such as names, addresses, zip codes,
product numbers, and any kind of statistic or number you can think of. On the other
hand, an object-oriented database can be used to store data from a variety of media
sources, such as photographs and text, and produce work, as output, in a multimedia
format. Object-oriented databases use small, reusable chunks of software called
objects. The objects themselves are stored in the object-oriented database. Each
object consists of two elements: 1) a piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or
graphics), and 2) the instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do
with the data. Part two of this definition requires a little more explanation. The
instructions contained within the object are used to do something with the data in the
object. For example, test scores would be within the object as would the instructions for
calculating average test score. Object-oriented databases have two disadvantages.
First, they are more costly to develop. Second, most organizations are reluctant to
abandon or convert from those databases that they have already invested money in
developing and implementing. However, the benefits to object-oriented databases are
compelling. The ability to mix and match reusable objects provides incredible
multimedia capability. Healthcare organizations, for example, can store, track, and
recall CAT scans, X-rays, electrocardiograms and many other forms of crucial data.
Now that you have completed this lesson, you should be able to:
• Compare and contrast the structure of different database management systems.
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• Define hierarchical databases.
• Define network databases.
• Define relational databases.
• Define object-oriented databases.
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