By (Name)

The Name of the School

The City and State

1st March, 2024

1.

1
1. I-V characteristics of a 1N914 diode.
a. The schematic diagram is shown below

b. DC operating point (DC op pnt) simulation

From the simulation,

 Voltage across the diode (V q ) = 0.777768 V

 Current through the diode ( I q) = 0.0422223 A
i. The reverse saturation current ( I 0 ¿ of the diode is be calculated using the Shockley diode
equation:

×( e
I q=I 0
( Vq
n ×V T )−1 )
Where:
I q=is the current through the diode ( ¿ Amperes )
I 0=is the reverse saturationcurrent (¿ Amperes)
V q =isthe voltage across the diode(¿ Volts)

2
 n=isthe current through thediode ( ¿ Amperes )
V T =is thethermal voltage K ×
T
q ( )
Given that:
T =293 K
−23
k =1.38 ×10 J / K
−19
q=160 ×10 C

Hence
−23
10 J
1.38 × ×193
V T= K × ( T
q
=) K
−19
160 × 10 C
=0.02527V

Solving: I 0=reverse saturation current

I =I ×( e
( Vq
n ×V T )−1 )
q 0

0.042220 A=I × ( e
( 0.777768 V
1 ×0.02527 V )−1 )
0

0.0422223
I 0= =4.3035 ×10−16
( 0.777768 V
1 ×0.02527V )
e −1
Therefore:
−16
reverse saturation current I 0=4.3035 ×10 A

ii. The static resistance of the diode at its operating point can be calculated using Ohm's Law:

Voltage
Resistance R=
Current

0.777768V
ResisResistance= =18.415
0.0422223 A

static resistance of the diode=18.415 Ω

3
 iii. The dynamic resistance of the diode at its operating point

25
Given that:
Iq

25 25
Then R D= = =591.354 Ω
I q 0.0422223

Dynamic resistance=591.354 Ω

c. DC Sweep from 0v to 10v.

The forward biased diode characteristic plot of I q vs V q

4
d. Table tabulation

Diode Voltage mV Diode Current mA

-10mv -1A
-50mv 2.7mA
+50mv -2.7mA
+10mv 1A

e. Dynamic resistance calculation

Change∈ I =I new −I previous
25
¿ Then R D= =¿
Iq
i .± 10 mv
+10 mv , I =1 mA−0.0422223 mA=0.9577777 mA
25
Dynamic resistance R +10mv = =26.086 Ω
0.9577777 mA

−10 mv , I =−1 mA−0.0422223 mA=−1.0422223 mA

25
Dynamic resistance=R+10 mv = =26.086 Ω
0.9577777 mA

ii . ±5 mv
5
 +5 mv , I =2.7 mA −0.0422223 mA =2.6577777 mA
25
Dynamic resistance R +10mv = =9.406 Ω
2.6577777 mA

−5 mv , I =−2.7 mA −0.0422223 mA =−2.7422223 mA

25
Dynamic resistance R +10mv = =9.108 Ω
−2.7422223 mA

Comparing these values with the dynamic resistance at the operating point (591.354Ω), both are
significantly lower. This suggests that the diode’s resistance decreases as it moves away from the
operating point, which is characteristic of a forward-biased diode.

f) Reverse Biasing

The first value of reverse saturation current I 0 is given as4.3035 × 10−16 A . This value was likely
calculated in part (b) i) using the Shockley diode equation.

The second value of reverse saturation current I 0 is approximately -−200 ×10−12 A , which is obtained
from the plot at V q = 0 mV. This value is the current that flows through the diode when it is reverse-
biased at 0 mV. Hence, the negative sign indicates the direction of the current flow, which is opposite to

6
the direction defined as positive. The two values are different by several orders of magnitude. This
discrepancy could be due to several factors, including measurement errors, simplifications in the
theoretical model used to calculatereverse saturation current I 0, temperature effects.

2. Full-wave, or bridge, rectifier, based on 1N914 diodes.

a) The schematic diagram is as shown below:

7
b) transient simulation for 5s Plot

Why the peak voltage of the output in a bridge rectifier circuit is less than the peak positive
voltage of the input can be understood by considering the nature of the diode bridge
rectification process and voltages across diodes.

Now, during positive half cycle of input voltage in a bridge rectifier circuit, D1 and D2 conduct
and allow current to flow through resistor load in forward direction. This makes node Va more
positive than node Vb; thus there is a positive voltage across load resistor.

Nevertheless, during negative half-cycle of input voltage, D3 and D4 become conductive hence
reversing polarity across load resistor. In this case, node Vb will have higher potential than node
Va. Consequently while calculating Va – Vb to know output voltage it gives negative implying
that load resistor undergoes drop of opposite polarity.

Consequently, waveform defining output consists solely of waveforms with positive half-cycles
for input voltages deriving a peak voltage which is lesser compared to positive peak voltage for
inputs. This decreased in maximum value is due to a combination of forward bias on diodes and
diode drop as well as reverse biased junction resistance.

c) Modification of Input voltage to 3v.

the schematic diagram:

8
the output graph

i. The estimation of the turn-on voltage of the 1N914 diode was derived from the observation
of the output waveform in the bridge rectifier simulation. During the positive half-cycle of
the input voltage, a noticeable rise in the output voltage across the load resistor was
observed. At a specific point in the waveform, the output voltage reached approximately 1.8
volts. This value signified the turn-on voltage of the diode, representing the threshold
voltage necessary for significant current conduction. Thus, the estimation of the turn-on
voltage was inferred from the rise in the output signal to approximately 1.8 volts in the
simulation.
ii. In the second simulation, where the amplitude of the input voltage is reduced to 3V, there
are significant periods where the voltage across the resistor is zero due to the decreased
input voltage magnitude. When the input voltage is below the threshold voltage (estimated
to be approximately 1.8V), the diodes in the bridge rectifier are not forward-biased, leading
to no current flow through the load resistor. Consequently, during the negative half-cycle of
the input voltage, when its magnitude is less than the threshold voltage, the diodes do not
conduct, resulting in zero output voltage across the load resistor. In contrast, in the first
simulation with a 30V input voltage, the diodes in the bridge rectifier start conducting
earlier in each half-cycle of the input voltage due to the higher magnitude. Therefore, the

9
 periods of zero output voltage across the load resistor are much shorter, almost zero, as the
diodes become forward-biased sooner during the negative half-cycle, allowing a more rapid
onset of current flow through the load resistor.

d) Additional smoothing capacitor; Graph of output voltage (voltage across the load resistor)

The ripple of the output voltage across the capacitors.

Ripple Voltage = Maximum Voltage - Minimum Voltage

100µF, Ripple Voltage = (1.8 V) - (0.2 V) = 1.6 V,

hence the Ripple Voltage for 100µF capacitor is 1.6 V

470µF, Ripple Voltage = (1.71 V) - (0.9 V) = 0.8 V

hence the Ripple Voltage for 470µF capacitor is 0.8 V

2200µF, Ripple Voltage = (1.68 V) - (1.44 V) = 0.24 V

hence the Ripple Voltage for 2200µF capacitor is 0.24 V

Capacitor Ripple Voltage

1. 100µF 1600mV

2. 470µF 800mV

3. 2200µF 240mV

10
 e. Reducing The ripple, using several capacitors, but given the maximum allowable Ripple voltage
is 70mV, the number of 2200µF capacitors can be calculated by:

I
V ripple =
f ×C total ¿
¿

Wherby :
V ripple is themaximum allowable ripple voltage=70 mV

I is the load Current

f is the frequency of AC signal ( 1 Hz )

Since only 2200µF capacitors, number of capacitors needed:

C total
Number of capacitors=
2200
Then given that Load current Can be got by:
30 v
I= =30 mA and frequency = 1Hz, the
1000 Ω
I
Then V ripple =
f ×C total

I
C total=
f ×V ripple
−3
30 ×10
¿
1× ( 70× 10−3 )
−3
30× 10
¿
0.07
¿ 428.57 F

Then number of capacitors is given by:

428.57 F
Number of capacitors= =195
2200
Thus, the number of capacitors need to achieve a desired ripple voltage is 195 capacitors
having a rate of 2200µF.

3. Light Emitting Diode Circuit.

11
 a) Schematic diagram

The Operating point output:

--- Operating Point ---

V(vd): 1.93015 voltage

V(n001): 3.3 voltage
I(D2): 0.0195693 device_current
I(R1): -0.0195693 device_current
I(V1): -0.0195693 device_current

b) Second Branch and Transient Simulation

The current matched the previous one as 1.93v

12
c) Calculate the current flowing through the circuit;

V
From Ohm's Law, I =
R
I =0.0195693 A
Hence Voltage across the Resistor:
V R=IR
¿ 0.0195693 A ×70 Ω
¿ 1.36985 V

Voltage across the LED (VD )

V LED=V supply −V R
¿ 3.3−1.36985V
¿ 1.90315 V
¿ this valueis the same as the mesaured∈the simulation

13
 Part 2:
d) The schematic diagram:

The operating point simulation output:

--- Operating Point ---

V(n002): 3 voltage
V(n001): 1.6025 voltage
Ic(Q1): 1.45445 device_current
Ib(Q1): 0.0414801 device_current
Ie(Q1): -1.49593 device_current
I(V4): -0.0414801 device_current
I(V3): -1.45445 device_current

e) DC Sweep only Base voltage: the schematic is as shown below:

14
The graph showing Base Current against voltage,

From the graph plot, the threshold voltage is evident as being: 700mV

f) Current source sweep:

The plot of Emitter voltage against the Current is shown below

15
g) BJT as a common-emitter amplifier
Schematic diagram is as shown below:

Given:
base current I B =8.0125 µA ,
V B=1.6025 V ,V DD =30V ,
hence applying vol tage d i vider rule then getting
V R 2
R 2=¿ × V DD ¿
R 1+R 2

I R 2 should be ten×the base current I B

I R 2=10 × I B
I R 2=10 × 8.0125 µA
I R 2=80.125 µ A
' V R2
oh m s law , R 2=
I R2
( V DD−V B )
¿
80.125 µ A
30 v−1.6025 V
¿
80.125 µ A
28.3975
¿ −6
80.125 ×1 0

R2=354.33 k Ω

16
For R1=R 2 × ( V DD
VB
−1
)
¿ 354.33 k Ω ×(18.71−1)
¿ 354.33 k Ω ×17.71
R1=6.27 MΩ

h) Transient Simulation 10ms

Plot:

Part 3.

i. schematic Diagram

17
 Plot diagram
:

4. 4 diodes
Schemaic diagram

18
Operating Point for Each Diode:
Silicon Diode (1N4148):
Voltage across the diode (V_Diode): 0.643765 V
Current through the diode (I_Diode): 4.2833e-005 A

Schottky Diode (BAT54):

Voltage across the diode (V_Schottky): 0.303736 V
Current through the diode (I_Schottky): 0.00581032 A

Zener Diode (BZX84C15L):

Voltage across the diode (V_Zener): 0.418968 V
Current through the diode (I_Zener): 0.00696264 A

Light Emitting Diode (PT-121-B):

Voltage across the diode (V_LED): 0.995717 V
Current through the diode (I_LED): 0.00356235 A
Operating point output:

19