HORTICULTURAL CROPS PRODUCTION

A Training Manual for Agricultural Field Staff

PREPARED AND COMPILED

BY

Mike R. Ching’amba
TRAINING CONSULTANT

NATURAL RESOURCES COLLEGE

October, 2006

1
I. POTENTIAL OF THE HORTICULTURE INDUSTRY IN MALAWI

Introduction
Horticulture is a branch of agriculture concerned with the intensive cultivation of
garden crops that are used fresh and directly by people for and or medical
purposes.

In Malawi, horticulture embraces the growing of fruits, vegetables, spices,

plantation-crops, root and tuber crops, flowers and other ornamental plants. All
these crops are grown at varying levels to meet the market demand and
consumption levels.

Importance of Horticulture

1. Source of food
Fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops play a good role in our daily diets as
sources of vitamins, mineral salts, proteins and energy. Our bodies can not store
vitamin C, for instance and as such, we must eat fresh fruits and /or vegetables
everyday to ensure their constant supply and availability in our bodies.

2. Source of income
Most growers of horticultural crops aim at producing horticultural products for sell
to earn the needed cash incomes with which to buy other daily needs. The crops
could also be exported to earn the much needed foreign exchange for the
country.

3. Employment generation.
Since horticulture crops are grown intensively, they demand a lot of labour in
their management and harvesting activities. Fruit crops, for instance, require a lot
of labour at harvesting since there is need to harvest them at right stages of
maturity depending on their use. Similarly thinning some vegetables like carrot
after drilling them in rows can be a very tedious experience for an individual even
in a bed of (1 x 10) m2. In contrast , a single person is capable of managing a
hectare or so of maize with little difficulty. The level of unemployment in Malawi
could be reduced if many people were engaged in growing horticultural crops
in horticultural farms or on their own small dimbas.

4. Development of Agro-industries
Through an intensification on the production of horticultural crops, agro-industries
would be developed with raw materials supplied from this sector of agriculture.
Fruits, for instance, can be grown to provide raw materials for juice
extraction,jam, paste making and many other products. Such industries not only
provide food but also generate employment opportunities and offer marketing
alternatives for the products that would otherwise be lost due to spoilage.

2
II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

Vegetables can best be defined as plants whose edible parts are high in water
content. Such edible parts include roots, stems, leaves, immature and mature
fruits of flower parts. the art and science of producing vegetables is referred to as
olericulture

Classification of Vegetables
A. Part of plant eaten
 leafy and stem vegetables- this include cabbage, asparagus etc.

 Fruit vegetables- tomatoes, eggplants, peas, beans, okra etc.

 Underground vegetables (tuber or roots) – carrot, turnip, radish,

potato, onion and parsnips etc.

 Flower vegetables- cauliflower and broccoli.

B. Number of growing season(s)

 Annual vegetables- cabbage, mustard (when grown for food) etc.

 Biennial vegetables- carrot, onion (when grown for seed)

 Perennial vegetables- asparagus (can live up to 15 years)

C. Type of season

 Cool Season Vegetables- such vegetable favor the high land

(plateau areas) and there two categories : Those requiring
temperatures of range16oC – 18oC such as spinach, cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower, lettuce, carrot, peas etc. and those adaptable
to wide temperatures of about 13oC – 24oC e.g. onion, shallots,
leek. garlic, asparagus etc.

 Warm season Vegetables- two major categories on this

classification are: Those considered as low land vegetables (within
20oC – 27oC) such as tomato, pepper, cucumber, squash, bean,
pumpkin. And there are those considered as long season crop
(above 27oC) e.g. water melon, sweet potatoes, eggplant, okra, hot-
pepper etc.

D. According to Plant Botany

Botanical classification is done basing on the broader relationship of
plants according to their morphological similarities such as flower type,
root or stem system etc. The grouping is normally in the order of:

3
Kingdom, Division, Sub-division, Phylum, Sub-phylum, Class, Sub-class,
Order, Family, Genus and Species. However, the Family, genus and
species are the most commonly used classification parameters as shown
below:

a. Liliacea-(Lily Family)
Onion- Allium cepa
Garlic- Allium sativum
Leek- Allium porrum
Shallot- Allium calonicum
Asparagus- Asparagus officinalis

b. Cruciferae- (Mustard Family)

Cabbage- Brassica oleracea var. capitata (headed type)
Cauliflower- Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (non-headed)
Kale- Brassica oleracea (B. carinata) var. acephala (Kamganje)
Brocolli- Brassica italica
Turnip- Brassica rapa
Chinese cabbage- Brassica pekinensis
Mustard- Brassica funcea
Radish- Raphanus sativum.

c. Leguminosae – (Pea Family)

Garden peas- Pisum sativum (Nsawawa)
Broad bean- Vicia faba
French bean- Phaseolus vulgaris
Lima bean- Phaseolus lunatus

d. Malvaceae- (Mallow Family)

Okra or gumbo- Abelmoschus esculentus

e. Umbelliferae- (Parsley Family)

Carrot- Daucus carota
Parsley- Petroselinum crispum
Celery- Apium graveolens
Parsnip- pastinaca sativa

f. Convolvulaceae- (Morning Glory Family)

Sweet potato- Ipomea batatas

g. Solanaceae- (Nightshade Family)

Irish potato- Solanum tuberosum
Eggplant- Solanum melongena
Tomato- Lycoperscon esculentum
Pepper- Capsicum frutescens

4
 h. Cucurbitaceae- (Gourd family)
Field Pumpkin- Cucurbita pepo
Water melon- Citrullus vulgaris
Cucumber- Cucumis sativus
Squash- Cucurbita maxima

i. Composita- (Composite family)

Lettuce- Lactuca sativa

Site selection for vegetable production

Factors to be considered when choosing a site for vegetable production include

the following;

1. Environmental factors
A. Climate:
All crops grow very well within their climatic requirements. In vegetable
production cool season vegetable will in most cases not do well when
grown under hot environments

B. Water
Water is considered as source of life more especially for vegetable
production. Water content in most vegetables is above 90% and as a
result, there is need to allocate the dimbas (gardens) close to reliable
water sources.

C. Soil Type
The ideal soils for vegetable production is a well drained sandy loamy soil
with at least a reasonable depth of about 30-50cm. For clay and sandy
soils they can be improved by applying adequate organic matter such as
compost and also by observing strict crop rotation.

D. Topography
The ideal site is a level or gentle slope land where cases of erosion are
minimal. In steep lands, there is need to construct terraces to reduce
slope size.

5
 E. Distance from shade or bush
To avoid competition for light, moisture and nutrients between plants and
weeds, it is recommended to choose a site at least more than 10m away
from the bush or tall trees.

2. Social-Economical factors
A. Accessible roads
The area should have good road network for easy transportation of the
produce to the market or point of need

B. Good security mechanism

There is need to protect vegetables from animals as well as thieves.
Where possible, construct a live fence all around the garden by using sisal
or other thorny hedge shrubs.

C. Availability of market
If vegetable are to be produced commercially, there is need to conduct a
very precise market research to determine the demand of the product to
be produced.

A. Raising vegetable seedlings

Raising vegetable seedlings on a small prepared land and then transplant them
to the main fields has the following advantages:

A. It is economical in the use of seed- since seedlings receive intensive care

on a small piece of land, most of them will be utilized than sowing in the
field directly in which they will be thinned to one per station.

B. It ensures transplanting strong and healthy seedlings. Seedlings grow

strong and healthy due to the intensive care at nursery giving the farmer a
wider chance of selection when planting.

1. Seed Bed Construction

A. Land preparation. The land should be ploughed about 10-15cm deep.

Make sure to remove all the debris and stones and also break or pulverise
the clods.

B. Bed construction. Raised seedbeds must be used in a nursery to achieve

maximum drainage. The bed should be 1-1.2m wide and 10-15cm high for
convenient operation. Watering the bed before raking may help to soften
the clods so that they are easily broken.

6
 C. Manure application - as basal dressing, phosphate and potash fertilizers
plus sieved compost are helpful for healthy seedling development.

D. Levelling- level the surface of the seedbeds by raking to make sure there
is even spreading of the water. This will also help to achieve even
germination and uniform size of the seedlings.

2. Seed Boxes or Containers.

These are movable seedbeds which are more convenient for use during rainy or
cool season when seedlings may have to be raised in doors.

Other vegetables whose seedlings do not easily regenerate new roots, their
seedlings may also be raised in seed boxes before transplanting.

Where seed boxes are to be used, the following factors have to be taken into
consideration :-

A. Structure of the seed box- timber boxes with drainage holes at the bottom.
Two standing bars are necessary to lift up the bottom from the ground for
more drainage. They should not be too heavy to lift. The dimension should
be 50cm x 40cm x10cm.

B. Commercial plastic seed boxes are convenient in raising the vegetable

seedlings.

C. Planting media for seed boxes – use volume measures at the following
ratio
Soil : Sand : Compost + Compound fertilizer
2 : 1 : 1 + 5g /box
or 5 : 2 : 1 + 5g / box

Sub-soil is necessary to be used in order to reduce cases of weeds and

other diseases.

3. Seed Rates

It is important to prepare enough seeds to avoid shortage or wastage of

seedlings. In order to have accurate seed requirement, the following calculation
is helpful.

WN ( 1 + S)
G
where N = Number of plants required in the main field. For example cabbage
spaced at 60 by 50cm, Number of plants per hectare will be
about 33, 300.

7
 W= Weight of seed to be sown in grams per 1000 seeds. For
example, cabbage seed is about 2.8 -3.4g/1000 seeds. But
on average it is 3g/1000 seed.

G= Germination percentage (%) or germination rate. This can be

guaranteed the seed company or through own testing.
A viable seed is >85%

S= Spare seedlings as a percentage (%). This seed is meant for

supplying where there has been damages or failure to take. 5% is
often advocated.
Seed requirement for cabbage to be planted at a plot of One hectare of land will
be;

Seedrate = 3g/1000seeds x 33, 300 (1 + 5%)

85/100

= 3 x 33, 300 x 105 x 100

1000 1 100 85

= 123.4 g/hectare
= approximately 125 g/ ha.

125 g/hectare of cabbage will be required if initial transplanting will be carried

out. Where thinning practice will be done, the double the number say 250 g/ha.
However when broadcasting method is recommended then there is nee to treble
the number i.e. 500-600g/ha.

4. Sowing Vegetable Seeds

a. Methods of Sowing
1. Broadcasting : Seeds are scattered over the bed surface followed by
raking the bed thoroughly or covering the bed with compost.
Broadcasting method is used for small seeded vegetables. In order to
broadcast seed evenly and at a good space, seeds may be mixed
with sand before sowing to promote germination. The major advantage of
broadcasting method is that it saves labour costs. However, the
disadvantage is that more seed will be required since not all land on
the bed area.

2.Drilling method: Seeds are sown in rows across the bed with 10-15cm
between rows. This method gives enough for seedlings to receive
adequate amount of light and air.

b. Depth of Sowing

8
 The depth of sowing depends on the size of seed. The optimum depth of
sowing seeds is equivalent to and half (21/2) times the diameter of
the seed. Generally 0.5- 1.5cm is the average depth for sowing.

c. Seed Germination Problems

Despite the good operations that might be there in preparation for the
sowing of seed, still there might be cases whereby seed is unable
to germinate. Problems regarding to this failure might vary from one factor
to another.

1. Quality Problems.
a) Maturity of seed- when the seed crop is grown by inexperienced
grower, harvesting can be done pre-maturely resulting into
harvesting seed of low viability.

c) Expired seed- too old seeds often lose viability and will result in
poor germination. It is recommended to plant seed of within
1-2 years.

2. Management problems.
a) Seedbed construction- when the seed bed is too rough, it might
cause problems in seed germination.

b) Depth of sowing- sowing seeds too deep will cause suffocation

for certain seeds whereas sowing too shall, some seeds will be
washed away by rain or in the processing irrigation.

c) Moisture condition- seedbed may not either be too weight or too dry for the
seed to germinate. Poor levelling will sometimes contribute to a
seedbed being too dry or too wet.

d) Pest and disease attack- soil-borne pests and diseases will

sometimes cause seeds to have difficulties in germination.

3. Seasonal Problems.
Some times seed germination problems could be as a result of poor
temperature conditions. Cool season vegetables, for instance, will
have problems for their seeds to germinate in hot season and vice
versa. Lettuce for example, requires an optimum temperature of
150C for its seed to germinate while cucumber which is a warm
crop requires an optimum temperature of 260C. It will be difficult
therefore to sow lettuce at the temperatures as that of cucumber.

4. Physiological Problems.
Germination rate- some vegetable seeds are naturally low in their
germination rate e.g. garlic, shallot, and lettuce seeds.

9
 Seeds have their natural (physiological) requirements for
germination. Some of them of them include light stimulation as is
the case with lettuce seed. Such seeds do not require too thick
mulching or sowing too deep since seeds are deprived of the
sunlight. On the other hand, crops like garlic, the seed bulbs require
a period of low temperature (as low as 50C) for 30 days to break
dormancy before shooting.

5. Watering
A. Amount of watering.

1. Early stage- The first ten (10) days after germination, keep five
5cm depth of seed bed always moist by frequent light watering.
Water 2-3 times a day and make sure the bed is mulched to
maintain the moisture. Too much water will cause suffocation due
to poor aeration.

2. Middle stage- Three weeks after germination, the root system is

deeper than before. Keeping the seedlings and the surface of the
bed dry will be necessary to avoid diseases. Water the bed in the
morning with adequate amount of water at least once a day. You
may wish to water again in the afternoon only if the dry depth is
below 5cm.

3. Late stage- Two weeks before transplanting. At this stage, it is

advisable to water the nursery depending on the moisture condition
of the bed. The assumption is that moisture is always available
due to the coverage of the seedlings which act as a natural mulch.

B. Watering Method
For better results, use a watering can that has good out-let
(roses) for gentle spreading of water. Do not water the
seedlings when they are under hot hours in the mid-day
because sudden change of temperature may kill the young
seedlings.

6. Mulching
The advantages of mulching are:-
a) Conserving the soil from erosion.

b) Allowing thorough penetration of water and air in the soil.

c) Retaining soil moisture during dry season.

10
 d) Preventing the growth of weeds .

e) Protecting the surface roots from hot temperatures.

f) Adding organic matter to the soil once they have decomposed.

The disadvantages of mulching are:-

a) It does isolate the solar energy- especially in cool season when optimum
soil temperature is needed for root development.

b) Harbours some insect-pests more especially in hot rainy season.

c) Encourages the transferring of weeds and diseases to the growing

seedlings.

7. Shading.
The young seedlings need to be protected against high temperatures, intensive
sunlight at midday and from the rain drop impact. Grass screen or black plastic
net are good materials for shading. The screen should be supported by pegs of
40cm above the ground.

8. Pest and Disease control.

Prevention of pest and disease attack is one of the major operations that a
farmer consider when raising a vegetable nursery.

A. Treatment of seeds.
1. It is necessary to coat the seeds with some fungicides such as
Mercuric chloride 1/1000 solution. Dip the seeds in the solution for
about 15 minutes then clean them with water to wash the excess
chemicals. Sometimes, copper-oxide dust is used at the rate of
2g/100g seed. There is need to shake the dust and seeds together
in a tightly closed container for few minutes.

2. Hot water treatment- Treat seed in 500C water for fifteen

minutes. This helps in reducing the seed born diseases.

B. Treatment of soil.
Heat treatment: - Burn grasses or maize stalks on the seed bed before
sowing. The maize stalks should be heaped to a thickness of about
1metre from the bed surface. For potted soil, it may be heated in a drum
rolled over the fire before use.

11
 C. Treatment of seedlings
Regular spraying is recommended to prevent the seasonal diseases. This
can be done once a week or every ten (10) day period. Check the nursery
every day to detect the attack and population of insects, otherwise it may
not sound economical to spray insecticides to deal away with the already
existing pests.

D. Treatment of Environment.
Clear the bush around the nursery at least 10 metres wide from the
boarder. The bush may be the middle host to diseases and insect
pests.

Tools used must be sterilised and use them for nursery only.
Washing hands before any operation is required for commercial
vegetable production.

9. Thinning.
Thinning out seedlings is a necessary practice as it gives the seedlings enough
room for growth and become healthy seedlings.

A. Time for Thinning

When the first or second true leaves have appeared or when the
seedlings have attained a height of 5-10cm.

B. How to Thin.
Uproot the seedlings to 2-3cm for the first time and then 5-10cm for
the second time.

C. Initial transplanting.
Instead of thinning and throwing the seedlings away, there is need
to transplant them in a new nursery at a space of 10cm particularly
those that have attained a height of about 5-10cm.

Initial transplanting has the following advantages:-

 It reduces the seed cost since all the seedlings will be
utilized.
 It encourages development of fibrous root system.
The only disadvantage of initial transplanting is that it is labour
demanding.

10. Weeding.
The best time to weed is during the fine day when the bed is dry particularly in
the afternoon. Uproot by hand to avoid disturbing the seedlings.

12
11. Top dressing
Liquid nitrogen fertilizer is convenient for top-dressing the nursery to enhance
growth of the seedlings.

Method of application: The ratio of the fertilizer to water should be 1:400 (weight).
This translates to a handful of either CAN or Urea to 10 litres of water. Water the
solution over the seedlings, then follow with fresh water to remove any trace of
fertilizer from the leaves which if left un-removed may end up in scorching the
seedlings.

Granular fertilizer can also be applied between the rows of the seedlings followed
by fresh watering of the nursery.

12. Hardening off.

At about 3-5days before transplanting, the frequency of watering should be
reduced and expose the seedlings to the sunlight for more hours. This aims at
developing strong survival mechanism for seedlings by acclimatising them to
tough, field conditions. It also help the plant to resist transplanting shock that
comes about due to change of the growing place (micro-climate).

It is advisable to conduct hardening-off gradually to avoid severe wilting and

death of the seedlings.

B. Vegetable field management

In order to achieve a continuous economic production of vegetables from a given

piece of land, it important to follow certain crop management practices as follows;

1. Crop Rotation

(i) Importance of crop rotation.

Rotation is one of the basic principles of practical vegetable production.
Attention should be paid when land is being intensively cropped.

If the same vegetable crop is grown successively on the same piece of

land for several years, then quality and quantity of the yield
gradually falls until finally it reaches on un-economic level.

Reduction of yield in both quality and quantity is basically due to the

following reasons;

a) Accumulation of diseases and pests:- some crops are favourable hosts to

the particular pests and diseases during the same stage in their life cycles.
Repeated cultivation of the same vegetables on the same plot will cause
the accumulation of particular pests and diseases.

13
b) Depletion of the particular plant nutrients:- certain crops require large
quantities of specific elements for food. The soil becomes exhausted of
some required elements after years of mono-cropping.

c) Different cultivation treatments:- different crops demand different tillage

systems. Leafy vegetables for instance, will require surface hoeing
whereas most fruit vegetables will need total earthing-up of the land. Such
differences (when done successively) are beneficial in improving soil
structure and fertility. However if on the hand, there is continuous practice
on either surface or deep tillage, there will be a damage to the structure of
the soil and eventually causing drainage problems.

(ii). Rotational methods (procedures)

a) Portion or partition the land to be utilized:- divide the land to be utilized in

portions or plots. The number of plots will depend on the area of the
garden and crops that have planned to be grown depending on the
marketability of that crop as well as farmer preference. If the land is large
enough, there should be at least one plot put to rest every season.

b) Group the planned vegetables to be grown according to their botanical

classification as per the example below ;

(A) Cruciferae (Mustard family)

a. kale
b. cabbage
c. Chinese cabbage
d. Turnip
e. Cauliflower
f. Radish

(B) Solanaceae (night shade family)

a. tomato
b. egg-plant
c. pepper
d. irish potato

(C) Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)

a. cucumber
b. pumpkin
c. watermelon
d. squash
e. marrows

14
 (D) Alliaceae
a. onion
b. leek
c. garlic
d. shallots

(E) Compositae
a. lettuce

(F) Umbelliferae
b. carrot
c. celery
d. parsley

b) Make a planting plan each plot in relation to number of seasons and

crop families as per example below;

SEASON

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PLOT

1 Aa Ba Ca Da Ea Fa
2 Aa Ba Ca Da Ea Fa
3 Fa Aa Ba Ca Da Ea
4 Ea Fa Aa Ba Ca Da
5 Da Ea Fa Aa Ba Ca
6 Ca Da Ea Fa Aa Ba
7 Ba Ca Da Ea Fa Aa

15
2. Vegetable Bed construction

Depending on season, type of crop, method of irrigation and drainage situation of

the soil, vegetable beds may be flat, raised or sunken.

a. Flat beds- mark the paths 45cm between the beds. Plough the beds to a
depth of 30cm and then level the surface.

b. Raised beds- mark the path to 45cm between beds. Plough the beds
including the path between 20-30cm. Move the soil from the path to the
bed and level the bed thoroughly. Such beds should be 15-20cm high.

c. Sunken beds – remove the top soil and put it aside. Dig the subsoil to let
it loose and then bring back the top soil. Paths should be constructed
using the sub-soil only.

3. Manure Application
As a basal dressing, the following manure can be applied

Organic manures- apply any type of organic matter so long they are well
decomposed before use e.g animal manure, animal beddings and compost.

Chemical fertilizers- C-compound (6: 18: 15), D-compound (8: 18 : 15) or 23:21:
0 + 4S may also be used for basal dressing.

Method of Application: depending on the status of the khola or compost

manure use 2-6 kg compost plus 50g of chemical fertilizer per one meter
square of a bed. In other words apply 3-5shovels of compost or khola
manure plus one-two handfuls of a chemical fertilizer per one square
metre bed.

Apply a layer of manure on the bed surface and then incorporate them with the
soil up to 15-20cm deep.

4. Transplanting/planting

(i). Size and age of the seedlings

Transplant when seedlings are fully developed or when they have 2-3 true
leaves (10-15cm). Small seedlings are difficult to be taken care of while
overgrown seedlings have poor ability to recover from transplanting shock.

(ii). Quality of the seedlings should be;

a) disease free
b) strong and healthy seedlings

16
 c) uniform size for uniform growth and maturity.

(iii). Time for transplanting

This should be done on a cool cloudy day or late in the afternoon to avoid
severe wilting.

(iv). Procedure in transplanting vegetable seedlings:

a) Water the seed bed thoroughly for easy lifting of the seedlings
b) Mark the planting stations
c) Up-root the seedlings with a ball of soil or could be bare rooted
d) Distribute the seedlings to the planting stations.
e) Plant the seedlings-mostly below the collar mark.
f) Firm the soil around the seedlings and have them standing up right
g) Water the bed thoroughly
h) Shading may be done particularly to the soft vegetables like lettuce or
Chinese cabbage. Make sure to remove shading within 2-3days.
i) Supplying should be conducted within one week of transplanting to
achieve uniformity.

(v). Direct sowing/Hilling

this is done for those vegetables with large seeds and whose seedlings
can not regenerate new roots. For some small seeded vegetables
direct sowing can be done particularly in dry season to allow them
regenerate tap root system. Also when there is labour shortage.

5. Watering
(i) Frequency of watering
a) Check beds moisture condition before watering. Use a peg as an
indicator-driven in a bed 30cm deep.

b) At early stage the dry depth allowed, is 5cm because the root system of
the plants is still shallow. At a later stage allow a dry depth of 10-15cm.

(ii) Time for watering

Early in the morning and late afternoon are the ideal times of watering.

(iii) Irrigation system

Furrow, sprinkler and Drip irrigation systems may be used on a large scale
production. But for the traditional watering can is recommended for the
small scale.

6. Mulching

17
This is a very important practice during dry season in order to retain enough
moisture on the bed surface

7. Top dressing

Use Nitrogenous fertilizers e.g C.A.N and Urea at an early stage for most fruit
vegetables

Amount of top-dressing

 Early stage- apply 3g per station

 Late stage- apply 8g per station.

Top-dressing can be done 2-4 times depending on the value of the crop and
growth condition. The application should be 5-10cm away from the station.

8. Weeding
 Time for weeding- on a sunny day when the surface of the bed is in dry
condition
 Weeding tools- use hand forks or a trowel to break the surface of the bed
to improve water holding capacity.

9. Pests and Disease Control

For effective results in pest and disease control, it is advisable to follow good
crop husbandry measures. Such measures will reduce chemical use and
minimise possible costs. There is need therefore to;
a. Provide good growing environment i.e fertile soil, best climatic condition,
adequate water, well drained and aerated soils.
b. Use cultivars which are more tolerant or resistance to pest and diseases.
c. Follow strict crop rotation
d. Use clean planting materials which are free from pests and diseases.
e. Practice field hygiene
f. Use of biological control
g. Chemical spraying as a last resort for prevention and curative measure.

10. Harvesting

(i). Indication for readiness for harvest

(a). Number of growing days after germination or transplanting
-carrot = 100-120 days after germination
-cabbage = 75-110 days after transplanting
-lettuce = 30-45 days after germination

(b). Colour (for fruit vegetables e.g tomato, pepper etc)

(c). Size (for some cucurbitaceae e.g cucumbers)

18
 (d). Texture used mainly for onions and cabbages.

(ii). Time for harvesting

(a) Local markets- harvest early in the morning when the crop
still has some moisture.
(b) Truck farming- harvest late in the afternoon when both the crop
and the weather have cooled and then transport them a
night.

(iii). Methods of harvesting

-Use hands for small scale production while tools e,g knives for a
medium scale production. Machines are recommended for
a large scale production e.g tillers in carrot
harvesting.

(iv). Principles of harvesting

 When harvesting vegetables, the following principles have
to be observed
 Keep the produce in fresh condition
 Avoid damages- always aim at a good quality product
 Maintain uniformity of the products
 Send the product to the market on time- vegetables are
highly perishable

1. Tomato Production

Family : Solanaceae

Botanical names: Lycopersicon lycopersicum or Lycopersicon esculentum

Introduction
Tomato is one of the popular vegetables in most peoples diets. It is also used as
a fruit vegetable for both fresh and processing markets. It is a very high value
product especially when grown during off-seasons.

Botanical characteristics

Stem – it is an annual herb with a stem reaching up to 2m high especially in tall

varieties. These stems are hairy with a strong odour.

Leaves- they are spirally arranged, up to 30cm long and 10-15cm across. The
leaf blade is lobed and divided.

19
Flowers- have a diameter of up to 2cm and are borne in inflorescences of 4-12
flowers. The calyx is short and remains green when the fruit ripens.

Fruit – is a green fleshy berry and becomes yellow or red when ripe. It may be
smooth or with longitudinal furrows.

Environmental requirements

Soils - tomato can tolerate a wide range of soils, however fertile soils with a good
moisture-retaining capacity and relatively high level of organic material are the
best. It should have at least a pH range of 5 - 6.5. low soil temperature often
retards growth of seedlings.

Temperature – high air temperatures of say, 270C can cause pollen sterility while
high night temperatures affects flower initiation. So night temperatures of 18-
200C are considered ideal for most cultivars. High and low temperatures affect
fruit quality, particularly colour of the fruits.

Rainfall (Moisture) – excessive rainfall often harm the tomato crop due to
prolonged leaf diseases during humid conditions. Uneven levels of water
combined with a lack of either calcium or potassium in the soil can lead to
physiological disorders of the fruit known as Blossom-end rot. On the other,
erratic irrigation may cause cracking and splitting of the fruit skin. All in all,
tomato is best produced under irrigation.

Altitude – tomato can grow even in highly elevated areas of up to 2000m above
sea level. However high yields are experienced within altitude range of slightly
above 500m. some cultivars however can still do better in low elevation but yields
are often very low due to lack of diurnal temperature variation and high humidity
which encourages leaf diseases.

Varieties & their morphological characteristics

Maturity
Variety Stem type Fruit shape & size
Other attributes period
High yielding &
Money Indeterminat Global & smooth, resistant to 90 -120
maker e (tall) with thick and firm Fusarium wilt. days

20
 skin
Resistant to
Rodade Semi-dwarf Round and smooth bacterial wilt. 90 -95
Good for fresh days
market.
Good shelf life.
Floridade Dwarf Flat round Resistant to 80 -85
Altenaria stem days
canker
Resistant to
Heinz 1370 Dwarf Flat round and Fusarium wilt 85 days
medium
Indeterminat Resistant to
Zest e(tall) Round Fusarium wilt 85 days
zeal Semi-dwarf Flat, round & large 85 days
Roma dwarf Oval and round Good storage 80-85days

Nursery Management
Construct raised seed-beds at a convenient dimension say; 1 metre wide and
10–15 cm high. 20 – 30g of seed are enough for transplanting in a field of a bout
1000m2 although variations can arise depending on the variety in question. Apply
compost manure at the rate of 2 -5kgs per square metre.

Sow the seeds in drills of 10-15cm and at 0.5cm deep. After sowing, it is
important to mulch the seed-bed to help in retaining the soil moisture and also to
control possible erosion along the bed sides during watering.

Watering should be done regularly, up until 25-30 days after germination when
seedlings are ready for transplanting into the main field. However, when initial
transplanting is to be done, seedlings will take about 30-45days before
transplanting. Harden off the seedlings for 4-5 days before actual transplanting to
acclimatise them to the field conditions.

Spray the fungicides regularly at least once a week to protect the seedlings
against fungal diseases.

Field management

Land Preparation
Plough the land to the depth of about 20-30cm and then thoroughly prepare the
bed by breaking the clods.
Prepare beds at least 1.2m wide and if ridge beds are used, they should be
spaced at 1.2m apart.

21
Apply compost manure at the rate of 2kg per m 2 plus 50g of compound C
(6:18:15) or 23:21:0 + 4S. However, excess nitrogen will only promote vegetative
growth at the expense of reproduction growth. It may also delay fruiting process
and hence reduce fruit quality.

Planting out.
The recommended plant spacing are 70cm by 45cm (for a bed of 100cm wide)
and 90cm by 60cm (for a 1.2m bed).

It is recommended to adopt a closer spacing for dwarf varieties during rainy

season and where a single training system is to be used. Similarly, a wider
spacing is to be used in tall varieties during rainy season and when double stem
training is used.

Important Management Practices

Staking:
This refers to pegging out sticks which support the plant stems more especially in
tall or indeterminate cultivars. The practice facilitates crop management practices
i.e. weeding, tilling,… and also improves the quality of tomatoes by keeping the
plants off the ground.
Unstaked tomatoes produce a high proportion of unmarketable fruit and are often
difficult to manage with respect to pest and disease control.
Wall staking in rainy season and cross staking dry season are the most
recommended methods for fresh market tomatoes. Cross staking will also help in
conserving moisture during dry season.

Pruning :
This refers to the removal of side-shoots to control excessive branching of the
tomato plant. It also minimises competition besides modifying the plant canopy
as a means of controlling diseases. These side shoots should be removed whilst
young and tender to avoid damaging the main stem. Leaf pruning (defoliation)
should be done as well to reduce the size of primary inoculum which is often
found in the leaves touching the ground.

Training:
This is a system of developing a productive plant stems that can support growth.
Single stem or double stem training is recommended for most indeterminate
tomatoes. But for determinate table cultivars, five branches will still give good
quality. The second stem should be developed below the first cluster to give
strong braches. The stems should be trained along the stakes or trellises by tying
them loosely.

Water management
Good water management in tomato growing is important for increased fruit
weight (yield) and disease control. Tomato normally use 500 litres of water for its
growth and this is best applied by surface irrigation as opposed to overhead

22
methods which promote foliar diseases. Avoid applying water to the leaves but
rather to the soil.

Pest & disease control

Late Blight, nematodes Bollworms, aphids, whiteflies and Red Spider Mite are
the major problems in out of season production of tomatoes.

Late Blight caused by fungus Phytophthora infestans. There are black to brown
lesions on the leaves and often such leaves may wilt and die off. To control the
disease, spray fungicides like Dithane M45 at the rate of 30g in 15litres of water,
every 7-10days after transplanting. During the overcast weather or continous
rainy condtions, the spraying interval should be reduced to 3-4days. If it rains
within an hour after spraying repeat the process.

Red Spider Mites (Tetranychus spp) these mites are found on the underside of
tomato leaves causing mottling and silvering of leaves. These can best be
prevented by cultural practices which include crop rotation, sanitation like
uprooting all tomato stalks, interplanting with aromatic plants like marigold, and
increasing humidity. Spraying with Dimethoate 40% EC or Actellic EC at 1ml per
1 litre of water is helpful. The spraying should be done in full cover under the side
of leaves. Continous sprays of Dicofol and Malathion may still provide some
control.

Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp)

These normally cause galls on the roots which lead to stunting or growth
retardation. The best to control nematodes is by practicing crop rotation of at
least 3 – 4 seasons.

Harvesting

With good management, tomato yields of up to 50 tonnes per hectare can be

realised. The first harvest is normally experienced 2 – 21/2 months after
transplanting. And picking can continue up 3 – 31/2 months depending on the
variety.

Harvest tomato early in the morning but after dew has dried up to avoid rotting
and also when the fruits have not accumulated more heat in order for them to
store longer.

Tomatoes harvested for a distant market should be harvested at a mature green

or breakers stage before they are fully ripe. This is when the fruit develops a red
colour of about a one-tambala size at its blossom-end.

23
Grading: - for commercial purposes, it is important to grade tomatoes according
to size and variety and make sure they are packed in a shallow grass-lined
baskets or wooden boxes that can only carry between 8-14kg of fruit.
Recommend cartons of 45cm x 22.5 x 10cm which can carry about 5.5kg of fruits

2. Cabbage Production

Introduction:
Cabbage is in the family Cruciferae (Mustard). Botanically cabbage is known as
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (headed family). Other species of the same family
include;

-Kale (rape) - brasica oleracea var acephala which non-headed.

-Cauliflower and Broccoli- Brasica oleracea var. botrytis- which is grown
for their flowers as food.

Plant Morphology

1. Part of the plant eaten is the leaf, usually after formation of the full head.

2. Seed shape- Round in shape, brown or black in colour. Seed weight of

between 208-3.4 g will contain approximately 1000 seeds

3. Root system- Shallow rooted and fibrous.

4. Stem- Short stemmed and fleshy.

5. Leaf – large leaf blade, sometimes can measure 30 by 30 cm or more.

Leaves are round, oval (elliptical) in shape. Some have wrinkled (savoy)
leaves, varying with varieties. Leaves are waxy-giving the plant
characteristics of disease and water loss tolerance.

6. Flowers- the colour of the flowers is yellow. The inflorescence is raceme

(an indefinite inflorescence in which stalked flowers are borne).

7. Fruits- after flowering, fruits will be formed and are silique (a short pod of
two carpels with replum) or is partitioned.

Cultivars
Different varieties (cultivars) vary in yield, heat tolerance, pest and disease
resistance, growing periods etc.

1. Large Drum head – high yielding, round and flat heads and long growing
period.

24
 2. Gloria osena – medium in head size and medium growing period.

3. Golden acre – medium growing period, and has a good quality leaf
(tender leaves).

4. Oscross (r) – large headed, vigorous in growth, high yielding. Suitable for
cold season or highland regions. But it is not good for storage.

5. Copenhagen market – heat tolerant variety, small and solid round

headed variety.

6. Sugar loaf – early maturing variety, sweet and pointed head. It is

susceptible to many pest attack because of its sweetness.

7. Stone head (F) – small, round headed and early maturing.

8. Marious Market – tolerant to heat and wilt. Firm headed and of good
quality and is adaptable to wide range of soils.

9. Nagaoka all season – (Japanese variety) – large headed and uniform in

size. Heads may weigh up to 10kg under good management.

10. Yesen – (Chinese variety) - flat round heads. Leaves are very tender
making it susceptible to Plutella (Diamond -Back moth

Soil and climate requirements

1. Climate: - cabbage is a cool season crop or high land crop. Some special
cultivars can still grow well in low land areas or can be grown as warm
season crop. Optimum temperature of 25oC and 800m above sea level.

2. Soil requirement: - sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best for
cabbage growing. Clay loam soil will need an addition of organic matter
like compost or farm yard manure. So cabbage can be grown on a wide
range of soil so long they are free draining. Soil should have pH of 6.5 -6.8

Cabbage field management

A. Nursery work
1. Seedbed preparation: - plough the nursery site to a depth of 15-20cm for
temporary seed raising. Apply compost at the rate of 2.5 kg per square
meter and mix with compound fertilizer e.g. C – compound (6:18:15) or D-
compound (8:18:15) at the rate of 50g /m 2. The bed should be well
levelled to ensure even spread of moisture.

2. Sowing: - sow the seeds in drills of 10-12cm apart across the bed or
broad-cast the seed for a large scale production.

25
 3. Mulching: - mulch the bed after sowing to reduce the loss of moisture and
growth of weeds.

4. Watering; - water the bed with a fine rosed watering can to avoid soil loss
within the bed and washing away of seeds.

5. Spraying: - spray chemicals regularly against pests and diseases.

However, field hygiene and good management will reduce cases of pest
and disease attack on the nursery.

6. Top-dressing:- use the liquid nitrogen and potash fertilizer. Dilute the
fertilizer mixture 400 times the weight of a single measure, that is one
handful of the fertilizer diluted in 10 litres of water. Apply clean water on
the seedlings after the fertilizer to avoid scorching the leaves.

7. Weeding: - should be done regularly to avoid harbouring pests and

diseases.

8. Transplanting: - transplant the seedlings after 25-30days or 30-45days of

germination or when 4-6 true leaves appear.

B. Main field work

I. Land preparation
i. Ploughing: - to be carried out thoroughly to the depth of 20-
30cm.

ii. Manure: - apply compost or khola manure at the rate of 2kg

or 5kg respectively. Compound C (6:18:15) should also be
applied at the rate of 50g/m2.

II. Bed preparation

i. Ridge beds: - often used in wet seasons or where water is
not a problem i.e. furrows irrigation for commercial
production.

ii. Two-row beds: - should be constructed at 1-1.2m wide and

15cm high. Sunken beds may also be used especially in dry
season.

iii. Irrigation systems.

 Bucket or water can- used for a small scale
production
 Furrow irrigation- used when water is good supply

26
  Sprinkler irrigation- used mainly where water is in
short supply
 Drip irrigation- used where water is a problem

III. Planting

i. Time of transplanting: - late in the afternoon or on a cool

cloudy day to avoid severe wilting of the transplants.

ii. Size of seedlings:- seedlings should have at least 4-6 true

leaves (25-30 or 30-45 days after germination

iii. Selecting seedlings for transplanting

 Choose disease free seedlings
 Should be strong seedlings
 Should be uniformed size seedlings for uniform
growth and maturity

Spacing will vary with varieties as outlined below:

60 X 50 cm for small headed varieties e.g. Stone head (F)

65 X 50 cm for medium headed varieties e.g. Gloria osena
70 X 60 cm for large headed varieties e.g. Drum head

IV. Fertilizer Application.

Top-dressing should be done with nitrogen and potash fertilizers for
headed varieties. But for loose varieties like Yesen, potash
fertilizers may be fully utilized because of their short growing
period.

This top-dressing should be done in three phases as follows;

1st Application- 3 weeks after setting = 17g (Nitrogen) + 30g

(potash)/m2.

2nd Application- 3 weeks after the first = 17g (Nitrogen) + 6g

2
(potash)/m .

3rd Application- 3 weeks after the 2nd = 17g (Nitrogen) + 4g

2
(potash)/m .

V. Watering
Should be done early in the morning to avoid damp condition on the
beds which may encourage soft rot disease. However cabbage is a

27
 water loving crop as such it is important to apply enough amount of
water each time of irrigation.

VI. Pests and Diseases.

There are several pests and diseases which may be a problem in a

cabbage crop. Some of these pests and diseases are as follows;

A. Pests
1. Diamond Back moth (Plutella) - a pale green
caterpillar that eat the underside of the leaf
making holes. Control by using carbaryl or
cypermethrin.

2. Aphids – pale green insects covered with dust of

mealy powder. Control by spraying malathion or
Dimethoate.

3. Cabbage saw fly- the greyish or green caterpillars that

eat leaves leaving midribs only. Spray Carbaryl,
Malathion or cypemethrin to control them.

4. Cut-Worms- grey to black caterpillar that feed at night

and bite out of the side of the stem at ground level
causing the plant to wilt and die eventually. To control
them drench the solution of carbaryl on the affected
stations.

B. Diseases

1. Black rot- a serious disease that may cause a total

crop loss in overhead irrigated fields. Infection may
occur at all stages of plant growth leading to crop
dwarfism. Heading may not be possible and there is
an offensive odour. This can be controlled by using
clean seed and crop rotation.

2. Black-leg or Dry-rot canker- It is a seed borne fungal

disease. There are brown to black spots on seedlings
while in the seedbed. Old spots are ash-grey and
often have blister (pustule). A dark stem canker
extending below the soil level, killing the fibrous root
system. Mature plants wilt abruptly and die. This can

28
 be controlled by crop rotation, using clean seed and
destroying the infected plants.

3. Ring spot- Seed borne disease and mainly spread by

wind. It causes brown spots on the leaves often
bordered by green margin. Control by planting healthy
seedlings and use of crop rotation.

4. Downy mildew- severe disease at high elevation

where conditions are cool and wet. A fluffy fungal
growth appear on the underside of the leaves, which
later produce brown to black spots on the upper
surface. It is spread mainly by wind, rain water and
other mobile objects. Spray fungicides and practice
field hygiene to control the disease.

VII. Harvesting
1. Indication of readiness: - cabbage will be ready for harvesting when the
heads are large enough and firm. Any delay in harvesting leads to head
burst.

2. Treatment: - best time to harvest leafy vegetables is in the morning after

dew is dry. For long distance market, harvest in the afternoon and packing
must be done late after the temperature has cooled for easy transporting
to the market. When packing is done when temperatures are still hot,
leaves may lose their condition and cause rotting inside the heads.

3. Method of harvesting. - Cut the heads and turn them up-down on the
station. Apply lime at the cut stem to avoid soft-rot.

4. Packing- remove some of the outer leaves and keep two-three loose
leaves for rapping the head. Put rapped heads in aerated containers not
more than four layers. For easy lifting.

5. Yields- these vary depending on the variety and management. However it

possible to get 30-40tone per hectare.

3. Carrot Production

Scientific name: Daucus carota.

Family : Umbelliferae (Parsley family)

1. Importance

29
 Root is used as a vegetable. Tender roots are pickled (putting in salt or
vinegar) for keeping them in good condition. Carrots can be curried
(made into powder) and dehydrated. The roots are rich source of Vitamin
A. Other important species in this family are celery and parsley.

2. Plant morphology
The plant is a biennial but is grown as an annual crop.
a) Roots –carrot has tap-root system, which is used as food. Thickness of
the cortex differs with varieties. Thicker cortex indicates good quality and
maturity.

b) Stem- has small stem, succulent and cone shaped at the top of the tap-
root. Once the stem is damaged by diseases or pests, the whole plant will
collapse within short time.

c) Leaf- fern like leaves having long petiole but no leaf blade

d) Flower- once the tap-root has fully developed, through period of

dormancy, the stem elongates to one-metre tall and forms the flowers.
The flowers are compound umbel inflorescence of white in colour.

e) Fruit- mature fruit is sharp pointed at both ends

f) Seed- light brown or greyish in colour. Seed is small and light at least
1.5g/1000seeds.

3. Cultivars
There are several varieties of carrot and those commonly grown are:-

a) Chanteny- This variety has a long cone shape tap-root (about 15cm). The
root cortex in thinner and pith (core) is thicker.

b) Nantes- It has thicker cortex, more cylindrical which is fine textured and
sweet. This takes only 70days to mature after germination.

c) Early Cape Market- More cylindrical and shorter than chanteny. It has
sweet taste with brighter orange colour.

d) Ideal- high yielding and sweet tasting variety. Has much thinner core than
that of Nantes.

4. Ecological Requirements
A. Climate
Carrot grows best at 16 to 23oC for good germination and growth. It
prefers cool dry weather. High soil temperatures will
encourage the development of lateral roots and of pale

30
yellow in colour. The crop grows best in high altitude areas
and is tolerant to a wide range of rainfall.

B. Soil
Sandy loam soil is best for the crop. The soil must have a pH of 6-
6.6. When there are too much of organic matter or heavy clay soils,
there will be forking of roots due to formation of fibrous root system.
The soil should be free of stones, clods, rough trash etc.
Deep sandy loam soils are however regarded as the best for carrot
production.

5. Field Management

a. Land preparation
Plough the land to a depth of not less than 30cm. Remove stones and all
other debris from the beds. Rough beds will cause forking of the tap-root
while shallow beds tend to cause green shoulders.

Apply well sieved manure at the rate of 1-2kg per 1m2. Compound fertilizer
might also be used as a basal dressing at 50g/m2.

b. Bed Construction
Construct beds of 1-1.2m wide and 15-20cm high. They should be raised
beds to make sure there is enough drainage. Too much moisture
promotes root rot disease

c. Sowing
Sow the seeds thinly and direct on the cropping beds in drills of 30cm
apart. If sown in stations, sow the seeds at 30 by 10cm with 5-6
seeds per station. Cover the seeds with fine sand to a depth of 1cm for
easy germination. The seed requirement for 1 hectare of land is 5-6 kg.

d. Thinning
After germination, thin out the young seedlings to 5cm apart at first, then
to 10cm apart after one-week. Thinning should be done before the
plants have reached 5-8cm tall to avoid competition and deformation of
the roots.

e. Weeding
This should be intensified at an early stage of the crop development to
avoid competition over sunlight and nutrients.

f. Top-dressing
Apply nitrogen fertilizer e.g. C.A.N or Urea at the rate of 30-33g/m2. By
drilling along the rows when the plants have reached 5-8cm tall.

31
g. Watering
Keep carrot beds in well moistened condition. However, irregular
quantities of water will cause split root problems. There is need to ensure
good drainage system at all the times.

h. Banking
As one way of avoiding green shoulder problem in carrot, it is important to
bank (earth-up) the carrot root shoulders regularly.

6. Pests and Diseases

A. Pests
a) Nematodes- these damage the tips of the tap-root and cause forking. Its
attack may also cause galls on the tap-rot surface. This can be controlled
by crop rotation, planting resistant cultivars and application of nematicide
before sowing.

b) Diamond-Back moth-(Plutella) - the larva of the moth (green in colour)

does damage the leaves. Control by spraying Malathion or Sevin
(carbaryl).

c) Aphids- these may either be green or black in colour. They suck the sap
from the leaves and young growing points causing curling and distortion of
the leaves. Control with sprays of Dimethoate or Malathion.

B. Diseases
a) Leaf spot (Cercospora sp) - Is a fungal disease which causes a lot of
spotting on older leaves. Control with sprays of fungicides e.g. Dithane
M45, Daconil or Copper-oxy-chloride

b) Leaf bright – is another fungal disease which becomes serious in wet

weather causing destruction to the crop leaves. Control with regular
sprays of Dithane M45.

c) Bacteria soft-rot- this is a bacterial disease causing watery stuff exuding

from the plant giving an offensive smell. To control this is by field hygiene
and crop rotation. Also avoid mechanical damage to the plant
7. Harvesting

A. Indication for readiness (maturity)

i) Diameter size- the root shoulder should be flat and 4-5cm in diameter.
It is important to harvest carrot when the roots are still tender (not
woody). Some baby carrots may be harvested when the roots are 1.5-
3cm wide and flat.

32
 ii) Crop age- harvest when the crop is 100-120 days after germination.

B. Methods of harvesting
i) For a larger scale production, tillers may be used to harvest carrot

ii) In small scale production, dig out with a hoe or uproot by hand. It is
recommended to have the bed moist when harvesting

* Yields may vary with cultivars but, it is possible to get 36-50 tonnes per
hectare.

4. Onion Production

Scientific Name : Allium cepa

Family name : Alliaceae

Introduction
Part of the plant eaten is a bulb composed of a bundle made of thickened leaf
sheath with pungent smell. It is a biannual plant but grown annually. It has
potential of yielding 60-100 tonnes/ha with good management.

1. Plant morphology
a) Root system: - short, straight and shallow spread.
b) Stem:- a small conical underground stem
c) Leaves:-round and hollow tube leaf. The sheaths thickened at the base
and bundled as a bulb at a later stage.
d) Flowers: - has an umbel inflorescence.

2. Climate and Soil requirement

A. Climate
Onion is a cool season crop. The optimum growing temperature is
20-260C but not lower than 160C for bulb formation. Low
temperatures encourage flowering.

Photoperiod sensitivity (No. of hours of sunlight). Bulb formation in

onion is influenced by photoperiod. This off course varies from
variety to variety. In tropical areas of low latitude where there is
short photoperiod only short period varieties will grow better and
form bulbs.

If long photoperiod variety is planted in short photoperiod area and

in warm season, it will continue its growth and development but

33
 without forming bulbs. If any, there will be multiple bulbs or
bottle neck bulbs.

B. Soil
Sandy-loam soils are all good for onion growing. Heavy clay and
course sand soils should be avoided as they don’t
provide enough room for bulb development due to high
moisture retention and high temperatures.

3. Cultivars

a) Dewilt- straw coloured (yellow/brownish) of the outer skin and light cream
colour of the flesh. The bulb has a narrow neck. It is good for storage.

b) White Lisbon – a good fresh market variety. It is also good for making
salad.

c) Early Texas Grano- has large bulbs with straw coloured. The flesh is firm,
mild and sweet. However storage for this variety is a problem.
d) Granex – early maturing and high yielding. The bulb has a thin neck. It is
resistant to pink –root disease. It does not store well.

e) Red-Creole – has red skin and produces a very strong flavour of pungent
smell. It is a late maturing variety but tolerant to rain or wet season. It is
good for storage.

f) Red Tropicana- produces very hard bulbs but of uniform size with thin
neck. They taste hot. Late maturing and favours rain season. Has good
storability.

4. Onion Nursery Management

Seed requirement- the quantity of seed required is 270-330g/1000m2. This

produces 36,000-50,000 seedlings enough for 1000m2.

Land preparation
a) Nursery bed area for a field of 1000m2 will be 60-70m2.

b) Plough to 10cm deep since it’s on a temporary basis.

c) Manure application- apply 5kg of well sieved compost on a 1m 2 bed to be

followed by a mixture of 50g S.A and 100g S.P.

34
 d) Bed preparation- make a bed of 1m wide and 10cm high with a very fine
and well levelled surface.

e) Sowing –
Broadcasting – if it is for a large scale production but make sure to
cover the beds with sieved soils.

Drilling –for a small scale production. Sow in drills of 6cm apart and at
05cm deep. Mulch the bed after sowing and to be removed soon after
seedling emergency

For watering, maintain at least 65% moisture content.

f) Top-dressing –top dress once or twice as follows;

1st application with 15g S.A + 15g Kcl on a 1m2 bed.
2nd application with 0.25% Urea liquid (but only if it is necessary).

g) Transplanting- at 35-45 days after germination seedlings will be ready for

transplanting (15-20cm high).

5. Onion main field management

a. Land preparation
Plough the field to 30cm deep with a fine tilth.
Apply compost manure at the rate of 2.5kg/m2 (2,500kg/1000m2).

Bed preparation: 60cm wide beds for 2 rows/bed

1m wide bed for 4 rows/bed
1.2m wide bed for 5 rows/bed

Basal dress 40g S.A + 60 S.P + 20g Kcl per sq. metre.

b. Planting –first harden off seedlings for 3-4days before transplanting. Up-
root seedlings with bare roots and distribute them on the beds
Spacing- should be 20 by 10cm between rows and plants respectively

c. Watering
i) At an early stage of crop establishment maintain 65% moisture
content, 50% at bulbing and 40% at harvesting stage.

ii) Method of irrigation- use furrow irrigation for 2 rows, exceeding that
then use flood irrigation and sprinkler irrigation. However, make sure
that the level of water should not exceed the sheaths of the leaves.
For the sprinkler irrigation, make sure it is completed before
11.00am to give chance for beds to dry up in order to avoid fungal
diseases.

35
 d. Top-dressing – for a field of 1000m2 use the following rates
st
1 application after 10days of transplanting =16kg S.A + 20kg SP + 4kg Kcl
nd st
2 application after 20days after the 1 =16kg S.A + 10kg S.P + 4kg Kcl
rd nd
3 application after 20days after the 2 =16kg S.A only depending on
growth condition.
6. Diseases and Pests

A. Diseases

i) Black spot (Altarnaria leaf spot or Altarnaria porri), fungal disease

Symptoms-brown spots on the leaves which eventually turn to

black and get broken

Control-spray Dithane M45 and follow crop rotation

ii) Rust (Puccinia allii), a fungal disease

Symptoms- small raised spots, rust like spread on leaves. At a later

stage, the leaves are with yellow dust like spores.

Control – spray fungicides at an early stage e.g. copper-oxy-

chloride.

iii) Leaf blight (Plespora herbarium)

Symptoms – looks like leaf spot in the beginning, but there are
white spots on leaves, and then increased to black
and purple with a coal like mould spreading on
the surface. It may turn to yellow and wilt
later on.

Control- practice rotation and regular spraying of fungicides.

iv) Black mold (Aspergillus niger)

Symptoms- the bulb has black or brown spots, and then increased
to inner sides causing bulb rotting. This is common
in storage.

Control – avoid harvesting in rainy season condition

-remove the damaged bulbs before packing or storing.
B. pests

36
 The commonest include; aphids, army worms, Thrips which cause
economical damage. Control by spraying the correct pesticides
e.g. carbaryl, Malathion, Dimethoate and Actellic E.C.

7. Harvesting
Indication for readiness is the shrinking of the plant’s neck and bending
(lodging) of the neck.

When harvesting, pull the bulb out by holding the leaves and trim the roots
with a small knife. Cut the leaves 2-3cm above the neck and keep the
bulb in the field 2-3days for drying and then take them indoor for
further drying and storage.

Storage –
 Cut the leaves and spread the bulbs on the shelves.
 Keep the leaves by hanging them in bundles.
 Storing in refrigerator at 20C . this will enable the bulbs to stay for 6
months without going bad

III FRUIT PRODUCTION

By definition, a fruit is part of a plant that contains the seeds and often used as
food. Fruits are more or less succulent and commonly eaten straight as dessert
or snack. The study of growing fruit trees is referred to as Pomology.

A. Importance of fruits

a. Source of food
Fruits are rich in nutrients, especially in vitamins, minerals and
carbohydrate. They can be eaten as either staple food e.g
plantains and bananas, or as supplementary food e.g mango, guava,
apple, oranges etc. processed fruit products are also important
source of food, e.g juice, jam, wine and vinegar.

b. Source of income
Fruits have all along been considered as source of refreshment and
nourishing food because of their flavours and aromas. It is for this
reason therefore that either fresh or processed type of fruits may bring a
commendable income through domestic or export marketing.

B. Classification of fruits
Classification of fruits just like vegetables may be determined by various
purposes. The following are some of the purposes or objectives commonly used
by horticulturists to classify fruits for purposes of convenience.

1. According to type of the plant

37
 1. Woody fruits and herbaceous fruits
Fruits borne on woody plants e.g mango, guavas, and oranges are
distinguished from those borne on herbaceous plants e.g bananas,
paw-paws, strawberry etc.

2. Evergreen fruits and deciduous fruits

Fruit trees which maintain their leaves all year round are considered
as evergreen e.g mango, banana, macadamia and orange. Those fruit
trees which shed off their leaves are called deciduous fruit trees e.g apple,
peach etc.

2. Botanical classification
Breeders and other nursery technologists classify fruits by their botanical
characteristics. It is a very important classification procedure as far fruit
propagation is concerned. Each fruit is identified by its botanical
name and the family.

Below are examples of some common fruits and their families;

Common name Botanical name Family name

 Banana Musa sapientum Musaceae
 Coconut Cocos nucifera Palmaceae
 Pineapple Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae
 Fig Ficus carica Moraceae
 Avocado Persea american Lauraceae
 Apple Malus domestica Rosaceae
 Strawberry Fragaria chiloensis Rosaceae
 Tangerine (Manderin) Citrus reticulate Rutaceae
 Lemon Citrus limon Rutaceae
 Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiac
 Grape Vitis vinifera Vitaceae
 Papaya Carica papaya Caricaceae
 Guava Psidium guajara Myrtaceae
Macadamia nut Macadamia integrifolia Proteaceae

3. According to the climate.

1. Tropical fruits
Fruits growing in the area between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn which
lay between 23o North and South of Equator are considered as tropical
fruits. The climate of these regions have average temperatures of about
27oC with high humidity. Tropical fruits include bananas, mango, coconut
etc.
2. Temperate fruits

38
 These are fruits grown within the temperate zones of latitude 23 o- 66o
North and South of Equator. The climate of such these regions have cool
seasons almost all the year round. Temperate fruits include apple, peach,
pear plum and many others.

3. Sub-tropical fruits.
These are fruits grown between tropical and temperate climates. These
include guava, orange, macadamia etc.

Tropical and sub-tropical fruits are usually evergreen while the

temperate ones are deciduous.

4. According to the type of fruits.

The structure of the fruits itself may be used to classify certain fruits.
1. Pome (Kernal) fruits
These are fruits that have soft seed tissue e.g apple, pear etc.

2. Stone (Drupe) fruits

All the fruits that have hard shell seed are classified as drupe fruits
e.g peach, plum, olive and apricot.

3. Berry fruits
Fruits are fleshy and have their seeds laying in the pulp, e.g
strawberry, banana, paw-paw, fig, avocado etc.

4. Nut
These fruits have their edible parts protected by hard seed shell.
Examples of such fruits include cashew-nut, macadamia nut etc.

PREPARATION OF THE PLANTING MATERIALS

Some herbaceous fruit plants are proliferated directly by seeds, e.g Papaya,
Coconut, melon, granadilla and date-palm. But it is recommended that other fruit
plants be multiplied through vegetative propagation. The reason to this being that
it is possible for the dominant traits of such fruits to turn to recessive traits in their
descendants if sexual propagation was to be followed. A gene considered to
dominate the good phenotypic quality of a fruit may recess in the genotype of a
new plant during the processes fertilization and meiosis.

In order to avoid risks of losing the good quality traits of a particular fruit tree,
there is need to focus at planting materials which have the identical genotype
and phenotype of the mother plant. Some of these vegetative propagation
methods used in fruit propagation include; layering, grafting, budding and tissue
culture.

39
The other reason for vegetative propagation is that some cultivated fruits are
derived from mutation varieties which have abortive seeds e.g bananas and
pineapples. Suckers for such fruits are used as their major planting materials.

C. Orchard site selection.

Beside choosing a good plating material for fruit growing, site selection is
another major task if fruit is indeed to a successful investment. Fruit trees are
along term crop with the first harvest in about 2-5 years after planting and having
a continuous harvest for a period of up to 30-50 years with good management.
So if a mistake is made during site selection, the effects will last longer before
amendments are made.

Below are some of the factors to be considered in site selection for fruit
production.

1. Environmental factors
1. climate
a). temperature
All fruit trees have their specific optimum growing temperature eg
Banana does grow well in areas with average temperatures of
25oC. While an apple needs average temperatures of 10oC.

There is need therefore to seriously take into account the maximum

and minimum temperature limitations. A banana for example will be
injured permanently under the temperature range of below 10 oC.
These temperature differences may affect some fruit trees in their
flower differentiation e.g. temperate fruits need a period of low
temperature (below 5oc) for a period of 1-3 months for dormancy
thereafter they may develop healthy flowers.

b) Rainfall
Where irrigation is not applied, most fruit trees require an area with
average rainfall of between 600-3000mm. Distribution of rainfall in a
year is also important to some fruit trees which need a period of
dormancy for flower differentiation.

c) sunlight
Photosynthesis is an essential process for plant food. But this is possible where
there is adequate sunlight. The more sunlight in a year, indicates the more
healthy plants. Too much cloudy weather or where the orchard is close to a hill or
forest, will limit the plant from getting enough light. Such places should be
avoided at all cost.

2. Soil type.

40
 Fertile and well drained soil is recommended for fruit growing. Soil
depth should also be considered in order to maximum anchorage
of the fruit trees.

3. Topography
The ideal site for orchard establishment should be a flat or gentle
slope land. If a steep land has been selected, then terracing should
be done. However such steep land tend to inflate the initial costs
because of things like soil & water conservation, transport, and the
irrigation system.

4. Water source
consideration on reliable water sources should be given a first
priority. If the site has no adequate rainfall then irrigation will be
necessary.

2. Social factors
1. Access to main road
2. Convenient transport system
3. Available labour force
4. Good security mechanism
5. Close to agricultural consulting institutions

3. Physiological factors
Above the environmental and social factors, lies the physiological factors that a
fruit tree may require for good growth and quality of the fruits.

a. Nutrient elements
a) Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates substances are manufactured through the process
of photosynthesis with the elements of carbon (C), hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O). Sugar, glucose, starch, fibre and cellulose are the
main products of photosynthesis.
b) Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the main element of protein in found in the buds and
young branches and new roots. It is used mainly to promote
vegetative growth.

The ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C/N ratio) in the plants indicates its
maturity condition. Nitrogen is also concerned with the flower
differentiation of the fruit trees.

Yellowing and dropping of older leaves as well as premature

dropping of fruits are some of the symptoms of nitrogen deficiency.

c) Phosphorus

41
 This is an essential element of the nucleus. Its concentration is in
cell division and plant growth. Its deficiency may result in fruit trees
showing dark green, blue green or red-purple leaves especially at
the midrib and petioles. Stunted growth and slowness in root and
flower development are also of the effects of phosphorus
deficiency.

d) Potassium
Potassium plays an important role in the carbohydrate synthesis. It
helps in the building up of sugars, starch and fibre in the fruits.

Potassium deficiency often results in leaf margins being tanned and

scorched or have necrotic spots. These effects are first pronounced
on recently matured leaves before older leaves are affected. Fruits
may also sound tasteless and of poor storage life.

b. Water and its role in fruit growing.

a). It acts as the main part of the plant and the fruit.
Fruits contain 80-90% of water and the other parts of the fruit trees
may contain about 50% water. The plant will collapse if water is in
short supply.

b). It is source of elements

Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen which are the major
elements used in the photosynthetic process.

c). It is the main carrier of plant food.

Minerals from the soil and carbohydrate from the leaves are carried
and distributed by water to the whole plant. Water stress will cause
malnutrition to the plant particularly the soil-bound nutrition.

c. The role of the plant leaf in fruit growing

Leaf is the place where the plant food is manufactured. Materials
needed for growth and storage depend on the production of plant
food by leaves. Carbohydrate, the main plant food synthesized by
the solar energy in leaves, are used for respiration, growth, and
storage (both in plant and fruit). The number or total area of leaves
(the sink) of the fruit tree is important to have good quality and
quantity yields. A banana plant for example should have at least 7-
8 leaves on one plant to maintain normal development of the plant.

Water stress, pest and diseases which cause the reduction of number of leaves
(reducing the sink area) will weaken the fruit trees. Eventually this will degrade
quality of the fruit and affects flower differentiation in the next fruiting season.

D. FRUIT TREE PROPAGATION

Multiplying numbers of fruit trees is the initial step to promote fruit growing.
Usually the cheapest method of plant propagation is using seed, but in fruit they

42
may have a great variation of progeny through sexual propagation. Vegetative
propagation has to be applied in fruit trees:-

a. Sexual Propagation
The simplest and commonly used method of raising plants is by seed. The
disadvantage is that the new plants tend to have genetical variations to
mother plant. It is used to produce rootstock plants in fruit trees.

b. Asexual Propagation
The production of new plants from vegetative plant parts e.g., stem, roots,
shoots, buds, branches and leaves. It is effective method of producing
large numbers of planting material of identical genotype and phenotype to
parent plants.

The four principal methods of vegetative propagation are as follows:-

(i) Cuttings
Cuttings are pieces of stems, roots, leaves that are removed from parent
plant and placed in an environment that promotes their development into
complete plants.

Cuttings are able to produce new roots and shoots from cell differentiation
e.g., cassava.

(ii) Grafting /Budding

Grafting/ Budding is the joining of two parts to form a single new plant, the
rootstock that is raised from seedling forms; root system and the scion,
part of branch of phenotype plant that forms plant canopy and give fruits.

Types of Grafting
There are several types of grafting and they vary with types of plants
grafted. Below are some commonly used grafting ways:-

Splice Grafting

43
Side Grafting

Splice side Grafting

Approach Grafting

44
Budding
Budding is a special form of grafting where a single bud is joined on a
prepared rootstock.

Types of Budding

T-Cutting

Inverted T-Cutting

Patch Budding

45
(iii) Layering
Layering is the production of individual new plants where the branch is
made to produce rots on the notched or girdled part before being finally
detached from mother plant.

Factors influencing root formation in layering are moisture, oxygen,

temperature and lack of light.

Types of Layering

Simple or Tip Layering

Trench or Serpentine

Mound Layering

46
 Air Layering

The important requirements for a rootstock are the following:-

 High degree of polyembryony

 Good union with the main cultivar
 Ability to grow on various soils
 Tolerance to drought
 Tolerance to virus, fungus and nematodes

1. Citrus Fruit Production

Family: Rutaceae

Some of the citrus species in cultivation by man are:-

Citrus sinensis - Sweet orange

Citrus reticulata - Naartjies, Tangerine (Mandarin)
Citrus limon - Lemon

47
Citrus paradisi - Grape fruit
Citrus aurantium - Sour or Seville orange
Citrus aurantifolia - Lime
Citrus grandis and rootstock- Shaddock (Pomelo)

CULTIVARS
Choice of cultivars is determined by area, as well as by common preference,
export or processing requirements.

# Citrus Fruit Varieties Altitude

1 Oranges Valencia Late, Washington Low or High altitude
Navel, Hamlin, Pineapple
2 Lemon Eureka, Villa Franca High altitude
3 Grape Fruit Marsh seedless, Redblush High altitude
Duncan
4 Naartjies Cape High altitude
5 Tangerine Mwanza Local, Empress High altitude
Mandarin
6 Lime Tahiti, West Indian (for oil Low altitude
processing)
7 Sour Orange Bitter Serville (for marmalade) Low or High altitude
8 Shaddock Kao Lan, Pandan Wangi (the Low or High altitude
largest citrus fruit)

Rootstocks
The important requirements for a citrus rootstock are the following:-
High degree of polyembryony
Good union with the main cultivar
Ability to grow on various soils
Tolerance to drought
Tolerance to virus, fungus and nematodes

The following recommended rootstocks are popularly used in citrus growing;-

1) Rough Lemon: Lost commonly adapted a wide range of soil types, makes a
quick growing tree resistant to Tristeza virus, but produces fruits of poor
quality than other rootstocks.
2) Sour Oranges: Resistant to Gummosis, but susceptible to Tristeza virus.
Fruits produced on this rootstock are of high quality, thin skinned and juicy. It
is a good rootstock for lemons, grape fruit and sweet oranges where Tristeza
is not a problem.

48
3) Sweet Orange: Shallow rooted and suited only to well-drained rich soils.
Resistant to Tristeza but susceptible to Gummosis.
4) Trifoliate Orange: More tolerant to cold weather, but susceptible to exocurtis.
Resistant to Gummosis, tolerant to Tristeza and waterlogged areas
conditions. Produces dwarf early bearing tree.
5) Rough Lemon: Rough lemon is universally used at present in Malawi.

Origin: Citrus fruits originated from S.E. Asia.

MORPHOLOGY
Stem
1. Small trees or young twigs are angled in shape, green color and then
become cylindrical and dark brown when mature.
2. There are spines at leaf axils especially on young twigs and seedling
trees. Older branches and budded trees are often spineless.
3. Seedling trees are upright but budded trees are more spreading in
growth.

Leaf
1. The leaves of citrus have transparent oil glands, with distinctive
smell.
2. Citrus leaves are ever green, one leaf can stay on the trees for about
3 to 4 years.
3. It is unfoliolate compound leaf type wirred petiole with the leaflet
making articulations.
The shape of leaf is important to diagnose citrus cultivars.

Flower
1. All citrus flowers have sweet smell at anthesis.
2. The color is white but lemons are purplish.
3. The inflorescences occur at leaf axil or at the end of a branch. They
are single like grape fruit or racemes as in sweet orange.

Fruit
1. Sizes of citrus fruits are variable. They range from 150 grams (lime)
to 1.5 kilograms (shaddock).
2. Citrus fruits are formed by parthenocarpy.
3. The peel has oil glands, yellow or orange color.
4. There are 8 to 12 segments of spindle-shaped juice sacs that are
covered by albedos.

Seed
Citrus seed is polyembryonic, one seed may contain many embryos.
Nucellar embryo is the same genotype as the mother plant.

49
IMPORTANCE
Citrus fruits are eaten fresh and also processed to make juice and marmalade.
Oil extracted from the skin is used in pharmaceutical industries. Citrus fruits are
high content in Vitamin C; a soft drink made from a citrus fruit gives a big
business in the world.

ECOLOGICA REQUIREMENTS
Temperature
Requirements are different from cultivar to cultivar. Optimum temperature is
25oC to 30oC but the maximum and minimum temperatures can be 30 oC
and 13oC, respectively.

Rainfall
Between 1, 000 and 1, 400 mm is suitable for citrus fruit growing.

Soil
Citrus trees can grow well on a wide range of soil types. They prefer well-
drained and aerated soils. Organic matter application is helpful on clay soils.
Irrigation in the dry season is also important when growing on sandy soils.

The best pH value for citrus fruit soils is 5 – 6.

RAISING SEEDLINGS
Seed Preparation
1. Fruits from healthy mother plants for rootstocks are taken. Sowing
the seeds when they are still fresh is necessary. Citrus seeds will
lose their viability rapidly. Keeping fresh citrus seeds in moist
sawdust, sand or charcoal at 10OC can store the seeds for 2 weeks.
2. Hot water treatment at 52oC for 10 minutes is required for
disinfection.

Seedbed Preparation and Sowing

1. The soil is ploughed and harrowed to 10 cm deep. Make the surface
fine and level.
2. Make the raised beds at the size of 1.2 m wide and 15 cm high.
3. Seeds are sown in drills across the beds with a spacing of 15 cm x 5
cm.
4. Cover the seeds with sand, and then soil on top. Uniform germination
would be obtained.

Management
1. They will germinate in 25 – 35 days after sowing.
2. Mulching and shading are necessary.
3. Water the beds twice a day.

50
 4. Liquid fertilizer (Nitrogen) application depends on the condition of
growth. 2 – 4 times in 2 months is required.
5. Shade the beds in the early stages of growth especially later in the
day.

Transplanting to the Nursery Beds

Three months after sowing or when the seedlings grow up to 10 – 15 cm
high select normal and healthy seedlings, transplant them to the nursery
beds. Spaces in the nursery bed are 50 cm x 30 cm.

Weed Control
Weed control is essential at both the seedbeds and nursery beds.

Budding
Nine months after transplanting or 12 months after sowing, the seedlings
are big enough for budding. Another 12 months after budding, the seedlings
are ready for planting to an orchard.

PLANTING
The spacing depends on cultivar and cultivation system. Grape fruit trees are
more spreading than orange, it therefore needs wider spacing. The following
spacing is recommended:-

Grape Fruit 6m x 6m - 7.3m x 7.3m

Oranges, Lemons 5.5m x 5.5m – 7.3m x 7.3m
Lime, Naartjies 4.6m x 4.6m – 5.5m x 5.5m

FIELD MANAGEMENT
Cultivation
Shallow hoeing must be practiced when weeding.

Irrigation
Lack of water will cause flower and fruit abortion (dropping), therefore
irrigation is important during this period.

Fertilizer Application
At juvenile stage, it is done every 3 months and during the fruit bearing
stage, twice a year.

Age (years) CAN Single Super Phosphate Muriate of Potash

0 225g - -
1 450g 112g 112g
2 675g 225g 225g
3 900g 225g 225g

51
 4-5 1125g 225g 225g
(Fruit bearing)

Age (years) CAN Single Super Phosphate Muriate of Potash

6 -10 1.4 kg 340g 450g
11-15 1.8 kg 675g 675g
12-25 2.7 kg 675g 675g
26-35 3.6 kg 900g 900g
36 + 4.5 kg 1125g 1125g

Time of Application;
Two-thirds of the Nitrogen, all the Potash and all the Phosphate should be
applied in June. The remaining nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied in
November. An application of compost every year is beneficial.

Pruning
In juvenile stage pruning is used to have a good shape. On fruit bearing trees,
only the general pruning is done in May/June.

Lemons should be pruned to maintain the height which is used for easy
harvesting.

HARVESTING
The first economic crop can e expected 5 – 6 years after planting. Citrus fruits
can be harvested when they are mature. The colour may change or remain
green.

Hold the fruit and cut the stalk to the shoulder with a snub-nosed scissors. Don’t
pull the fruit when harvesting. Any damage can cause fungal infection the fruits
deteriorate rapidly. Don’t harvest fruits in rainy days or when fruits are wet.

Lining the containers and handling with care are important to avoid bruising the
fruit.

PESTS AND DISEASES

PESTS
1. Citrus Aphid (Toxoptera citrucidus)
Clusters of small black or brown-bodied insects are found under leaves
and young shoots. They suck the plant sap and cause distortion of the
leaves. Honey dew (a sticky liquid produced by the aphids) and sooty
mould is often present. Aphids also carry virus diseases from one plant
to another.

52
Control
Spray with Malathion, Rogor E40 or Diazinon.

2. Scale Insects
Swmall, flat, scale-like insects with no visible legs, which attach
themselves firmly to the leaves, branches and fruit. They are often
associated with honey dew, black, sooty mould; ants may be present.

Control
Malthion and white oil.
Diazinon and white oil.

3. Mites
Mites are of various types. These tiny pests attack the growing
shoots, twigs, leaves and flower buds become deformed. Fruits are
also affected.

Control
As soon as signs of attack are seen, spray with Dicofol, Rogor E40 or
Sulphur.

4. Fruit Fly (Ceratitis capitata)

The adult flies lay their eggs on the fruita and when the larvae hatch out
the the fruit and the flash turn to brown skin of the fruit. If unripe fruit is
infested it may fall off before it is ready.

Control
 Spray a poison bait onto to the fruit trees every week. The bait should
be from;
Malathion 25% WP - 35 grams
or Dipteran 50% WP - 20 grams
Water - 20 litres
Sugar - 1.4 kgs
 Field hygiene; all fallen fruit should be collected twice a week and
buried deeply.

5. False Codling Moth (Cryptophebia)

Leucotreta: The adult moths lay eggs on the fruit and when the
caterpillars hatch out they bore into the pulp. A yellow patch can be seen
on the skin of the fruit where the caterpillars have entered.

53
 Control
 Spray with Malathion or Labyacid.
 Field hygiene; pick all infested fruits.

6. Orange Dog (Papilio demodocus)

This is a very serious pest of citrus fruits. The adult is a butterfly which
lays eggs on the citrus leaves. The eggs hatch into a caterpillar which
often cause serious damage by eating the leaves. The caterpillar looks
like bird’s droppings in the early stage but turns pale green with brown
markings later.

Control
If there are not too many caterpillars remove them by hand and kill them.
If the trees are heavily infested spray with Labyacid, Malathion or
Diazinon.

DISEASES
1. Armillaria Root Rot (Armillaria mellea)

Symptoms
Yellowing of the foliage, defoilation and dieback. Whole tree declines
slowly and eventually dies. In the later stages, cracks appear in the bark
at the base of the tree and white sheets of fungus can usually be seen
between the bark and the wood.

Control
Carefully clean all woody vegetation before planting and ring bark the
trees. The spread of the fungus can sometimes be prevented by digging
a trench around the infected tree.

2. Gummosis, Root Rot (Phytophthora citriphthora)

Caused by soil inhabiting fungus which attacks the bark of the tree
above and below the ground. Likely to be serious or poorly drained soils.

Symptoms
Dark water soaked appearance of bark accompanied by gum exudation.

Control
Use of resistant rootstocks and care in irrigation and drainage can
control the disease.

3. Virus Diseases
i) Tristeza

54
 Tristeza causes gumming of the bud union and subsequent quick
decline of the tree spread by citrus aphid. Only serious where sweet
oranges are budded on sown orange stock.

ii) Exocortis
This is not found in trees growing on rough lemon stocks, but may
become serious in trees growing on trifoliate orange stocks. Spread by
using infected bud wood and cause stunting of the trees.

iii) Greening
Fruit on diseases trees remain small and drops early, it is of poor quality
and a bitter flavour. Severely affected trees are stunted. Sparsely
foliated and often show considerable die back. Leaf symptoms are
similar to those of certain mineral deficiencies. The disease is
transmitted by an insect, citrus psylla, which resembles a winged aphid.
It will jump when disturbed.

2. Mango production

Family: Anacardiaceae

Botanical Name: Mangifera indica

Introduction
Mango represents a popular and widely grown fruit in Malawi and other tropical
countries. The fruit has many uses which include fresh eating, cooking, freezing
or drying. The fruit can be used at all its stages of development. It is the chief
source of vitamins A, B1, B2 and C as well as calcium.

Ecological requirements
Climate:
Mango grows well under a wide range of climatic conditions but its cultivation is
well appreciated within the temperatures of about 25oC. In areas of high
elevation above 600m, the production is minimised. And where temperatures are
above 42oC and below 10oC it will cease growing.

It does well in places with rainfall range of 750 – 3000mm per annum with a dry
season. Any rain during flowering is considered detrimental as it negatively
affects pollination

Soils

55
Mangoes do well in deep, well drained soils of loamy texture. The pH should be
between 5.5 – 7.

Mango orchard management

Propagation
Mangoes are propagated from seed or by grafting improved scions onto seedling
rootstock. There are two distinct races of mangoes – monoembryonic and
polyembryonic. In monoembryonic type, the seed contains only one embryo and
therefore it gives rise to only one plant. But in polyembryonic, the seed will give
rise to several embryos which can be separated on germination and planted as
independent plants. Naturally polyembryonic will come true to type as opposed to
monoembryonic which needs some vegetative propagation for them to bear
fruits.

Rootstock preparation.
Seeds can be obtained locally even from the local mangoes. However once
seeds are collected and the fresh has been removed or eaten, the husk should
be left in the sun to dry out for one to two days so that it is less slippery when
handling. Such seeds should be sown with a week since keeping mango seed for
more than two weeks will reduce its viability.

Remove the husk with a sharp knife, taking care not to injure the seed inside.
Sow the seeds in either germination (seedbeds) beds or in polythene pots. If
seeds are sown in germination beds, once they reach 5cm high (before brown
leaves turn green), seedlings should be carefully lifted and transplanted into
polythene pots.

The rootstock seedlings are ready for grafting when they are about 8 -9 months
old and are about a pencil size thick.

Scion preparation
Mango grows best from the terminal buds. Select terminals with mature buds and
mature leaves. Collect graft-wood with bracts covering the terminal buds
beginning to open.

The best scion is collected from tree which are about to flush (flower). Cut 10cm
long pieces of scions from the tip of the branch and remember to remove the
leaves. Scions can usually keep longer if kept in moist and cool conditions.
However for good results, use them while fresh.

Grafting
This can be done throughout the year but the best period in Malawi is during the
month of August through January so long the rootstock and scion are of good
size.

The splice or whip and wedge are the commonly used methods in Malawi.

56
Procedure
 Using a grafting knife, make cuts of 2.5cm long on both scion and rootstock.
 Place the scion in a position so that the cambium of each piece joins as much
as possible.
 Tie the joint with a plastic tape
 Place the grafted plants in polythene houses to maintain humidity to promote
proper union for easy sprouting.
 Transfer the grafts to the shed area for hardening off before planting them in
the Orchard

Planting
Mango trees should be planted in December and January when the ground has
received enough moisture. Dig holes of 60cm in diameter and 90cm deep. Fill the
hole the top soil mixed with top soil and compost. When planting, open the
middle of the filled hole just enough to accommodate the roots of the plant. Put
the plant in the middle and hold it upright so that the soil level in the pot is in the
same level with the surrounding soil.

Start filling the hole with soil by working it carefully until it is covered. Soil should
be mounted 10cm higher than the ground level since soil will be settling. Firm the
soil around the roots.
Remember to plant trees at the same height or depth in which they were in the
pots or nursery. The planting should not be done so deep as to bury the graft
union in the soil or high as to expose the upper roots.

Training and Pruning

Mango tree requires little or no pruning. However, training of plants in the initial
stages is very essential to give them proper shape especially when the graft has
branched too low. Keep at least 75 – 100cm of the main stem free from
branching. Remove branches that cross each other especially in such varieties
like Keitt and Palmer which have irregular spreading of branches.
Pruning may only be done to remove dead, diseased and poorly crossed
branches.

Deflowering
A grafted mango will start bearing in the first or second year. It is recommended
to deflower the tree to avoid early fruit bearing which might deprive the tree of
thorough vegetative growth.

Irrigation
Successful mango production is often associated with areas of well defined dry
season particularly during winter. Irrigation is necessary from flowering until the
on set of the wet periods. To induce heavy natural flowering, withheld irrigation
for 3 months prior to flowering.

57
Irrigate both young and old trees at a fortnight interval during the dry season with
20 litres of water per tree.

Fertilizer Application
Mangoes are not heavy feeders, but still there is need for some nitrogen at least
60g per tree annually. The fertilizer requirement will increase with the age of the
tree and so add 50g each year. The most recommended fertilizers are those
containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Half the quantity of this fertilizer
should be applied in November/December and the other half in February/March.

If there is no clear data on crop yields and soil type the following programme can
be pursued basing on the age of the tree.

Age of tree Fertilizer Rates

(years) (g/tree)

23:21:0 + 4S Muriate of Potash

1 250 125
2 500 250
3 750 375
4 1000 500
5 1250 625
6 1500 750
7 1750 875
8 2000 1000
9 2250 1125
10 2500 1250
11 2750 1500
12 3000 1625
13 3250 1750
14 3500 1875
15 3750 2000
16+ 4000 2000

some micronutrients can also be applied as revealed by plant/soil analysis.

These can be applied in solution form and sprayed onto the foliage. Apply these
micronutrients during dry season when the trees are actively growing. The
following concentrations are recommended:

 Zinc: Zinc oxide at 150g/100 litres of water

58
  Copper: Copper-oxy-chloride (50% copper) at 200g/100 litres water
 Manganese: Manganese sulphate at 200g/100 litres water
 Magnesium: Magnesium sulphate at 200g/100 litres water
 Boron: Borax at 100g/100 litres water or Solubor at 50g/100
litres water

Varieties:
Apart from the local mangoes, some improved cultivars which have done
extremely well in Malawi include Tommy Atkins, Harden, Irwin, Davis Harden,
Keitt and Kent.

Variety classification according to season

Early varieties Harvesting period

Palmer Early October to early December.

Tommy Atkins November to December.
Haden November to December.
Irwin November to December.
Zill November to December.
Ngowe November to December.

Mid-season varieties
Davis Haden Late November to Late December.
Anderson Late November to Late December

Late mid-season varieties

Kent Early December to early January.
Fascel Early December to early January
Boribo Early December to early February

Late varieties
Keitt Late January to late February.

Variety and fruit characteristics

1. Tommy Atkins: the fruit has very attractive colour, excellent flavour and
firmness and stores well. It resistant to most common diseases and the
fruit weighs about 0.9 Kg when mature.

2. Haden: has very good fruits but not juicy. Fruit may weigh up to 0.6kg. has
good flavour and texture, matures early and is commonly grown in
Mangochi. It stores well and good for distant market.

59
 3. Irwin: fruit weigh up 0.5kg. it is sweet, juicy and firm with good quality. It
ripe evenly and is storable.

4. Davis Haden: the fruit weighs up to 1.0kg and is susceptible to bacterial

rot. Fruits are sweet and ripen evenly.

5. Kent: has even ripening but gets uneven as harvesting tails off. The fruit
is good and stores well. Weighs up to 0.9kg. it is susceptible to bacterial
rot.

6. Keitt: requires early picking once the background green colour begins to
fade to avoid cracking problems. The fruit is better if it ripens off the tree.
May weigh up to 0.8kg.

7. Palmer: produces smallest fruit of all and weighs up to 0.3kg.

8. Anderson: has large fruits of up to 1.5kg. has high acid to sugar ratio.
Fruit cracking is common due to high water content.

9. Fascel: fruit weighs up to 0.6kg and has high acid sugar ratio. Fruits ripen
evenly and stores well.

10. Zill: fruits ripe evenly and they are sweet but do not store well since they
become soft a few hours after harvesting. Can weigh up to 0.5kg

11. Boribo: fruit weigh up to 0.5kg and has long harvesting period because
few fruits ripe at a time. The is unattractive the fruits are odorous and are
disease resistant.

12. Ngowe: an odorous variety which ripens from the bottom to the top like
Anderson. Fruits soften few hours after harvesting and may weigh up to
1.0kg.

13. Smith: large well coloured to mid season fruit. Good flesh colour and
texture.

Pest and Disease Control

Diseases

1. Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)

60
 This is a fungal disease characterised by wilting of new growths and poor
fruit setting. It is more common in wet weather. Control by applying
Dithane, Zineb and maneb as fungicides. At the rate of 300g/100litre of
water. Apply every three weeks after blossoming and after the fruits have
reached full size.

2. Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferea)

It is a fungal disease that attacks flowers, buds, young fruits as well as
fruit stalks. This is followed by flower and fruit drop, whilst leaves develop
blotchy lesions and are malformed. Can be controlled applying Karate at
200g/100 litres water. Repeat the treatment every 10-14 day interval.
Other fungicides include bayfidan at 5ml/20 litre water or baytan at
10g/20 litres water.

Pests
1. Fruit fly
The maggots of the fly damage the fruit which rot and drop. Best control is
by regular collecting and burying of all dropped fruit.

2. Mango weevil
The larva enter the fruit at flowering stage leaving no external sign of
entry. They attack and damage the seed. Fruits will often drop
prematurely. Attacked fruits will rot in storage or in transportation.

3. Scales
These appear on leaves and fruits. They can be controlled by spraying
Dimethoate 85g per 100litres water, Parathion 15%wp at 45g per 100
litres water. Spray every 3 to 4 weeks.

3. Guava Production

Family: Myrtaceae

Botanical name: Psidium guajara

Introduction:
It is an importance fruit in the tropics and has high vitamin C and also a rich
source of vitamin A.

Plant Morphology
Stem: it is a shrubby tree which grows up to 10m tall. It has smooth bark which
peels off in small flakes

61
Leaves: they are arranged opposite with depressed veins and are slightly
pubescent.

Flowers: they are axillary with 4-5 white petals and numerous stamens.

Fruits: has fruit sizes ranging to 4-12cm diameter with calyx lobes at blossom
end. The exterior of the fruit is fleshy and the centre consists of a seedy pulp.

Climate and soil requirements

Climate: Guavas are to known to tolerate wide range of environments. However,

optimum production occurs in tropical regions below 1300m where rainfall
is regular.

Soils: guava can tolerate drought, low-fertility soils as well water logged soils of
pH values ranging from 4.5 to 8.2.

Orchard management

Propagation
Most guava trees are propagated through seed although this tends to produce
seedy fruit of variable quality. Seeds will normally germinate within 2-3weeks and
should be planted when it reaches 6 months (30cm tall)

For commercial production, it is advisable that clonal plants which are known to
produce good-quality fruits should planted and these can be propagated
vegetatively.

The most efficient way to propagate a large number of plants is by chip budding
with greenwood buds from selected cultivars onto seedling rootstocks. The
operation can be done any time during warm season using seedlings which have
stems of at least 5mm in diameter.

In some cases softwood cuttings may also root fairly under residual moisture or
mist if treated with 200ppm (parts per million) of IBA (Indolebutyric acid) which
acts as a plant hormone for fast root development.

Planting
For better results, plants should be spaced at 6m x 6m. The planting holes
should be 60cm deep by 45-50cm in diameter.

Once planted, the fruits will begin to bear in 1-3years. and they may continue
doing so up to 30years.

Fertilizer application

62
Apply 650g of Double Super Phosphate fertilizer and 400g Sulphate of ammonia
per tree at least twice a year during rains. 2.5-3kg compost or khola manure per
tree at a time of fertilizer application is also recommended to boost water holding
capacity as well as nutrient availability.

Cultivars
The most common known cultivars include the following
Apple colour
Has a medium sized fruit, slightly ovate with deep pink skin. The white flesh is
creamy with fewer seeds. A good cultivar for canning.

 Chittidar
It is white fleshed with fruits of various sizes but of round ovate. Good for
canning.

 Lucknow 49
Has medium to large sized fruits which white are cream white. The flesh is
thick with high pectin content but few seeds. Good for making jelly and juice.

 Safeda
Has thin skin fruit of medium size and white fleshed but few seeds. Good
cultivar for juice making.

The most pink-fleshed cultivars include;

 Malherbe
 Red Indian
 Rolfs
 Ruby
 Van ratief
 Keerweeder

Pest and Disease control

Diseases
Diseases are generally not a problem in most areas of Africa although some leaf
and fruit spots are noticed in some orchards

Pests
1. Fruit fly ( ceratitis capitata)
The insect lay eggs in the fruit and may cause a very serious damage to the fruit.
To avoid its attack, harvest fruits when fully mature but before they completely
ripe. Collect all the fruits on the ground and burry them.

63
Use of Fenthion (Lebaycid), Dipterex, or carbaryl twice at 10day interval is
helpful.

2. Mosquito Bug (Helpeltis spp)

This attacks young fruit and leaves by piercing and sucking the sap
causing some brown spots on the leaves. Fruit may also have some
brown spots and deformed which cause cracking at a later stage.

Regular sprays of Carbaryl has proved to be effective in curbing their

infestation.

Harvesting
Picking should be done when the fruits turn yellow and should ripen off the
plant. For local markets, keep fruits in cool environment up until all are sold. For
distant markets, they should be kept at least within temperature range of 7 –
10oC and this will enable them to store for 3-4weeks so long as the relative
humidity (RH) is within 85 90%. Fruit may also be dried and made into powder
as vitamin C supplement.

Depending on variety, yields of up to 700 to 1,500 fruits (50 – 80kg) per tree can
be realised.

4. Papaya (Paw-paw) Production

Family : Caricaceae

Botanical name: Carica papaya

Introduction:
The fruit is a rich source of Vitamin A. it also contains high percentage of papain
which is a proteolytic enzyme used in meat tenderising, brewing, tannining and
textile manufacture.

Plant Morphology
Stem: the stem is usually a non-branching trunk which may reach up to 10m in
height but on average it may be between 4-5m tall.

Leaves: has palmately lobed leaves of up to 75cm across with hollow petioles of
up to 100cm long.

64
Flowers: primarily papaya is dioecious (having male and female flowers on a
separate plants) however, some cultivars are known to be hermaphrodite
(having male and female reproductive parts on plant). The flowers are
tubular, fragrant, white to orange and about 2-5cm across. They are borne
on a long, pendulous inflorescence. Female flowers are larger than males
and they are sessile (without a petiole) on the trunk. Hermaphrodite
flowers are borne in the same manner as female flowers but they are
located at the tip of the male panicles.

Fruit: it is a berry with green rind which changes to yellow when ripe in most
cultivars. The inside flesh is yellow or pink.

Seed: they are black, and are located in the central cavity surrounded by a
gelatinous material.

Climate and Soil

Climate
It is tolerant to drought conditions once the crop is established. However, in
areas with pronounced dry season, little fruit will be set except during wet
season. Irrigation is known to increase production for this crop but excessive
irrigation may also reduce the flavour of the fruit. The best irrigation method is
flood and furrow. Is also favours moderate wind to avoid mechanical damage to
the tree.

Soils
Papaya grows in a wide range of soils provided they have adequate drainage.

Orchard management
Propagation
It propagated through seed which germinates 2-4weeks after planting. For better
results, seeds should be collected from superior cultivars such as ‘Solo’ which is
regarded as the most commercial cultivar.

Seeds should be obtained from hermaphrodite plants which have been self
pollinated or crossed with another hermaphrodite which may result in producing
up to 67% hermaphrodite offspring and 33 % female offspring. On the other
hand, dioecious cultivars produce 1:1 ratio of male and female plants resulting in
having 4 - 5 times as many male plants as are needed for pollination

Vegetative propagation by Patch budding is practically possible and is the most

successful technique in improving cultivars so far.

Planting

65
The trees should be spaced at 1.8m x 1.8m to 2.4m x 2.4m apart. Holes should
be dug 90cm in diameter and 90cm deep. Fill them with top soil mixed with 5 –
10kg compost.

For direct planting, plant 4seeds per station which will be thinned to one once
flowering has commenced and plant sex is defined. One male tree for every 12
female trees is necessary in dioecious trees for proper pollination but in
hermaphrodite cultivars male trees are not necessary.

Usually the trees will begin to bear within a year except in varieties like Solo
which take up to 18months before they start bearing. The crop is capable of
giving profitable fruits for 2-3 years and after that the yields start to decline and
the tree grows taller beyond reach. It is advisable to remove the trees and make
some replants. 30 fruits per tree per year is regarded as minimum acceptable
yield levels.

Common cultivars
1. Solo: small fruited variety that produces no males. The fruits are shallow
farrowed and of pear shaped which may 0.5 – 1.0kg with excellent quality.
Once the fruit is ripe, the skin is orange –yellow and the flesh is golden-
orange. It is very sweet particularly when grown in warmer environments.

2. Waimanalo: it is a Solo selection with large fruits which are firm. The fruits
have long storage life.

3. Sunrise: another Solo selection which has fruits with pink flesh.

4. Bluestem: (hermaphrodite)

5. Graham: (dioecious)
6. Honey Gold: (female, vegetatively propagated)

Fertilizer application
Papaya is very responsive to fertilizers and recommended to properly apply
fertilizers to enhance growth. The application can be based on soil type but as a
general recommendation, 0.9 – 1.4kg of 23:21:0 + 4S in combination with 3kg
compost per tree per year is helpful. However this should be divided into two-
three applications in a year.

Pest and Disease Control

Pests
 Root-knot nematodes

66
 This is common in sand soils as apposed to soils with high moisture and
fertility. They cause galls or knots on the roots thereby reducing growth and
yield potential more especially in dry, hot conditions.

Best control is by putting mulch around the base of the tree to maintain moist
conditions within the root zones.

Diseases
 Bunchy Top
It caused by various transmitted by homopterous insects. The affected plants
will have lower yields or no fruit at all.
The best control by removing the infected plants to avoid further spreading of
the disease.

 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosprioides)

It is a fungal disease that causes spotting of fruits leading to poor fruit
quality. The best control is by applying fungicides such as benomyl.

Harvesting
Harvest fruits when they start showing signs of yellowing especially for distant
markets. Normally they should be stored at temperatures between 10 – 13oC .
Lower temperatures will cause chilling injuries and may fail to ripe properly.

5. Banana Production

Family : Musaceae

Botanical name:
Banana- Musa sapentum
Planatin- Musa paradisiaca

Introduction:
Banana is a sweet fruit often eaten raw as dessert but the plantain has more
starch and is usually cooked and eaten as a staple food in some parts Africa
including Malawi. chopped pseudostem and flower buds are supplementary feed
to animals.

Plant morphology
Root: it has fleshy adventitious roots of about 5-8cm thick and 75-140cm long.
These found on shallow surface about 15cm of the top soil layer.

Stem: underground stem is the true stem referred to as a ‘corm’ where the
leaves are attached and produces the axil buds known as suckers at later stage.
But the aerial trunk is called a Pseudo-stem since it is made of tightly clasped
leaf sheaths.

67
Leaves: leaves have a U-petiole and the leaf blade (lamina) is oval with sizes of
about 1.5 – 5m long and 70 – 100cm wide.

Flowers: the inflorescence is from a transformed growing point in the heart of the
plant. Normally banana flowers have the following parts;

Axis (rachis): on which the individual flowers are borne and attach on the
nodes

Bract: a cover on each node to protect the flower cluster. Once the fruit
start to develop, the bracts open and drop off.

Flower cluster: usually there are 12-22 flowers on each node of the axis.
This first node may have 28 flowers. These flowers are categorised as
follows
 Female flowers (pistillate flower) -these occur in the first 5-15
clusters. They have large ovary which may develop fruit without
pollination or fertilization (parthenocarpy)

 Neutral flowers- occur below the female flowers and normally

are abortive ovary flowers

 Male flowers (staminate)- occur after the neutral flowers. They

normally drop off after anthesis.

Fruit: fruit is described into bunch, hand and finger. A bunch may have 5-11
hands and each hand may 12-28fingers.

Climate and Soil requirements

Climate
It a tropical crop which grows well with temperature range of 27 – 38oC. the area
must have good rainfall of about 800 – 2000mm which should be evenly
distributed throughout the year. During dry season, irrigation is essential to
prolong the growth. In areas of strong winds, windbreaks will be needed since it
is a shallow rooted crop.

Soil
It grows well in wide of soils so long as the clay content is below 40% with good
depth. The soil should well drained and having good fertility. The pH value should
be 6.0 – 7.5.

Orchard management

Propagation

68
Bananas are vegetatively propagated by using suckers, corm or through tissue
culture. The suckers are also categorised as follows
 Sword suckers- those having narrow, sword-like leaves with a corm of
about 12cm in diameter. They are considered as the best planting material
due to their vigour.

 Maiden suckers- these are big suckers which are about to flower and are
more than 1.5m tall

 Water suckers- small suckers with broad leaves. Not good for planting.

A corm can be prepared as a planting material by simply cutting back the

pseudo-stem to 20 – 30cm, trim the roots and disinfect the corm using fungicides
or hot water treatment at 62 – 65OC for 15minutes to reduce nematodes and
fungi.

Planting
Spacing will vary depending on the cultivar. However, for most dwarf types like
Dwarf Cavendish (Kabuthu) use 2m x 2m or 3.3m x 3.3m. and for taller cultivars
like Giant Williams use 3m x 3m or 3.5m x 3.5m.

The planting hole should be of diameter 60cm and 90cm deep.

The best planting time is during rainy season and in Malawi is this around
December to January. When the soil are still moist.

Fertilizer application
Apply fertilizer by broadcasting at least 50cm away from the planting station.
Fertilizer should be applied twice a year i.e. at the beginning of rains
(November/December) and second application towards the end of the rains in
March. Each time apply 200g CAN, 250g SSP, and 175g Muriate of potash.
Banana requires more potash for strong pseudo-stem and also enrich sweetness
of the fruits. Mulch the station after applying by a layer of grass or compost.

Pruning
This is an important operation in a banana orchard in order to provide space for
bigger bunches of good quality. Usually leave three plants per station one at fruit
bearing (mother), the other one at almost half the height of the mother (daughter)
and the other one at a stage of newly shooting sucker (grand daughter). Using
the rotating method when pruning to maintain the original stations.

Propping

69
This id done to support the plant from strong winds and also the bunch weight
from falling.

Deflowering
Male flowers are cut at the flower rachis at the node of neutral flowers to avoid
wastage of plant nutrients.

Bagging
This is where the plastic bag or paper is used to cover the bunch when the last
hand starts developing and fingers are turning upwards. This will protect the fruit
from cold, dust, sunburn, chemical residuals, insects, birds and cigar-end tip rot
disease.

Cultivars
 Bananas- the common cultivars include dwarf Cavendish (Kabuthu), Giant
William, Giant Cavendish Mulanje, Katsinzi, Magombo, Nyanga za insa,
Kholobowa, Zomba Red and Zambia.

 Plantains- two known cultivars include; Ngewo (Khazanga) and Ndoki (Zeru)

Pest and Disease Control

Pests
 Banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus German)
It is a brown to black beetle of about 12-14mm long with pronounced snot. The
adult feeds on the plant especially pseudo-stem during night and lay eggs in the
upper of the corm causing lodging of stems and die prematurely

Control by applying Aldrin and Dieldrin at the base of the station or by spraying
Chlordane or parathion and practising field hygiene.

 Nematodes (root-knot nematodes).

These are slender eel worms of 0.68mm long causing dark lesions and galls
on the roots. The corm has black-brown lesions and the leaves turn yellow
and wilts eventually.

Best control is by treating the planting material and also practising rotation for
every five-year period.

Diseases

 Leaf spot (Black sigatoka)

70
 It is caused by a fungus called (Mycosphaerella muscola). The disease is
characterised by spot and patched lesions of brown-black on the leaves
causing wilting and death of the infected leaves.

Can be controlled by spraying fungicides such as copper-oxy-chloride.

 Panama Disease / Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)

It a fungal disease that attacks the vascular system of the plant through the
roots. Old leaves become yellow and may collapse at the petiole. The
pseudo-stem may split vertically and the joint of the corm and the pseudo-
stem turn black. Can be controlled by fumigation of the soil, sterilising the
tools with 5% phenol or 5% formaldehyde solution.

 Moko Disease (bacterial wilt)

It caused by bacteria that attacks the plant parts above the ground. It is
characterised by yellowing of the inner leaf lamina close to the petiole. Lower
leaves remain green but later on they turn whitish-yellow and then they dry
and become flaccid. Can be controlled by pruning and field hygiene.

 Bunchy Top
It virus disease transmitted by aphids. It causes green speckles on the
secondary veins on the under side of lamina, mid-rib and petiole. Later the
leaves become brittle and stunted forming a bunchy of leaves. Can be
controlled by removing and burning of the infected plants.

 Cigar-end-rot
Caused by a fungus Venticillum theobromas. It mainly attacks the flowers
and the infection may slowly spread along the finger and cigar-ash like stuff
will appear at the end of the fruit. Can be controlled by spraying fungicides
before bagging.

Harvesting
Bananas are considered mature when fruit fingers are fully developed and ridges
become flat. The colour turns from dark green to light or pale green.

IV. SPICES PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Spices are aromatic vegetable products of tropical origin primarily used for
seasoning or garnishing foods and beverages. In ancient times, they were valued
as basic components of incense, embalming preservatives, ointments, perfumes,
antidotes against poison, cosmetics and medicines. Little were as food. It was
during the first century A.D that spices found their way into the kitchen.

71
Importance of spices
 They give an agreeable flavour and aroma (piquancy or tang) to otherwise
monotonous or insipid food, particularly in the tropics where it consists mainly
of starch grains or roots, thereby adding greatly to the pleasure of eating.

 They stimulate the appetite and increase the flow of the gastric juices and for
this reason they are termed as food ‘accessories’ or ‘adjuncts’.

 They increases the rate of perspiration thereby helping creating the cooling
effect of the body.

 They camouflage or disguise the slightly unpleasant taste of many dried

meats.

The flavouring, preservative and antiseptic properties of the spices is primarily

due to the presence of volatile oils as well as other aromatic substances such as
alkaloids as in pepper.

In Malawi, these spices include, chillies, turmeric, ginger, pepper, coriander,

cardamom, paprika and cinnamon. However this manual will only discuss in a
much detailed way on ginger and turmeric.

The national aim on spices is to introduce and encourage spices production in all
suitable areas to satisfy local as well as export demand.

1. Ginger production

Family : Zingiberaceae

Botanical name: Zingiber officinale

Introduction:
Ginger consists of dried and digitatively branched rhizomes known as hands or
races. It was one of the earliest Orient spices known to Europe obtained by the
Greeks and Romans through Arab traders.

Botanical characteristics

72
Roots:- it has fine fibrous roots with hard laterally compressed, and often
palmately branched rhizome.

Stem:- these are annual leafy shoots are, erect, usually 60-90cm tall and are
closely invested by the sheathing of the leaf bases.

Leaves:-they are alternately arranged, linear-lanceolate, about 5-20cm long.

Flowers:- it has pale yellow flowers borne singly in the axils of large greenish
bracts of the spike rising directly from the rootstock

Environmental requirements
Climate:
The is mainly cultivated in the tropics with altitude of about 1500m above sea
level. With a constantly warm and moist conditions. It requires enough sunshine
and rainfall of about 1,500-3,000mm.

Soils
It is a soil exhausting crop requiring heavy fertilization. It favours sandy, clay or
lateritic loam soils.

Field management

Propagation
The crop is propagated by portions of the rhizome 2.5 – 5cm long with at least
one viable bud.

Planting
The crop can be planted on either beds or ridges. Beds should 120m wide and
20 -25cm high with a path of at least 50cm wide. Apply decomposed manure at
the rate of 5-10kg per square metre.

Plant using fingers or setts with the first rains. Space them at 30cm between
rows and 25cm between stations. Wider spacing is adopted for the broad leafed
varieties.

Fertilizer application
Basal dress using Single Superphosphate at the rate of 75kg per hectare by
applying 4.5g per 5-metre row length.

Top-dressing after 1-2 months from planting by using 60kg/hectare CAN at the
rate of 5.4g per 3-metre row length or Urea at 4.2g per 4-metre of row length.
During the top dressing, Muriate of Potash should also be added at least 50kg
per hectare using 4.5g per 2m row length.

The second dose should be applied using 60kg CAN or 35kg Urea per hectare.

73
Pest and Disease control

Soft rot (Pythium spp)

It is a fungal disease characterised by yellowing and drying up of leaves. The
young shoots may fall and the rhizome may stop growing and its inner tissues
become soft and turn black. Best control is by sanitation and avoiding water
logged conditions. Applying some fungicides can also help.

Rhizome rot
It is a fungal disease caused by a fungus known as Fusarium oxysporum. The
disease causes severe rhizome rot and pseudostem may collapse. It is mainly
exacerbated by wet weather. Best control is by avoiding mechanical damage to
the rhizomes particularly during weeding and other field operations.

Nematodes
At present the most common pests in ginger production is the nematode attack.
These nematodes can best be controlled by strict crop rotation and also by
treating the rhizomes (planting material) in water of 48oc for 20 minutes.

Harvesting
This is done 9-10months after planting when the leaves begin to turn yellow.
Harvest by removing the roots and the adhering soil from the rhizomes.. usually
the rhizomes are pale yellow, faintly orange or yellow-orange in colour externally
but greenish-yellow inside.

Processing
A. Dried or cured ginger.
There are two important grades of dried ginger i.e. scraped/peeled (known
as uncoated) and unscraped (coated). The scraped ginger is made by
carefully scraping the outer layer and then dry it in the sun for 5 6days.
This is the finest ginger and has very delicate aroma and flavour. For the
un-scraped ones, the rhizome is plunged into the boiling water for few
minutes (scalded) and then sun dried. Sometimes lime is added to
improve colour and appearance and also protects the spice from mildew
and other pests. The rhizome can also be bleached with sulphur fumes.

B. Preserved or green ginger.

This is prepared by boiling tender, fleshy, peeled rhizomes in water after
which can be sold as a syrup. The very similar way can be used in
producing crystallised ginger but it dried and then dusted with sugar.

The characteristic aroma of ginger is due to a volatile oil (ginger oil), while the
pungent taste is due to the presence of non-volatile oleoresin, gingerin.
Excessive scrapping of the rhizome should be discouraged since the minute sacs

74
containing the essential oil and resin are distributed throughout the rhizome
mainly in the epidermal tissue.

The principal constituents of ginger oil include zingiberene, zingiberol, chavicol,

cineole, geraniol, d-camphene and d-B-phellandrene.

In cookery, ginger is used whole as a flavouring agent. Powdered ginger is made

into curry. It is also used for culinary purposes in ginger-bread, biscuits, cakes,
puddings, soups and pickles. In distilleries, it is used for preparation of ginger
beer, ginger ale and ginger wine.

It is also used in medicinal and veterinary preparations particularly in India and

Far-East. It can also be taken internally as a stimulant and carminative

2. Turmeric production

Family : Zingeberaceae

Botanical name : Curcuma (domestica)longa.

Introduction:
Turmeric is a robust perennial herb and is one of the most important and ancient
Indian spices. Commercial turmeric is from the dried and processed rhizome of
curcuma longa indigenous to southern Asia where it has been highly esteemed
as a condiment, dyestuff and medicine since time in memorial.

Botanical characteristics
Roots: it is a thickened rhizome ‘bulb’ bearing a number of cylindrical primary,
secondary or even tertiary rhizomes (fingers).

Stem: it has short thick stem.

Leaves: leaves are large, broad, lanceolated and bright green in colour with long
leaf stalks and acuminate apex.

Flowers: they are pale yellow, borne in a dense but short spike

Environmental requirements
Climate

75
The crop thrives best in hot, moist tropical climate with altitude of up to 1500m
above sea level. And the annual rainfall should exceed 1,000mm.

Soils: it favours well-drained friable soils

Field management
Propagation
The plant is propagated vegetatively through the use of either bulbs or fingers as
planting material.
Planting

Planting
The crop can be planted on either beds or ridges. Beds should 120m wide and
20 -25cm high with a path of at least 50cm wide. Apply decomposed manure at
the rate of 5-10kg per square metre.

Plant using fingers or rhizomes with the first rains. Space them at 30-60cm
between rows and 25cm between stations. Wider spacing is adopted for the
broad leafed varieties.

Fertilizer application
Basal dress using Single Superphosphate at the rate of 75kg per hectare by
applying 4g per one-metre row length.

Top-dressing should come after 1-2 months from planting by using 75kg/hectare
CAN or Urea at the same rate of 4g per one-metre row length. This can be
repeated 2-3 months later.

Pest and Disease control

At present the most common problem in turmeric production is the nematode
attack. These nematodes can best be controlled by strict crop rotation and also
by treating the rhizomes (planting material) in hot water at 48 oC for 20 minutes.

Harvesting
The crop is harvested in about 9 – 10 months after planting when the lower
leaves develops a yellow colour. The main rhizome, along with the finger-like
offshoots, is carefully dug out by hand and fibrous roots are cut off.

Processing
Curing of turmeric is done by boiling the rhizomes in water over a slow fire until
they become soft and a few leaves should be added the cooking vessel to add
flavour.

76
The cooked rhizomes are spread out in a thin layer in the sun for five to seven
days for drying. Finally they are polished by rotating them in a polishing drums.
The final product is then graded into ‘fingers’, ‘rounds’ and ‘splits’.

Cured and finished turmeric is deep yellow to orange in colour and has a
distinctive pungent flavour. The rhizomes are rough, hard and posses numerous
encircling ridge-like rings or annulations and often produce metallic sound when
broken.

The characteristics musky odour is due to the presence of essential oils (5-6%)
of which the main constituents are; d--phellandrene, d-sabinene, cineol,
borneol, zingiberene and sesquiterpenes. The colouring is due to curcumin.

Turmeric is mainly used for colouring and flavouring margarine, butter, cheese,
fruit drinks and beverages. It is used as a vegetable dye to a yellow colour to silk,
cotton and wool.

Medically it is used to aid digestion, as a tonic and a blood purifier. Once boiled
with milk and sugar, it is taken as a remedy for the common cold. Externally, its
application tends to suppress the unwelcome growth of hairs on ladies skin.

77