Neurohormones

1) Releasing hormones from the

→ are substances which neurons use to hypothalamus
communicate with one another and with their 2) Oxytocin (Oxt)
target tissues in the process of synaptic 3) Vasopressin; also known as Antidiuretic
transmission. hormone (ADH)

** Synaptic transmission – neurotransmission

→ are synthesised in and released from nerve → Neurons communicate with their target tissues
endings into the synaptic cleft. From there, at synapses into which they release chemical
neurotransmitters bind to receptor proteins in the substances called neurotransmitters (ligands).
cellular membrane of the target tissue. → As this communication is mediated with
→ Target tissue gets excited, inhibited, or chemical substances, the process is called
functionally modified in some other way. chemical neurotransmission and happens within
chemical synapses.
→ There are more than 40 neurotransmitters in
the human nervous system; some of the more
important are:
a) Acetylcholine
b) Norepinephrine
c) Dopamine
d) Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
e) Glutamate
f) Serotonin
g) Histamine

Excitatory neurotransmitters
1) Glutamate (Glu)
2) Acetylcholine (ACh) Each synapse consists of the:
3) Histamine a) Presynaptic membrane – membrane of
4) Dopamine (DA) the terminal bouton (axon ending) of the
5) Norepinephrine (NE); also known as presynaptic nerve fiber
Noradrenaline (NAd) b) Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of
6) Epinephrine (Epi); also known as the target cells
adrenaline (Ad) c) Synaptic cleft – a gap between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
1) Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) → Inside the terminal bouton of the presynaptic
2) Serotonin (5-HT) nerve fiber, numerous vesicles that contain
3) Dopamine (DA) neurotransmitters are produced and stored. When
the presynaptic membrane is depolarized by an
Neuromodulators action potential, calcium voltage-gated channels
1) Dopamine (DA) open (found in the membranes of the terminal
2) Serotonin (5-HT) buttons). This leads to an influx of calcium ions
3) Acetylcholine (ACh) into terminal bouton, which changes the state of
4) Histamine certain membrane proteins in the presynaptic
5) Norepinephrine (NE) membrane, and results in the exocytosis of
neurotransmitters from the terminal bouton into or growth of axons. An example of this is the
the synaptic cleft. learning process – the more you study and repeat,
the more synapses are created in your brain and
→ After crossing the synaptic cleft, enable you to retrieve that information when
neurotransmitters bind to their receptors on the needed.
postsynaptic membrane. Once the
neurotransmitter binds to its receptor, the → Besides neurotransmitters, there are other
ligand-gated channels of the postsynaptic synapse-associated chemical substances called the
membrane either open or close. These neuromediators (neuromodulators).
ligand-gated channels are ion channels, and their Neuromodulation differs from neurotransmission
opening or closing alters the permeability of the by how long the substance acts on the synapse.
postsynaptic membrane to calcium, sodium, Neuromodulators aren’t reabsorbed as quickly by
potassium, and chloride ions. This leads to a presynaptic neurons or broken down by enzymes.
stimulatory or inhibitory response. Instead, they spend a significant amount of time in
cerebrospinal fluid, influencing (modulating) the
→ If a neurotransmitter stimulates the target cell activity of several other neurons in the brain. The
to an action, then it is an excitatory best known neuromodulators are also
neurotransmitter acting in an excitatory synapse. neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin,
On the other hand, if it inhibits the target cell, it is acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine.
an inhibitory neurotransmitter acting in an
inhibitory synapse. So, the type of the synapse and → Other associated chemical substances include
the response of the target tissue depends on the neurohormones. They are synthesized in neurons
type of neurotransmitter. Excitatory and secreted into the bloodstream which carries
neurotransmitters cause depolarization of the them to distant tissues. The best examples are the
postsynaptic cells and generate an action hypothalamic releasing hormones oxytocin and
potential; for example acetylcholine stimulates vasopressin.
muscle contraction. Inhibitory synapses cause
hyperpolarization of the target cells, leading
them farther from the action potential threshold,
thus inhibiting their action; for example GABA → neurotransmitters can be classified as either
inhibits involuntary movements. excitatory or inhibitory

→ The neurotransmitter released into the synaptic Excitatory

cleft acts for a very short duration, only minutes → function to activate receptors on the
or even seconds. It is either destroyed by postsynaptic membrane and enhance the effects of
enzymes, such as acetylcholine esterase, or is the action potential,
reabsorbed into the terminal button of the
presynaptic neuron by reuptake mechanisms and Inhibitory
then recycled. The best-known neurotransmitters → function to prevent an action potential.
responsible for such fast, but short-lived
excitatory action are acetylcholine, → In addition, neurotransmitters can also be
norepinephrine, and epinephrine while GABA is classified based on their chemical structure:
the major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
a) Amino acids – GABA, Glutamate
→ Repeated synaptic activities can have b) Monoamines – serotonin, histamine
long-lasting effects on the receptor neuron, c) Catecholamines (subcategory of
including structural changes such as the formation monoamines) – dopamine, norepinephrine,
of new synapses, alterations in the dendritic tree, epinephrine
 Increased levels: Mania, anxiety states,
schizophrenia
Acetylcholine
→ secreted by more postganglionic sympathetic
Type: Excitatory in all cases except in the heart nerves.
(Inhibitory) → stimulate the processes in the body
Released from: Motor neurons, basal ganglia, → important in the endogenous production of
preganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous epinephrine.
system, postganglionic neurons of the → has been implicated in mood disorders such as
parasympathetic nervous system, and depression and anxiety, in which case its
postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic concentration in the body is abnormally low.
nervous system that innervate the sweat glands → abnormally high concentration of it may lead
Functions: Regulates the sleep cycle, essential for to impaired sleep cycles.
muscle functioning
Increased levels: Depression Epinephrine
Decreased levels: Alzheimer’s disease, → also known as Adrenaline (Ad)
Huntinton’s disease, Parkinson’s disease
Type: Excitatory
→ its main function is to stimulate muscle Released from: Chromaffin cells of the medulla
contraction. However, the only exception to this, of the adrenal gland.
where the acetylcholine is an inhibitory Functions: The fight-or-flight response (increased
neurotransmitter, is at the parasympathetic heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose production
ending of the vagus nerve. These inhibit the heart from the liver)
muscle through the cardiac plexus.
→ the nervous and endocrine systems prepare the
→ It is also found in sensory neurons and in the body for dangerous and extreme situations by
autonomic nervous system, and has a part in increasing nutrient supply to key tissues.
scheduling the “dream state” while an individual
is fast asleep. Acetylcholine plays a vital role in Dopamine
the normal functioning of muscles. For example,
poisonous plants like curare and hemlock cause Type: Both excitatory and inhibitory
paralysis of muscles by blocking the Released from: Substantia nigra
acetylcholine receptor sites of myocytes (muscle Functions: Inhibits unnecessary movements,
cells). The well-known poison botulin works by inhibits the release of prolactin, and stimulate the
preventing vesicles in the terminal bouton from secretion of growth hormone
releasing acetylcholine, thus leading to paralysis Decreased levels: Parkinson’s D and Depression
of the effector muscle. Increased levels: Mania and Schizophrenia

Norepinephrine → it is a part of the extrapyramidal motor system

→ Also known as, Noradrenaline (NAd) which involves the basal ganglia, dopamine is
important for movement coordination by
Type: Excitatory inhibiting unnecessary movement.
Released from: Brainstem, hypothalamus, and → In the pituitary gland, it inhibits the release of
adrenal glands prolactin and stimulates the secretion of growth
Functions: Increases level of alertness and hormone.
wakefulness, stimulates various processes of the → Deficiency of the neurotransmitter is related to
body. the destruction of the substantia nigra leading to
Decreased levels: Depression parkinson’s disease.
→ increased activity of the dopaminergic neurons → Inappropriate glutamate neurotransmission
contributed to the pathophysiology of psychotic contributed to developing epilepsy and cognitive
disorders and schizophrenia. and affective disorders.
→ Drug and alcohol abuse can temporarily
increase dopamine levels in the blood, leading to Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)
confusion and inability to focus. → intimately involved in emotion and mood
→ However, an appropriate secretion plays a role It is found in platelets (thrombocytes) which
in the motivation or desire to complete a task. release it during coagulation (hemostasis)

GABA Type: Inhibitory

→ Gamma-aminobutyric acid Released from: neurons of the brainstem and
→ The most powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter gastrointestinal tract thrombocytes
Functions: Regulates body temperature,
Type: Inhibitory perception of pain, emotions and sleep cycle
Released from: Neurons of the spinal cord, Increased levels: Anxiety states
cerebellum, basal ganglia, and many areas of the Decreased levels: Depression
cerebral cortex
Functions: Reduced neuronal excitability → insufficient secretion fo serotonin may result in
throughout the nervous system decreased immune system function, as well as a
Decreased levels: Huntington’s disease, anxiety range of emotional disorders like depression,
disorders, schizophrenia, and various forms of anger control probelms, obsessive-compulsive
Epilepsy disorders and even suicidal tendencies.

→ closely relate to mood and emotions Histamine

→ acts as a break to excitatory neurotransmitters;
thus when it is abnormally low this can lead to Type: Excitatory
anxiety. Released from: Hypothalamus, cells of the
stomach mucosa, mast cells, and basophils in the
Glutamate blood
→ the most powerful excitatory neurotransmitter Functions: regulates wakefulness, blood
→ ensures homeostasis with the effects of GABA pressure, pain and sexual behavior; increases the
→ it is secreted by neurons of the man of the acidity of the stomach; mediates inflammatory
sensory pathways entering the central nervous reactions
system Decreased levels: Depression

Type: Excitatory → involved primarily in the inflammatory

Released from: Sensory neurons and cerebral response, as well as a range of other functions
cortex such as vasodilation and regulation of the
Functions: Regulates central nervous system immune response to foreign bodies.
excitability, learning process and memory
Increased levels: (with Aspartate) Huntington’s → when allergens are introduced into the
disease, temporal lobe epilepsy, spinocerebellar bloodstream, histamine assists in the fight against
degeneration these microorganisms causing itching of the skin
or irritations of the throat, nose, and or lungs.
→ the most common neurotransmitter
→ takes part in the regulation of general Glycine
excitability
Type: Inhibitory
Released from: Spinal cord and brainstem
Functions: Recurrent inhibition of motor neurons
Toxic levels: Glycine encephalopathy
Decreased levels: correlated with spastic motor Alzheimer’s disease
movements. ● Neurodegenerative disorder characterized
by learning and memory impairments.
Endorphins ● Lack of acetylcholine in certain regions of
the brain
Type: Inhibitory
Released from: Hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic Depression
structures, midbrain and brainstem ● Believed to be caused by a depletion of
(Enkephalins – found in the norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine
gastro-intestinal tract) in the central nervous system.
Functions: Modulation of pain and reduced ● Pharmacological treatment of depression
peristalsis (enkephalins) aims at increasing the concentrations of
Illness: Modulation of dopamine activity by these neurotransmitters in the central
opioid neuropeptides may indicate some link to nervous system
the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Schizophrenia
Substance P ● Involve excessive amounts of dopamine
in the frontal lobes, which leads to
Type: Excitatory psychotic episodes in these patients.
Released from: Hypothalamus, thalamus, ● Drugs that block dopamine are used to
midbrain, brainstem, limbic structures, basal help schizophrenic conditions.
ganglia, and spinal cord. Also found in
gastro-intestinal tract and salivary glands/ Parkinson's disease
Function: Regulation of pain ● Destruction of the substantia nigra leads to
Increased levels: Depression the destruction of the only CNS source of
Decreased levels: Huntington’s disease and dopamine.
Alzheimer’s Disease ● Dopamine depletion leads to
uncontrollable muscle tremors seen in
Somatostatin patients suffering from parkinson’s disease
→ neuropeptide
→ expressed in a subset of GABAergic neurons Epilepsy
→ protein maker of inhibitory interneurons ● Some conditions are caused by the lack of
inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as
Type: Inhibitory GABA, or by the increase of excitatory
Released from: Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, neurotransmitters such as glutamate
thalamus, basal ganglia, brainstem and spinal ● Depending on the cause of the seizures,
cord. the treatment is aimed to either increase
Function: Stimulates release of dopamine, GABA or decrease glutamate.
serotonin, norepinephrine, an acetylcholine, and
inhibits release of norepinephrine, histamine and Huntington’s disease
glutamate. Also acts as a neuromodulator for ● Besides epilepsy, a chronic reduction of
serotonin in the hypothalamus. GABA in the brain can lead to
Increased levels: Huntington’s disease Huntington’s disease.
Decreased levels: Alzheimer’s disease ● Even though this is an inherited disease
related to abnormality in DNA, one of the
 products of such disordered DNA is the
reduced ability of the neurons to take up
GABA.
● There is no cure for Huntington’s disease,
but we still can treat symptoms by
pharmacologically increasing the
amount of inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Myasthenia gravis
● is a rare chronic autoimmune disease
characterized by the impairment of
synaptic transmission of acetylcholine at
neuromuscular junctions, leading to
fatigue and muscular weakness without
atrophy.
● Most often, myasthenia gravis results from
circulating antibodies that block
acetylcholine receptors at the
postsynaptic neuromuscular junction. This
inhibits the excitatory effects of
acetylcholine on nicotinic receptors at
neuromuscular junctions. In a much rarer
form, muscle weakness may result from a
genetic defect in parts of the
neuromuscular junction which is inherited,
as opposed to developing through passive
transmission from the mother's immune
system at birth or through autoimmunity
later in life.