SKN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE :JOBNER

(SKN AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY:JOBNER)

CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY-II (RABI CROPS)

(AGRO- 221) (2+1)

Name : ……………………………………………………..
Class : B.s.c(hons.)Agriculture Part I Sem. II (2019)
Batch : …………………………………..

College : SkN COLLEGE Of AGRICULTURE :jOBNER

Importance of cereals

 Grains are generally classified as the seeds of cereal plants. They are characterized by their
smallness, hardness and low water content.
 Most of them belong to the family of grasses, known scientifically as the family of
gramineas.
 Most of Cereals have been the staple human diet from prehistoric times because of their wide
cultivation, good keeping qualities, blend flavor and great variety.
 The cultivation of grains for human consumption was probably developed around 10,000
B.C. It signified the commencement of the era of stable civilization from the primitive
unsettled nomadic life.
 Ground cereal converted into bread for meal revolved soon thereafter. Cereals have been
modified and improved by centuries of cultivation and selective breeding.

Food Value of Grain Cereals

 The whole grains of all cereals have a similar chemical composition and nutritive value.
 They are classified as carbohydrate rich foods, for their average carbohydrate content is 70 per cent
per 100 gm. They provide energy and also some protein which is usually of good quality. The
protein content of grains varies from 11.8 per cent for wheat to 8.5 per cent for rice per 100 gm.
 Whole cereals are good sources of calcium and iron but they are totally devoid of ascorbic acid and
practically devoid of vitamin A activity.

 Yellow maize is the only cereal containing appreciable amounts of carotene. Whole grain cereals
also contain significant amounts of B group of vitamins.

 For a balanced diet, cereals should be supplemented by other proteins, minerals and vitamin A and
C found in nuts, seeds, milk, fruits and fresh green vegetables.

 Whole grain cereals play an important role in the diet. It sprouted, they provide an increase in
protein balance, as well as in all other nutrients, especially vitamin C.

Importance of sugar crops

  In addition to providing the source for the manufacture of sugar, sugar crops are used to
produce alcohol and ethanol.
 In certain countries, sugar cane is eaten raw in minor quantities.
 It also is used in the preparation of juices and for animal feed.
 There are two major sugar crops: sugar beets and sugar cane. However, sugar and syrups are
also produced from the sap of certain species of maple trees, from sweet sorghum when
cultivated explicitly for making syrup and from sugar palm.
 Sugar beets that are cultivated solely as a fodder crop and are classified as vegetable crops
 Sugar cane is a perennial grass that is cultivated mainly in the tropics.
 Sugar beet is an annual crop that is propagated by the seeds of the flowers, cultivated in
cooler climates than sugar cane
 Both sugar beets and sugar cane have high water content, accounting for about 75 percent of
the total weight of the plants. The sugar content of sugar cane ranges from 10 to 15 percent of
the total weight, while that of sugar beets is between 13 and 18 percent.
 The traditional sources of sugar are sugar cane and sugar beets.

Importance of medicinal and aromatic crops

 India is endowed with a rich wealth of medicinal plants. These plants have made a good
contribution to the development of ancient Indian medicine.
 One of the earliest treatises on Indian medicine the Charak Samhita (1000 B.C), records the use
of over 340 drugs of vegetable origin.
 Medicinal and aromatic plants are important for human health. These plants have been used
from the prehistoric times to present day. These plants based medicines are consumed in all
civilizations.
 It is believed that the herbal medicine can give good effect to body without causing side effects
to human’s life. Besides, the usage of medical plants has been increasing as an important role
that can support the economic system.
 The medical and aromatic plants for health are used as herbal treatments and therapies that can
be new habits for culture.
 WHEAT (Triticumaestirum or T. Vulgare)
Importance
Wheat is the world’s most important grain crop. Wheat rank first position in the world among the cereals
both in respect of area and production. It is a crop that primarily grown in temperature regions. It
constitutes the staple food in at least 43 countries. The most important wheat growing countries are the
USSR, USA, China, India, Canada, Argentina, Australia and a number of European countries.

Wheat is world’s most widely cultivated food crop. It is a rabi (winter) season crop. In India it is
the second important staple cereal food. It is mostly eaten in the form of chapaties. Wheat is also used
for manufacturing bread, flakes, cakes, biscuits etc. Wheat straw is a good source of feed for cattle.
Wheat contains more protein (8-15%) than in other cereals. Wheat proteins are of special significance.
The protein contained in wheat includes albumins, globulins, glutinous and gliadines. Albumins dissolve
in water. The other protein forms are insoluble in water and are called gluten. The gluten content in
wheat is the highest (16-50%). Because of gluten, wheat flour is used for baking bread.

Chemical composition of wheat grain

Starch : 60 - 6 8 % Protein : 8 %
Fat : 1 ½ -2 Cellulose : 2-2 ½ % Minerals : 1 ½ -2%

Origin
De candolle believed that wheat originated in the Euphrates and Tigris and spread from there to China,
Egypt and other parts of the world.Vavilov concluded that origin of durum wheat was Abyssinia and the
whole group of soft wheat originated in the region of Pakistan, Southwestern Afghanistan and the
southern parts of mountainous Bokhara.

Classification of wheat
1. Emmer wheat: Triticumdicoccum
This wheat is grown in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It is grown in Spain, Italy, Germany and Russia.
It was developed from T. diccoideskoru., a wild form.
2. Macaroni wheat: Triticum durum
It is drought tolerant and cultivated in Punjab, M.P., Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, W.B and H.P. It is used for
suji preparation. It is grown in Italy, USA, Canada, and Russia. They are descended from emmer wheat.
3. Common bread wheat: Triticum vulgare
It is a typical wheat of alluvial soils of Indo Gangetic plains i.e. Punjab, U.P., Bihar and parts of Rajasthan. Bulk
of Indian crop consists of this type.
4. Indian dwarf wheat: Triticumspherococcum
This is found in limited areas of M.P., U.P. of India and in Pakistan. They are characterized by very short and
compact heads having shorter grains. This belongs to the club wheat of western countries.
5. Bread Wheat : Triticumaestivum
This is the type presently grown in India in almost all the wheat-growing zones. It is introduced in India by Dr.
N.E. Borlaug of Mexico and called as Mexican dwarf wheat. It is the bread wheat.

Important varieties
Sonora 64 is dwarf variety introduced to India from Mexico. It is early ripening, resistant to
lodging, grown well in late crop rotation with sugarcane or sweet potato. Its grain contains 12.4to 14.4%
protein. When irrigated it yields 6 to 7t/ha.
Lerma Rojois a semi dwarf variety, strongly tillering. The period form blossoming until ripening is
short. The resistance to rust is high. Sowing time is late. The yields are high (7t/ha
under optimal conditions).
KalyanSonais a dwarf variety of Indian selection. Bushy, late ripening, very productive under favorable
conditions (up to 8t/ha).
Sonalikais a short stem, medium bushy, early ripening and high yielding variety distributed
(the yields are up to 7t/ha).

HD 2285
PBW 343, HD 2687, WH 542,
UP 2336,
Raj 3077, CPAN 3004, PDW 215

Growth stages of wheat plant

1. Pre establishment stage

a) Pre emergence: Sprouting of seeds by giving rise to seminal roots and coleoptiles.
b) Emergence: Appearance of coleoptiles from germinating seeds above the soil surface.
2. Vegetative stage
a) Seedling: The young plants establish larger root systems in this stage. The stage may be further
differentiated as one leaf, two leaf, three leaf and four leaf stage.
b) Crown root stage: This coincides with three or four leaf stage in which the crown roots appear.
c) Tillering: Plants develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base at soil surface.
d) Jointing: This is the stage at which the plants start elongating when the nodes start developing above
the crown node.

3) Reproductive stage
a) Booting: In this stage the uppermost leaf swells out into flag holding the spike into it.
b) Heading: The spikes start emerging out from the leaf sheath at this stage.
c) Flowering: Anthesis of florets and fertilization of ovaries takes place at this stage.

4) Post anthesis stage

a) Filling: The ovaries after fertilization start elongating in to seeds and pass through milk, soft dough
and hard dough stages.
b) Maturity : Colour of the glumes changes and kernels become fairly hard at this stage.

CRI : In wheat, the first node of crown is formed near the soil surface irrespective of the depth of
sowing. Crown roots start developing at this node. Depending upon temperature, CRI takes place 15-21
DAS. Plants at his stage are very sensitive to soil moisture stress. Hence, there is a need for adequate
moisture at this stage.

Soil and climatic requirements

Soil: Wheat is grown in a variety of soils in India. Well drained loam and clay loams are goodfor wheat.
However good crop of wheat are raised in sandy loams and black soils also. Soils should be neutral in
reaction. Heavy soils with good drainage are suitable for wheat cultivation under dry condition.Best
growth is achieved in allurial soils of Gangetic plains; but it does also well on black cottonsoils of
central India.
CLIMATE :
Wheat is mostly a winter crop. It requires cool temp ’ during early period of growth.The tillering is
favoured by cool conditions. Cool nights at seedling stage helps in utilizing the carbohydrates of the seed
which results in better growth of the plant. Generally grow in temp 2.20c-26.40c opt. temp 21.10c

Wheat requires Moderate amount of Soil moisture and low humidity which favour early ripening and
reduces lodging as a result of which the crop escapes from rust attack. Wheat is grown in areas with
annual rainfall varyin from 375-1750 mm optimum annual
rainfall required by crop is 750-1000 mm

In India, wheat is grown in areas with annual rainfall varying from 125-1125 mm. It can alsobe
growth in high attitudes. It is grown in Kashmir at an attitude of 2000-3000 m MSL. Wheat crop takes
180 days in hills of North India ; western region and 100 days in Peninsular India for maturity. It can
tolerate severe cold and snow and resume growth with the setting of warm weather. Best wheats are
produced with cool moist weather during major portion of growing period (dry warm weather during
grain ripening period)

Wheat has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in tropical and sub tropical zones but also in
temperate zones and the cold tracts of the far north. It can tolerate severe cold and snow. It can be
cultivated from sea level to as high as 3300 m. The optimum temperature range for ideal germination of
wheat seed is 20-25?C though the seed can germinate in the temperature range of 3.5 to 35?C. It can be
grown in regions where rainfall varies from 25 to 150 cm/year. The wheat plants require medium (50-
60%) humidity for their growth. But at the time of maturity crop requires less humidity and warm
season. At the time of maturity the plants require 14-15?C.

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR IRRIGATED WHEAT

Land preparation

In general, wheat requires a well-pulverized, but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination. In
irrigated areas, wheat is sown after kharifcrops, hence the field is ploughed with disc or mould board
plough followed by 2 or 3 harrowing and 2 to3 planking should be given. One pre sowing irrigation 7
to10 days before seeding is necessary to ensure good germination.
Seed rate

Normal recommendation 100-125 kg /ha

Broadcast requires higher seed rate – 150 kg
For dibbling 25-30kg is sufficient

Seed treatment: Treat the seeds with any one of the fungicides at 2g/kg of seed 24 hoursbefore sowing.
Spacing: For normal sown crop : 20 to 22.5 cm between the rows
For delayed sowing : 15 to 18 cm.

Depth of sowing: Since the coleoptiles length is 5 cm, depth of sowing should not more than 5 cm and
the optimum depth of sowing is 2.5 to 5.0 cm.

Method of sowing
a) Broadcast sowing : Seeds are broadcasted and then worked in by harrowing to cover the seeds.
Germination is very poor and plant stand is often irregular, since the seeds are not placed in the
moist zone. High seed rate and it is an inefficient method.

b) Sowing behind the country plough: A majority of farmers use this method. The seed isdropped
in furrows by hand and it is called as 'Kera method' and when it is droppedthrough a 'pora', a
special set of attachment with local plough it is called "Pora method".In this method seeds are
dropped at 5-6 cm depth.

c) Drilling: Seeds are sown by seed drill or ferti seed drill. In ensures uniform depth ofsowing,
proper placement of fertilizers and good germination

d) Dibbling : This method is used in the case where supply of seeds is limited, using theimplement
is called "Dibbler". It is not a common method, because it is timeconsuming.

e) Transplanting : It is not a common practice. When the sowing delays beyond Ist week
ofDecember, seedling are raised in the nursery and transplanted on 25 DAS at 2 or 3seedling per
hill at the row spacing of 15 cm x 5to 7.5 cm. The varieties Kalyansona andSonalika are best for
transplanting.
Manures and Fertilizer: A crop of wheat yielding 50 q/ha (5 t/ha) removes 100-150 kg N/ha,70-80 kg
P2O5 and 120-150 kg K2O/ha from the soil. Fertilizer application should be made based on the soil test
recommendation.
FYM or compost : 12.5 t/ha at last ploughing and incorporated

Weed Management: Critical weed free period up to 30 DAS.Post emergence application of Isoproturon
(Tolkan 50% WP or Arelon 50% WP) on 30 to 35 at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding or
combined application of Isoproturon 0.75 kg ai/ha + 2,4-D at 0.5 kg ai/ha on 30 to 35 days is more
effective for control of monocot and dicot weeds …………...or pre-emergence application of
pendimethalin 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days is more efficient and
economical method.

Water Management: Wheat requires 440 to 460mm of water. Irrigation at 50% available soil moisture
or 50% depletion of available soil moisture is optimum. The critical stages of crop for irrigation
1. Crown root initiation (21-25 days)
2. Tillering (45-60 days)
3. Jointing (60-70 days)
4. Flowering (90-95 days)
5. Milky stage (100-108 days)
6. Dough stage (120-125 days)

Of these, irrigation at CRI stage is the most important and delay of every day results in reduction of
1.4% grain yield/day. It has also been noticed that if any of following irrigation is delayed or missed, the
yield is reduced to the extent of 5 to 10 q / ha.
Harvesting and threshing: Harvest when the leaves and stems turn yellow and becomes fairlydry.
Harvest when there is about 20-25% moisture content. Harvesting is done by using sickle or bullock
driven reapers or by using Combine Harvester. After threshing and cleaning, the grain is dried in the sun
for 3 to 4 days for getting 10 to 12 % moisture for storing.

Yield: 4.5 to 5.5 t/ha

Post Harvest Technology:
Wheat is usually ground into flour before used as food. Earlier days stone grinding was done. Nowadays
steel roller mills are available for grinding.

Process of milling:
Before milling wheat is tempered by adding water about 24 to 48 hours earlier to milling so that the
moisture of grains comes around 14%. This allows better separation of bran from the endosperm. Wheat
is eaten as atta in the north and west, in the south and east as maida and suji. Rava is consumed mainly in
the south. Pasta is a mixture of flour and salt. Pasta products comprise vermicelli, noodles, macaroni and
spaghetti.

Storage: If the moisture content of grain is more than 12% they are eaten up by storage pests.
There is marked deterioration in weight, taste, nutrients or nutritive value and germination of
wheat grains when they are stored. Safe storage means ensuring that the stored grains retain
their original weight, taste, nutritive value and germination.

1. Centre of origin of Barley is Asia & Ethiopia

2. In India the highest producer of barley is _ U.P
3. The inflorescence of barley is called ___spike
4. Most critical stage of irrigation in barley is _Tillering
5. Barley crop needs ___Cold & dry climate
6. Photoperiodically, barley is a type of plant is ________ Long day
8. Shoot of barley is called Culm
9. Leaf of barley is ..Sessile
10. Salt tolerant variety of barley …Amber
11. __ RD 13_ variety is suitable for malting
 BARLEY (Hordeum vulgare)

It is important next to rice, wheat, maize in area and production It is more suitable than wheat in India o Dueto
hardy nature ,Can withstand adverse agro-environments like Drought, Salinity, Alkalinity Varied like plain,
hill Under rainfed and irrigated It is the crop preferred by farmers where wheat is not possible

Economic importance :
Barley is a rabi cereal cropIt is the most important cereal of the world and it is the major source
of food for large number of peoples in cooler semi arid parts of the world. It is the staple food crop of
people in Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. In European country, it is used only as break fast food. Important
food crop in higher altitude. Flour is used for making ‘Chapati’ along with wheat flour or gram flour
and used as “MissiRotti”. Used for preparation of malt, beer, whisky and industrial alcohol, vinegar.
Mainly used in malt and brewing industries. Grain is broken and roughly ground in to pearl barley to be
used in soup. Excess grain is used as cattle feed and horse feed. Medicinal value, used for biscuit
making. Nutritive value : Protein – 11.5%, Carbohydrates - 74%, Fat – 1.3%, Crude fibre – 3.9%, Ash –
1.5% (3.69).It belongs to genus Hordeum.

Origin:
i) Core group of investigators considered Abyssinia as the centre of origin for hulled, awned type.
ii) Another group considered South-East Asia particularly, China, Tibet and Nepal as centre of
origin for hull less six rowed varieties.

Classification of barley :
Cultivated barley varieties are classified based on number of rows of grain and their arrangement.
1. Six rowed barley : Hordeum vulgare
2. Two rowed barley : Hordeumdistichum
3. Irregular barley : Hordeum irregular

Of these, six rowed barley is the most commonly cultivated type.

Climatic requirement :
Similar to Wheat. Comes up well in cool climate. Warm and moistcondition are not conducive. It
requires around 12-150 C during growing period and around 30oC during maturity. It cannot tolerate
frost. Frost and Hailstorm at flowering are detrimental.Rain at the time of ripening causes discolouration
of grain and it is not good for malting or seeding. The crop possesses high degree of tolerance to drought
and Sodic condition.

Edaphic or Soil requirements :

Sandy to moderately heavy loam soil of Indo-Gangetic plains having neutral to Saline in reaction and
medium fertility are most suited for barley. Being a salt tolerant crop, it is the best substitute for sodic
soils and also for saline coastal soils in West Bengal and black soils of Karnataka. A higher spot with
efficient drainage would be best location for barley. The soil should not be very fertile which causes
lodging and reduce the yield. Acidic soils are not suitable.Tolerant to salinity and alkalinity but sensitive
to acidity Being salt tolerant best substitute for sodic soil Drained, fertile deep loam soil with pH 7-8
Barley grown in high N often lodges

Season:
Rainfed crop : Before end of October or first week of November.
Irrigated : Ist or IInd week of November
Late sown : Up to December
Hilly Zones (2000 m): Ist week of November.
Seed Rate:
Irrigated : 75 to 100 kg/ha.
Rainfed : 80 to 100 kg/ha.
Saline soil : 100 kg/ha.
In very high altitude of 2000 m above MSL, grown only as summer crop. Sowing during end of April or
Ist week of May . Similar to Wheat.

Spacing : Irrigated crops : 23cm row spacing Rainfed crops : 23-25cm row spacing

Depth of Sowing : rrigated crops : 5cm depth Rainfed crops : 6 to 8cm depth
Varieties recommended : Two type of varieties are sowni) Huskless and ii) Hulled barley
I. Suited for hilly areas : (Northern hills)
1. Himami: Developed at Simla. Medium to lower hills. 140-145 days, 3.2-3.6 t/ha.
2. Dolma: Medium to high elevation. 140-150 days. Resistant to yellow rust. 3.5 to4.0 t/ha.
3. Kailash: Six row hulled variety. Medium to lower elevation. 145-150 days. Resistantto yellow
rust. Yield:4.0 t/ha.

II. Rainfed areas

1. Ratna: Six rowed hulled variety. Developed at IARI. 125-130 days, 2.5-3.0 t/ha – UP.Grown in
WB, Bihar.
2. Vijay : Developed at Kanpur, 120-125 days,. 3.0-3.5 t/ha. Suited for cultivation in UP, Delhi,
MP, Punjab
3. Azad: Developed at Kanpur. Resistant to yellow rust. 115-120 days. 3.5-3.8 t/ha.
4. Ameru: Developed from Kanpur, 130-133 days, 2.5-3.0 t/ha. Best for production ofMalt for
brewing.
III. Irrigated areas

1. Jyoti: Six rowed hulled variety. Developed from Kanpur. 120-125 days, 3.5-4.0 t/ha.
2. Ranjit: Six rowed, semi dwarf, non lodging.125-130 days. 3.0-3.5 t/ha. Recommended for
commercial cultivation
3. Clipper: Two row barley variety. 135-140 days, 28-30 q/ha. Best for malt productionand
brewing purpose.
4. Karan 18 and 19 : 5.0 –5.6 t/ha. Best varieties.
5.
Dual purpose varieties (Fodder and grain): Ratna, Karan 2 , Karan 5 and Karan 10.

Selection of variety for malt purpose

oPlumpy medium good quality
o Select the seeds having 1.2 to 1.5% N
o Timely sown crop
o Not from well fertilized soil
Land preparation :
Barley being a shallow rooted crop responds well to light textured, fineseed bed. One ploughing with
soil turning plough followed by 2 or 3 ploughings with desi plough or 2 or 3 harrowings by tractor or
bullock power. In areas where termites are problematic, mix the soil with BHC 10% at 20-25 kg/ha or
aldrin 5% dust at 10 to15 kg/ha.

Seed treatment :
Treat the seeds with either Captan/Thiram/Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seeds. In the case of saline and rainfed
areas, sowing of overnight soaked seeds results in a quick germination and also ensures better stand.

Fertilizer management :
Apply FYM at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing
Condition Recommended
Irrigated crop 60 : 30 : 20
Malt production 30 : 20 : 20
Rainfed 40 : 20 : 20
Method and Time of application: 50% N and 100% P and K as basal. Remaining 50 % N at 30 DAS
(Ist irrigation). In rainfed and saline soils, entire fertilizer should be drilled below 8 to10cm depth as
basal.Light Textured soil: N should be applied in 3 splits. ? as basal + ? during first irrigation + ? during
second irrigation.

Method of Sowing : Similar to Wheat 1) Broadcasting 2) Pora and Kera method.

Water management: It requires 200-250 mm water. 2-3 irrigations are adequate. Light soilrequires 4
irrigations. Following are the critical growth stages for irrigation.
1. Seedling or sprouting stage
2. Active tillering stage (30-35 DAS)
3. Flag leaf
4. Milling stage or soft dough stage.
Of these active tillering stage around 30-35 DAS and grain filling (60-65 DAS) are most critical.
Weed management : Up to 30 days is critical. Monocot and dicot weeds found are similar to that of
wheat. 1) Post emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 kg/ha + 0.5 kg/ha 2,4-D combination on 35-
40 days (3-5 leaf stage) effectively control both dicot and monocot weeds + one hand weeding or
pendimethalin (pre emergence) 1.0 kg/ha + one hand weeding is economical than that of two hand
weedings.

Barley based cropping system: Barley being a short duration crop is more suitable forrotation than
wheat. The following are the common rotations.
Paddy - barley Cotton - barley
Jowar - barley Maize - barley
Bajra - barley Urdbean - barley
Barley is grown mixed with crops like
1. Chickpea + barley 4. Mustard + barley
2. Pea + barley 5. Linseed + barley.
3. Lentil + barley

Harvest : Similar to that of wheat. Timely harvest ensures quality grain and prevent different losses.
Threshing either by using animal or mechanical threshers. Then winnowing and cleaning are done.
Storage of grains at 10-12% moisture level.

Yield : Grain: 3.0-3.5 t/ha Straw :4.0-5.0 t/ha

Hulled barley is not accepted by consumers. Now two improved huskless varieties viz., Karan 18 and
Karan 19 have been released and there is a great demand for them among the farmers.

Importance of oilseed crops

The crops that are cultivated for the production of oils are known as OILSEED CROPS. Oilseeds are the
raw materials for vegetable oils and they are energy rich crops. Oilseed crops are the most important
commercial crops in India. Edible oils are next to food grains in Indian diet. The Rapeseed and Mustard,
Sesamum, Sunflower, Safflower, Linseed, Soybean, Niger, Groundnut and Castor are the most important
oil seed crops of India.
Classification:-
The oilseed crops are classified according to the nature of oil produced as follows:

1) EDIBLE OILSEED CROPS:-

The most important source of supply of edible oils are the seeds known as edible oil seeds and the crops
belong to this category are known as edible oil seed crops. E.g., Rapeseed & mustard, sesamum,
groundnut, niger, sunflower, safflower, soybean etc.

2) NON-EDIBLE OIL SEED CROPS:-

The most important source of supply of non-edible oils are the seeds known as non-edible oil seeds and
the crops belong to this category are known as non-edible oil seed crops. E.g., Castor, Linseed etc.

Nutritional Value o f Oilseeds :-

The bio-chemical composition and quality of the oilseeds and their products are important for the food
and feed purposes./// Edible oils are the concentrated sources of energy. The energy content of oil is
much higher (39.80 MJ/kg) than protein (23.88 MJ/kg) or carbohydrate (16.76 MJ/kg). ///They contain
useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids and vitamins A,D,E and K. and provide essential fatty acids.
///Oil cakes/ oil meals are rich sources of protein (40-60%) to human and animals. They can also be used
as organic manures.//Oil quality for food purpose can be described in terms of Saturated Fatty Acid
(SFA), Monounsaturated Fatty Acid ( MUFA) and Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid ( PUFA) . Saturated
Fatty Acid (SFA) - Palmitic and Stearic acid //They have direct relation with blood cholesterol and
coronary heart diseases as it increases low density lipoprotein that is harmful . Unsaturated Fatty Acid
(SFA) - Oleic, Linoleic , Linolenic and Erucic acids. Linoleic & Linolenic acids (Poly Unsatutated Fatty
Acids – PUFA) are Essential fatty acids (not synthesized by human body and are to supplied from
outside) and if theyare absent, it leads to physiological disorders.They increase high density lipoprotein,
which is beneficial. Groundnut, coconut, sesame and sunflower oils have moderate amounts of saturated
fatty acid but lack in one essentia l fatty acid i.e. linolenic acid Soybean, safflower and mustard oils
have both essential fatty acids as Linoleic and Linolenic acids. Rapeseed and mustard oil have high
amount of erucic acid, an anti nutritional factor and leads to coronary diseases.
 Rapeseed and Mustard (Brassica sp)
Rapeseed and Mustard are the major rabioilseed crops of India. It is next to Groundnut in area and
production, meeting the fat requirement of about 50 per cent population in all the northern states. It is
one of the most edible oilseed crop of Indo-Gangetic plains.
In India rapeseed and mustard account for about 27% of total oilseeds and 31% of totalvegetable
oil production. In common Indian language, ‘Raya’ refers to mustard while sarson, toria and taamira are
rapeseed.
It is grown as oilseed crop as well as condiment and for their medicinal use. The young plants are used
as vegetable as they supply enough sulphur and minerals in the diet. In the tanning industry,mustard oil
is used for softening leather. It is used in the preparation of hair oils, medicines, soap making, greases
etc...
The oil cake is used as a cattle feed and manure. It is a rich source of protein(40%).But its useis
limited due to the anti-nutritional factor Glucosinolate. Refined oil is called colza is used in
Europe

Origin and distribution:

The growing of rapeseed and mustard were known from time immemorial in India and these were
mentioned in all AyurvedicSamhitas. It seems that Rai (Indian mustard ) (Brassicajuncea) was
introduced into India from China. Its probable origin is Africa. It is extensively grown in Europe,Africa
and Asia.From India it spread to Afghanistan and other countries. China is the largest producer of these
crops. Afghanisthan together with adjoining areas of N-W India is one of the independent centres of
origin of brown sarson.

India accounts second position in area and third position in production. China, India and Pakistan
accounts for 90% of world production. Other major producing countries are Canada, Germany and
France.
Classification
There is lot of confusion and misunderstanding about the names and kinds of rape and mustard that are
grown in India. The same local vernacular name may be used for forms and different local names are
used for the same form in different areas. Singh (1958) tried to remove this confusion by giving the
following description of Indian rape and mustard.Rape and mustard belonging to the family Cruciferae
and genus Brassica. Brassica includes the following important oilseed species.

Rapeseed: (Brassica compestrisvar. Sarson and toria): It is a herbaceous annual plant. The plant is
shorter than mustard (rai). The height of the plant ranges between 45 and 150 cm. The stems are
generally covered with waxy deposit. Plants of rape are easily distinguished from mustard (rai) by the
character of leaves. In rape leaves are born sessile and are glabrous and hairy. The lower part of blade
(lamina) grasps the stalk partially or completely. Fruits are thicker than those of mustard (rai) and are
laterally compressed, with a beak of one – third to half their length. Seeds are either yellow or brown
with a smooth seed coat.

Mustard (Brassica juncea): It is known as rai . The plants are tall (90-200 cm), erect, and branched. The
leaves are not dilated at the base and not clasping as in the case of rape but are stalked, broad and
pinnatified. The fruits (pods) are slender and only 2 to 6.5 cm long, strongly ascending or erect with
short and stount beaks. The colour of the seed is brown or dark brown. Seed coat is rough.

Varieties:
a) Toria : Agrani, Bhawani, Parbati, Anuradha and T-22( Punjab selection)
b) Mustard : PusaAgrani, PusaJaikisan. Geeta, Kranti, Jagannadh, Jawahar Mustard 2,
Vasundhara,Varuna, Vardhan, M-27

Soil:
Brassicas can be grown on wide range of soils as Alluvial,medium loam, sandy loam or heavy loam soils
.. Heavy clay soils, subjected to water logging are not desirable.
Climate requirements:
Rapeseed and mustard are of the tropical as well as the temperate zone crops. Grown as rabi
crop. It requires relatively cool temperature and a dry harvest period. Cool temperature, clear dry
weather with a plentiful of bright sunshine accompanied with adequate soil moisture increases the yield.
These favourable conditions are existing in northern India. It is grown in rabiseason from September-
October to February –March. They prefer moderate temperature of 24-28oC with an optimum of 20 oC.
Brassicas grow well in areas receiving 350-550 mm of rainfall.Sarson and Taramira are preferred in low
rainfall areas where as raya and toria are grown in medium to high rainfall areas respectively. Toria is
more liable to suffer from frost and cold is, therefore, usually sown earlier and harvested before the onset
of frost. Rape seed and mustard are long day plants. These crops neither tolerant to drought nor water
logging.

Crop Rotation and Cropping Systems :

Mixed cropping: It is grown as a mixed crop with wheat, barley during winter season.
Intercropping: Brassicas are generally intercropped with rabi crops. Some Profitable systems are
Wheat + Mustard 4:1 Gram + Mustard 4:2
Barley + Mustard 6:1Intercropping in autumn planted (adsali) sugarcane has increased the net returns
without affecting the yield of sugarcane.
Land preparation:
A fine seed bed requires to ensure good germination. In rainfed areas wheretoria, brown sarson or raya
are taken as a pure crop after khariffallow seed bed preparation should be started during mansoon rains.
For getting good yields the field should be well prepared first by ploughing deep with soil turning plough
followed by two cross cultivations. Every ploughing should be followed by a light rolling or planking so
that soil is finely pulverised and levelled. Care should be taken to see that weeds and stubbles etc. are
removed from the field and that the soil contains adequate moisture to ensure good germination.

Seeds and sowing:

Planting time is the single most important variable affecting the seed yield of rape and mustard to a great
extent. Since the rate of development of oil in seed is greatly influenced by
variation in atmospheric temperature, humidity and other biotic factors, sowing either too early or too
late have been reported to be not desirable. In case of mixed cropping they are generally sown in rows
1.8 to 2.4 meters apart in the main crop. 5 to 6 kg seed should be sown in rows at a depth of 2.5 to 3.0
cm in case of a pure crop. When sown mixed with some other crop, 1.5 to 2.0 kg seed per hectare is
sufficient. Sowing could be done either behind the local plough or through seed drill. Before sowing
seed should be treated with thiram or captan @ of 2.5 g per kg of seed.
To ensure good seed germination and early seedling vigour, seed must be soaked in waterbefore
sowing. This is best done by covering the seed with moist gunny bag. The seed can be mixed with equal
quantity of sand for uniform seed distribution at sowing.

Depth of sowing : 3 – 4 cm
Spacing ; 30 x 10 cm or 45 x 15 cm

Time of sowing:
Toria: 1st fortnight of September
If wheat is to follow sow the crop by the end of August
Sarson: 3rd week of September to 2nd week of October
Raya: 2nd week of October to 2nd week of November.
Thinning of the plants at 20-25 days after sowing to maintain a plant to plant distance 10 to 15
centimetres.
Manures and fertilizers
12 -15 tons of FYM ha-1 Under irrigated conditions, if the preceding crop is heavily manured, brassicas
can be grown on residual soil fertility. The nitrogen requirement varies from 20 – 160 kg/ha depending
on the soil type, rainfed or irrigated and yield potential of that variety. The recommendation is 30-60
kg/ha under dryland condition and 100-120 kg/ha under irrigated conditions. Based on the
recommendations of ICAR – 40, 60, 80 kg N /ha for toria, sarson and raya respectively. One tonne of
rape/mustard removes 9 to 11.3 kg phosphorus. It seems 20 kg/ha P 2O5 is sufficient for rainfed and 50
kg/ha for irrigated crop.
Response to potassium is uncertain. In highly K deficit soils, 20 kg/ha K 2O Half of N at sowing and the
remaining half at first irrigation. Whole P & K to be applied at the time of sowing. Rape seed and
mustard have higher re quirements for sulphur; therefore, nitrogen should preferably be applied through
ammonium sulphate and phosphorus from single super phosphate.Incoarse textured soils, application of
20-20 kg S/ha is suggested. But higher rates of sulphur application may increase the antinutritional factor
glucosinolates. Among micro nutrients, Zn and Boran have positive role in increasing the yield of raya.
In rice fallows, 25 kg ZnSO4 applied to rice is sufficient for the succeeding brassica crop. Application of
2 kg boran/ha is sufficient to meet the requirement especially on saline soils.

Irrigation:
Due to scanty winter rainfall, brassicas show favourable response to irrigation. About 60% of
the total area under brassicas is under irrigation. Among the brassicas, raya is most responsive to
irrigation. Rape and mustard have low water requirements.It ranges from 450 – 600 mm. Generally they
are grown utilising the residual moisture of the monsoon in medium to heavy soils. In toria, yellow
sarson and raya, two irrigations have been found to be beneficial. With regard to the time of irrigation, it
is recommended to dealy the first irrigation as much as possible. This helps the plants to branch well,
which in turn results in profuse flowering and fruiting. The best time for first irrigation is when the
flowering has sufficiently advanced. The second irrigation should be given at fruiting stage. Ridge and
furrow system results in yield advantage with 20% saving in irrigation water.
Weed control:
Brassicas are fast growing crops and rarely infested with second flush of weeds. In early stages the crop
should be kept free of weeds since the weed competition results in serious yield losses. 2-3 weedings are
necessary. First weeding along with thinning, and remaining weeding at fortnight interval. One
Intercultivation at 3 weeks after sowing is beneficial. PPI of Fluchloralin @ 0.5-0.75 kg/ha is also
effective. Pre emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 – 1 kg/ha or Oxadiazon 0.5 – 075 kg/ha. Post
emergence application of herbicides is limited because of smothering effect of brassicas.

Harvesting and threshing:

Toria is the earliest brassica oil seed crop to be harvested. It takes about 80-100 days for maturity and
thus this crop is ready for for harvest from middle of December to middle of January depending upon the
time of sowing and variety used. Rai can be harvested in 110-180 days. Yallowsarson 130-160 days.
Brown sarson 105-145 days. When the crop is ripe, the leaves become yellow, the plants are uprooted or
harvested with the help of sickles. Sarson is less liable to shattering. But in case of mustard care should
be taken to see that it is harvested just before the pods open in order to avoid heavy losses from
shattering of seeds. Threshing can easily be done by beating with sticks. The pods easily shatter and give
away seeds. The seeds should be dried for a couple of days before they are stored.

Yield Attributes:No. of plants/unit area, No. of pods/plant, No. of seeds/pod and test weight

Yield: Average yield of rapeseed and mustard is about 500 kg ha-1. Toria gives an yield of 800-1000 kg
ha-1. Rai is the highest yielder of all. Average 12-15 q ha -1 have been reported.

Oil Quality Considerat ion : Seed colour could be yellow, black or white or brown depending upon the
cultivars. Yellow coloured seeds have lesser seed coats, hence higher oil content. The light coloured oil
from yellow seeds of brassicas are the premium oils to enter trade. The brassica oilseeds have the oil
content of 30-48% in air dried seeds. Colour of the oil is yellow to brown. Rapeseed and mustard oils
have anti nutritional factors like erucic acid. However, varieties are now being developed with reduced
erucic acid (<2%). The cultivars with <2% of erucicacid in oil and < 30 micromoles/gram of
glucosinolates in oil meal are called as Conola varietiessuitable for edible purpose. It is also desirable to
have less linolenic acid (<3%) and higher linoleicacid(>30%) for prolonged cooking and higher shelf
life. But brassicas destined for industrial purpose should contain higher erucic acid (>60%) as it has high
heat stability and used as lubricating oil, fossil fuel and additive to diesel.
SUNFLOWER Scientific Name : Helianthus annusFamily: Asteraceae

It is an important oilseed crop contributes 14% of the total oilseed production from nine major oil seed
crops. The genus Helianthus (Helio=Sun, anthus= flower). Sunflower is known as a “suryajmuki” as it is
grown for ornamental purpose. It is the third most important oilseed crop of world after soybean, Rape
seed& Mustard in India . The helio tropic movement is of great importance. The area and production of
sunflower crop significantly increased due to following merits of the crops.

1. Short duration (90-100 days) as it is fit well in multiple and intercropping systems.
2. Photo insensitivity of crop enables its cultivation in all seasons i.ekharif, rabiand summer
3. Wide adaptability: it comes well up in any type of soils.
4. Drought and saline tolerant: suitable for the best component crop in dry land farming.
5. High productivity per unit area per unit time with respect to yield of oil.
6. High seed multiplication ratio (1:80) with low seed rate requirement.
7. It is the best substitute for groundnut crop in contingency crop planning.
8. Due to cross pollination nature, there is a great scope for evolution of high yielding composites and hybrids.
9. It is the best catch crop when the land is left otherwise fallow between two seasons
10. Availability of good quality of hybrid seeds and varieties.
11. Good quality oil with high level of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content i.e linoleic and oleic
acids. Llinolenic acid is absent.
.
USES/ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. The oil content varies from 48-53% and it is premium oil with pale yellow in colour used for
cooking and margarine.
2. Sunflower is a rich source of linoliec acid (64%) which helps in reducing the cholesterol
deposition in the coronary arteries of the heart. All most of 90% fat is good for human.
3. Sunflower oil has high oxidative stability and it is more useful as frying oil.
4. Sunflower oil is used as industrial feed stock for manufacturing cosmetics, soaps and
pharmaceuticals.
5. Oil contains high level of alpha tocopherol, a form of vit. E.
 6. Oil cake contains 40-50% high quality protein and it is ideally suited for poultry and livestock.
7. The roasted kernels are used as food for human beings.
8. Sunflower is grown as green manure, fodder crop.
9. The bast fibre of the stem is source for making rough quality paper.
10. Recently sunflower oil is recognised as an alternative source for diesel engines with octanerating
of 37 and it is rated as number 2 diesel oil.

ORIGIN: Southern USA (Peru) & Mexico In 1972, commercial cultivation of sunflower was started in
our country with the introduction of Russian cultivars namely; EC 68413, EC 68414, EC 68415 and
Sunrise.

CLIMATE:
 Basically sunflower is a temperate oil seed crop but it is adapted to tropical and
subtropicalclimate.
 The crop requires a cool climate during germination seedling growth and warm weather
fromseedling to flowering. Warm and sunny days during flowering to maturity are
mostfavourable.
 Minimum temperature for germination is 8-10o c but it can germinate even up to 400c.
 Night temperature of 18-200 and day temp. of 24-260c are ideal for growth, yield and higheroil
content.
 The growing degree days for sunflower have ranged from 1042 to 1300 with basetemperature of
100c. Lenoleic levels decreases at higher temperature.
 The crop is photo insensitive as it flowers at wide range of photoperiods. Optimum daylength for
better yield should be >12 to 14 hours.
 High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and rainfall at the time of flowering resultsin
poor seed set.
 Fairly drought tolerant with deep root system and comes up in areas receiving minimumrainfall
of 500-700mm upto an altitude of 2500 MSL.
 Latitudinal effect was more significant. Generally it is grown between 400 S to 550 Nlatitudes
but most of the production is concentrated between 200S to 500N latitude.

SOILS:-
Sunflower can be grown on wide range of soils but it does best in medium black to black soils with high
moisture retention capacity. Sunflower does not with stand waterlogging. Good drainage is preferable for
cultivation of crop. Yield and quality is drastically reduced when soil salinity reaches 10 to 12 ds/m.
Optimum soil pH for sunflower in 6.5 to 8.5.

Varieties: Maruti, KBSH 44, Pro Sun 09, NDSH – 1, DRSH – 1, MSFH – 8, APSH – 11, Jwalamukhi,
Sungene 85Hybrids : TNAUSUF 7, DRSF 108, EC 69874, EC 68413, EC 68414 (Russian) Sunrise
selection (Canadian )

Field preparation:
Sunflower requires a well pulverised seed bed for better germination and growth. One/two ploughings
with soil turning plough (or) M B plough followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking are sufficient to
bring desired soil tilth.

Seeds and sowing:

For quick germination, under rainfed condition the seed should be soaked in fresh water for about 14
hours followed by shade drying as sunflower seeds have thic k hulls and imbibes water at slow rate. This
process is called seed hardening. Sunflower seeds cannot be used as seed, immediately after harvest of
crop since seeds will have dormancy period ranging from 40-50 days. To overcome the dormancy, treat
the seed with ethereal solution for 6 hours.

Time of sowing:
Sunflower being a photo insensitive can be grown irrespective of the season.
Kharif: Telangana and Rayalaseema: First week of August.
Coastal: last week of August.
Rabi (rainfed): First F N of step. - First F N of Oct.
(Irrigated): November – December.
Summer: second FN of January - First week of February
The sowing date of Sunflower can be adjusted in such a way that flowering period does not coincide
with heavy rains because it affects pollination and seed set.
Depth of sowing: optimum depth of sowing is 4-5 cm.
Seed treatment: Captan/ Dithane M- 45 @ 3g/kg seed
Seed rate:
Rain fed (kgha-1) Irrigated (kgha-1)
Varieties: 8-10 6-7
Hybrids: 5-6 4-5

Spacing: varieties: 45 × 30 cm Hybrids: 60 × 30 cm

METHOD OF SOWING:
Line sowing by seed drill is recommended (or) behind the plough. Direction of rows preferably
North – South as the sunflower head in phototropic from emergence to flowering. The head and
leaves face east in morning and west in evening. Phototropic nature ceases one day before the ray florets
open.
Thinning: Done at 15 DAS to avoid competition and to maintain single plant/ hill.

Manures and fertilizers:

Sunflower crop producing 2.0 t/ha seed and 3.2 t/ha stover removes 82 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 72 kg
K2O, 9.4 kg Sulphur and 37 kg Ca. It deprives soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals. Nitrogen
is essential for vegetative growth and Phosphorus to improve seed size with proper filling. Sunflower
crop is supposed to deplete the soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals. Nitrogen is most limiting
element in sunflower production. The response to N, P and K is higher than other crops. FYM @ 5-10 t
ha-1 2-3 weeks before sowing.
Rainfed crop: 60: 40: 30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O / ha , ½ N as basal and ½ N at 30 DAS
Irrigated crop: 80: 60: 40 kg N, P2O5 and K 2O / ha

Hybrids responds upto 120 kg N ha-1

1/3rd N, 1 P 2O5 &1 K2O as basal
1/3rd N at 30 DAS (Button stage)
1/3rd N at 55 DAS (flowering stage)

Sulphur is essential for increasing oil yield; addition of elemental sulphur at 25 @ kg ha-1 is
recommended to soil at last ploughing. The response of sulphur is 13 kg seed/ kg sulphur applied.
Synergistic interaction was observed between sulphur and nitrogen. SSP is the best source for
phosphorus as also supplies required sulphur.

In Zinc deficit soils, foliar spraying of ZnSO 4 @ 1% is beneficial.

Borax @ 0.2 % to Capitulum at ray floweret opening improves the seed filling and oil content.
Irrigation:
1. Sunflower is highly responsive to irrigation. The total water requirement of sunflower is 500- 600
mm.
2. It has the ability to withstand short periods of drought as the crop root system extending up to2 m
depth. One of the reason for preferring sunflower than other crops like groundnut,sorghum and
cotton by the farmers was mainly due to stable yields even under low rainfallsituations and its
physiological plasticity i.e. it completes life cycling tailoring the growthand development to
available moisture.
3. Under moisture stress conditions, centre portion of head is not filled properly and reducethe yield
significantly.
4. The critical stages for moisture in Bud initiation (30 DAS), flower opening (45-50DAS)(most
sensitive to moisture stress) and seed filling (60-75 DAS)
5. The total number irrigations depend up on seasons i.e. 3-6 for kharifand 4-8 for Rabi.
6. Irrigation should be stopped at 20 days before harvesting.
7. Sunflower is an excellent indicator plant for identifying the moisture stress.
8. Irrigation should be given at 50% DASM at all growth stages except at critical stage
whereirrigation is given at 30 DASM.
9. Irrigation at IW/ CPE of .5-1.0 is ideal.
10. On an average WUE is 50-60 kg seed ha-1cm-1.
11. The crop is irrigated by ridge and furrow method.

Weed control:
Sunflower has slow growth rate during 4-6 WAS hence weed free condition during the period results in
better yields. The crop weed competition in sunflower is 30-45 DAS i.e. 4-6 WAS Two inter cultivations
or hand weedings at 15 & 30 DAS is recommended.
·PPI: Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i ha -1
· PE: Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. ha-1
· Alachlor @1-1.5 kg a.i ha-1
· Post Emergence: not recommended since the crop is sensitive to most of the herbicides and pollinating
agents are also damaged, however Nitrofen @ 0.5 kg ha-1 is recommended.
Earthing up at knee high stage is recommended to avoid lodging the crop before flower opening.

Harvesting:
1. The sunflower crop is ready for harvesting when the moisture content of seed is 20%. The
sunflower head is mature physiologically at 35-40 Days after flowering. It ranges from 90-100
DAS.
2. The heads are ripe when back of the head turns yellowish brown and lower leavesbecome brown
to dark brown.
3. The harvesting should be done with the help of sickle by removing the head. Theharvested head
should be thoroughly sun dried and threshed by beating the centre of thehead with small stick or
threshers are also useful. Then winnowing, drying and storage ofseeds.
4. Delay in harvesting leads to losses due to birds and shattering in the field itself.

Yield:
Rainfed: 10-15 q/ha
· Irrigated: 20-25 q/ha
· Stalk yield: 10-12 q/ha

Quality : Oil content in kernel is 48-53% and oil content in seed is 28-35%. Protein is 14-19%, crude
fibre – 16-27% . Sunflower oil is of premium quality because of its colour,flavour and good nutritional
quality. It contains high levels of linoleic acid whereas saturated fatty acids as palmitic and steiric acids
are of only 15%. Being free of any toxic constituents, it is an excellent edible oil.

Amino acid composition : Sunflower protein contains higher proportion of essential amino acids. It
contains higher methionine. Sunflower protein is highly digestable and has high biological value.
 BENGALGRAM (Gram, Chickpea) Cicer arietinum

TWO TYPES
Kabuli types: Large seeds (>26g/100g seeds) more or less rounded, pale cream colour, constitutes 15%
production
Desi types : Smaller seeds (17 to 26g/100 seeds) irregular shapes and various colors, constitutes 85%
production

IMPORTANCE
1. Most important pulse crop of India, constitutes 37% area and 50% production of pulses & nearly
75% in acreage and production
2. Predominantly consumed as dhal or for preparing variety of snack foods, sweets and condiments
3. Fresh gram serves as vegetable and eaten raw
4. Bhusa used as cattle feed
5. Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
6. Contains 17 to 21% protein, 4.5% fat, 61.0% carbohydrate
7. An acidic liquid from glandular hairs of the plant are collected at night, which contain 94%
maleic acid and 6% oxalic acid has medicinal value and used in preparation of vinegar

ORIGIN: South west Asia, probably Afghanistan and/or Persia

DISTRIBUTION
 India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Ethiopia, Turkey
 States in India are Bihar, Haryana, MP, Maharastra, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP

SEASON AND VARIETIES:

 Mid October to early November is the optimum time of sowing in India
 Desi varieties : Radhey, G-24, BR-78, RS-11, Ujjain-24, Chaffa, Co-2, Co-3, Co-4
 Kabuli varieties : HC-3, K-5, C-104, L-550, L-144

SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT

  Grown on wide range of soils from medium to heavy black soils, mixed red and black soils or in
alluvial soils but requires well drained loam or sandy loam
 Generally grown in areas which receive annual rainfall is 800mm
 Grown from sea level to 1800 m
 The pH range is between 5.5 to 8.6 ,Optimum pH range is 5.7 to 7.2
 Does not withstand water logging, saline alkaline conditions
 Long day plant and optimum temperature is 24 ?C to 32 ?C
 Rainfall requirement is 60 to 90cm/annum

FIELD PREPARATION
 Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
 To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or composted
coir pith to get additional yield of 15 – 20%

SEEDS AND SEED TREATMENT

 Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24
hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser with rice gruel 15
minutes before sowing
 Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @
10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
 Seed rate Kabuli type 80 to 100kg/ha and desi type is 60 to 75 kg/ha
 Seeds soaked in 1% KH2PO4 for 4 hours and then shade dried before sowing

FERTILISER APPLICATION
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing
Rainfed: 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P2O5 / ha
Irrigated: 25.0 kg N + 50 kg P2O5 / ha

SOWING
Spacing Kabuli type 45x10 cm and Desi type 30x10 cm
Depth of sowing suggested is 10cm
Pora method is better than broadcast and furrow covering should be followed with plank

WATER MANAGEMENT
Grown mostly as rainfed crop
Flowering and pod filling stages are critical periods of irrigation
Avoid water stagnation especially at all stages

WEED MANAGEMENT
 Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence 3DAS followed by one
hand weeding 30DAS
 If herbicides are not applied give two hand weeding on 15th and 30th DAS

CROPPING SYSTEMS
 In Tamil Nadu intercropping after paired row planting one or two rows of coriander give higher
net return
 Intercropped with cotton, wheat barley and sunflower is common
 Rotations are Paddy-chickpea, Maize-chickpea, Groundnut-chickpea, green gramchickpea,
sesame -chickpea and black gram-chickpea

HARVESTING
 Harvesting the plants when all the pods are matured and stack and thresh the pods and extract
seeds
 Present average yield is 0.7 t/ha. A good crop of desi variety can yield 1.5 to 2.0t/ha while Kabuli
varieties can yield 2.5 to 3.0 t/ha. TN varieties yield 1.0 t/ha
 LENTIL (Lens culinaris)

IMPORTANCE
It is an important rabi pulse. One of the oldest and most nutritious pulse .It has the potential to cover the
risk of rainfed farming.It is also used as a cover crop to check soil erosion. It is eaten as dal.The split dal
are deep orange (or) orange yellow in colour. It contains protein 25.0%, carbohydrate 60.0% and Fat
1.8% It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin. Being a leguminous crop fix atmospheric nitrogen and
improve soil fertility. Whole pulse is known as Malka masoor.

ORIGIN: Eastern Mediterranean consists of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt.

DISTRIBUTION
India, Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Spain, and Bangladesh. India ranks first in Area and Production followed
by Turkey. In India, it is mostly grown in central and eastern parts of India, i.e. M.P, U.P, Bihar and
West Bengal.

Classification;
1. Small seeded group sub sp. microspermae (masuri)
2. Bold seeded group sub sp macrospermae (malkamasur)

SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT;

It requires cold climate sown in winter season. Can be cultivated up to 3000m above MSL.
Not affected by rain at any stage. Can be raised with moisture conserved during monsoon period. It is a
very hardy plant .Can tolerate frost and severe winter Requires cold temperature during vegetative
growth and warm temperature at the time of maturity. Optimum temperature for growth is 18 to 30C.
North India-Light loams and alluvial soils, M.P and Maharashtra - Well drained, moderately deep, light
black soils, Punjab-undulated lands. The crop can with stand moderate amount of alkalinity. Acid soils
are not suitable.

LAND PREPARATION
Soil should be made friable. Proper moisture in soil for proper germination
SEED RATE AND SOWING
Normal sown: 30 to 40 kg/ha
Late sown: 50 to 60kg/ha
Seed treatment with Fungicide and Bacterial culture
Time of sowing Second fortnight of October
Delayed sowing Heavy yield reduction after 15th November
Yield reduction can be minimized by Closer spacing .Higher seed rate.
METHOD OF SOWING
Line sowing : 30cm row spacing (behind country plough)
Broad casing : just like rice fallow pulses
Late sown condition : 20cm spacing
Depth of sowing : 2 to 3 cm

WATER MANAGEMENT
1 to 2 irrigation
1st irrigation : 40 DAS
2nd irrigation : at flowering (or) pod formation

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
N: 20 to 25 kg/ha
P: 50 to 60 kg/ha
Whenever cultivated after rice 0.5% ZnSo4

WEED MANAGEMENT
Fluchloralin 0.75kg ai/ha as pre -planting spray (or) Hand weeding twice at 30 DAS and 60 DAS

HARVESTING
When the plants dry up, pods mature and moisture reaches 12%.

YIELD: 1.8 to 2.0 t/ha

 SUGARCANE
Saccharum officinarum

Introduction
Sugarcane is an industrial crop with acreage of about 4 million hectares and production to the tune of
300 million tonnes in India. It provides employment to over a million people directly or indirectly
besides contributing significantly to the national exchequer. In commercial agriculture, the cane is
subjected to various weather conditions and stresses. In Indian subtropics erratic availability of moisture
and frequent occurrence of red rot disease severely impair the productivity of cane. Sugarcane is an
industrial crop with acreage of about 4 million hectares and production to the tune of 300 million tonnes
in India. It provides employment to over a million people directly or indirectly besides contributing
significantly to the national exchequer. In commercial agriculture, cane is subjected to various weather
conditions and stresses. In the Indian subtropics erratic availability of moisture and frequent occurrence
of red rot disease severely impair the productivity of cane.

Genus : Saccharum is derived from the Sanskrit word "sarkara - white sugar
· It is an important crop in the Indian sub-continent.
· Sugar industry is second largest agro-based industry next only to textiles
· Sugarcane crop contributes more than 62% of world sugar production.
· S-cane provides cheapest form of energy giving food [sucrose].
· In addition to sugar, 38 value added products are obtained.
· Juice is used for making of white sugar, brown sugar [khandasari] and jaggery
· Is a source as bio-fuel, fibre, fertilizer etc. by products viz, bagasse [power of sugar mills} and
molasses [main raw material for alcohol].

Area & Production

Brazil has the largest sugarcane area
Cuba, China, Pakistan, Mexico, S. Africa, Australia, Indonesia, are cane growing countries.
Today, India ranks second in the world, after Brazil, in terms of area (4.1 m.ha) and sugarcane
production (355 million tonnes in the year 2007)

RJ India World
Area (m ha) 4 20. 42 (m ha)
Production (m t) 167 1333 (m t )
Productivity( t / ha) 68

Origin : S. officinarum is Indo Myanmar china border and New Guinea as centre of Diversity.

By products in sugarcane industry

There are many end uses - probably more than 150
But many of them are of negligible economic interest
38 end-products are potentially important
But four main byproducts of the sugarcane are: o Cane tops o Bagasse o Filter mud / press mud and
Spent Wash o Molasses
• Cane tops
o Cane tops have no real market value
o They can be compared to fair quality fodder with an average feed value,
o when fresh, of about 2.8 MJ of metabolizable energy per kilo of dry matter.
o However cane tops should be collected and transported from the cane fields to the feedlot

• Bagasse
o It is the fibrous residue of the cane stalk left after crushing and extraction of the juice
 It consists of fibres, water and relatively small quantities of soluble solids - mostly sugar
o Utilizations are:  Electricity  Particle board  Paper  Furfural
• It is a colorless, inflammable, volatile, aromatic liquid
• 25 tonnes of bagasse to produce 1 tonne of furfural
• Furfural has many industrial uses:
• Selective solvent for the refining of lubricating oils
• As an intermediate in the production of nylon and resins

Filter mud / pressmud o The precipitated impurities contained in the cane juice, after removal by
filtration, form a cake of varying moisture content called filter mud
o This cake contains much of the colloidal organic matter anions that precipitate during clarification, as
well as certain non-sugars included in these precipitates
• Filter mud / pressmud o The use of filter mud  As animal feed has not proved economically
rewarding, the main constraints being the magnitude of the drying process involved and the low
digestibility of the dried scums
 As soil nutrient there is limitations • Higher values of C.O.D. and B.O.D .
• Wax percentage in substantial quantity which prevents microbial action
• High concentration of various chemicals which are detrimental to survival of beneficial microflora
• Bio-degradation being exothermic reaction survival of microbes except thermophiles is difficult
• Due to above mentioned difficulties, bio-degradation of pressmud and spent wash is a difficult process

• Molasses o Molasses is the final effluent obtained in the preparation of sugar by repeated
crystallization o It is the residual syrup from which no crystalline sucrose can be obtained by simple
means
o The composition of molasses varies but, on average, would be as follows:
 Water 20%  Other carbohydrates 4%
 Sucrose 35%  Nitrogenous compounds 4.5%
 Fructose 9%  Non-nitrogenous acids 5%
 Glucose 7%  Ash 12%
 Other reducing sugars 3%

o For distillery industry

o Alcohol and related products
o Export to some developed countries as raw materials
o It is an ingredient to animals feed
o The yield of molasses is approximately 3.0 percent per tonne of cane but it is influenced by a number
of factors (2.2 to 3.7 percent) The specific gravity varies between 1.39 and 1.49, with 1.43 as indicative
average
There are 3 cultivated species of sugarcane :
Saccharum officinarum,
S.barberi,
S.Sinense ,
and two wild species : Saccharum spontaneum , Saccharum robustum
The plant
Grass family with tillering capacity
Above ground parts are o Stem of stalk with nodes and internodes .
Leaves , Inflorescence
Roots o Sett roots developed from root primordial
o Shoot root , thicker branched
o Buttress roots, fibrous branched

Climate:
A growing season which is long and warm with adequate rainfall or irrigation, long hours of bright
sunshine and higher relative humidity which permits rapid growth to build up adequate yield (more
tonnage) and a ripening season of around 2-3 months duration having warm days, clear skies, cool nights
and relatively a dry weather without rainfall and higher difference in day (maximum) and night
(minimum) temperatures for build up of sugar are required

Temperature : Optimum cane growth is achieved in temp. between 24 & 30o C

Rainfall : In India, grown in areas ranging from 600 to 3000 mm, rains at active growth period
,encourages rapid cane growth, cane elongation whereas rains at ripening period, leads to poor juice
quality.
Humidity: High humidity coupled with warm weather at vegetative growth is essential, humidity of 45
to 65% + limited water supply is must at ripening phase
Sunshine : S’cane is sun loving plant. Higher sunshine hours, favours higher cane yie ld, sugar recovery
Frost : In, N.India extreme cold conditions will arrests cane growth

Soils:
Crop can be grown on various types of soils varying from sandy to heavy clays. Moderately heavy and
medium deep loams, are better suited than heavier and shallow soils Soil must be of good depth and
drainage with no compactness.
Tillage
 Field is ploughed 2-4 times with iron plough and pulverization to break the clods.
 Surface soils are dug to a depth of 20 cm to facilitate drainage and deep root system. Tractor
ploughing is a common practice
Planting Season
 Optimum time for Sugarcane planting is December to end of March month ending.
 For coastal districts it is January- Middle of March, for Rayalseema it is January to February
middle.
 in Telangana for Eksali crop during December to January middle,
 For Adsali crop it is August – September middle is the optimum time of planting.

Duration of Sugar cane crop varies 10-18 months

• Kamsali crop : < 10 months
• Eksali crop : 10-12 months
• Adsali crop : 12-18 months

Planting materials :
 Vegetative propagation o Known as seed pieces or setts
Buds on sugarcane germinate and give plants
Planting materials may be
 Single bud sett or Chip bud
 Two budded setts
 Three budded
 Seedlings raised from nursery
 Seedlings raised by poly bags or
 Tissue cultured seedlings

For sett planting  Sugarcane setts are prepared from nursery cane
 Nursery cane is younger than (6-8 months) juice cane

Ideal cane sett

Ultimate plant stand and yield depends on the type of seed material used.
The characteristics of good seed cane material are
o Free from disease and pest infestation
o Age of seed crop is around eight months
o Setts should have healthy buds without any damage in handling and transport
o Buds with higher moisture content, adequate nutrients, higher amount of reducing sugars
o Cane should be free from aerial roots and splits
o Pure in quality

Preparation of setts
  Use of sharp knife to cut setts
 Treat the setts immediately with fungicide solution
 Machine cutting and mechanical planting is also followed in developed counties

Planting Material
1) Sett : Propagated by vegetative methods by planting the stem of immature cane, known as setts.
Buds on sett germinate to give plants. Top setts are taken from a crop ready for harvest For
planting, setts should be free from pests and disease
2) Rayungans : Setts with shoots produced by cutting of the tops of standing Canes
3) Seblang : Tiller separation is also an ideal method. Clump with its sett intact is transplanted.
Survival is better and growth quicker. If labor is not scarce this method is appropriate.
4) Space transplanting [STP] : Nursery beds of 10x5 m ,30 days old seedling for transplanting
.600-800 single bud setts are planted in bed @ 2 tons /ha seed material is sufficient against 6-7
tons/ha .Single budded setts from top half of cane is planted, by Normal watering & other
management aspects are followed .
Some of the advantages are :
 Uniform crop stand
 Low incidence of pests and diseases.
 Reduce cane lodging.
 Increase in seed multiplication
 Around 25% yield increase are the advtg of this method
 High stalk pop 1-2 lak canes /ha

5. Tissue culture technique : This technology is mostly used in reviving degenerated varieties.
Meristem tips are grown in artificial laboratory conditions Multiplication is faster. Used to develop seed
material from limited number of buds

Suitable Varieties for different situations

Late maturing varieties (12 -13 months): Co 7219, Co7706, Co8011, CoR8001.

Mid-late maturing varieties (11-12 months) : CoA7602, CoT8201, Co7805, Co8021, 85R186,
86A146, 87A 397, 83V15, 83V288.
Early maturing varieties (9 -10 months) : Co6907, Co7505, 90A 272, 81A99, 82A123, 83A145,
81V48, 85A261, 86V96, 84A125, 91V83, 93V297, 83R23, 87A298.

Under rain fed conditions for planting in February: Co6907, 81A99, 85A261, 81V48, 83R23,
CoT820, CoA7602, 87A298, Co7210.

For Planting in May - June: Co6907, Co8013, 84A125, 85A261, 81A99, 87A298, 81V48, 91V83,
93V297.

For water logged (swamp) conditions: Co697, 84A125, CoR8001, 83V288, 83V15, 81V48,
91V83, 87A298, 85A261, 87A261, 87A397, 89V74.

For Moisture Stress conditions: Co6907, CoT8201, CoA7602, Co7219, 84A125, 85A261, 83V15,
81A99, 83R23, 89V74, 83V288, Co7508.

For redrot affected areas: Co7508, CoA7602, Co8014, CoR8001, 85A261, 87A298, 90A272,
Co6907, 86V96, 83R23, 91V83, 88R58, 92A126, Co7219, 86V96, Co7805, Co7706, 83V15, 89V74,
87A397.

Smut disease tolerant varieties: Co8013, Co8014, 81A261, 84A125, 81A48, 83V15, 83V288,
83V96, 89V74, 93V297, 90A272, C07805, 86A146, 87A397.

For jaggery preparation: Co7706

For Saline / Alkaline Soils : 81V48, 81A99, CoT8201, 93A14

Three bud setts Fig.

Seed treatment
 Dipping of setts, which are sufficient for one acre planting, for 15minutes.
 In a solution containing 150gms carbendazim and 600ml of malathion mixed in 300 litres of
water before planting will control pineapple disease and scale insect.
  To avoid grassy shoot disease hot water treatment of seed material at 520C for 30 minutes or
treatment with aerated steam at 540C for 4 hours to be done.

Spacing
· Mostly planted by opening a furrow with ridges .
· Row to row spacing varies from 60-90 cms
· Adsali Planting : 120 cm row spacing is followed
· Early varieties' : 80cm
· Mid late varieties : 90 cm

Sugarcane Planting Methods

1. Planting in flat beds

It is very popular method on Northern India and in parts of Maharashtra. Shallow furrows of 8-10 cm
deep are made. Distance between two rows should be kept 75-90 cm. Generally 3 budded setts are used
to plant in the end to end planting system. The furrow is covered by 5-7 cm of soil and field is leveled by
planking. There should be adequate moisture in the field at the time of planting In most parts of northern
India and some tracts of Maharastra, cane is planted by this method

2. Ridge and Furrow Method:

The method is adopted in areas with moderate rainfall but have drainage problem. Deep furrows are
opened in 'v' shape,10-15 cm deep in N. India,20 cm in S.I. It is also practiced in Eastern UP,& in
Peninsular India particular in heavy soils. Setts are planted end to end. Immediately after covering the
setts water is let into furrows

3. Trench Method or Java method

In some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the crop grows very tall and the strong winds
during rainy season cause lodging of cane, trench method is adopted to save the crop from lodging.
Trenches at a distance of 75-90 centimeters are dug with the help of ridger or by manual labour.
Trenches should be about 20-25 centimeters deep. After this already prepared mixture of fertilizers
(NPK) should be spread uniformly in the trenches and mixed thoroughly in the soil. The setts are planted
end to end in trenches. Gamma BHC 20 EC at the rate of 5 liters in 800-1000 liters of water per hectare
is sprayed over planted setts in trenches to control termites and shoot and root borers. The tractor-drawn
sugarcane planter is suitable device for planting cane in trenches.

4. Rayungan method
It is Indonesian term meaning-a developed cane shoot with single sprouted bud. A portion of field is
selected for Rayungan produc tion is left at harvesting time. The top of the cane is cut off which results
auxiliary buds begin to sprout. For quick and effective sprouting, fertilizer especially nitrogen in heavy
dose is applied and field is irrigated. After 3-4 weeks sprouted buds are separated in single bud setts
&transplanted on ridges. It is costly hence is not commonly adopted in India however is usually used for
filling gap..

5. Distant Planting Method

It was developed at Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR) Lucknow. Single budded setts are
planted in nursery @ 20 q/ha or 18000 setts/ha After 45-60 days single budded setts are planted in main
field at 90cm×50cm.

6. Pit Planting / Ring pit method

Method is very popular in Tillah soil in Assam and also in Kerala hilly tracts. Pits are made at
interspacing of 20-30cm in rows along the contours with row to row spacing of 75 cm, Organic manure
is placed at bottom of pits. Cane setts are placed in the triangle in pits and covered with soil System can
be used in rain fed agriculture
.
7. Skip Furrow Planting It is common in Orissa. It is hybrid of flat and trench method. Trenches are
dug 45 cm apart & gap of 90 cm is left after each two rows

8. Sabling or Sprouting Method: Plants are sown in fertile soil with wide spacing, shallow planting,
frequent irrigations and adequate fertilization. Tillers soon after they develop their own roots are
separated from the mother plant and planted separately. It is very successful in Java and Cuba.
9. Tjeblock Method Improved over Rayunga n method because it takes care of proper availability of
energy and nutrient to all the buds. Here stalks are cut off at its half length and planted vertically with
node in the soil for rooting. Planted ones and the mother stalks are adequately irrigated and fertilized.
Now the upper buds of both Tjeblocks and mother cane, which sprout in due course of time, are planted
by cutting them into setts, as rayungans.

10. Bud transplanting:Sugarcane buds with half of its stalk can be planted in small polythene bags
filled with organic manure and soil After sprouting they can be transplanted in the main field. The
polythene is tore at the bottom for the easy rooting. There is less mortality about 5 % only.

11. Transplanting technique (STP technique) Seedlings are raised in a nursery bed using single bud
setts. About 6 weeks old seedlings are transplanted Advantages by adopting this system are o Saving in
the seed cost .Only about 2-3 t/ha against the normal 8-10 tonnes/ha. Synchronous tillering leading to
uniformly maturity .Sufficient time availability to prepare the main field .Saving of 2-3 irrigations
.Possibility of increased cane yield .Better weed management .Efficient fertilizer management

12. Algin method of sugarcane planting In this method, Uppe r most nodes are collected while striping
the canes for crushing. Then planted in wheat field in rows after every 4 rows of wheat at 90 × 50 cm
The method was developed by Allahabad Agriculture Institute, Allahabad.

13. Partha" method

A technique developed by Mr. S.V. Parthasaradhy an eminent sugarcane scientist. Suggested for water
logged or excess soil moisture conditions (coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu during N-E monsoon
period) In this method o three eye budded setts are planted in a slanting position, 60° to the vertical, in
the wet furrow or half-way on the ridges Usually one eye bud is thrust into the soil and the remaining
two will be above, which will sprout . Once the monsoon recedes, the in situ sprouted setts are pressed
down into the soil and made to lie horizontally ,Soil is put to the base . At this stage, the crop is
manured
Recommended planting method
 Ridge and furrow method is easy and mostly followed
 Areas subjected to water logging immediately after planting : Partha method
 Farm with Drip irrigation Facility- Paired row planting
 Saline soils - Modified trench method
 Ridges are made at a spacing of 60-75 cam with a depth of 25 cm and irrigation and drainage channels
should be opened along the field borders at regular intervals.
 Phosphates are applied in the furrows, then treated setts are placed in end to end or in over lapping
fashion.
 Setts are covered with soil and irrigated
 Dry planting followed in light soils
 In heavy soils furrows are irrigated soil is brought to more or less puddle condition and setts are pressed in
the soil ,which is called as “wet method”
 At the time of planting buds should face upwards, buds facing downwards do not germinate or difficult to
emerge facing upwards may be exposed in washing of soil while irrigating and thus may dry out.
 System facilitates easy irrigation, provides good soil aeration, solid support to the plant when earthed up.

MANURES & FERTILIZERS

Nitrogen
 Influences sugar yields and quality
 Required for vegetative growth [tillering foliage formation, stalk formation and root growth ]
 Deficiency of Nitrogen: shows paleness of foliage, early leaf senescence thinner and shorter stalks longer
but thinner roots.
 Excess Nitrogen, prolongs vegetative growth, delays maturity and ripening, increases reducing sugars,
lowers juice quality, susceptible to lodging and pests and diseases incidence.
Phosphorus
 “P” requirement is less than N and K.
 Essential for proteins ,Cell division, root growth ,plant metabolism etc
  Required for adequate tillering
 Interacts with N and thus enhance ripening.
 P deficie ncy leads to reduced tillering, delays in canopy development
 Affects stalk elongation
 Less production of secondary and tillering stalks
 Leaf color appear violet green.
Potassium
 Essential for carbon assimilation, photosynthesis translocation of carbohydrates
 Involved in various enzymatic activities
 Important for sugar synthesis, maintains cell turgidity, moist stress
 Develop resistance to pests and diseases and lodging
 Balances the effect of N & P.

Recommended rate of N P K fertilizers

For Coastal and flow irrigated areas  270 : 112.5: 60 N: P2O5: K2O kg /ha • N & K applied in three equal
quantities at • 30, 60 and 90 DAG • N may be coated with neem cake @20%

For Lift irrigated areas: 225 : 112.5: 60 N: P2O5: K2O kg /ha

For Jaggery producing areas  175 : 112.5: 60 N: P2O5: K2O kg /ha

For those soils deficient in o In iron : 100 kg ferrous sulphate /ha

o In Zinc : 37.5 kg Zinc sulphate

FYM @ 10 t / ha must be incorporated 4 - 6 weeks before planting . Green manuring with legumes.
 Biofertilizers like Azatobacter @5 kg/ha, PSB [Bacillus, Achromobacter, Acrobacter] and fungus
[Aspergillus penicillium] or Press mud @4t/ha are also recommended.
 Secondary nutrients like Sulphur @50-100 kg/ha and micronutrients like Zn So4 @25 kg/ha, FeSo4 25-60
kg/ha are essential for sugarcane.
 For standing crop , when deficiency symptoms of Zn and Fe are seen, foliar sprays are recommended.

WEED MANAGEMENT
Requires weed free for the first 90-100 days before and, most sensitive to weeds during tillering stage
Manual weeding at 30, 60 & 90 DAP is effective to control weeds,
Trash mulch at 45 DAP @ 7-10 t/ha,10 cm thick is effective against many weeds.
Application of Atrazine @ 5kg/ha in 1125 litres of water to be sprayed on the third or fourth day
after planting, depending on soil moisture
At 20 and 60 days of planting spraying of 2,4-D (41/2 kg) + Gramoxone (2.5 lts) in 125 lts/ha is
Recommended Initial ploughing, off baring, trash mulching, are the weed control methods in ratoon .

WATER MANAGEMENT
Water requirement of cane is high and varies with region. In Tropics, water requirement is 2000-3000 mm,
in sub-tropics 1500-2000 mm .Under severe stress the yield loss may go up to 60-70 per cent. For early
planted cane , moisture stress coincides at grand growth phase ,affects stalk elongation ,in late planted cane,
moisture stress affects the formative phase maturity and ripening phases. Limited stress during ripening helps
improve percent sugar content in cane. Sugarcane grown in waterlogged areas ,damages crop and leads to 25
per cent reduction in, low sugar recovery Irrigate the crop depending upon the need during different phases of
the crop. Number of irrigations required varies with varying rainfall patterns Light & frequent irrigations
gave higher yield, than heavy irrigations at longe intervals. In summer, irrigation interval depends up on soil
type and season. Generally shorter interval in winter and in heavy soils whereas longer intervals in summer
and in light soils. Trash mulching has to be done three days after planting @ 3 t /ha. Irrigation can be
provided : 0.75, and 0.50 IW/CPE ratio at tillering, grand growth ,maturity. The irrigation intervals in each
phase are given below.

Cultural operations
Earthing up Earthing-up operation is also known as "hilling-up” converts furrows into ridges and ridges into ;furrows
 Earthing-up is done at 45 - 120 DAP coincides with peak tiller stage.
 Could be done either manually or by using a bullock- drawn/tractor drawn furrower
 Earthing-up @ 120 DAP checks tillering, provides sufficient soil volume for root pr oliferation,
promotes better soil aeration and provides a sound anchorage or support to the crop and thus
preventing lodging
 One more earthing-up at 180 DAP may be helpful in preventing lodging.

This practice is followed where furrows are practiced

 Earthing up are 2-3times during crop period. o The first earthing-up is known as "partial earthing-up and
 To cover the fertilizers  To provide anchorage to root system
 The second operation is "full earthing-up".  Full earthing-up is done after final manuring (90-120 days
coinciding with peak tillering)  The soil from the ridge is thrown on both sides towards cane rows and
the furrows will become as ridges and ridges as furrows  The furrows so formed are used for irrigation
Wet earthing up
 Done around 6months age of the crop
  The furrows are irrigated and the wet soil from furrows is taken and plaster the ridges o It checks late
tillering and watery shoots
 Heavy earthing up is useful during floods o When the flood water recedes, the excess water from earthed-
up soil drains out quickly thus providing aeration
Detrashing
Detrashing refers to removal of unwanted bottom dry , lower leaves and green leaves at 150 DAP.
Sugarcane stalk bears large number of leaves (30-35), All are not useful for effective photosynthesis .Only
the top 8-10 leaves are sufficient
 Detrashing helps in clean cultivation
 Easy movement of air within the crop canopy
 Reduce certain pests like scales mealy bugs, white fly etc.,
 Easy entry into the field
 Avoids bud germination due to accumulation of water in the leaf sheath
 Easy to take up cultural operations including sprayings
 Easy to harvest, obtaining clean canes for milling
 Detrashed leaves can be used for Mulching in the furrows
Propping; Operation of tying the leaves together using the bottom dry and green leaves is known as
propping.
 Check lodging of cane.
 Trash without removing from cane is twisted to form sort of rope and cane stalks are tied
together.This is known as trash-twist proppin
 Propping can be done for each row or two rows can be brought together and tied

RIPENING
 Ultimate economic product of sugarcane is not the seed but the sugar stored in stalk.
 Accum ulation of sugars in the stalk begins soon after completion of elongation phase, when
glucose produced during photosynthesis is converted to sucrose stored in stalk.
 Ripening occurs between rapid growth and ultimate death of cane
 As the cane is ripened sheath moisture should dropdown from 85 to 72% and nitrogen index from
2 to 1.25%.
  Maturity stage: when sucrose exceeds 16% juice purity increases over 85% - cane is mature
When cane stalk is cut with a knife at above the middle portion, it end looks watery cane is
unripe, if it sparkles slightly it is ripening
 Trial boiling of juice: To judge maturity is common among farmer, if the gur is set well in
boiling, gur making continued, if not the cane will be tested after a few days
 Top Bottom ration: top portion of cane accumulates sugar rapidly than bottom portion. If the
ratio of sugar content of top1/3 to bottom one third is less than one cane is unripe when ratio is
more than one – cane is ripe.
 Invert sugars : Content of invert sugar in juice can also assess cane ripening
 Hand Refractometer: is to assess the maturity of standing crop by Brix reading
Juice Brix refers to the total solids present in the juice expressed in percentage. Brix includes
sugar’s as well as non sugars. Brix is measured using Brix Hydrometer & necessary corrections
with temperature are made & true Brix is obtained .Juice sucrose percent is the actual cane sugar
percent in the juice. Juice sucrose percent is determined by Polarimeter that’s why sucrose
percent is referred as Pol%. .“Seurolyser” is latest instrument used to analyse sucrose percent.

Harvesting
Harvesting the crop at proper time is very important .Immature crop gives lesser sugar per cent and low
yield Cane should be harvested in proper time of maturity,

Constraints – Quality & Sugar recovery,

Harvesting canes 5-10 days before its supply to mills . Limited crushing capacity of mills, stalking of
canes at mill yard .Inordinate delay in transport of harvested cane from field to mills Week end shut
down of the factory and unforeseen circumstances . Post harvest losses - sucrose conversion process
after harvest & delay on delivery of cane to factory .Weather parameters like high temp & humidity
leads to greater deterioration. Levels of maturity, cane harvest, method of harvest also affect cane
deterioration

Ratoon Management
 The number of succeeding cane crops raised from single planting is “Ratoon”
 Ratoon occupies 50-55% of total cane area in India
  In India one or 2 ratoons are taken .
 The crop raised from planting cane setts is “Plant crop”
 Plant crop is harvested the under ground portion of stem stubble are left in the field.
 Harvesting close to the ground level is most important for good rationin
 If harvesting is done unevenly stubble shaving should be done.
 After harvesting of plant crop, trash left in the field, should be burnt, to clean the field and destruction
of eggs and pupae of pests
 Soil compaction affects ratoon growth , to improve soil physical conditions, off barring and ridge
flattening is necessary where ridges are broken by ridger - improves soil organic matter, through
decay of old root mass and promote quick emergence of roots from stubble.
 Intensity of gaps in ratoon is 10-30 per cent
 Gap filling is done with young sprouts from stubbles or in poly bags or nursery with 30-35 day old.
 Trash mulching suppress weed growth and aids in moisture conservation besides increasing fertilizer
use effect.

LUCERNE or ALFALFA: Medicago sativa (Kudirai masal)

 It enriches and rejuvenates the exhausted soils.

 It is a perennial leguminous plant and may supply green fodder for 3 to 4 years from the same
field.
 Being a deep rooted crop, it extracts water from deeper zone.
 High crude protein (20 to 24%) with 72% digestibility. 1.5% Ca and 0.2% P. High amount of
vitamin A, B and D, and Calcium.
 Lucerne crop supplies green fodder for a long period (November to June)

Origin: South West Asia.

Distribution: USA, Canada, Argentina, India. In India, it is mostly grown is irrigated areas of Punjab,
Haryana, UP, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
Climate: It thrives best under ward, dry and sunny condition up to 2500 m altitude . It can withstand
fairly low temperature.
Soil: Febrile loamy soil with good drainage.
Season: Throughout the year for irrigated condition and middle of October is the best time of sowing.

Varieties: CO1, IGFRI.112 (for all areas), Anand 2,3 and Anand1 (for hills) .. Sirsa-9 (Type-9

Field preparation o Apply 12.5 t FYM o Beds & channels 10- 20m

Sowing time Best time of sowing is the first fortnight of October to end of November.
Seed rate :15 to 20 kg/ha.
Spacing: 25cm X solid line
Rhizobium seed treatment: 3 pockets.
Sowing: Sow to a depth of 2cm on the sides of the ridges or above the fertilizer band.
After Cultivation: Hand weeding on 20DAS, thin and gap fill. Subsequent weeding if necessary.
Irrigation: First irrigation should be applied about a month after sowing. The subsequent irrigations
may be given at an interval of 15-30 days depending upon weather conditions. During rainy season,
water should not be allowed to stagnate.

Manures and Manuring: FYM or compost 25t/ha, NPK: 25:120:40 kg/ha. Band placement is
preferred prior to planting. Lucerne requires high ‘P’.

Harvest: Ist cut, on 60 days after sowing and subsequent cut: 25 to 30 days interval.

Green fodder yield: 80 to100t/ha (in 12 to 13 cuts)

Yield
The newly grown crop is usually ready for first cutting in about 2-4 months after the seeding depending
upon the altitude. The subsequent cuttings may be taken at intervals of 30 to 40 days. If may give, on an
average, 350 quintals green fodder per hectare per year.

Seed production
The lucerne crop, which has not been cut for fodder, gives best seed yield. No cutting should be taken
later than January from established crop if it is to be kept for seed purposes. On average, 0.5 qunitals
seed is obtained per hectare.

Seed yield: 150 to 200kg/ha.

OATS (Avena sativa)

Oat belongs to genus Avena
Classification of oats : According to their chromosome number.
Group I: A.brevis: short oats grown in Southern Europe for green fodder, hay
Group II: A.abyssinica. “Abyssinian oat” grown in several parts of North Africa for fodder.
Group III: “Common Oat”. It occupies 80% of total acreage under oat.

A. Sativa : 80% of total world acreage is under Common Oat.

A.byzantina - “red oat” grown around Mediterranean region, Europe and North Asia and warmer sub
tropical area for both grains and fodder. It also cultivated in India, next to A. satira. Heat tolerant.
A.chirensis: Chinease naked oat extensively grown in hilly parts of China for grain.
A. strigosa: called “sand oat”.

Dual purpose : Grain and fodder. Grown in Mediterranean region. Of this, 80% of area is under A.
Sativa and the remaining area by A. byzantina.

Economic importance
  It is one o f the most important rabi/winter cereal fodder crops of India.
 It is used as green fodder, straw, hay or silage.
 Oat grain makes a good balanced concentrate in the rations for Poultry, Cattle, Sheep and Horse.
 Green fodder contains about 10-12% protein and 30-35 percent dry matter.
 It is fed to animals mixed with berseem or Lucerne green fodder. Its fodder and grain are highly
nutritious and preferred for milch cattle and draft animal.
 Very small portion of oat grain is processed in to food is the form of “rolled oats and oatmeal”
for human consumption.

Origin: Perhaps originated in Asia Minor.

Climate : It requires cool temperature during germination, tillering, booting and heading. High
temperature at blooming increases empty spikelets and reduces the seed yield. Oat requires about 15-25º
C temperature for its optimum growth. Oat requires more moisture to produce a given unit of dry matter
than any other cereal except rice. Rainfall should not exceed 760 m.m. and should be well distributed.

Soil: It can be grown on all types of soils except the alkaline and water logged ones. Oats generally make
their best growth on loam soils, but produce satisfactory yield on heavy or light soil.

Varieties :Kent ,Algerian , Coachman :H F O 114 : ,UPO. 50

Bunker 10 : Mid season variety. Suitable for moisture shortage Condition. Resistant to loose smut.
Green fodder yield: 40 t/ha

Time of sowing : Optimum time of sowing is from middle of October to middle of November for getting
higher yield. Oct. middle for fodder production and Nov.middle for seed production

Seed rate : 100 kg/ha. Drill sowing is better than broadcasting.

Field preparation: The field should be thoroughly prepared to secure a fine and firm seed bed. One
deep ploughing followed by 3-4 harrowings and planking are sufficient to get good seed bed. Long
narrow beds may be laid out across the field so that only single irrigation channel along the upper side of
the field may serve the purpose.

Spacing : 20 to 23 cm for fodder 23 to 25 cm for grain

Manures and fertilizers: The crop responds to organic manures apply 15.0 to 20.0 t/ha.

Recommended NPK : 80:40:0 kg NPK/ha. Apply entire ‘P’ as basal and ‘N’ should be applied
as follows 60 kg N/ha as basal 10 kg N/ha at Ist irrigation (25 to 30 DAS)
10 kg N/ha after Ist cutting.
Water management : Lowest WUE next to rice, require high amount of water. The crop irrigated once
in 20 to 25 days, 4 to 5 irrigations are needed. Generally irrigation is necessary after each cutting.
Critical stage is tillering stage for oat.

Weed Control : Usually one weeding after 3 to 4 weeks of sowing is enough.

Harvesting : The crop needs about 120 to 150 days to mature (4½ to 5 months). It is common practice to
take 2 or 3 cuttings of fodder and then to allow the crop to grow for seed. But normally only two cuttings
are taken from the seed or grain crop. Of these two cuttings, first is taken after 60 to 65 days and second
after 90 days of sowing or at the flowering stage of the crop. Then plants are allowed to grow and set
seeds.

Yield : If it has given two cuts,

Green fodder: 50 to 60 t/ha and
seed / grain yield : 200 to 400 kg/ha.
Threshing, winnowing and cleaning of the grain as per wheat.

Rotation and Inter cropping

1. Jowar – Oat – Maize
2. Maize – Oat – Maize
3. Cowpea – Oat+Mustard – Miaze+Cowpea
4. Jower+Cowpea – Oat+Lucerne

Yield : If the crop is allowed after Ist cut for seed set, then fodder yield : 25 to 30 t/ha. Seed: 3 to 3.5
t/ha. Straw: 2.5 to 3 t/ha

BERSEEM or EGYPTIAN CLOVER (Trifolium alexandrinum)

Common name: Alfalfa/ snail clover/Chilean clover It is regarded as QUEEN OF FORAGE crops. Also
called as GREEN GOLD of forage crops. Alfalfa is an Arabic word means ‘the best’

Origin: Indigenous to Egypt and introduced to India (1904) In India, it is an important rabi forage crop
in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajesthan, Gujarat, UP etc.,

Importance
 winter forage crop
 20% crude protein / 70% drymatter digestibility
 Rich in Ca and P
 Used as green mane for improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
 Decrease bulkdensity and better soil aggregation
 Very good fodder for milch animals and horses

Plant characters and uses :

A Perennial bushy herb and growing to height of 1.6 m with upright or decumbent and quadrangular
stem. Trifoliate leaves with fast and quick growth habit. Seed is kidney shaped greenish yellow color.
Readily accepted by all animals especially horses.
CP: 18-21% DCP: 15% TDN: 58%

Origin:
It was originally a native of South western Asia.. It was introduced to India in the year 1900.

Climate requirement: Requires dry and cool climate. When the temperature goes around 30 to 330C,
regrowth after cutting is not possible. It cannot with stand drought and frost. It cannot be grown in damp
and heavy rainfall areas.

Soil: All type of soils except very sandy soils. Well-drained medium loam soils rich in ‘P’ and
calcium. It performs well in acid soil.

Field preparations: Once with Iron plough and thrice with country plough and marke it to
fine tilth. Form ridges and furrows / beds.

Varieties Pusa giant, IGFR-S-99-1, UPB-101,103,104 & 105

1) Diploid
i) Mescari (C.10) : 6.0 to 7.0 t/ha. Adapted in Punjab, Haryana, H.P.
ii) Berseem Ludhiana 1: (BL.1). A week earlier than Mescari. 0t/ha

2) Tetraploid Winter Hardy, quick growing. Vey leafy and succulent. However regrowth after
cutting is not possible if temperature goes > 270C. eg.) i) Pusa Giant : from IARI :10-15% more
yield than Mescari, winter hardy and frost resistant.

Manners Manuring: FYM 15 t/ha and NPK: 25:60:0 kg/ha entire basal.

Seeds and Sowing: Seed rate: 20 to 25 kg/ha.

Late/ early sowing: 30 kg/ha to 35 / kg/ha
Rhizobium treatment should be given.

Time of sowing: Ist fortnight of October. For better growth and yield, diploid and tetraploid varieties
should be mixed with 1:1 or 2:1 ratio.

Sowing: Broad cast, mixed and covered. For getting higher yield of good quality fodder, mix
1.8kg of mustard seed with full rate of berseem seed.

Irrigation: Sowing and life irrigation and then once in 15 to 20 days.

Weed control: Pre plant incorporation of Basalin 1.0 lit/ha in 500 lit of water/pre emergence

Harvesting: Ist cut: 60 days old crop. Subsequent cuttings 25 to 35 days interval depending on
vegetable growth (After taking two cuttings, allow it for seed production)

Yield: 8 to 11 t/ha of green fodder with 18 to 20% of Dry matter.

Cropping systems : N-B hydrid + guar – Lucernr under semi arid conditions or it is taken as inter crop
with N-B hybrid.

Seed production
The final cutting should not be taken later than the end of February if crop is to be left for seed purpose.
Kasni and other weeds should be eradicated. Irrigate frequently during the formation and ripening of
seeds. On an average, 2.5 quintals seed may be obtained per hectare.

Inoculation
If berseem is going to be seeded for the first time in any field, the seed must be noculated with rhizobium
culture which is very essential for its growth.

Method of inoculation
Prepare 10% gur solution and heat it to boiling point and then cool at room temperature. Sprinkle a small
quantity of gur solution over the seeds to moisten them nicely. Spread thin layer of culture over the gur
treated seeds and mix thoroughly. Dry the culture treated seeds in shade before sowing.

Toxicities:
1) Bloat or Tympanities: occurs due to the presence of 4-5% cytoplasmic proteins which acts as foaming
agent. Accumulation of gases is an important disorder due to fermentation process.
Remedy:
1. Punching the stomach with an instrument called tracer & canula.
2. Administration of prolaxin @ 10-20 g/kg body wt. Of animal.
3. Mixing the feed with linseed/mustard oil.

2) Isoflavonoides of oestrogen cause reproductive disorders due to production of excess heat in the animal
body.
Remedy: by the addition of concentrated feed the severity can be reduced.

3) Dermatitis or photosensitization: caused due to histamines. The symptoms are inflammation of the skin
like reddening, swelling, oozing, scaling mostly in the white skinned animals.
Remedy: keeping the animal under shade & stall feeding.

4) Saponins: are the glucosides present in roots, stem, leaves and flowers of lucerne. Cause haemolysis of
blood and reduces egg production. Saponins are more concentrated in young stages and reduces in maturity
stage.
Symptoms: Bitter in taste and reduced cholesterol levels which Causes hypoglycaemia of RBC and foam
will be oozed out from mouth.
Remedy: supplementing mild strains of saponins containing feed. Supplying 1% cholesterol to animal.
SAFFLOWER
Botanical name - Carthamus tinctorius
Family - Compositae
Safflower is an ancient oilseed crop grown in India for the orange red dye (Carthamin) extracted from it
bright coloured florets as well as seed oil. Due to the availability of synthetic dyes at present, it is used
for extraction of oil only.
The cultivated Carthamus tinctorius in supposed to originated either from
Carthamus lanatus - Saffron thirstle Carthamus oxycantha- Wild Safflower
Safflower was known to ancient India and the poet laurate kalidas compared safflower to the “sakhis of
shakuntala” as kusum (or) kusumba in Sanskrit literature. Carthamus is derived from Arabic word
“Quartum”.

USES :-
1. Safflower oil is rich in poly unsaturated fatty acids as linoleic acid up to 78% which play an
important role in reducing cholesterol content and it is a drying oil. It contains 24-35% oil. So, it
is also recommended for heart patients.
2. The hot oil poured in cooled water, it become a plastic of thickness and used for adhesive in glass
industry.
3. The oil is used in the preparation of “ROGHAN” which is used for preservation of leather and
production of water proof cloth. It is also used in manufacturing soaps and varnishes.
 4. Safflower oil is the healthiest oil of all vegetable oil and its value is increased when it is blended
with rice bran oil.
5. The Safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contain 20% protein.
6. Safflower was recognized as it remedies Rheumatism.
7. Dry petal is used in the preparation of herbal medicine and drugs. The Safflower also used to
provide resistance to inflammation.
8. In Ethiopia, decorticated seeds are pounded finely and mixed with water to prepare a beverage
“FIT -FIT”.
9. The yield of floret ranged between 70-100 kg/ha and it contains two colouring materials. Water
soluble yellow pigment “carthamidin” and orange red dye (2%) which is insoluble in water but
readily soluble in alkaline solution is known as “CARTHAMIN”. Carthamin is of commercial
importance and is used as additive in food, beverage, cosmetics & paints. Also for dyeing of
cotton and fabrics.
10. Carthamus +H2So4+Phosphoric acid - Carthamidin & Isocarthamidin
11. Safflower is grown as border crop to protect the main crop of wheat in North India and is also
green manure crop at young stage.
12. Hull is used is manufacture of cellulose insolations.
13. The safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contains 20% protein but low in lysine. It is
consumed domestically and hardly enters international market.

The Plant
Highly branched, herbaceous Annual height varying from 30-150cm
Well defined fleshy tap root system
Stem is stiff cylindrical fairly thick at base and thin at top
Central stem branches at 15-20cm to secondary
Each branch terminates in a flower head
The angle of branching is varietals but can be by environment also
The leaf deeply serrated on lower stem, short, stiff, ovate at the inflorescence
The inflorescence – numerous florets
Flower color may vary from whitish yellow to red-orange
The capitula, head size may vary from 1.25 to 4.0 cm
 The fruit achene, resembles small slightly rectangular sunflower seeds
Seed weighs 250 – 800mg/grain

ORIGIN: Decondolle – Arabia. Vavilov – India Spiny type of Safflower is having higher oil content
than non spiny type. Yellow coloured flowers yielded higher oil content. It is a xerophytic in nature.

Varieties – Manjira, Sgaramuthyalu (APRR – 3), Parbhani Kusum, Phule Kusum, A-1 (National Check)
Hybrids - DSH – 129, NH – 1 ( Firdt non-spiny hybrid in the world), NARI – 15, NARI – 38, Bhima,
Girna, Sharda and Sweta.
CLIMATE:
Safflower is well adapted to wide range of climatic condition. However, the maximum production is
confined up to 1000 MSL in semi arid tropic s and arid areas with latitude of 14 to 22°N. Important
production factors are soil temperature and soil moisture. Temperature is the most important climatic
parameter as it is thermo sensitive and it is mainly grown as rabi oil seed crop. Optimum temperature of
soil for seed germination 15-16°C. It may tolerate to temperature of 49°C, if sufficient soil moisture is
available.
Temperature more than 40°C reduced the plant height, dry matter production and seed set and test
weight. Day temperatures in the range of 24-32°C at flowering is the optimum. Higher temperature at
flowering is harmful to crop resulting in sterile heads.
Crop is tolerant to frost at seedling stage but sensitive at later stages. It is a day neutral plant, but a day
length of 12-14 hour is essential for flowering and seed set. When compared to day length, temperature
is more important. It is a drought resistant and susceptible to water logging. It comes up well with a
rainfall of 500-600 mm. It cannot withstand excessive soil moist/ humidity at any stage due to damage
from fungal diseases.

SOIL:
Being a drought resistant, it is cultivated in all type of soils, but well drained, fertile and deep soil with
high water holding capacity are the best. Safflower is mostly grown on residual soil
moisture. South India – Deep black soil (A.P, Karnataka, Maharashtra). North India – latosols (Laterite
and sandy loam soil).
 Commercial cultivation is extended on medium to deep black soils in peninsular India Higher
yield are obtained at neutral soil pH ranged of 5-8.0. It is salt tolerant crop i.e. up to 7ds/m. However,
seedling stage sensitive to salinity.

LAND PREPARATION:
Safflower requires fairly pulverized seed bed free from clods. Being a deep rooted crop it requires deep
ploughing. Crop raised for dye purpose require more and fine tilth than oil crop. One deep ploughing
with M.B. plough is sufficient followed by 2-3 harrowings with planking.

SEED AND SOWING:

Season – rabi
Seed Rate – 8-10 kg/ha pure crop. 4-6 kg/ha- Mixed crop/ Border crop.
Spacing - 45×20 cm.
Method of sowing – Broadcasting, behind the plough (pora method) and seed drill.
Depth of sowing – 4-5 cm (Normal). 7.5-10 cm (dry Land).
Thinning – 10-15 DAS. Very high density of plant population significantly reduces the branching
ability.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:

On an average safflower crop remove 60 - 65kgN, 30 kgP 2O5 and 40 – 45 kg K2O ha . One tonne of
seed removes about 45 kg N. FYM @ 5-10 t/ha Depending on rainfall, 30-40 kg N.
Band placement at 3-5 cm deeper in moist zone and 2-3 cm away from seeds. Under irrigated conditions,
response is found even upto 120 kg/ha. Nitrogen is applied in two splits -- ½ as basal and ½ at flowering.
30-40 kg P2O5 /ha, 1/2 as Basal application. Response is 7-7.5 kg seed per kg P 2O5 applied. 20-30 kg
K2O /ha basal recommended in K deficient soil. Under rainfed conditions, entire fertilizers is applied by
drilling at sowing. Under irrigated conditions, ½ N and whole P & K fertilizers are applied at sowing and
another ½ N is topdressed 5 weeks after sowing.

WATER MANAGEMENT:
Water requirement 250-300 mm. Safflower is generally grown as rainfed in residual soil moisture and it is
highly drought tolerant as it is a deep rooted crop. The crops have the ability to extract moisture from deeper
layer of the soil. In light soil, 2-3 irrigations are given where as in vertisol residual soil moisture is sufficient.
One life saving irrigation should be given when drought condition occur.
Rosette stage (Early vegetative stage) is the most critical stage of safflower i.e. 21DAS or 4-6 leaf
stage and yield can be increased by 40-60%. Poorly drained soil and water logged condition enhanced the
problem of wilt and root rot. The WUE is 5.64 kg/seed/ha/mm. safflower is cultivated on saline soils by
sowing on the slope of the ridge. Under high salinity, the oil content is reduced by increasing hull percent.
Broad bed & furrow at 1.5 – 2m is suitable to minimise contact of water with above ground part & minimize
root & stem rot in heavy soils.
WEED MANAGEMENT:
The growth habits of safflower make it extremely susceptible to weed competition. The critical period of crop
growth competition is Rosette stage to flowering stage. The rosette stage - 25-30 DAS in Rabi and may be
prolonged up to 60 DAS in winter situation. The field should be free from weeds infestation during early
growth stage depending on the length of the rosette stage.
PPI of Fluchoralin @ 1 kg ai /ha.
PE of Oxadiazon @ 1 kg ai /ha.
PE of Alachlor @ 1.5kg ai /ha.
PE of Atrazine @ 1 kg ai /ha.
Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kh/ha + one hand weeding provides weed free environment and cost effective.
Safflower is sown in wide rows. So, intercultivation implements can be used for weed control. Two
harrowings at 25-30 DAS & 45-50 DAS in combination with one hand weeding in between them can
effectively check weed growth.

HARVESTING:
The crop comes to maturity within 110-120 days. As soon as the leaves and most of the bracteoles except a
few of last formed become brown and seeds are dried and easily separated from the head. The crop is
harvested either by uprooting the plant or cutting at the bottom. Plants are thorny and harvesting is taken up
at the early hours of the day and to be completed before 10.00 am when the spines will be soft. As the day
advanced, spine becomes stiff causing inconvenience to harvesting. The harvested plants are heaped for a day
or two in the field and threshed by beating with stick, cleaned, dried and stored at 8% moisture
content.Combined harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and threshing.
Oil Quality :
Traditional safflower seed contain 50% hull & 28-32% oil. It is pale yellow. Good drying oil. Fatty acid
composition is - Linoleic acid 70-80%, Oleic acid – 6-8%, Stearic acid – 2-3% and Palmitic acid – 5-8%.
Due to 90% of poly unsaturated fatty acids, safflower oil is considered to be the best edible oil
Yield In improved agro-techniques are used
Under scanty moisture – 800-1200kg/ha
Under favourable 1500-2000 kg
Under irrigated – 1800-2800kg/ha
 LENTIL (Lens culinaris)
IMPORTANCE
? It is an important rabi pulse. One of the oldest and most nutritious pulse
? It has the potential to cover the risk of rainfed farming.
? It is also used as a cover crop to check soil erosion.
? It is eaten as dal.
? The split dal are deep orange (or) orange yellow in colour.
? It contains protein 25.0%, carbohydrate 60.0% and Fat 1.8%
? It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin.
? Being a leguminous crop fix atmospheric nitrogen and improve soil fertility.
? Whole pulse is known as Malka masoor.

ORIGIN: Eastern Mediterranean consists of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt.

DISTRIBUTION
India, Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Spain, and Bangladesh.
India ranks first in Area and Production followed by Turkey.
In India, it is mostly grown in central and eastern parts of India, i.e. M.P, U.P, Bihar and West Bengal.

Classification
1. Small seeded group sub sp. microspermae (masuri)
2. Bold seeded group sub sp macrospermae (malkamasur)

SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT

It requires cold climate sown in winter season. Can be cultivated up to 3000m above MSL. Not affected
by rain at any stage.Can be raised with moisture conserved during monsoon period. It is a very hardy
plant. Can tolerate frost and severe winter Requires cold temperature during vegetative growth and warm
temperature at the time of maturity. Optimum temperature for growth is 18 to 30C. North India-Light
loams and alluvial soils, M.P and Maharashtra - Well drained, moderately deep, light black soils,
Punjab-undulated lands .The crop can with stand moderate amount of alkalinity.
LAND PREPARATION
Soil should be made friable. Proper moisture in soil for proper germination

SEED RATE AND SOWING

Normal sown: 30 to 40 kg/ha Late sown: 50 to 60kg/ha
Seed treatment with Fungicide and Bacterial culture
Time of sowing Second fortnight of October
Delayed sowing Heavy yield reduction after 15th November
Yield reduction can be minimized by Closer spacing Higher seed rate.

METHOD OF SOWING
Line sowing : 30cm row spacing (behind country plough)
Broad casing : just like rice fallow pulses
Late sown condition : 20cm spacing
Depth of sowing : 2 to 3 cm

WATER MANAGEMENT
1 to 2 irrigation
1st irrigation : 40 DAS
?2nd irrigation : at flowering (or) pod formation

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
N: 20 to 25 kg/ha
P: 50 to 60 kg/ha
Whenever cultivated after rice 0.5% ZnSo4

WEED MANAGEMENT
Fluchloralin 0.75kg ai/ha as pre -planting spray (or) Hand weeding twice at 30 DAS and 60 DAS

HARVESTING When the plants dry up, pods mature and moisture reaches 12%.

YIELD: 1.8 to 2.0 t/ha

 Linseed ( Linum usitatissimum )
Introduction
Flax, is One of the oldest cultivated crops grown for seed from which oil is extracted
It is world wide cultivated commercially for flax, while in India it is cultivated for oil
Flax also known as common flax or linseed, (binomial name: Linum usitatissimum ) is a member of
the genus Linum in the family Linaceae.
It is known Tisi in Hindi, and Avishallu in Telugu. Before the spread of the mechanical cotton gin in
the early 1800s, most Americans had a choice of two clothing fibers – wool or linen
In addition to being a fiber source, flax was also an important oilseed.
Linseed oil, squeezed out of flax seed, used as a preservative finish on wood.
Linseed oil is a "drying oil", as it can polymerize into a solid form.
It is an edible oil but, because of its strong flavor and odor, is only a minor constituent of human
nutrition.In parts of Europe, traditionally eaten with potatoes and quark (cheese).
It is regarded as a delicacy due to its hearty taste, which spices the bland quark
Flax fiber is obtained from the stem of plants, from a blue flowered plant and woven into a fabric
generally known as linen Flax .
Common names of flax are alsi, tisi, kshuma, lin, llion, liner, linum, line, linen, lein
Flax is grown in modern times for two entirely different purposes (i) for fibre and (ii) for seed .The seed
of the flax plant is known as linseed
In India, flax is grown primarily for linseed oil which is not only used for human consumption but also
for commercial use as paint, varnish, finished leather and printing ink. Flax oil is high in omega-3 fatty
acid, which lowers cholesterol, in the diet
Flax seed is fed to chickens, eggs from those chickens, markete d as omega eggs.
India import the flax fibres from European countries and does not utilize the flax produces in India.
The reasons for this are, Indian flax does not match with the quality standards of imported flax.
But now a number of dual purpose varie ties including Gaurav, Shikha, Jeevan and Parwati released
from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology (CSAUAT), Kanpur are suitable
for both oil and fibre purposes.
Among the four varieties, the white flowered variety (Linum usitatisimum album) produces stronger
plants and are resistant to diseases than the blue flowered vrieties (Linum usitatissimum vulgare) which
yields fine fibres of high quality
Origin and Distribution
Linen's history dates back to 7000 BC when Mesopotamians used flax
Romans and ancient greeks cultivated flax for fibre and seed and established Linen industry
As per Vavilov cultivated annual linseed originated from India and Ethiopia
It is native of eastern Mediterranean to India and was probably first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent.
Later on Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans and other civilized people cultivated flax for fibre .
Major producers are Canada, Argentia, USA, Poland, Uruguay, Romania, USSR, China and India
Reported to have spun in countries like Belgium, Russia, Switzerland, Brazil, England, France and
Argentina etc. and is used in making fine quality fabrics called linen

Area and Production

Flax is currently grown on about 12 million acres worldwide, with the majority of the production in
northern Europe and Russia.
India occupies 25 per cent of world acreage and ranks first in area (4.368 Lakh ha), fourth in production
(1.725 Lakh tonnes) and eighth in productivity (395.0 Kg/ha) of the flax crop.

Morphology
Flax is a broadleaf with small, narrow leaves that are less than an inch long. Stems are slender,flexible,
branched, near base of plant, with height 30 -36 inches., dividing at their tips into inflorescences bearing
attractive blue flowers.
Flowers are mostly self -pollinated, with some cross pollination by insects. New flowers will emerge for
a few weeks, each developing into a round seed capsule or boll about one-third inch in diameter. Each
capsule contains 4 -10 seeds, Glossy in appearance, traditionally brown color. However, a new variety
of flax, Omega, is golden-colored to make it more acceptable in the food market. If exposed to water,
flax seeds will become sticky due to mucilage in the seed coat

Climate :Crop, grown for seed ,performs well in moderately cold climate, but the crops for fibre purpose
, requires cool and moist climate. Linseed requires moderate or cool temperature during vegetative stage
and dry weather during the maturity of the crop. Requires temperature of 25-300C during
germination,15-200C during seed formation. It requires high humidity. Temperature above 320C along
with the drought during flowering reduces yield, oil content and oil quality of linseed.
Plants are susceptible to frost and causes injury to blossom
It is resistant to drought and grows well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 450-750 mm.

Soils
Crops grows on well drained, moderately deep silt loam, clayloam & silty clays
Light sils area not suitable especially in low rainfall areas
Crop can tolerate soil acidity but ideal pH is 6.0.

Land Preparation
§ More sensitive to salinity, but fibre and oil content decreases at EC of 6.1dsm-1
§ Majority of linseed area is rainfed and grown in marginal and submarginal lands,
§ Hence adoption of soil & moisture conservation practices is important for good yie lds
§ Ploughing 2-3 times with cultivator, followed by 2-3 harrowings to obtain fine tilth,
§ Hoeing after each shower conserves the soil moisture
Sowing Time
Sowing time varies from October - Nov 15th in different states depending on availability of soil
moisture, irrigation and cropping systems
Early sowing helps to escape attack of powdery mildew, rust, and linseed bud fly
Pure “Rabi” crop should complete the sowings by Nov 15th .

Seed rate
The following seed rates are optimum under moist conditions
Under rainfed : Broad casting @ 40 kg/ha - 5 lakhs plants/ha
: Drilling @ 30kg /ha - 5 lakhs plants/ha
Under irrigated : Broadcasting @ 35 kg / ha - 5 lakhs plants/ha
: Drilling @ 25 kg/ha - 5 lakhs plants/ha
Under all situations : Dual methods @ 25 kg/ha - 4 lakhs plants/ha
Thinning should be done 15 days after emergence.

Seed Treatment
Seed treatment with thiram @ 3g/kg of seed or bavistin @ 1.5g or topsin M @ 2.5g/kg seed to
protect the linseed from seed borne diseases.

Sowing depth
Shallow sowing @ 2-3 cm with adequate soil moisture helps in early establishment.
Drilling facilitates even distribution, uniform depth of seeding result in better stand and good yields
In drier situations, where surface moisture is not adequate, sowing in deeper layers of 5-8 cm ensures
Germination

Spacing
Spacing between the rows : 25 - 30 cm
Spacing between the plants in a row : 7 - 10 cm
Nutrient Management
Application of FYM or compost @ 5-8 t/ha, final land preparation, improves water holding capacity
of soil , improves soil structure, increases nutrient uptake there by leading to good yields.

Fertilizer Schedule :
Under rainfed conditions : 40 + 20 + 20 kg N P K / ha
Under irrigated conditions : 90 + 40 + 30 kg N P K /ha

Weed Management
Weed free conditions upto 30-45 days is critical
Adequate tillage, prior to seeding, minimizes the weed growth.
Two intercultivations at 20 and 30 DAS with the manual weeding is ideal
Fluchloralin @ 1 kg ai /ha as PPI or Pre emergence application of alachlor @ 1kg ai/ha or Post
emergence of dichlofop methyl @ 0.7 kg ai/ha at 30 DAS is effective.
Pronamide @ 1.5 kg ai/ ha is effective in controlling Cuscuta infestation in linseed

Irrigation
 More than 90% of area under linseed is rainfed, where bold seeded and deep rooted varieties are
preferred.
 Small seed with the shallow rooted varieties are to be preferred under irrigated conditions
 Frequent light irrigations are ideal and economical than heavy irrigations at longer intervals
 Linseed responds well to irrigations.
 Irrigations at critical stages like flowering and seed development is essentia l under moisture
stress conditions.
 Providing irrigations at 35 and 75 DAS has doubled the yields of linseed.
 Moisture stress at stem elongation stage benefited the seed yields and adversely effected the
straw yields
 Sheduling irrigation at 50% DASM and IW/CPE is 0.6.

Harvesting
  The crop should be harvested when the leaves are dry. A rule of thumb is to harvest when 90% of
the seed capsules are brown and shiny.
 For fibre purpose, harvesting should be done at physiological maturity when the crop is still
green.
 Crop is harvested in March to April, cutting the plants close to the ground or pulling the plants.
 Harvested crop is left in the field for few days for sundrying.
 Threshing is done by beating the dried plants with the sticks or trampling under the cattle feet.
 The seed is separated from chaff by winnowing.
 Care should be taken in cutting the stalk and facilitate undamaged stalk in retting.

Quality considerations
Linseed contains 20-24 % protein, 37-42% oil, 15-29% CHO’s ,5- 9% crude fibre, 2-4% ash.
Linseed oil cake contains 30% protein, 7% fat, carbohydrate -42% which is a valuable protein source to
poultry and ruminants.

Uses
 All parts of linseed plant are utilized for various purposes either directly or used for processing
 Flax is roughly 40% oil by weight, about 55% of which is alpha linolenic acid (also called
omega-3fatty acid).
 On a small scale seed is directly used for edible purpose and 80% of oil goes to industries. Oil is
rich in Linolenic acid (66% and above) and is a perfect drying oil and used in paint and varnishes
 Its use is limited to animal feed because of undesirable compounds like phytic acid, cyanogenic
glucoside and goitorogen.
 It is used in the manufacture of lit hographic inks and soaps
 Oil cake is good feed for milch cattle and also as a manure having microbial activity
 Linseed stem yields fibre of good quality having strength and durability. The fibres are lustrous
and blend with the wool and silk
 The fibre is used in gloves, foot wear, netting sports, paper and textile industry, cigarette
wrapping paper, strong canvas, suitings and shirtings
 Woody matter and short fibres used as raw pulp in paper industries.
 One hundred kg retted flax yields the following c o product..
 SUGARBEET Beta vulgaris spp. Vulgaris
Importance of sugarbeet
 Tropical sugarbeet is a biennial sugar producing tuber crop, grown in temperate countries
 This crop constitutes 30% of total world production and distributed in 45 countries.
 Now tropical sugarbeet hybrids are gaining momentum in tropical and sub tropical countries
including Tamil Nadu as a promising energy crop and alternative raw materials for the
production of ethanol.
 Apart from sugar production, the value added products like ethanol can also be extracted from
sugarbeet.
 The ethanol can be blended with petrol or diesel to the extent of 10% and used as bio-fuel.
 The sugarbeet waste material viz., beet top used as green fodder, beet pulp used as cattle feed and
filter cake from industry used as organic manure.
 Tropical sugarbeet now emerged as commercial field crop because of the favourable characters
like Shorter duration of 5 to 6 months , needs moderate water requirement of 60-80 cm.(iv)
higher sugar content of 12 – 15% (v) improve soil conditions because of tuber crop and , grow
well in saline and alkali soil.
 The harvesting period of sugarbeet coincides with March – June, the human resource of sugar
factory in the off season may efficiently utilized for processing of sugarbeet in the sugar mills,
which helps in continuous functioning of sugar mills.

Hybrids and duration

The tropical sugarbeet hybrids suitable for cultivation in Tamil Nadu are
• Cauvery,
• Indus and
• Shubhra.
• The duration of these tropical hybrids will be 5 to 6 months depending on climatic conditions
prevailing during crop growth period.
Climate and season
 Tropical sugarbeet require good sunshine during its growth period.
 The crop does not prefer high rainfall as high soil moisture or continuous heavy rain may affect
development of tuber and sugar synthesis.
 Tropical sugarbeet can be sown in September– November coincide with North East monsoon
with a rainfall of 300 – 350 mm well distributed across the growing period which favours
vegetative growth and base for root enlargement.
0
 The optimum temperature for germination is 20 – 25 C,
0 0
 for growth and development 30 - 35 C and For sugar accumulation in 25– 35 C.

Season
• September to November and harvested during March and May.

Field preparation
 Well drained sandy loam and clayey loam soils having medium depth (45” cm) with fairly good
organic status are suitable.
 Tropical sugarbeet require deep ploughing (45 cm) and followed by 2 – 3 ploughing to obtain a
good soil tilth condition for favorable seed germination.
 Ridges and furrows are formed at 50 cm apart.

Seeds and sowing

 Optimum population is 1,00,000-1,20,000 /ha.
 Use only pellated seeds 1,20,000 Nos /ha which require 6 pockets (3.6kg / ha.-One
pocket contains 20000 seeds (600 g)]
 The recommended spacing is 50 x 20 cm.
 The pellated seed is dibbled at 2 cm depth in the sides of ridges at 20 cm apart
Weeding and Earthing up
 The crops should be maintained weed free situation up to 75 days.
 Pretilachlor 50 EC @ 0.5 kg /ha or Pendimethalin @3.75lit /ha can be dissolved in 300
litres of water and sprayed with hand operated sprayer on 0-2 day after sowing,
th
 Followed by hand weeding on 25 day and 50th day after sowing.
 The earthing up operations coincides with top dressing of N fertilizer.

Irrigation
 Tropical sugarbeet is very sensitive to water stagnation in soil at all stages of crop
growth
 Irrigation should be based on soil type and climatic condition.
 Pre-sowing irrigation is essential since at the time of sowing, sufficient soil moisture is
must for proper irrigation.
 First irrigation is crucial for the early establishment of the crop.
 For loose textured sandy loam soil irrigation once in 5 to 7 days and for heavy textured
clay loam soil once in 8 – 10 days is recommended.
 The irrigation has to be stopped atleast 2 to 3 weeks before harvest.
 At the time of harvest if the soil is too dry and hard it is necessary to give pre harvest
irrigation for easy harvest. Light and frequent irrigation is recommended for maintaining
optimum soil moisture

Harvest and yield

 The Tropical sugarbeet crop matured in about 5 to 6 months. The yellowing of lower
leaf whirls of matured plant, Nitrogen deficiency and root brix reading of 15 to 18%
indicate the maturity of beet root for harvest.
 The average root yield of tropical sugarbeet is 80 – 100 tonnes / ha.
 Harvesting should be timed so as the roots reach the factory within 48 hours for
processing.
 Till such time the roots should not be harvested.
PEAS Pisum sativum (Garden pea and Field pea)
Garden pea : P. sativum var. Hortense
 Also known as table pea
 Harvested in immature condition to be cooked as green vegetables
 White flowered
 Seeds are bold and wrinkled with yellowish, whitish or bluish green in colour

Field pea : P. sativum var. arvense

 Mature seeds are used as whole or split
 Grown as forage crop for cattle
 As green manure crop for soil improvement and cover crop to reduce soil erosion
 Flowers are coloured
 Seeds are rounded and little angular with grayish to brown / green / yellow in colour

ORIGIN:
Mediteranean region of S. Europe and Western Asia

DISTRIBUTION:
China (ranks first), USSR, Ethiopia, USA. Indian states are UP (major area), MP, Bihar, Punjab,
Haryana

SOIL AND CLIMATE

 Well-drained soil with pH range of 6.0 to7.5 and optimum 6.5
 Highly sensitive to water logging
 Requires cool growing season with moderate temperature
 Can be successfully produced in temperate and semi-arid zones

SEASON AND VARIETIES

Rabi season crop. Under North Indian conditions Field pea : Second fort night of October
Garden peas : First fortnight of Novembe Table varieties : Arkel, Bonnville. Early Badger, Early
December Filed pea varieties : Type 163, PG 3, Aparna, Hans, Swarna Rekha
FIELD PREPARATION
Prepare a well pulverized seed bed

WEED MANAGEMENT
Fluchloralin 0.75 kg ai/ha or hand weeding twice

CROPPING SYSTEMS
Peas mixed with wheat, barley, oats, rape seed and mustard
Rotation after Maize, paddy, cotton, jowar, bajra

YIELD
Green pods: 10 to 12.5 t/ha
Field pea: 2 to 3 t/ha