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Soil Mechanics (Moi University)

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Dr. Ahmed Soil Mechanics Note Chapter Seven (Compaction and

Consolidation of Soils)

Chapter · April 2018

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CHAPTER SEVEN

Compaction and
Consolidation of
soils
Lecture Notes
Soil Mechanics
3rd Class
Up copyrights
2017

Assistant Prof.

Dr. Ahmed Al-Obaidi

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CHAPTER SEVEN
COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS
7.1 Introduction
A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads
compresses soil layers. The compression is caused by
A. Deformation of soil particles,
B. Rearrangements of soil particles, and
C. Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces.
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which
requires mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of soil is measured in
terms of its dry unit weight. Consolidation is the process of reduction in
volume due to the expulsion of water under an increased load.

7.2 Principals of Compaction

Soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a soil causes
densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains. Usually,
compaction is the result of heavy machinery compressing the soil. When water
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is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the soil
particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely
packed position. The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the
moisture content increases, as shown in the figure.
In this figure, when the
moisture content  = 0, the
moist unit weight () is equal
to the dry unit weight (d),
when the moisture content is
gradually increased, and the
same compaction effort is
used for compaction, the
weight of the soil solids in a
unit volume gradually
increases. Beyond a specific
moisture content  = 2, any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce
the dry unit weight. This phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the
spaces that would have been occupied by the solid particles.
The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is
referred to as the optimum moisture content.
7.3 Laboratory Tests for Compaction
The laboratory test used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction,
and the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction test
(Proctor, 1933). In this test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume
of 944 cm3. The diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm and attached to a baseplate
at the bottom and an extension at the top. The soil is mixed with varying
amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that

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delivers 25 blows to each layer. The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg and has a
drop of 30.5 mm.
For each test, the
moisture content
of the compacted
soil is determined
in the laboratory.
With the known
moisture content,
the dry unit weight
can be calculated
as:

The values of d determined from can be plotted against the corresponding

moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil. The procedure for the standard Proctor test is
elaborated in ASTM Test Designation D-698 (ASTM, 2010) and AASHTO Test
Designation T-99 (AASHTO, 1982).
For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is
obtained when no air is in the void spaces when the degree of saturation equals
100%.

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With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the
standard Proctor test was modified to represent field conditions better. This
revised version sometimes is referred to as the Modified Proctor test (ASTM
Test Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-180). In this test,
the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3, as in the case of the standard
Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that
has a mass of 4.54 kg. The drop of the hammer is 457 mm. The number of
hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor
test.
The preceding section showed that moisture content has a strong influence on
the degree of compaction achieved by a given soil. The other important factors
that affect compaction are soil type and compaction effort (energy per unit
volume).

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7.4 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

When the compaction work is progressing in the field. The standard procedures
for determining the field unit weight of compaction include
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method
The Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556) device consists of a glass
or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its top. The jar is filled with uniform
dry Ottawa sand. In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the
soil has been compacted. After
excavation of the hole, the cone
with the sand-filled jar attached to
it is inverted and placed over the
hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of
the jar to fill the hole and the cone.
The dry unit weight of compaction
made in the field can be
determined and compare with
results of laboratory tests.

Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common
types of rollers are:
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers

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7.5 Settlement and Consolidation of Soils

The soil settlement caused by loads can be divided into three broad categories:
1. Elastic settlement (or immediate settlement), which is caused by the
elastic deformation of dry soil and moist and saturated soils without any
change in the moisture content.
2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change
in saturated cohesive soils because of the expulsion of the water that
occupies the void spaces.
3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is observed in saturated
cohesive soils and organic soil and is the result of the plastic adjustment of
soil fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that occurs at constant
effective stress.
S T = Se + S c + Ss
7.6 Theory of Consolidation
When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase, the pore water
pressure is increased suddenly. In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the
drainage caused by the increase in the pore water pressure is completed
immediately. Pore water drainage is accompanied by a reduction in the volume
of the soil mass, which results in settlement.
When a saturated clay layer is subjected to a stress increase, because the
hydraulic conductivity of clay is significantly small, the excess pore water
pressure generated by loading, then gradually dissipates over an extended
period. Thus, the associated volume change (that is, the consolidation) in the
clay may continue long after the elastic settlement.
The settlement caused by consolidation in clay may be several times greater
than the elastic settlement.
The time-dependent deformation of saturated clayey soil best can be
understood by considering a simple model that consists of a cylinder with a

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spring at its center. Let the inside area of the cross-section of the cylinder be
equal to A. the model soil can be considered as a cylinder is filled with water
and has a frictionless watertight piston and valve as shown in Figure, case (1).
At this time, if we place a load P on the piston (case (2)) and keep the valve
closed, the entire load will be taken by the water because water is
incompressible. The spring will not go through any deformation. The excess
hydrostatic pressure at this time can be given as
Now, if the valve is opened, the water will flow outward (case (3)). This flow will
be accompanied by a reduction of the excess hydrostatic pressure and an
increase in the compression of the spring.
After some time, the excess hydrostatic pressure will become zero and the
system will reach a state of equilibrium, as shown in (case (4)).

 Especially in low permeability soils (silts and clays) settlement is delayed

by the need to squeeze the water out of the soil

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 Consolidation is the process of gradual transfer of an applied load from

the pore water to the soil structure as pore water is squeezed out of the
voids.
 The amount of water that escapes depends on the size of the load and
compressibility of the soil.
 The rate at which it escapes depends on the coefficient of permeability,
thickness, and compressibility of the soil.
 Consolidation is a function of time

7.7 Consolidation Equation

Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider the rate of one-
dimensional consolidation for saturated clay soils. The mathematical
derivations are based on the following six assumptions:
1. The clay–water system is homogeneous.
2. Saturation is complete.
3. The flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of
compression).
4. The compressibility of water is negligible.
5. The compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
6. Darcy’s law is valid.

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For the first assumption.The continuity equation is

Where
z: coordinate in the vertical direction
x: coordinate in the horizontal direction
kx, kz: coefficient of permeability in x and z-direction
e: void ratio
h: total head
S: degree of saturation
t: time
due to the second assumption
for the third assumption

Continuity Equation …(1)

Equilibrium equation …(2)

Stress-strain ……(3)

Where av is coefficient of compressibility

Breaking the total head into its components

Where: he: elevation head

uss: steady state pore pressure
ue: excess pore pressure
we have

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so

if

where mv: is the coefficient of volume change

cv: coefficient of consolidation

If total stress is constant with time

The initial excess pore pressure is uniform with depth
There is drainage at both top and bottom of the consolidation stratum

Let Hdr is the length of maximum drainage bath and where T is a

time factor

Solving this equation satisfying the following condition

Initail condition at t = 0 , ue = uo for 0 ó ó 2, uo = initial excess p.w.p

Boundary condition at all t

ue = 0 for =0 and 2, the solution of this equation is

where

m: is dummy variable taking on values 1, 2, 3, 4 …..

The solution is conveniently portrayed in the graph (Isochrones) as shown

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Where t = St = settlement at any time

 = S = final (total) settlement

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7.8 One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

Terzaghi first suggested the one-dimensional
consolidation testing procedure. This test is
performed in a consolidometer (sometimes
referred to as an odometer) as shown in Figure.
The soil specimen is placed inside a metal ring
with two porous stones, one at the top of the
specimen and another at the bottom. The
specimens are usually 75 mm in diameter and 25
mm thick. The load on the
specimen is applied through a
lever arm, and compression is
measured by a micrometer dial
gauge. The specimen is kept
under water during the test. Each
load usually is maintained for 24
hours. After that, the load usually
is doubled, which doubles the
pressure on the specimen, and the
compression measurement is continued. At the end of the test, the dry weight
of the test specimen is determined.

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The effective stress ò and the corresponding void ratios (e) at the end of
consolidation are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper. The typical shape of
such a plot is shown in Figure.

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Example 7.1
Following are the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen
Dry mass of specimen = 128 g, the height of specimen at the beginning of the
test = 2.54 cm, Gs = 2.75, an area of the specimen = 30.68 cm2.
Effective pressure ò Final hight of the specimen at
(kN/m2) the end of consolidation, H (cm)
0 2.540
50 2.488
100 2.465
200 2.431
400 2.389
800 2.324
1600 2.225
3200 2.115
Make necessary calculations and draw an e versus log ò curve.
Solution

Now the following table can be prepared.

ò (kN/m2) H (cm) Hv = H - Hs (cm) e = Hv /Hs
0 2.540 1.02 0.671
50 2.488 0.968 0.673
100 2.465 0.945 0.622
200 2.431 0.911 0.599
400 2.389 0.869 0.572
800 2.324 0.804 0.529
1600 2.225 0.705 0.464
3200 2.115 0.595 0.390

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The e versus log ò plot is shown in Figure

Example 7.2
The results of an oedometer test is shown that at ò = 400 kN/m2, e = 1.0125
and at ò = 800 kN/m2, e = 0.87, knowing that eo = 1.19. find compression index,
(cc), coefficient of compresipility, (av), coefficient of volume change, (mv) for the
stress range from 400 to 600 kN/m2
Solution
By linear interpolation e at ò = 600 kN/m2 = 0.93
2∆ÿ 2(0.93 2 1.10125)
ýý = = = 0.47
∆þāý�㔎ÿ þāý600 2 þāý400
2∆ÿ 2(0.93 2 1.0125)
þÿ = = = 0.000413
∆�㔎ÿ 600 2 400
þÿ 0.000413
ÿÿ = = = 1. .86 ∗ 1024
1 + ÿ�㕜 1 + 1.19

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7.9 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

The figure shows that the upper part of
the e-log ’ plot is somewhat curved with
a flat slope, followed by a linear
relationship for the void ratio with log ’
having a steeper slope.
The soil in the field at some depth has
been subjected to a certain maximum
effective past pressure in its geologic
history. This maximum effective past
pressure may be equal to or less than the
existing effective overburden pressure at
the time of sampling. The reduction of
effective pressure in the field may be
caused by natural geologic processes or human processes. During the soil
sampling, the existing effective overburden pressure is also released, which
results in some expansion.
This leads us to the two basic definitions of clay based on stress history:
1. Normally consolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is the
maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past.
2. Overconsolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is less than
that which the soil experienced in the past. The maximum effective past
pressure is called the preconsolidation pressure.
Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple graphic construction to determine the
preconsolidation pressure from the laboratory e-log ’ plot. The procedure is
as follows:

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1. By visual observation, establish point a,

at which the e-log ’ plot has a minimum
radius of curvature.
2. Draw a horizontal line ab.
3. Draw the line ac tangent at a.
4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of
the angle bac.
5. Project the straight-line portion gh of the
e-log ’ plot back to intersect line ad at f.
The abscissa of point f is the pre-
consolidation pressure.
The over-consolidation ratio (OCR) for a
soil can now be defined as

Where ’c is the pre-consolidation pressure of a specimen

’ present effective vertical pressure

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Example 7.3
For the stratum of clay and loading condition
shown in the figure. Find at elevation (-
8.37)m and for 4 months after loading (1)
excess pore water pressure (2) pore water
pressure (3) vertical effective stress (4)
velocity of flow.
Solution
The problem is two way drinage
The thickness of clay layer is -7.3 –(-11.55)
= 4.25m
Cv = 4*10-4 cm2/sec = 1.26 m2/year
Ā (8.37 2 7.3) ýÿ Ć 1.26 ∗ 0.33
ý= = = 0.5, Ā= = = 0.92
�㔻þÿ 4.25⁄2 (�㔻þÿ )2 2.1252
From figure Uz = 0.24
(1) Excess p.w.p, Ue = (1-0.24)*99 = 75.24 kN/m2
(2) p.w.p U = Ust + Ue = (8.37-2.9)*9.81 + 75.24 = 128.9 kN/m2
(3) òv = òvo + Δòv
= 17.0*(2.9-2.0)+(18.22-9.81)*(7.3-2.9)+ (16.34-9.81)*(8.37-7.3) + 99*0.24
= 15.3+37+6.99+23.76 = 83.05 kN/m2
(4) v = ki, where i can be found from:
1 �㔕ā�㕧 ā�㕜
ÿ=
�㗾Ā �㔕ý �㔻þÿ
Where �㔕ā�㕧 ⁄�㔕ý = the slope of the (Uz – Z) curve for T = 0.92 at Z = 0.5
1 99
ÿ= ∗ 0.95 ∗ = 4.51
9.81 2.125
v = 4.51*0.0.18 = 0.081 m/year

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Example 7.4
For the same example above and if the layer under the clay layer is rock.
Solution
The problem is one-way drainage from top
Ā (8.37 2 7.3) ýÿ Ć 1.26 ∗ 0.33
ý= = = 0.25, Ā= = = 0.023
�㔻þÿ 4.25 (�㔻þÿ )2 4.252
From figure Uz = 0.12
(1) Excess p.w.p, Ue = (1-0.12)*99 = 87.12 kN/m2
(2) p.w.p U = Ust + Ue = (8.37-2.9)*9.81 + 87.12 = 140.8 kN/m2
(3) òv = òvo + Δòv
= 17.0*(2.9-2.0)+(18.22-9.81)*(7.3-2.9)+ (16.34-9.81)*(8.37-7.3) + 99*0.12
= 15.3+37+6.99+11.88 = 71.17 kN/m2
1 99
(4) ÿ = ∗ 1.1 ∗ = 2.61
9.81 4.25

v = 2.61*0.0.18 = 0.047 m/year

Example 7.5
Same example (7.4) but there is a thin layer above the clay is impermeable
Solution
The problem is one way drinage from bottom
Ā (11.55 2 8.37) ýÿ Ć 1.26 ∗ 0.33
ý= = = 0.75, Ā= = = 0.023
�㔻þÿ 4.25 (�㔻þÿ )2 4.252
From figure Uz = 0.01
(1) Excess p.w.p, Ue = (1-0.01)*99 = 98 kN/m2
(2) p.w.p U = Ust + Ue = (8.37-2.9)*9.81 + 98 = 151.66 kN/m2
(3) òv = òvo + Δòv
= 17.0*(2.9-2.0)+(18.22-9.81)*(7.3-2.9)+ (16.34-9.81)*(8.37-7.3) + 99*0.01
= 15.3+37+6.99+0.99 = 60.28 kN/m2
1 99
(4) ÿ = ∗ 21.2 ∗ = 22.85
9.81 4.25

v = -2.85*0.0.18 = 0.0513 m/year (-) means the flow is downword.

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7.10 Calculation of Final Consolidation settlement

∆∈ÿ ∆ÿ 1
ÿÿ = = ( )
∆�㔎ÿ2 1 + ÿ�㕜 ∆�㔎ÿ2
ÿý = ÿÿ ∆�㔎ÿ2 �㔻

Where ÿÿ is coefficint of volume change, and ∆�㔎ÿ2 is an increment in effective

stress
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∆ÿ
þÿ =
∆�㔎ÿ2

�㔻
ÿý = þÿ ∆�㔎ÿ2
1 + ÿ�㕜

where þÿ is coefficint of compressibility

∆ÿ
þý =
∆þāý�㔎ÿ2

Where Cc is compression index

Example 7.6
Calculate the final consolidation settlement and elapsed time for example (7.4)
and (7.5). Plot the settlement as a function with time. eo = 1.83, ef = 1.4.
Solution

∆ÿ 1.83 2 1.4
ÿý = �㔻 = ∗ 4.3 = 0.653ÿ
1 + ÿ�㕜 1 + 1.83
For two way drainage
1.26 ∗ Ć
Ā=1= → Ć = 3.6 ÿÿþĄą
2.132
For one way drainage
1.26 ∗ Ć
Ā=1= → Ć = 14.67 ÿÿþĄą
4.32
To plot the relationship between consolidation settlement and time use the
following graph.

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it may also be approximated by the following simple relationship

ý�㕣 ā
for the time given find the time factor from Ā = then find aveage
(Āþÿ )2

consolidation ratio (Uz) from figutr above. The St = Uz * Sc

t (year) T Uz St (m)
0.0
0.5 0.14 0.42 0.275
0.1
1.0 0.28 0.60 0.389 0.2
Settlement (m)

1.5 0.42 0.71 0.465 0.3

2.0 0.56 0.80 0.519 0.4

0.5
2.5 0.70 0.86 0.558
0.6
3.0 0.84 0.90 0.586
0.7
3.6 1.00 1.00 0.653 0 1 2 3 4
time (year)

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Example 7.7
For the soil profile shown in Figure. If a
uniformly distributed load, of 100 kN/m2, is
applied at the ground surface, what is the
settlement of the clay layer caused by
consolidation if Cc = 0.27.
Solution
The average effective stress at the middle of
the clay layer is:
òo = 2*14 + 4*(18-9.81) + 1.75*(19-9.81) =
76.84 kN/m2
0.27 ∗ 3.5 76.84 + 100
ÿý = þāý ( ) = 0.19ÿ = 190ÿÿ
1 + 0.8 76.84
Example 7.8
A soil profile with a thickness of 8m, the
GW at the surface and sat = 18 kN/m3.
Laboratory consolidation tests were
conducted on a specimen collected from
the middle of the clay layer. The field
consolidation curve from the laboratory
test results is shown in Figure. Find the
consolidation settlement if a surcharge
60 kN/m2 applied at the ground surface.
Solution
òo = 4*(18-9.81) = 32.76 kN/m2
eo = 1.1, the final void ration is find at stress = 32.76 + 60 = 92.76, ef = 1.045
∆ÿ 1.1 2 1.045
ÿý = �㔻 = ∗ 8 = 0.21ÿ = 210ÿÿ
1 + ÿ�㕜 1 + 1.1

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Example 7.9
The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25-mm-thick clay layer (drained
at both top and bottom) in the laboratory is 3 min 15 sec. How long (in days)
will it take for a 2-m-thick clay layer of the same clay in the field under the same
pressure increment to reach 50% consolidation? In the field, sand layers are
present at the top and bottom of the clay layer.
Solution

Example 7.10
A 3-m-thick layer (double drainage) of saturated clay under a surcharge loading
underwent 90% primary consolidation in 75 days. Find the coefficient of
consolidation of clay for the pressure range.
Solution
Because the clay layer has two-way drainage, Hdr = 3 m/2 = 1.5 m. Also, T90 =
0.848

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Example 7.11
For a normally consolidated laboratory clay specimen drained on both sides,
the following are given:
• òo =150 kN/m2, e = eo = 1.1
• òo + Δ = 300 kN/m2, e = 0.9
• The thickness of clay specimen = 25 mm
• Time for 50% consolidation = 2 min
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the clay for the loading range.
b. How long (in days) will it take for a 1.8 m clay layer in the field (drained on
one side) to reach 60% consolidation.
Solution
(a) The coefficient of compressibility is
∆ÿ 1.1 2 0.9
þÿ 2
ÿÿ = = ∆�㔎 = 300 2 150 = 6.67 ∗ 1024 ÿ2/ý�㕁
1 + ÿ�㕎ÿ 1 + ÿ�㕎ÿ 1 + (1.1 + 0.9)
for U = 50%, Tv = 0.197

k = cvmvw = (1.54*10-5)*(6.35*10-4)*9.81 = 9.6*10-8 m/min = 5.75*10-6 m/sec

(b) From figure, for U = 60%, Tv = 0.286
ýÿ Ć60 1.53 ∗ 1025 ∗ Ć60
Ā60 = 2 = 0.286 = = 4.722 ∗ 1026Ć60 → Ć60
�㔻þÿ 1.82
= 60564.7 ÿÿĀ = 42.06 þþÿą

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Example 7.12
A normally consolidation clay layer extends from the ground surface down to a
depth of 8m. Below clay layer is a sand stratum. The ground surface is loaded
with uniformly 100 kN/m2. The load makes the upper surface impervious, the
water table at the ground surface. Use the following informations, t = 20 kN/m3,
Gs = 2.7, Cc = 0.08, cv = 1*10-2 cm2/sec to find:
1- Total expected settlement
2- The time required for ultimate consolidation settlement.
3- Excess pore pressure at element (A) four months after loading.
4- The permeability of clay layer.
5- Velocity and direction of flow at (A), four months after loading.
Solution
ÿĀ+�㕆.ÿ 2.7+ÿ∗1
1- eo from �㗾ā = �㗾Ā 20 = 9.81 e = 0.64
1+ÿ 1+ÿ

òo( at center of clay layer) = 4*(20-9.81) = 40.76 kN/m3

0.08 ∗ 8 40.76 + 100
ÿý = þāý ( ) = 0.21ÿ = 210ÿÿ
1 + 0.64 40.76
2- The time required for ultimate settlement (final settlemet), (total settleemt)
U% = 100%  T = 1.0
ýÿ Ć 1.0 ∗ 1022 ∗ Ć
Ā=1= 2 = 2 → Ć = 64 ∗ 106 ąÿý = 2.03 ÿÿþĄą
�㔻þÿ 800
3-
ýÿ Ć 1 ∗ 1022 ∗ 4 ∗ 30 ∗ 24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60
Ā= 2 = = 0.162
�㔻þÿ 8002
Z=6/8 = 0.75.  Uz from figure = 0.24
ue = uo (1-Uz) = 100 (1- 0.24) = 66 kN/m2
0.435∗�㔶ý
4- k = cv. mv. w , ÿÿ = , Δòv = average of initail and final stresses =
(1+ÿ�㕜 )∆�㔎�㕣2

(40.76 + 40.76 + 100) / 2 = 90.67 kN/m2

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0.435 ∗ 0.08
ÿÿ = = 1.07 ∗ 1023 ÿ2/ý�㕁
(1 2 0.64) ∗ 90.67
 k = 1*10-2 * 10-4 * 1.07*10-3 * 9.81 = 1.05*10-8 m/sec
5- velocity = kvi
1 �㔕ā�㕧 ā�㕜 1.05 ∗ 1028 ∗ 0.45 ∗ 100
ÿ= = = 6.02 ∗ 1029 ÿ/ sec = 0.19 ÿ/ÿÿþĄ
�㗾Ā �㔕ý �㔻þÿ 9.81 ∗ 8
downward
Example 7.13
A large building increases the vertical stress in a layer of clay underneath it by
150 kN/m2. The thickness of this layer is 8m with a very thin sand layer above
it and thick sand layer under it. The calculated final settlement was 0.08m. mv
= 1*10-4, cv = 0.4 m/month
1- how long the building to settle 0.04m
2- how much of settlement will have occurred after 4 months
3- a client intending to in stored delicate machinery in building asking for an
assurance the not more than 0.02m of the settlement will take place after
he has installed the machinery.
4- Calculate k of the clay layer
Solution
The problem is two-way drainage
�㕆ā 0.04 ý�㕣 ā 0.4∗ā
1- ā = = = 0.5  Ā = 0.197 = 2 = → Ć = 7.88 ÿāĀĆ/ą
�㕆ý 0.08 Āþÿ 42

ý�㕣 ā 0.4∗4 �㕆ā �㕆ā

2- Ā = 2 = = 0.1 → ā�㕧 = 0.37 = = → ÿā = 0.0272 ÿ
Āþÿ 42 �㕆ý 0.08

3- For this case, it must be 0.06m settlement happened

ÿā 0.06 0.4 ∗ Ć
ā= = = 0.75 → Ā = 0.475 = → Ć = 19 ÿāĀĆ/ą
ÿý 0.08 42
4- k = cv. mv. w = 0.4*1*10-4 * 9.81 = 3.924 * 10-4 m/month = 1.51 *10-10 m/sec
what are the results if the thin layer of sand removed ?
1- t = 31.52 months, 2- St = 0.0136, 3- 76 months, 4- 3.92*10-4 m/month

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Example 7.14
For the soil profile and loading condition shown. Determine after one year of
loading application:
1- percentage consolidation at points (A) and (B)
2- vertical effective stresses at points (A) and (B)
3- draw the effective stress path for point A assume k o = 0.5

Solution
1- At point A
ýÿ Ć 1.35 ∗ 1 Ā 1
Ā= 2 = = 0.15, ý= = = 0.33 → ā�㕧 = 0.56 = 56%
�㔻þÿ 32 �㔻þÿ 3
For point B
ýÿ Ć 0.4 ∗ 1 Ā 1.5
Ā= 2 = = 0.1, ý= = = 0.75 → ā�㕧 = 0.1 = 10%
�㔻þÿ 22 �㔻þÿ 2
2- After one year
òvA = òvoA + Δòv = (18-9.81)*2 + 120*0.56 = 83.58 kN/m2
òvB = òvoB + Δòv = (18-9.81)*6 + (20 -9.81) *1.5 +120*0.1 = 76.43 kN/m2
3- òvoA = (18-9.81) * 2 = 16.38 kN/m2
òhoA = ko* òvoA = 0.5*16.38 = 8.19 kN/m2
�㔎ÿ + �㔎ℎ 16.38 + 8.19
Ă= = = 12.26 ý�㕁/ÿ2
2 2
�㔎ÿ 2 �㔎ℎ 16.38 2 8.19
ă= = = 4.1 ý�㕁/ÿ2
2 2
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òvA = 83.58 → òhA = ko* òvA = 25

0.5*83.58 = 41.79 kN/m2 20

�㔎ÿ + �㔎ℎ 83.58 + 41.79
Ă= = 15
2 2

q
= 62.69 ý�㕁/ÿ2 10

�㔎ÿ 2 �㔎ℎ 83.58 2 41.79 5

ă= =
2 2
0
= 20.9 ý�㕁/ÿ2 0 20 40 60 80
P
Example 7.15
Calculate the settlement of the 3m-
thick clay layer that will result from
the load carried by a 1.5-m-square
footing. The clay is normally
consolidated. Use method 2:1 to
calculate the average increase of
effective pressure in the clay layer.
Cc = 0.27
Solution

òo = 3*15.72 + 3*(18.87-9.81) +

1.5*(17.3-9.81) = 85.58kN/m2
Use Method 2:1 to find Δò
∆ăĀ ∗ ý ∗ �㔿 890 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 1.5
∆�㔎 2 = = = 35.6ý�㕁/ÿ2
(ý + Ā) ∗ (�㔿 + Ā) (1.5 + 6) ∗ (1.5 + 6)
0.27 ∗ 3.0 85.58 + 35.6
ÿý = þāý ( ) = 0.061ÿ = 61ÿÿ
1+1 85.58

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Example 7.16
Building (A) shown in the figure was constructed twenty years ago in an
excavation equal to the weight of the building and did not shows any
settlement. Another building (B) which are a twenty-story structure with net
weight 294300 kN was constructed only three years ago on rigid mat (30*30)
m. Building (A) has started showing some cracks. Plans for the two building
are given in the figure. You have been called as a consultant to access the to
indicate if any differential settlement has occurred in the building (A) due to the
construction of Building (B).

Solution
Load intensity from the building (B) under the mat
294300
∆ăĀ = = 327 ý�㕁/ÿ2
30 ∗ 30
òvo = 5* (16-9.81) + 1(20-9.81) = 41.14 kN/m2 ( at middle of the layer)
Stress increment under building (A) at points (x) and (y)

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Vertical stresses increement at (6) m below (x)

2*(rectangular a-c-x-e) -2* (rectangular b-c-x-f)
m n Coeff. factor Δqs (kN/m2) Δ’v (kN/m2)
36/6 15/6 0.244 2 327 159.58
6/6 15/6 0.203 -2 327 -132.76
26.78
Vertical stresses increement at (6) m below (y)
2*(rectangular a-d-y-e) -2* (rectangular b-d-y-f)
m n Coeff. factor Δqs (kN/m2) Δ’v (kN/m2)
54/6 15/6 0.2442 2 327 159.58
24/6 15/6 0.243 -2 327 -158.92
0.788
þÿ 4 ∗ 1023
ÿÿ = = = 1.43 ∗ 1023 ÿ2/ý�㕁
1 + ÿ�㕜 1 + 1.8
Settlement at (x) = mv. Δx H = 1.43* 10-3 *26.78 * 2 = 0.0766m = 76.6mm
Settlement at (y) = mv. Δx H = 1.43* 10-3 *0.788 * 2 = 0.00225m = 2.25mm
Differntial settlement = 76.6 – 2.25 = 74.35mm
Example 7.17
A peir (12*3)m was constructed in
a soil profile shown. Find the
settlement due to consolidation of
clay layer use method 2:1 to
calculate the pressure under the
peir.
Solution
The net pressure at the bottom of
the pillar
= (14400/3*12) – 18.64*6+3*9.81)
= 258.73 kN/m2
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Stress increment at the center of the clay layer

∆ăĀ ∗ ý ∗ �㔿 258.73 ∗ 3 ∗ 12
∆�㔎ÿ = = = 28.93 ý�㕁/ÿ2
(ý + Ā) ∗ (�㔿 + Ā) (3 + 11) ∗ (12 + 11)
’vo = 3*9.81 + 18.64 * 12 + 5 * 17.66 – 20 * 9.81 = 145.21 kN/m2
0.25 ∗ 10 145.21 + 28.93
ÿý = þāý ( ) = 0.09ÿ = 90ÿÿ
1 + 1.19 145.210

7.10 Important notes

1- Chech the layer if it is one or two drainage
2- The direction of the flow for the point considered.
3- The correct value of z and Hdr
4- Check the units
5- To find the total consolidation settlement, the hole layer must be
considered.
6- The stresses and the increment in stresses should be calculated at the
middle of the clay layer.
7- When the external load extends wide range, the increment of stress in
the middle layer of the clay is equal to the applied stress.

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Homework Chapter 7
(1) The following are the results of a consolidation test Pressure, ò
e
on a sample of a clayey soil. (kN/m2)
1.116 25
a. Plot the e-log ’ curve 1.108 50
b. Using Casagrande’s method, determine the pre- 1.055 100
0.962 200
consolidation pressure. 0.845 400
c. Calculate the compression index, Cc, and the 0.755 800
0.651 1600
ratio of Cs/Cc. 0.658 800
Ans.: b: 170 kN/m2, c: 0.074 0.675 400
0.685 200
(2) Following are the results of a laboratory Pressure, ò Final height of
consolidation test on a sample of (kg/cm2) specimen (cm)
0 2.54
undisturbed clay obtained from the field. 0.5 2.519
The height of the specimen at the 1.0 2.5
2.0 2.428
beginning of the test was 25.4 mm, and 4.0 2.322
the diameter was 63.5 mm. The moist 8.0 2.206
16 2.09
specimen weighed 140 g, and the water
content was determined to be 19%. Estimate the compression index from
the e-log ò curve. Given: Gs = 2.7. Ans.: Cc = 0.28

(3) Refer to Figure. Considering the soil to be a

uniform clay layer, estimate the primary
consolidation settlement due to the
foundation load. Given P = 150 kN; B = 3 m;
L = 3 m; Df = 1.5 m; H = 8 m; e = 0.7; Gs =
2.72; and Cc = 0.288 Assume that the clay
is normally consolidated, and the
groundwater table is at the foundation level.
Ans.: Sc = 0.137m

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(4) Refer to Figure. Estimate the consolidation

settlement in the clay layer. Given: Δò = 85
kN/m2; H1 = 2m; H2 = 4m; and H3 = 6m. Soil
characteristics are as follows: Sand: e = 0.65;
Gs = 2.66, Clay: e = 0.98; Gs = 2.74; Cc = 0.252
Ans.: Sc = 0.209m

(5) The following results were obtained from an oedometer test on a specimen
of saturated clay:
Pressure 27 54 107 214 429 214 107 54
(kN/m2)
Void ratio 1.243 1.217 1.144 1.068 0.994 1.001 1.012 1.024
A layer of this clay 8 m thick lies below a 4 m depth of sand, the water table
is at the surface. The saturated unit weight for both soils is 19 kN/m3. A 4-
m depth of fill of unit weight 21 kN/m3 is placed on the sand over an
extensive area. Determine the final settlement due to the consolidation of
the clay. If the fill were to be removed sometime after the completion of
consolidation, what heave would eventually take place due to swelling of
the clay. Ans.: Sc = 318mm, Heave = - 38mm

(6) A 3-m thick double drained stratum of clay is under a surcharge loading that
underwent 90% consolidation in 75 days. Find the coefficient of
consolidation cv of this clay in cm2/sec. Ans.: cv = 0.00294cm/sec2

(7) Using the information derived from the problem (6), how long will it take a
30 mm thick, undisturbed clay sample obtained from the field to undergo
90% consolidation in the laboratory. Ans.: 10minutes

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(8) For the loading condition shown find:

a) How high will the water rise in the
piezometer immediately after the
application of the load surface of
145 kN/m2.
b) What is the degree of
consolidation from the above
loading at point A, when h = 4.5m
c) Find h when the degree of
consolidation at A is 60%
Ans.: a) 14.76m b) 70% c) kN/m 2

(9) A new building is planned upon the site

shown. Assume that the clay solids
have a Gs = 2.67 and  = 34%. Find
the consolidation settlement if the clay
layer.
Ans.: Sc = 191mm

(10) Calculate the consolidation

settlement of the clay layer shown below
that will result from the column’s load
carried by square footing. Use method
2:1 to calculate the stresses increment.
Ans.: Sc = 113mm

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(11) An oedometer test is performed on a 10mm

thick specimen, drained on top and bottom. It
was observed that 45% consolidation (Tv =
0.15) was attained in 78 hours. Determine the
time required to achieve 70% consolidation (Tv
= 0.4) in a job site where the clay stratum is
shown. Ans.: 133.6 years
(12) Laboratory teds on 25mm thick clay specimen drained at both top and
bottom show that 50% consolidation takes place in 8.5minutes.
a) How long will it take for a similar clay layer in the field, 3.2m thick, but
drained at the top only, to undergo 50% consolidation
b) Find the time required for the clay layer in the field as described in part
(a) above, to reach a 65% consolidation. Ans.: a) 387 days b)668 days

(13) A clay layer 6m thick sitting on top of bedrock experiences a consolidation

of 0.22m. find: a) The degree of consolidation when the settlement
reaches 0.05m, b) The time reach 50% settlement if cv = 0.002cm2/sec, c)
The time for 50% consolidation if the stratum is doubly drained. Ans.: a)
22.5% b) 410.42 days c) 102.6 days
(14) An oedometer test on 25mm thick doubly drained sample from the clay
stratum attained 50%
consolidation in 6.5
minutes, find: a) The total
differential settlement of
the fully loaded tank at
points A and B at the
middle, b) The time
required for 75%
consolidation in the field
Ans.: 0.25m b) 14.6 years

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(15) An oedometer test was performed on a clay sample 3cm high, drained on
both sides, and taken from mid-stratum shown. 70% consolidation was
attained in 6.67 minutes. Find
a) The time required to attain 70% consolidation of the clay stratum
b) The magnitude of that settlement in that time

Ans.: a) 2.76 years b) 14.8cm

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