ORGANIC FARMING FOR

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 Current Advances in Biodiversity, Conservation,
and Environmental Sciences

ORGANIC FARMING FOR

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Edited by
Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD
Kasem Soytong, PhD
Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD
Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al-Tawaha, PhD
First edition published 2023
Apple Academic Press Inc. CRC Press
1265 Goldenrod Circle, NE, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW,
Palm Bay, FL 32905 USA Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 USA
760 Laurentian Drive, Unit 19, 4 Park Square, Milton Park,
Burlington, ON L7N 0A4, CANADA Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN UK

© 2023 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.

Apple Academic Press exclusively co-publishes with CRC Press, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors, editors, and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and publishers have attempted
to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any
form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC
please contact [email protected]
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: Organic farming for sustainable development / edited by Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD, Kasem Soytong, PhD,
Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD, Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al-Tawaha, PhD.
Names: Sangeetha, Jeyabalan, editor. | Soytong, Kasem, editor. | Thangadurai, D. (Devarajan), 1976- editor. | Al-Tawaha,
Abdel Rahman Mohammad, editor.
Series: Current advances in biodiversity, conservation, and environmental sciences (Series)
Description: First edition. | Series statement: Current advances in biodiversity, conservation, and environmental sciences |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20220220697 | Canadiana (print) 20220220727 | Canadiana (ebook) 20220220727 |
ISBN 9781774910207 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781774910214 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003284055 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Organic farming. | LCSH: Sustainable agriculture.
Classification: LCC S605.5 .O73 2022 | DDC 631.5/84—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data on file with US Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-1-77491-020-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-77491-021-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00328-405-5 (ebk)
ABOUT THE CURRENT ADVANCES IN
BIODIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES BOOK
SERIES

Series Editors
Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD
Assistant Professor, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, Kerala,
India
Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD
Associate Professor, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India

• Biodiversity and Conservation: Characterization and Utilization

of Plants, Microbes, and Natural Resources for Sustainable
Development and Ecosystem Management
Editors: Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD, Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD,
Hong Ching Goh, PhD, and Saher Islam, PhD

• Beneficial Microbes for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental

Management
Editors: Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD, Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD,
and Saher Islam, PhD

• Algal Genetic Resources: Cosmeceuticals, Nutraceuticals, and

Pharmaceuticals
Editors: Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD, and Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD

• Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Editors: Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD, Kasem Soytong, PhD,
Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD, and Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al-Tawaha, PhD
ABOUT THE EDITORS

Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD

Assistant Professor, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, Kerala,
South India
Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at Central University
of Kerala, Kasaragod, South India. She has edited/co-edited several books
in her research areas, including environmental toxicology, environmental
microbiology, environmental biotechnology, and environmental nanotech­
nology. She earned her BSc in Microbiology and PhD in Environmental
Science from Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
She holds an MSc in Environmental Science from Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. She is the recipient of a Tamil Nadu Govern­
ment Scholarship and a Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship of the University
Grants Commission, Government of India, for her doctoral studies. She
served as the Dr. D.S. Kothari Postdoctoral Fellow and UGC Postdoctoral
Fellow at Karnatak University, Dharwad, South India, during 2012–2016.

Kasem Soytong, PhD

Associate Professor, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang,
Bangkok, Thailand
Kasem Soytong, PhD, is currently serving as an Associate Professor in the
Department of Plant Production Technology in the Faculty of Agricultural
Technology, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok,
Thailand. He is the President of the Association of Agricultural Technology
in Southeast Asia; Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Agricul­
tural Technology; Director of Research and Development for BioAgritech
Co. Ltd, Vietnam; Executive Research Director at CAS Bio-Agricultural
Bio-engineering, China; Director of Research for Shew Khant Kyaw Co. Ltd.
(Organic Biofertilizer), Myanmar; Organic Consultant, CGC Lao Coffee,
Laos; Organic Consultant, Natural, and Premium Food Co. Ltd, Thailand; and
Director, AATSEA Organic Agriculture Model Farm, Thailand. He is an author/
co-author of more than 150 scientific publications, including research articles,
reviews, book chapters, and books.
viii About the Editors

He obtained his PhD in Plant Pathology (Mycology) from the University

of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB), Philippines, under the SEMEO­
SEARCA Scholarship. His research interests include nanotechnology for
agriculture, bioactive metabolites for disease control and immunity, organic
agriculture research, and plant pathology. He holds patent rights and product
registrations in Thailand, China, Laos, Vietnam, and IFOAM (International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements). He also has international
research collaborations with scientists from Sweden, Russia, Finland,
the USA, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, China, Philippines, Cambodia,
Myanmar, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Egypt, and Iran.
Also he is the recipient of several awards and honors, including 1981 Gold
Medal of First Class Honor in BSc conferred by His Majesty the King of
Thailand; 1991 Distinguished Alumnus Award in Research Work conferred
by Her Majesty the Princess Sirindhorn of Thailand (RIT-Chantaburi,
Thailand); 1994 Distinguished Alumnus Award in Research Work (UPLB,
Philippines); 1995 National Research’s Inventor Award (National Research
Council of Thailand); 1997 Excellency Research Award in Agriculture and
Biology (National Research Council of Thailand); 1998 IFS/Silver Jubilee
Research Award (IFS, Sweden); 2007 Outstanding Research Award from
King Rama IV Foundation by Her Royal Highest Princess Sirindhorn; 2015
Best Research Paper Award at the International Conference in Agriculture
and Environment for Sustainable Development, National Research Center,
Cairo, Egypt; 2017 Best Research Paper Award at the International Confer­
ence on Advanced Technologies and Their Application in Agriculture, Cairo,
Egypt; 2017 Distinguished Alumnus Award, University of the Philippines
Los Banos (UPLB, the Philippines), 2018 Commemorative Certificate for
Research Contribution Award, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, KMITL,
Bangkok, Thailand; 2018 India-Guest of Honor Award at the International
Conference on Bioproducts Development in Agricultural Inputs for Organic
Crop Production, Bharathiyar Arts and Science College for Women, Attur,
India; 2019-Recognition Award from China at the International Modern
Organic Agriculture Forum, Songyang, Zhejiang, China; 2019 The Second
Prize 2019 for the New Entrepreneurial and Innovative Competition in Wuxi,
Jiangsu, China by CAS Asian Agriculture.
About the Editors ix

Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD

Associate Professor, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, South India
Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD, is an Associate Professor at Karnatak Univer­
sity in South India and Editor-in-Chief of the international journals Biotech­
nology, Bioinformatics, and Bioengineering and Acta Biologica Indica. He
has authored/edited over 25 books with national and international publishers.
He has visited 24 countries in Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East
for academic visits, scientific meetings, and international collaborations. He
received his PhD in Botany from Sri Krishnadevaraya University in South
India as a CSIR Senior Research Fellow with funding from the Ministry of
Science and Technology, Government of India. He served as a Postdoctoral
Fellow at the University of Madeira, Portugal; University of Delhi, India;
and ICAR National Research Centre for Banana, India. He is the recipient of
a Best Young Scientist Award with a Gold Medal from Acharya Nagarjuna
University, India, and the VGST-SMYSR Young Scientist Award of the
Government of Karnataka, Republic of India.

Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al-Tawaha, PhD

Professor, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Jordan
Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al-Tawaha, PhD, is a Professor of Plant Science
and former Head of the Department of Biological Sciences as well as
former Director of the Planning, Information and Quality Unit at Al Hussein
Bin Talal University, Jordan. He is author/coauthor of more than 200
publications in plant science in leading peer-reviewed journals and chapters
in edited volumes and books on a broad range of development issues. He is
the Founder and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Advances in Environmental
Biology. He is also participated in many international conferences as chair or
member of the scientific committees. Dr. Al-Tawaha obtained his PhD from
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
CONTENTS

Contributors........................................................................................................... xv
Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ xix
Symbols .................................................................................................................xxv
Preface ............................................................................................................... xxvii

PART I: Agrofriendly Microbes and Their Metabolites for

Sustainable Agriculture ................................................................................. 1
1. Trichoderma: An Eco-Friendly Biopesticide for
Sustainable Agriculture ................................................................................. 3
Aparna B. Gunjal

2. Arbuscular Mycorrhizas: Applications in Organic

Agriculture and Beyond .............................................................................. 23
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Osikemekha Anthony Anani,
Devarajan Thangadurai, and Saher Islam

3. Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology: Past to Current

Knowledge and Future Prospects............................................................... 51
Palani Saranraj, Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha,
Panneerselvam Sivasakthivelan, Abdel Razzaq M. Al-Tawaha, Kangasalam Amala,
Devarajan Thangadurai, and Jeyabalan Sangeetha

4. Application of Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for

Effective Production of Next-Generation Biofertilizer:
A Panacea for Sustainable Organic Agriculture ....................................... 77
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Osikemekha Anthony Anani,
Devarajan Thangadurai, and Saher Islam

5. Recent Trends in the Utilization of Endophytic Microorganisms

and Other Biopesticidal Technology for the Management of
Agricultural Pests, Insects, and Diseases ................................................. 105
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Osikemekha Anthony Anani, Saher Islam, and
Devarajan Thangadurai

6. Secondary Metabolites and Their Biological Activities

From Chaetomium...................................................................................... 133
Kasem Soytong and Somdej Kanokmedhakul
xii Contents

PART II: Organic Amendments and Sustainable Practices for

Plant and Soil Management ...................................................................... 163
7. Garlic Products for Sustainable Organic Crop Protection .................... 165
Anjorin Toba Samuel and Adeniran Lateef Ariyo

8. Efficacy of Organic Substrates for Management of Soil-Borne

Plant Pathogens.......................................................................................... 183
Malavika Ram Amanthra Keloth, Meenakshi Rana, and Ajay Tomer

9. Organic Farming Improves Soil Health Sustainability and

Crop Productivity ...................................................................................... 207
Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha, Elif Günal, İsmail Çelik, Hikmet Günal,
Abdulkadir Sürücü, Abdel Razzaq M. Al-Tawaha, Alla Aleksanyan,
Devarajan Thangadurai, and Jeyabalan Sangeetha

10. Use of Biochar in Agriculture: An Inspiring Way in

Existing Scenario........................................................................................ 239
Imran, Amanullah, Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha, Abdel Razzaq M. Al-Tawaha,
Samia Khanum, Devarajan Thangadurai, Jeyabalan Sangeetha, Hiba Alatrash,
Palani Saranraj, Nidal Odat, Mazen A. Ateyya, Munir Turk, Arun Karnwal,
Sameena Lone, and Khursheed Hussain

11. The Role of Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming .......... 259
Shah Khalid, Amanullah, Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha, Nadia, Devarajan Thangadurai,
Jeyabalan Sangeetha, Samia Khanum, Munir Turk, Hiba Alatrash, Sameena Lone,
Khursheed Hussain, Palani Saranraj, Nidal Odat, and Arun Karnwal

12. Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems ................................. 277

Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha, Zahra Farrokhi, Nandhini Yoga, Poonam Roshan,
Imran, Amanullah, Abdel Razzaq M. Al-Tawaha, Alla Aleksanyan, Samia Khanum,
Devarajan Thangadurai, Jeyabalan Sangeetha, Abdur Rauf, Shah Khalid,
Palani Saranraj, Abdul Basit, Ayşe Yeşilayer, Hiba Alatrash, Mazen A. Ateyya,
Munir Turk, Arun Karnwal, Sameena Lone, and Khursheed Hussain

PART III: Organic Agriculture for Food Safety ............................................. 301

13. Organic Production Technology of Rice .................................................. 303
Shah Khalid, Amanullah, Nadia, Imranuddin, Mujeeb Ur Rahman,
Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha, Devarajan Thangadurai, Jeyabalan Sangeetha,
Samia Khanum, Munir Turk, Hiba Alatrash, Sameena Lone, Khursheed Hussain,
Palani Saranraj, and Arun Karnwal

14. Prospects of Organic Agriculture in Food Quality and Safety .............. 321
Akbar Hossain, Debjyoti Majumder, Shilpi Das, Apurbo Kumar Chaki,
Mst. Tanjina Islam, Rajan Bhatt, and Tofazzal Islam
Contents xiii

15. Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa: Health Impact,

Farmers’ Experiences, and International Trade ..................................... 363
Osebhahiemen Odion Ikhimiukor, Oluwadamilola Mathew Makinde,
Chibuzor-Onyema Ihuoma Ebere, Toba Samuel Anjorin, and
Fapohunda Stephen Oyedele

Index .................................................................................................................... 383

CONTRIBUTORS

Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji

Microbiology, Biotechnology, and Nanotechnology Laboratory,
Department of Microbiology Edo State University Uzairue, Auchi, Nigeria

Hiba Alatrash
General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria

Alla Aleksanyan
Institute of Botany aft. A.L. Takhtajyan NAS RA/Department of Geobotany and Plant Eco-Physiology,
Yerevan, Armenia

Abdel Rahman M. Al-Tawaha

Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, P.O. Box 20, Maan, Jordan

Abdel Razzaq M. Al-Tawaha

Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang–43400,
Selangor, Malaysia
Kangasalam Amala
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur–635601,
Tamil Nadu, India

Amanullah
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

Osikemekha Anthony Anani

Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Forensic Biology, Department of Biological Science,
Faculty of Science, Edo State University Uzairue, Auchi, Nigeria
Toba Samuel Anjorin
Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Abuja, Nigeria

Adeniran Lateef Ariyo

Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Abuja, Nigeria

Mazen A. Ateyya
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Al Balqa Applied University, Al-Salt–19117, Jordan

Abdul Basit
Department of Plant Pathology, Agriculture College, Guizhou University, Guiyan–550025, P.R. China

Rajan Bhatt
Regional Research Station-Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab–144601, India

İsmail Çelik
Çukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Adana, Turkey
xvi Contributors

Apurbo Kumar Chaki

School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, QLD–4072, Australia;
On-Farm Research Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur,
Dhaka, Bangladesh

Shilpi Das
Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture, Mymensingh–2202, Bangladesh;
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, QLD–4072, Australia
Chibuzor-Onyema Ihuoma Ebere
Department of Microbiology, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University,
Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria
Zahra Farrokhi
College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Iran

Elif Günal
Gaziosmanpaşa University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
Tokat, Turkey
Hikmet Günal
Gaziosmanpaşa University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
Tokat, Turkey
Aparna B. Gunjal
Department of Microbiology, Dr. D. Y. Patil Arts, Commerce, and Science College, Pimpri,
Pune–411018, Maharashtra, India

Akbar Hossain
Bangladesh Wheat and Maize Research Institute, Dinajpur – 5200, Bangladesh

Khursheed Hussain
Division of Vegetable Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Osebhahiemen Odion Ikhimiukor

Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Imran
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

Imranuddin
Department of Horticulture, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

Mst. Tanjina Islam

Department of Agronomy, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University,
Dinajpur–5200, Bangladesh

Saher Islam
Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biosciences,
University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

Tofazzal Islam
Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (IBGE), Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Agricultural University, Gazipur – 1706, Bangladesh

Somdej Kanokmedhakul
Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Khon Khan University, Khon Khan, Thailand
Contributors xvii

Arun Karnwal
Department of Microbiology, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab, India

Malavika Ram Amanthra Keloth

Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara–144411, Punjab, India
Shah Khalid
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

Samia Khanum
Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

Sameena Lone
Division of Vegetable Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Debjyoti Majumder
Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Oluwadamilola Mathew Makinde

Department of Microbiology, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University,
Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria
Nadia
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

Nidal Odat
Department of Medical Laboratories, Al-Balqa Applied University, Al-Salt–19117, Jordan

Fapohunda Stephen Oyedele

Department of Microbiology, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University,
Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria

Mujeeb Ur Rahman
Department of Horticulture, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

Meenakshi Rana
Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwar–144411, Punjab, India

Abdur Rauf
Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Anbar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Poonam Roshan
Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab–143005, India

Anjorin Toba Samuel

Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Abuja, PMB 117, Abuja, Nigeria

Jeyabalan Sangeetha
Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India

Palani Saranraj
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur–635601, Tamil Nadu, India

Panneerselvam Sivasakthivelan
Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University,
Chidambaram–608002, Tamil Nadu, India
xviii Contributors

Kasem Soytong
Department of Plant Production Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology,
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand

Abdulkadir Sürücü
Harran University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Şanliurfa,
Turkey
Devarajan Thangadurai
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka – 580003, India

Ajay Tomer
Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara – 144411, Punjab, India
Munir Turk
Department of Plant Production, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan

Ayşe Yeşilayer
Faculty of Agriculture, Tokat Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey

Nandhini Yoga
Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641003, Tamil Nadu,
India
ABBREVIATIONS

ABA abscisic acid

AC active cells
ACC aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
ADD anaerobically digested dairy
ADIs acceptable daily intakes
ADP anaerobically digested pig slurry
ADS anaerobically digested slurry
AGE aged garlic extract
Al aluminum
Al3+ aluminum trication
AlPO4 aluminum phosphate
AM arbuscular mycorrhizal
AMF arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
AMS agricultural marketing service
AQPs aquaporins
ARA acetylene reduction assay
As arsenic
ASD anaerobic soil disinfestation
ATP adenosine triphosphate
ATUs active taxonomic units
AUDPC area under disease progress curve
BC Botrytis cinerea
BGA blue-green algae
BMI body mass index
BOF bio-organic fertilizer
BP bone phosphate
BPB bromophenol blue
Bt Bacillus thuringiensis
C3 carbon three
C4 carbon four
C6H6Ca6O24P6 calcium phytate
Ca calcium
Ca2+ calcium dication
xx Abbreviations

Ca3(PO4)2 tricalcium phosphate

CaHPO4 dicalcium phosphate
CC cork compost
Cd cadmium
CH4 methane
CL50 concentration limit
Co cobalt
CO2 carbon dioxide
Cr (VI) hexavalent chromium
Cr chromium
Cu copper
CV cultivar
DADS diallyl disulfide
DAPG 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol
DAS diallyl sulfide
DATS dimethyl trisulfide
DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOR dry olive residues
DSR direct-seeded rice
ECV essential climate variables
EPHs enhanced plant holobiomes
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FC Fusarium culmorum
Fe iron
Fe3+ iron trication
FOL Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
FYM farmyard manure
GHGs greenhouse gas
GIS geographic information system
GM green manure
GMC grape marc compost
GSPC global strategy for plant conservation
H2PO4 dihydrogen phosphate
HCl hydrochloride
HCl-P phosphorus hydrochloride
HKC heat-killed cells
Abbreviations xxi

HMEC human microvascular endothelial cells

HMs heavy metals
HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatography
HPO42-Ca calcium-hydrogen phosphate
HS humic substances
HWSC harvest weed seed control methods
IAA indole-3-acetic acid
IBA indole-3-butyric acid
IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
IPM integrated pest management
IPNS integrated plant nutrition system
ISAC Institute for Sustainable Agricultural Communities
ISR induced systemic resistance
ITS internal transcribed spacer
K potassium
LC50 lethal concentration
LPS lipopolysaccharide
LSM liquid swine manure
M mycorrhizal
Mabs monoclonal antibodies
MALDI-TOF matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight
MAO monoamine oxidase
MAP kinases mitogen-activated protein kinase
MDG millennium development goals
Mg magnesium
Mg2+ magnesium dication
MMN mineral nutrients solution
Mn manganese
MRLs maximum residue level
MS mass spectrometry
MSM mustard seed meal
N nitrogen
Na15NO3 sodium nitrate
NAA naphthalene acetic acid
NaCl sodium chloride
NaOH-P phosphonium hydroxide
NBRIP National Botanical Research Institute Phosphate
NH4 ammonium
Ni nickel
xxii Abbreviations

NM nonmycorrhizal
NMDS non-metric multidimensional scaling
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
NO2 nitrous oxide
NO3 nitrate
NOP national organic program
NPK nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
OFS organic farming system
OPB inorganic plant breeding
OPPs organophosphorus pesticides
P phosphate
P 2O 5 iron (III) phosphate
Pb lead
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PCR-DGGE polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel
electrophoresis
PDA potato dextrose agar
PGPB plant growth-promoting bacteria
PGPM plant growth-promoting microorganisms
PGPR plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
pH degree of acid and base
PHB poly β-hydroxybutyrate
PM poultry manure
PR-protein pathogenesis-related proteins
PSB phosphate solubilizing bacteria
PSI phosphate solubilizing index
PSM phosphate solubilizing microorganism
PSRB phosphate solubilizing rhizospheric bacteria
PVK Pikovskaya
Rb rubidium
rDNA ribosomal DNA
RLSBX relative length of stem with brown xylem
ROS reactive oxygen species
RP rock phosphate
S sulfur
SAC S-allycysteine
SANRU Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University
SAR systemic acquired resistance
SM sclerotinia minor
Abbreviations xxiii

SMAC S-allylmercaptocysteine
SOM soil organic matter
sp. species
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
SSF solid-state fermentation
SSP single super phosphorus
TA titratable acidity
TCP tricalcium phosphate
TLC thin layer chromatography
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
USA United States of America
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
UV ultraviolet
VAM vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizas
VFA volatile fatty acid
ZBNF zero budget natural farming
Zn zinc
ZnO zinc oxide
SYMBOLS

% percentage
β beta
µm micrometer
µmolL–1 micro per mole
1° first degree
3° third degree
CFU/ml colony-forming unit per milliliters
dSm–1 decisiemens per meter
g gram
h hour
ha hectare
kg ha–1 kilogram per hectare
kg kilogram
kg–1 kilo per gram
m meter
mg kg–1 milligram per kilogram
mg milligrams
mg/l milligrams per liter
mg/mL milligrams per milliliter
min minute
ml milliliter
mm millimeter
mM millimolar
ng/mL nanograms per milliliter
°C degree Celsius
α alpha
β beta
μg ml–1 microgram per liter
μm micrometer
PREFACE

The gravity of organic farming has increased in recent past decades with the
concern with the vast deleterious effect of conventional agricultural practices,
which employ chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides for large-scale
food production. Organic farming has become an important paradigm for
sustainable development as it prevents jeopardizing the ecological balance
and secures the natural resources for upcoming generations. In general,
organic farming methods make use of natural resources such as compost,
bone meals, green/animal manure, microorganisms, and crop rotation to
improve soil quality and nurture plants, which enhance the good health and
well-being of humans as well as the biological functioning of the soil, water,
and the natural niche. The quality of food in terms of nutrition, fertility of the
soil, and the surrounding ecosystem such as micro and macroflora has been
retained for the long term. In this way, we can efficiently and cost-effectively
use natural and available resources to produce healthy food by reducing the
lethality of environmental issues.
Compared to conventional farming, which is more output-oriented rather
than health concerned, natural farming includes various cultivating rationale
that is ecofriendly and aids in tacking the hazardous consequences of chemi­
cals on the environment. Rather than concentrating on the quantity of food
production using conventional farming techniques, if we target equitably on
both qualities of food and environment, it can bring about the sustainable
development of the ecosystem and the socio-economy of any nation. As it is
a question of the existence of the whole planet, organic farming has gained
in importance and solemnness on a global basis. On average of 2.8 million
farmers in around 186 countries worldwide are now following this farming
method.
The current status of organic cultivation is at its advancing stages in
developing countries. Up date, only a few fractions of total agricultural
farmlands are producing organic cultivars. Conversely, suppose we utilize
the remaining portions of farmlands for organic farming. In that case, we can
expeditiously increase the nutrients content of our food. We would be able to
manage the organic wastes coming from other sectors, such as cattle farms,
without polluting the surroundings. This is the key benefit of organic farming
xxviii Preface

wherein we can make use of the waste products from one sector as the raw
material for another agricultural sector.
As mentioned earlier, one of the significant aspects of this farming
method is the maintenance of ecological balance; that is, a prerequisite factor
for the conservation of biodiversity. It can also be employed correspond­
ingly on ecological poles and economic levels of national and international
markets because of the products’ high nutrition value in comparison with
traditionally grown food products. Organic farming is a kind of give-and­
take approach whereby we can use natural resources for our needs, and we
take responsibility to sustain an ecological balance, which is the main agenda
of this farming method.
However, one of the widely discussed demerits of organic farming is its
low output in bulk quantity, and it is more labor-intensive. Nevertheless,
suppose we implement more sustainable methods in organic farming, in that
case, that might increase the quantity and quality of crop production, and we
can set aside or reduce the environmental repercussions and thereby sustain
the ecosystem in and of itself for the future era.
The present book mainly focuses on the application of different natural
resources as manure for organic farming. Section I discusses in detail the
application of microorganisms such as Trichoderma sp., Azospirillum sp.,
endophytic microorganisms, arbuscular mycorrhiza, Chaetomium sp., and,
and bioactive secondary metabolites thereof in the organic farming practices.
Section II explores the potential applications of organic amendments and
sustainable practices for plant growth and soil health using garlic products,
organic substrates, biochar, organic mulching, and tillage and weed manage­
ment. In addition, Section III summarizes the impact and prospects of organic
crop production technology on health, food safety, and quality.

—Jeyabalan Sangeetha, PhD

Kasem Soytong, PhD
Devarajan Thangadurai, PhD
Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al-Tawaha, PhD
 PART I
Agrofriendly Microbes and Their
Metabolites for Sustainable Agriculture
CHAPTER 1

TRICHODERMA: AN ECO-FRIENDLY
BIOPESTICIDE FOR SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
APARNA B. GUNJAL

Department of Microbiology, Dr. D. Y. Patil Arts, Commerce,

and Science College, Pimpri, Pune–411018, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT

The use of chemical pesticides to kill the insects and pests in agriculture is
toxic, costly, and causes harm to the environment. This is a serious issue
and needs attention. The biological approach is necessary to be applied.
The introduction, category, and market demand of biopesticides are taken
into account. Trichoderma-based biopesticide is gaining importance. This
chapter focuses on features of Trichoderma biopesticide, formulations, and
mechanism of action of Trichoderma biopesticide for sustainable agricul­
ture. The production of Trichoderma-based biopesticide, spore production of
Trichoderma, methods for application in agriculture, and how Trichoderma
biopesticides are effective against diseases caused by phytopathogens are
also highlighted. The root colonization and interaction of Trichoderma with
other microorganisms is also highlighted in this chapter. The application
of Trichoderma-based biopesticide has importance as it is eco-friendly,
easy to use, economical, and safe to the environment. Biopesticides now
are alternatives to chemical pesticides and have emerged as novel tools
to control insects and pests in agriculture. The use of Trichoderma sp. in
agriculture will increase the yield of various plants. This will also lead to
organic farming and organic products, which will be healthy and safe. This
chapter thus highlights the development of Trichoderma-based biopesticide.
4 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the most essential aspect. The uses of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides are toxic, costly, and harmful to humans as well as the environment
(Prabha et al., 2016). The use of chemical pesticides disturbs the balance
of the ecosystem. Biopesticides are made from living microorganisms
(bacteria, fungi, and viruses) and plants. They protect the plants and crops
against insects, pests, and nematodes (Senthil-Nathan, 2015). These are of
three types, viz., plant-incorporated protectants, microbial, and biochemical
pesticides. The biopesticides have advantages, viz., target-specific, very
eco-friendly, economical, non-toxic, and can be used in trace amounts
(Kumar, 2012). Due to their advantages are gaining immense importance in
comparison to synthetic chemical pesticides (Chandrasekaran et al., 2012).
Biopesticides, in combination with integrated pest management (IPM)
programs, help to reduce the use of chemical pesticides and increase the
growth of plants (Sharma and Malik, 2012). They do not harm the ecosystem
and are easily biodegradable. They have gained immense value in the market
due to many advantages (Prabha et al., 2016). The demand for biopesticides
has increased all over the world. They also have an excellent role to play in
IPM. Biopesticides are safe to be used by farmers and maintain a sustainable
approach (Kumar et al., 2014a). The health consciousness of humans has
immensely increased the need for organic food. This, in turn, has increased
the scope for biopesticides. The use of biopesticides has increased by the
farmers in agriculture (Kandpal, 2014). The major biopesticides are Bacillus
thuringiensis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Fusarium, Pythium, Penicillium,
Verticillium, Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, and Beauveria bassiana
(Gupta and Dikshit, 2010; Kachhawa, 2017). There are 15 biopesticides
registered in India. In the United States of America (USA) and European
countries, about 200 and 60 biopesticide products are available respectively
in the market (Kumar and Singh, 2015). The use of biopesticides increases
by 10% every year (Kumar and Singh, 2015).

1.2 CATEGORIES OF BIOPESTICIDES

1.2.1 MICROBIAL PESTICIDES

These consist of microorganisms used for the control of insects, nematodes,

and pests. The most common biopesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). B.
thuringiensis produces Bt toxin, which when consumed by insects, pests, or
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 5

nematodes, breaks the gut cells (Chandler et al., 2011) and kills the insects
or pests. The Bt toxin causes the death of insects or pests in about 48 h.

1.2.2 BIOCHEMICAL PESTICIDES

Biochemical pesticides are also termed herbal pesticides (Pal and Kumar,
2013). They control insects and pests by a non-toxic mechanism.

1.2.3 PLANT-INCORPORATED-PROTECTANTS

Plant-Incorporated-Protectants are the biopesticides produced from plants

the way of genetic engineering (Tijjani et al., 2016).

1.3 FORMULATIONS OF BIOPESTICIDES

The biopesticides are available in three forms, viz., powder, emulsion, and
granules (Singh et al., 2014).

1.3.1 DRY FORMULATIONS

1.3.1.1 DUSTABLE POWDERS

The dustable powder formulation of biopesticide is prepared by adsorption

of active ingredient on talc or clay (Tijjani et al., 2016). The concentration of
active ingredients used is 10%.

1.3.1.2 GRANULES

The concentration of active ingredient used is 2–20% which either coat

or adsorb on the granules. The granules size range between 100 and 600
microns and can be made using kaolin, silica, and starch (Tijjani et al., 2016).

1.3.1.3 SEED DRESSING

In this biopesticide formulation, the carrier is coated onto the seeds for
adherence. In some cases, some coloring agent may also be used along with
the carrier to ensure safety (Woods, 2003).
6 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

1.3.1.4 WETTABLE POWDERS

The wettable powders are prepared by mixing active ingredients with surfac­
tants and inert fillers. These can be applied after suspension in water and can
be stored for a long period (Tijjani et al., 2016).

1.3.2 LIQUID FORMULATIONS

1.3.2.1 EMULSION

Emulsion formulations can be oil in water or water in oil. The loss due to
evaporation is minimized (Brar et al., 2006).

1.3.2.2 SUSPENSION CONCENTRATE

This biopesticide formulation is prepared by proper mixing of active ingre­

dient in water. The active ingredients become readily available to the plants
due to the minimum size of the particles (1–10 μm).

1.3.2.3 SUSPO-EMULSION

This formulation is a combination of emulsion and suspension concentrate.

This formulation of biopesticides has more demand in the market (Tijjani et
al., 2016).

1.3.2.4 OIL DISPERSION

This formulation is prepared similar to suspension concentrate. The active

ingredients should be properly selected.

1.3.2.5 CAPSULE SUSPENSION

In capsule suspension, the active ingredients are enclosed in capsules. The

capsules can be prepared using gelatin, starch, or cellulose. This formulation
of biopesticides can be applied by interfacial polymerization.
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 7

1.4 SCOPE AND MARKET DEMAND OF BIOPESTICIDES

There is worldwide immense scope for biopesticides to control the insects

and pests in the field due to their advantages (Oguh et al., 2019). The market
demand for biopesticides has tremendously increased in the last few years.
The reason behind this is conventional chemicals are toxic, costly, and cause
pollution (Glare et al., 2012). The biopesticides are very safe to use. The
world biopesticides market is expected to be around $7.7 billion by 2021
(Ruiu, 2018). In the USA, the USA and European market around 200 and
60 biopesticide products, respectively, are there in the market (Kumar and
Singh, 2015). The biopesticide use increases by 10% each year, which is
expected to increase more (Kumar and Singh, 2015). Trichoderma biopesti­
cide will have good market globally.

1.5 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF BIOPESTICIDES

The mechanisms of action of biopesticides are antibiosis, where the micro­

organisms produce antibiotics to inhibit the pathogens (Rikita and Utpal,
2014); competition where the biopesticides colonize the substrates and
control the growth of harmful microorganisms. There can be competition for
the nutrients and minerals among the microorganisms, where the most potent
microorganism will survive in competition. Antibiotics are reported to have
some role in biocontrol activity (Hamid and Mohiddin, 2018). The antibiotics
secreted by some fungi can control the growth of harmful fungi. Trichoderma
biopesticide has been reported to control the pathogen Erysiphe pisi (Patel et
al., 2016). Trichoderma produces toxic metabolites, viz., viridin, tricholin,
and alamethicins (Gajera et al., 2013). Also, there is a report on Trichoderma
for control of various plant diseases (Kumar et al., 2017). Hyper parasitism
is another mechanism of action of biopesticide. In hyper parasitism, Tricho­
derma sp. due to chitinase enzyme, degrades chitin and enters the cell wall
of the host (Hamid and Mohiddin, 2018). T. lignorum usually parasitizes
the hyphae of Rhizoctonia solani. Due to this, Trichoderma spores can be
applied to prevent damping off disease in Citrus plants (Rikita and Utpal,
2014). Synergism is also the mechanism of action of biopesticides which is
a combination of hydrolytic enzymes and antibiotics (Tijjani et al., 2016). T.
asperellum also stimulates induced systemic resistance (ISR), which helps
in the control of plant diseases (Yedidia et al., 2003). There is a report where
Trichoderma harzianum T-39 showed ISR against Botrytis cinerea (BC) and
8 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Podosphaera xanthil, where the Cucumis sativus, Solanum lycopersicum,

Phaseolus vulgaris and Fragaria × ananassa plants were protected from
foliar diseases by stimulation of beneficial microorganisms (Levy et al.,
2015). The mechanism of Trichoderma-based biopesticide is represented in
Figure 1.1.

FIGURE 1.1 Mechanism of action of Trichoderma-based biopesticide.

1.6 VARIOUS FUNGI AS BIOPESTICIDES

The various fungi as biopesticides are represented in Figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.2 Various fungi as biopesticides.

Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 9

1.7 TRICHODERMA SP.

Various Trichoderma spp. are used as biocontrol agents against plant

pathogens (Sharma et al., 2014). Trichoderma sp. is free-living fungi and
interacts highly with the roots of the plants. Trichoderma belongs to the
subdivision of Deuteromycotina, classes Deuteromycetes, and familia
Tuberculariaceae (Suparno et al., 2016). They have been found effective
to control plant diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solanii (Gal-Hemed et al.,
2011). The species of Trichoderma are T. piluliferum, T. polysporum, T.
hamatum, T. koningii, T. aureoviride, T. harzianum, T. longibrachyatum,
T. pseudokoningii, T. reessei, T. asperellum, T. parareesei, T. gamsii, T.
virens, and T. viride (Waghunde et al., 2016; Zeilinger et al., 2016). There
are more than 100 species of Trichoderma (Thapa et al., 2020). The mode
of reproduction in Trichoderma sp. is asexual. Trichoderma sp. is found
dominantly in soil and their characteristic feature is they produce spores.
Trichoderma sp. is a strong opportunistic invader and produces antibiotics.
Trichoderma has antagonistic properties (Reyes et al., 2012) and are known
to produce biomass, primary metabolites (e.g., enzymes like cellulase,
chitinase, organic acids, antibiotics, etc.); secondary metabolite (e.g., 6
pentyl-alpha-pyrone) and; spores. These are found to play a good role in
the control of plant diseases. Also, the study is done on Trichoderma sp. as
biocontrol of Colletotrichum sp. and F. oxysporum causing disease in chili
(Su et al., 2018; Utami et al., 2019).
Trichoderma grows fast without much need of nutrients. Conidiophores
are branched, either loosely or compactly tufted or formed in concentric
rings. The main branch produces paired or unpaired branches. The phialides
are seen arising near the tip of the main branch. The primary branches
produce secondary branches either paired or unpaired. The longest secondary
branch is seen close near the tip of the primary branch. This gives Tricho­
derma conidiophores a pyramid look. Phialides are held at 90° clustered
or solitary, either cylindrical or globose in shape. Conidia are dry, smooth,
ellipsoidal, or tuberculate and measure 3–5×2–4 µm. The conidia are green
in color. Chlamydospores are unicellular or multicellular, subglobose in
shape and present inside the hyphal cells. Stromata are present which may
be brown, yellow, or orange in color and are pulvinate in shape. There are
several reports where Trichoderma is used as biofertilizer (Gu et al., 2016;
Kamal, 2018; Tawfeeq Al-Ani, 2018; Kumar et al., 2019). Trichoderma as
biofertilizer has shown an increase in the yield of Triticum plant (Mahato
et al., 2018).
10 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

1.7.1 SPORE PRODUCTION OF TRICHODERMA

For the preparation of biological control agents on a large scale by solid-

state fermentation (SSF), spore biomass is necessary. SSF process occurs
in the absence of water by using a variety of economical and non-toxic
substrates, viz., rice, and wheat husk, bagasse, corn cob, pressmud,
sawdust, coconut husk, etc. T. harzianum can be used for spore produc­
tion by SSF (Ming et al., 2019). The spore production of T. harzianum
is represented in Figure 1.3. Glucose, starch, fructose inorganic salt,
magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and rice bran help in good sporulation of
Trichoderma (Ming et al., 2019). There is a report on production of T.
asperellum spores by SSF using mango waste (Sala et al., 2019; Santos-
Villalobos et al., 2012). Study is done T. harzianum spore production on
rice husk by SSF (Sala et al., 2020). Mycelial growth favors the spore
production (Hiba et al., 2019). In the case of liquid-state fermentation,
Trichoderma is grown in potato dextrose broth on a rotary shaker at 28°C
for 10–12 days for the production of biomass of Trichoderma (Hamid and
Mohiddin, 2018).

FIGURE 1.3 Spore production of T. harzianum.

Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 11

1.8 ROOT COLONIZATION BY TRICHODERMA

Trichoderma colonizes roots of plants which alters plant metabolism

(Brotman et al., 2012). They help the plants to acquire nutrients (Khatabi
et al., 2012). T. harzianum penetrates the roots of plants by the help of
enzymes. The enzyme endopolygalacturonase (ThPG1) from T. harzianum
helps to penetrate the roots of plants. Trichoderma takes help of swollenin
protein which has a cellulose-binding module, disrupts the cell wall of
plants and helps in root colonization of plants (Druzhinina et al., 2011). The
molecular mechanism in root colonization of plants by Trichoderma is still
not known clearly.

1.8.1 INTERACTION OF TRICHODERMA WITH OTHER

MICROORGANISMS

Trichoderma sp. has applications in agriculture to improve the plant yield.

Trichoderma interacts mostly with pathogenic fungi by various mechanisms.
There can be competition for nutrients, minerals, and space which can
suppress the activity of pathogenic fungi (Thapa et al., 2020). There are
studies done on the interaction of Trichoderma viride with Azotobacter and
Rhizobium. T. hamatum interaction with Rhizobium sp. has been reported
to improve the productivity of V. mungo (Badar and Qureshi, 2012).
Trichoderma spp. on interaction has also offered too many fungi in the soil
(Khan et al., 2017; Fiorentino et al., 2018). The interaction of Trichoderma
sp. with other microorganisms leads to the secretion of antibiotics, which
can kill other pathogenic fungi. Sometimes interaction of Trichoderma sp.
with other fungi leads to the secretion of enzymes which can be helpful for
biological control and provide resistance to the plants against many diseases.

1.8.2 TRICHODERMA AS A BIOPESTICIDE FOR SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE

Trichoderma-based biofungicides have immense importance in the agri­

cultural market. More than 50 formulations are registered products of
Trichoderma sp. (Waghunde et al., 2016). Trichoderma as biopesticide
has been studied by Kachhawa (2017). These products have application
as strong biocontrol agents. Trichoderma-based biocontrol agents are
12 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

more effective as compared to other fungi. T. harzianum is widely used

biopesticide in agriculture (Lorito et al., 2010; Prakash et al., 2019).
Trichoderma sp. is antagonistic against various phytopathogens and this
minimizes the diseases in crops (Monte, 2001). The antagonistic activity
of Trichoderma sp. is due to ‘trichodermin’ which makes them strong
biocontrol agents (Tvetdyukov et al., 1994). The secondary metabolites
produced by Trichoderma sp. have immense applications (Ramteke, 2019).
There is a report on the use of Trichoderma in sustainable agriculture by
plant disease management (Tawfeeq Al-Ani, 2018). There is a report on
the use of these secondary metabolites from Trichoderma for the plant
growth. Also, there is a report on Trichoderma sp. effective against fungal
phytopathogens, viz., Clerotinia sclerotiorum and Sclerotinia minor (SM),
which causes major loss to many crops (Ibarra-Medina et al., 2010). There
is a report on role of Trichoderma as effective biopesticide (Khandelwal
et al., 2012; Ramteke, 2019). The efficacy of T. viride to control insects
and pests is 60–90%. There is a report on the use of Trichoderma in
agriculture (Sachdev and Singh, 2020). Trichoderma brevicompactum has
been reported to show activity against Sclerotium rolfsii, Colletotrichum
gloesporioides, Verticillium dahliae, Fusarium oxysporum, and Cylindro­
cladium sp. (Marques et al., 2018).

1.8.3 FEATURES OF TRICHODERMA BIOPESTICIDE

The features of Trichoderma biopesticide are, viz., effective, contains essen­

tial nutrients and minerals, good quality, non-toxic, easy to use, eco-friendly,
and has good shelf-life.

1.8.4 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF T. HARZIANUM AS

BIOCONTROL AGENT

T. harzianum establishes in the rhizosphere region of the plants or crops.

The rhizosphere is the region where abundant beneficial microorganisms
are present near the roots of the plants. There are different mechanisms of
action which makes T. harzianum strong biocontrol agent. The growth of T.
harzianum forms a barrier and prevents the growth of fungal phytopathogens.
T. harzianum also utilizes the excess nutrients available in the root system,
due to which the growth of fungal phytopathogens is inhibited. The second
reason is T. harzianum produces chitinase enzyme which degrades chitin
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 13

and ruptures the cell wall. This allows the entry of other microorganisms.
These mechanisms help T. harzianum to prevent the growth of other fungal
phytopathogens and thus help to control diseases in the plants (Gajera et al.,
2013). This also enables to increase the growth and yield of the plants.

1.8.5 PRODUCTION OF TRICHODERMA-BASED BIOPESTICIDE

There is a report on production of biopesticide of T. viride (Arora et al.,

2017). The production of Trichoderma-based biopesticide is represented in
Figure 1.4. The fungal biopesticides are produced by submerged and SSF.
Mostly SSF is usually used for the production of fungal biopesticides. SSF is
the fermentation in the absence of water using beneficial microorganisms to
get value-added product. For the production of biopesticide, Trichoderma is
isolated from the rhizosphere region of the plants. It is grown on solid agar
medium viz., potato dextrose agar (PDA). A pure is obtained which can be
used for further production of the spores. The spores can be mixed with a
suitable carrier such as talc and then applied in the field on a large scale.

FIGURE 1.4 Production of Trichoderma-based biopesticide.

1.8.6 METHODS OF APPLICATION OF TRICHODERMA FOR

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN AGRICULTURE

In seed treatment, 10 g Trichoderma formulation per lit cow dung slurry for
the treatment of 1 kg of seed prior to sowing is used. The second method
14 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

is cutting and seedling root dip where 10 g L–1 Trichoderma formulation is

used to treat the seedlings for 10 min prior to planting. In the case of soil
treatment method of application, 1 kg of Trichoderma formulation + 100
kg of farmyard manure (FYM) is covered for a week with polythene and
mixed properly to apply in the field. The foliar spray application is also used
where Trichoderma sp. can be applied as foliar spray to control the plant
diseases (Mishra et al., 2018). The application of Trichoderma in agriculture
is represented in Figure 1.5 (Kumar et al., 2014b).

FIGURE 1.5 Application of Trichoderma in agriculture.

1.8.7 APPLICATION OF TRICHODERMA SP. BIOPESTICIDES

AGAINST VARIOUS DISEASES

The application of Trichoderma sp. biopesticides against various diseases

is represented in Table 1.1. There is a report where T. harzianum and T.
hamatum are biocontrol agents against Fusarium oxysporum which causes
lentil wilt (El-Hassan et al., 2013). Trichoderma biopesticide is used to control
wilt and root rot diseases caused by Fusarium sp., R. solani, R. bataticola,
Sclerotium rolfsii and Sclerotium sclerotiorum in crops (Chaudhary et al.,
2004; Mishra et al., 2015). There is a report on eco-friendly management of
red rot disease of Saccharum officinarum with Trichoderma strains (Singh et
al., 2008). Also, there is a report of Trichoderma from mangrove sediments
as biocontrol against Fusarium strains (Filizola et al., 2019). Trichoderma
is reported to exhibit various mechanisms, viz., mycoparasitism, antibiosis,
and competition which will be essential for use by farmers in agriculture to
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 15

control diseases caused by pests and insects (Patil et al., 2016). The control
of plant diseases by Trichoderma is shown in Figure 1.6.

TABLE 1.1 Application of Trichoderma sp. Biopesticides Against Various Diseases

Bioagent Pathogen Crop References
T. harzianum Puccinia sorghi Oryza sativa Dey et al. (2013)
Pyricularia oryzae
Alternaria alternata Nicotina tabacum Gveroska and Ziberoski
(2012)
Phytophthora capsici Red pepper Savitha and Sriram (2015)
Fusarium oxysporum Cicer arietinum Shabir-U-Rehman (2013)
T. viride Colletotrichum capsici Capsicum frutescens Jagtap et al. (2013)
Phytophthora capsici Piper nigrum Mathew et al. (2011)
Trichoderma Botrytis cinerea Solanum lycopersicum Tucci et al. (2011)
sp. – Fragaria × ananassa Mutiya and Prilya (2017)
R. solani Oryza sativa Chakravarthy and
Nagamani (2007)
Fusarium and Phoma Solanum tuberosum Gogoi et al. (2007)
sp.
F. oxysporum and Phaseolus vulgaris Abd-El-Elshahawy et al.
F. solani (2019)
T. atroviride R. solani Cucumis sativus Yobo (2005)

FIGURE 1.6 Control of plant diseases by Trichoderma.

16 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

1.9 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Trichoderma is excellent biopesticide and will have immense use in

agriculture. This will be very easy, eco-friendly, and economical. The use of
Trichoderma as biopesticide is safe to the humans and to the environment.
The Trichoderma-based biopesticide is an organic product as it is prepared
using microbial approach. It will also help in the growth of various plants
and crops. Trichoderma-based biopesticide will also protect many plants
and crops against various phytopathogens. The farmers will benefit due to
the use of Trichoderma-based biopesticide. The biopesticides will have an
immense advantage in the global market. The use of biopesticides will be
definitely very fruitful in the control of insects, nematodes, and pests. The
biological approach is thus always interesting and safe as compared to the
use of hazardous and toxic chemicals. The ban of chemicals is safe for the
human and environment. The research on biopesticides should be carried
on large-scale, and the molecular aspect related to the exact mechanisms
of biopesticides needs to be studied. New biopesticides should also be
developed for the control of insects, pests, and nematodes on crops and
other plants. The availability of good quality Trichoderma biopesticides
at an economical price should be maintained. The awareness regarding
biopesticide enterprises should be increased.

KEYWORDS

• Bacillus thuringiensis
• induced systemic resistance
• integrated pest management
• pesticides
• potato dextrose agar
• solid state fermentation
• sustainable agriculture

REFERENCES

Abd-El-Khair, H., Elshahawy, I. E., & Haggag, H. K., (2019). Field application of Trichoderma
spp. combined with thiophanate-methyl for controlling Fusarium solani and Fusarium
oxysporum in dry bean. Bull. Natl. Res. Cent., 43, 1–9.
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 17

Al-Ani, L. T., (2018). Trichoderma: Beneficial role in sustainable agriculture by plant disease
management. In: Plant Microbiome: Stress Response (pp. 105–126). Springer.
Arora, A., Kaur, P., Kumar, M., & Saini, V., (2017). Production of biopesticides namely
Trichoderma viride and Beauveria bassiana. Ind. J. Sci. Technol., 10, 1–7.
Badar, R., & Qureshi, S. A., (2012). Comparative effect of Trichoderma hamatum and host-
specific Rhizobium species on growth of Vigna mungo. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci., 2, 128–132.
Brar, S. K., Verma, M., Tyagi, R. D., & Valero, J. R., (2006). Recent advances in downstream
processing and formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis based biopesticides. Proc.
Biochem., 41, 323–342.
Brotman, Y., Lisec, J., Méret, M., Chet, I., Willmitzer, L., & Viterbo, A., (2012). Transcript
and metabolite analysis of the Trichoderma-induced systemic resistance response to
Pseudomonas syringae in Arabidopsis thaliana. Microbiol., 139–146.
Chakravarthy, S. K., & Nagamani, A., (2007). Efficacy of non-volatile and volatile compounds
of Trichoderma species on Rhizoctonia solani. J. Mycol. Plant Pathol., 37, 82–86.
Chandler, D., Bailey, A., Tatchell, G. M., Davidson, G., Greaves, J., & Grant, W. P., (2011).
The development, regulation and use of biopesticides for integrated pest management.
Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Bull., 386, 2–13.
Chandrasekaran, R., Revathi, K., Nisha, S., Kirubakaran, S. A., Sathish-Narayanan, S., &
Senthil-Nathan, S., (2012). Physiological effect of chitinase purified from Bacillus
subtilis against the tobacco cutworm Spodoptera litura fab. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.,
104, 65–71.
Chaudhary, R. G., Shukla, N., & Prajapati, R. K., (2004). Biological control of soil-borne
diseases: An update in pulse crops. In: Shahid, & Narain, (eds.), Eco-friendly Management
of Plant Diseases (pp. 178–200). Daya Publishing House, New Delhi.
Dey, U., Harlapur, S. L., & Dhutraj, D. N., (2013). Bioassay of fungicides, botanicals,
bioagents and indigenous technology knowledge against Pyricularia oryzae Cav. causal
agent of blast of rice. J. Plant Dis. Sci., 8, 102–106.
Druzhinina, I., Seidl-Seiboth, V., Herrera-Estrella, A., Horwitz, B., Kenerley, C., Enrique, M.
E., Mukherjee, P., et al., (2011). Trichoderma: The genomics of opportunistic success.
Nat. Rev. Microbiol., 9, 749–759.
El-Hassan, S. A., Gowen, S. R., & Pembrok, B., (2013). Use of Trichoderma hamatum for
biocontrol of lentil wilt diseases. J. Plant Prot. Res., 53, 12–17.
Filizola, P., Luna, M., de Souza, A., Coelho, I., Laranjeira, D., & Campos-Takaki, G., (2019).
Biodiversity and phylogeny of novel Trichoderma isolates from mangrove sediments and
potential of biocontrol against Fusarium strains. Microbial Cell Fact., 18, 1–14.
Fiorentino, N., Ventorino, V., Woo, S. L., Pepe, O., De Rosa, A., Gioia, L., Romano, I., et al.,
(2018). Trichoderma-based biostimulants modulate rhizosphere microbial populations
and improve N uptake efficiency, yield, and nutritional quality of leafy vegetables. Front.
Plant Sci., 9, 1–15.
Gajera, H., Domadiya, R., Patel, S., Kapopara, M., & Golakiya, B., (2013). Molecular
mechanism of Trichoderma as biocontrol agents against phytopathogen system: A
review. Curr. Res. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 1, 133–142.
Gal-Hemed, I., Atanasova, L., Komon-Zelazowska, M., Druzhinina, I. S., Viterbo, A., &
Yarden, O., (2011). Marine isolates of Trichoderma spp. as potential halotolerant agents
of biological control for arid-zone agriculture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 77, 5100–5109.
Glare, T., Caradus, J., Gelernter, W., Jackson, T., Keyhani, N., Kohl, J., Marrone, P., Morin, L.,
& Stewart, A., (2012). Have biopesticides come of age? Trends Biotechnol., 30, 250–258.
18 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Gogoi, R., Saikia, M., Helim, R., & Ullah, Z., (2007). Management of potato diseases using
Trichoderma viride formulations. J. Mycol. Plant Pathol., 37, 227–230.
Gu, X., Chen, W., Cai, F., Pang, G., & Li, R., (2016). Effect of Trichoderma biofertilizer
on continuous cropping cucumber cultivation with reduced rates of chemical fertilizer
application. Acta Pedol. Sin., 53, 1296–1305.
Gupta, S., & Dikshit, A. K., (2010). Biopesticides: An ecofriendly approach for pest control.
J. Biopest., 3, 186–188.
Gveroska, B., & Ziberoski, J., (2012). Trichodema harzianum as a biocontrol agent against
Alternaria altermata on tobacco. Appl. Technol. Innov., 7, 67–76.
Hamid, B., & Mohiddin, F. A., (2018). Trichoderma as a potential biocontrol agent. Int. J.
Adv. Res. Sci. Eng., 7, 68–76.
Hiba, A., Laid, D., Omrane, Z., Sabri, A., & Thonart, P., (2019). Production of Trichoderma
harzianum (127a and 127b) spores by fermentation (LF and SSF). Int. J. Innov. Appr.
Agric. Res., 3, 376–384.
Ibarra-Medina, V. A., Ferrera-Cerrato, R., Alarcon, A., Lara-Hernandez, M. E., & Valdez-
Carrasco, J. M., (2010). Isolation and screening of Trichoderma strains antagonistic to
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Sclerotinia minor. Revista Mexicana de Micologia Impresa
en Mexico, 31, 53–63.
Jagtap, G. P., Mali, A. K., & Utpal, D., (2013). Bioefficacy of fungicides, bio-control agents
and botanicals against leaf spot of turmeric incited by Colletotrichum capsici. Afr. J.
Microbiol. Res., 7, 1865–1873.
Kachhawa, D., (2017). Microorganisms as biopesticides. J. Entomol. Zool. Stud., 5, 468–473.
Kamal, R. K., (2018). Trichoderma: A most common biofertilizer with multiple roles in
agriculture. Biomed. J. Sci. Tech. Res., 4, 4136–4137.
Kandpal, V., (2014). Biopesticides. Int. J. Environ. Res. Develop., 4, 191–196.
Khan, M. Y., Haque, M. M., Molla, A. H., Rahman, M. M., & Alam, M. Z., (2017). Antioxidant
compounds and minerals in tomatoes by Trichoderma-enriched biofertilizer and their
relationship with the soil environments. J. Integr. Agric., 16, 691–703.
Khandelwal, M., Datta, S., Mehta, J., Naruka, R., Makhijani, K., Sharma, G., Kumar, R., &
Chandra, S., (2012). Isolation, characterization and biomass production of Trichoderma
viride using various agro products: A biocontrol agent. Pelagia Res. Lib., 3, 3950–3955.
Khatabi, B., Molitor, A., Lindermayr, C., Pfiffi, S., Durner, J., Von, W. D., Kogel, K., &
Schafer, P., (2012). Ethylene supports colonization of plant roots by the mutualistic
fungus Piriformospora indica. PLoS One, 7, 1–8.
Kumar, A., Patel, A., Singh, S., & Tiwari, R., (2019). Effect of Trichoderma spp. in plant
growth promotion in chilli. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 8, 1574–1581.
Kumar, G., Maharshi, A., Patel, J., Mukherjee, A., Singh, H., & Sarma, B., (2017). Trichoderma:
A potential fungal antagonist to control plant diseases. SATSA Mukhapatra, 21, 206–218.
Kumar, S., & Singh, A., (2015). Biopesticides: Present status and the future prospects. J.
Fertil. Pestic., 6, 1–2.
Kumar, S., (2012). Biopesticides: A need for food and environmental safety. J. Biofertil.
Biopestic., 3, 4.
Kumar, S., Palanisamy, V., & Pandian, R., (2014b). Trichoderma: A Biocontrol Weapon for
Sustainable Agriculture (Vol. 2, pp. 143–148). Popular Kheti.
Kumar, S., Thakur, M., & Rani, A., (2014a). Trichoderma: Mass production, formulation,
quality control, delivery and its scope in commercialization in India for the management
of plant diseases. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 9, 3838–3852.
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 19

Levy, N. O., Meller, H. Y., Haile, Z. M., Elad, Y., David, E., Jurkevitch, E., & Katan, J., (2015).
Induced resistance to foliar diseases by soil solarization and Trichoderma harzianum.
Plant Pathol., 64, 365–374.
Lorito, M., Woo, S. L., Harman, G. E., & Monte, E., (2010). Translational research on
Trichoderma: From omics to the field. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol., 48, 395–417.
Mahato, S., Bhuju, S., & Shrestha, J., (2018). Effect of Trichoderma viride as biofertilizer on
growth and yield of wheat. Malaysian J. Sust. Agric., 2, 1–5.
Marques, E., Martins, I., & Marques De, M. S., (2018). Antifungal potential of crude extracts
of Trichoderma spp. Biota Neotrop., 18, 1–5.
Mathew, S. K., Mary, C. F., Gleena, G. K., & Surendra, G. D., (2011). Antagonistic activity
of endophytic Trichoderma against Phytophthora rot of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.).
J. Biol. Cont., 25, 48–50.
Ming, S., Rong, J., Zhang, C., Li, C., Zhang, C., Zhang, Y., Zhou, R., & Li, G., (2019). The
solid fermentation state’s optimization of Trichoderma harzianum M1. IOP Conference
Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 022111.
Mishra, R. K., Bohra, A., Kamaal, N., Kumar, K., Gandhi, K., Sujayanand, G., Saabale, P., et
al., (2018). Utilization of biopesticides as sustainable solutions for management of pests
in legume crops: Achievements and prospects. Egyptian J. Biol. Pest Cont., 28, 1–11.
Mishra, R. K., Saabale, P. R., Naimuddin, Jagadeeswaran, R., & Mishra, O., (2015). Potential
Trichoderma sp. from Pulses Rhizosphere (p. 3). Pulses Newsletter.
Monte, E., (2001). Understanding Trichoderma: Between biotechnology and microbial
ecology. Int. Microbiol., 4, 1–41.
Mutia, D., & Prilya, F., (2017). Exploration of Trichoderma spp. and fungal pathogen that
causes a strawberry anthracnose and examination of in-vitro antagonistic activity.
Biotika, 5, 58–68.
Oguh, C. E., Okpaka, C. O., Ubani, C. S., Okekeaji, U., Joseph, P. S., & Amadi, E. U., (2019).
Natural pesticides (Biopesticides) and uses in pest management: A critical review. Asian
J. Biotechnol. Genet. Eng., 2, 1–18.
Ortuno, N., Castillo, J., Miranda, C., Claros, M., & Soto, X., (2017). The use of secondary
metabolites extracted from Trichoderma for plant growth promotion in the Andean
highlands. Renew Agric. Food Syst., 32, 366–375.
Pal, G. K., & Kumar, B., (2013). Antifungal activity of some common weed extracts against
wilt causing fungi, Fusarium oxysporum. Curr. Discov., 2, 62–67.
Patel, J., Sarma, B., Singh, H., Upadhyay, R., Kharwar, R., & Ahmed, M., (2016). Pseudomonas
fluorescens and Trichoderma asperellum enhance expression of Gα subunits of the pea
heterotrimeric G-protein during Erysiphe pisi infection. Front. Plant Sci., 6, 1–13.
Patil, A. S., Patil, S. R., & Paikrao, H. M., (2016). Trichoderma secondary metabolites: Their
biochemistry and possible role in disease management. In: Choudhary, D., & Varma,
A., (eds.), Microbial-Mediated Induced Systemic Resistance in Plants (pp. 69–102).
Springer, Singapore.
Prabha, S., Yadav, A., Kumar, A., Yadav, A., Yadav, H., Kumar, S., Yadav, R., & Kumar, R.,
(2016). Biopesticides: An alternative and eco-friendly source for the control of pests in
agricultural crops. Plant Arch., 16, 902–906.
Prakash, N., Kumari, B., & Karn, S., (2019). Biopesticides: Introduction and its prospects. Int.
J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 8, 2960–2964.
Ramteke, A. S., (2019). Trichoderma species: Isolation, characterization, cultivation and their
role as effective biopesticides. Int. J. Res. Rev., 6, 315–320.
20 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Reyes, Y., Infante, D., Garcia-Borrego, J., Del, P. E., Cruz, A., & Martínez, B., (2012).
Compatibilidad de Trichoderma asperellum Samuels con herbicidas de mayor uso en el
cultivo del arroz. Proteccion Veg., 27, 45–53.
Rikita, B., & Utpal, D., (2014). An overview of fungal and bacterial biopesticides to control
plant pathogens/diseases. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res., 8, 1749–1762.
Ruiu, L., (2018). Microbial biopesticides in agroecosystems. Agron., 8, 1–12.
Sachdev, S., & Singh, R. P., (2020). Trichoderma: A multifaceted fungus for sustainable
agriculture. In: Bauddh, K., Kumar, S., Singh, R., & Korstad, J., (eds.), Ecological and
Practical Applications for Sustainable Agriculture. Springer, Singapore.
Sala, A., Artola, A., Sanchez, A., & Barrena, R., (2020). Rice husk as a source for fungal
biopesticide production by solid-state fermentation using B. bassiana and T. harzianum.
Bioresour. Technol., 296, 122322.
Sala, A., Barrena, R., Artola, A., & Sanchez, A., (2019). Current developments in the
production of fungal biological control agents by solid-state fermentation using organic
solid waste. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 655–694.
Santos-Villalobos, S., Hernandez-Rodriguez, L., Villasenor-Ortega, F., & Pena-Cabriales, J.,
(2012). Production of Trichoderma asperellum T8a spores by a “home-made” solid-state
fermentation of mango industrial wastes. Bioresour., 7, 4938–4951.
Savitha, M. J., & Sriram, S., (2015). Morphological and molecular identification of
Trichoderma isolates with biocontrol potential against Phytophthora blight in red pepper.
Pest Manage. Horti. Ecosyst., 21, 194–202.
Senthil-Nathan, S., (2015). A review of biopesticides and their mode of action against insect
pests. In: Thangavel, P., & Sridevi, G., (eds.), Environmental Sustainability (49–63).
Springer, India.
Shabir-U-Rehman, Dar, W. A., Ganie, S. A., Javid, A. B., Mir, H. G., Lawrence, R., Sumati,
N., & Singh, P. K., (2013). Comparative efficacy of Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma
harzianum against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris causing wilt of chickpea. Afr. J.
Microbiol., Res., 7, 5731–5736.
Sharma, P., Sharma, M., Raja, M., & Shanmugam, V., (2014). Status of Trichoderma research
in India: A review. Ind. Phytopath., 67, 1–19.
Sharma, S., & Malik, P., (2012). Biopesticides: Types and applications. Int. J. Adv. Pharm.
Biol. Chem., 1, 508–515.
Singh, A., Jain, A., Sarma, B. K., Upadhyay, R. S., & Singh, H. B., (2014). Rhizosphere
competent microbial consortium mediates rapid changes in phenolic profiles in chickpea
during Sclerotium rolfsii infection. Microbiol. Res., 169, 353–360.
Singh, V., Joshi, B. B., Awasthi, S. K., & Srivastava, S. N., (2008). Eco-friendly management
of red rot disease of sugarcane with Trichoderma strains. Sugar Tech., 10, 158–161.
Su, D., Ding, L., & He, S., (2018). Marine-derived Trichoderma species as a promising source
of bioactive secondary metabolites. Mini-Rev. Med. Chem., 18, 1702–1713.
Suparno, Sukoso, Hakim, L., & Aidawati, N., (2016). Trichoderma spp. as agent of biocontrol
in local rice diseases in Tidal Swamplands in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. J. Agric.
Veter. Sci., 9, 1–6.
Thapa, S., Sotang, N., Limbu, A., & Joshi, A., (2020). Impact of Trichoderma sp. in agriculture:
A mini-review. J. Biol. Today’s World, 9, 1–5.
Tijjani, A., Bashir, K. A., Mohammed, I., Muhammad, A., Gambo, A., & Musa, H., (2016).
Biopesticides for pests control: A review. J. Biopest. Agric., 3, 6–13.
Eco-friendly Trichoderma for Sustainable Agriculture 21

Tucci, M., Ruocco, M., De Masi, L., De Palma, M., & Lorito, M., (2011). The beneficial
effect of Trichoderma spp. on modulated by the plant genotype. J. Mol. Plant Pathol.,
12, 341–354.
Tvetdyukov, A. P., Nikonov, P. V., & Yushchenko, N. P., (1994). Trichoderma. Rev. Plant
Pathol., 739, 273.
Utami, U., Nisa, C., Putri, A., & Rahmawati, E., (2019). The potency of secondary metabolites
endophytic fungi Trichoderma sp. as biocontrol of Colletotrichum sp. and Fusarium
oxysporum causing disease in chili. International Conference on Biology and Applied
Science (ICOBAS), AIP Conference Proceedings 2120 (pp. 1–6). AIP Publisher.
Waghunde, R., Shelake, R., & Sabalpara, A., (2016). Trichoderma: A significant fungus for
agriculture and environment. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 11, 1952–1965.
Woods, T. S., (2003). Pesticide formulations. In: AGR 185 in Encyclopedia of Agrochemicals
(pp. 1–11). John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Yedidia, I., Shoresh, M., Kerem, Z., Benhamou, N., Kapulnik, Y., & Chet, I., (2003).
Concomitant induction of systemic resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans
in cucumber by Trichoderma asperellum (T-203) and accumulation of phytoalexins.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 69, 7343–7353.
Yobo, K. S., (2005). Biological Control and Plant Growth Promotion by Selected Trichoderma
and Bacillus Species. PhD Thesis, KwaZulu-Natal University, South Africa.
Zeilinger, S., Gruber, S., Bansal, R., & Mukherjee, P., (2016). Secondary metabolism in
Trichoderma-chemistry meets genomics. Brit. Mycol. Soc., 30, 74–90.
CHAPTER 2

ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAS:
APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIC
AGRICULTURE AND BEYOND
CHARLES OLUWASEUN ADETUNJI,1
OSIKEMEKHA ANTHONY ANANI,2 DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,3
and SAHER ISLAM4

Microbiology, Biotechnology, and Nanotechnology Laboratory,

1

Department of Microbiology Edo State University Uzairue, Auchi,

Nigeria
2
Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Forensic Biology,
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science,
Edo State University Uzairue, Auchi, Nigeria
3
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biosciences,
4

University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

The role of beneficial microorganisms, including arbuscular mycorrhizal

fungi (AMF), has been recognized as a feasible, economical, and reliable
biotechnological tool that could contribute towards the achievement of
sustainable organic agriculture. Some of the important functions of AMF
in sustainable organic agriculture include: (i) improvement of plant nutri­
tion through enhancing nutrient uptake; (ii) improvement of soil texture and
structure; (iii) ecorestoration of heavily polluted soil; (iv) mitigation of biotic
and abiotic stresses; and (v) application as biopesticides in place of synthetic
24 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

pesticides. This chapter reviews the modes of action employed by AMF and
provides some recommendations on areas where further studies are needed
to be able to fully harness the potential of these products.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The significant role of soil microorganisms for the improvement of plant

health, soil fertility, inhibition of plant pathogenic microorganisms, increase
in the biomass of crops and their effect against the effect of climate change
have severely been demonstrated. Such beneficial microorganisms include
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These organisms play a crucial role
in enhancing the uptake of nutrients by crops. This they do by enhancing
the absorptive surface area of the host plant root systems. The hyphae of
these symbiotic fungi also possess the capacity to increase the surface area
for enhanced interaction with other beneficial microorganisms. Additionally,
they possess the capability to improve the process of translocation in plants
(Gianinazzi et al., 2002).
Several anthropogenic activities have been observed to affect the natural
functions of mycorrhizosphere organisms. These include intensive agricul­
tural practices such as tillage (McGonigle and Miller, 1996; Sturz, et al.,
1997) and application of synthetic pesticides (Gianinazzi et al., 1994, 2002;
Adetunji et al., 2019a–d; Adetunji, 2019; Adetunji and Ugbenyen, 2019).
These activities have over time led to a drastic reduction of beneficial micro­
bial diversity and activity (Meader et al., 2002). There is therefore need to
adopt agricultural practices that could encourage the shift from conventional
intensive management to those that could support sustainable farming. AMF
have been reported to develop a strong symbiotic relationship with several
plant species (Read et al., 1992; Richardson et al., 2000; Sramek et al.,
2000). Specifically, about 6,000 fungal species have the capacity to develop
mycorrhizas with about 240,000 plant species (Bonfante and Perotto, 1995).
The application of AMF has the capacity to be utilized for several develop­
mental programs, and most especially for low-input agriculture (Schreiner
and Bethlenfalvay, 1996).
It has been reported that the occurrence of AMF in plants varies depending
on the types of crops, which may be 79% of monocotyledonous and 83% of
a dicotyledonous plant. They also occur in about 1,000 genera of plants from
200 families. Some other benefits of AMF in sustainable agriculture include
enhanced plant production, increase in the production of growth-regulating
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 25

substances (Danneberg et al., 1992), facilitating rapid uptake of nutrients-

most especially micronutrients and phosphorus (Douds and Millner, 1999),
development of high resistance to pests and diseases (Ho, 1998), enhance­
ment of soil aggregate stability (Azizah and Idris, 1996), remediation of
toxic metals (Bonifacio et al., 1999), absorption of water (Jastrow et al.,
1998), improvement of N2-fixation through increased P supply (Kucey and
Paul, 1982), absorption of essential micronutrients (Marschner and Dell,
1994), improvement of water uptake and, osmotic adjustment when exposed
to drought stress (Masri, 1997). Comprehensive knowledge about the role of
AMF is essential in helping institute measures for a sustainable enhancement
of soil fertility and an increase in crop production.
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the application of AMF
in organic agriculture, their modes of action, and the role they play in the
ecorestoration of heavily polluted soils. Future perspectives of AMF are also
elaborated, with the mechanisms of action described in detail. The practical
application of AMF is also elaborated using specific examples.

2.2 APPLICATIONS OF ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI

(AMF)

Arbuscular mycorrhiza is one of a group of fungi that colonizes the roots

of higher plants. It infiltrates the cortical chambers of the roots and forms
arbuscles (networks of hyphae in certain fungi) in the vascular tissues. These
arbuscles aid the fungi to absorb nutrients such as micronutrients [P (Phos­
phate), S (Sulphur), N (Nitrogen)], and trace-nutrients from the soil. One of
the benefits of AM is therefore its utilization as agro-fertilizer (Timmer and
Leyden, 1980; Grant, 2005; Berruti et al., 2016).

2.3 APPLICATION AMF AS BIOFERTILIZER

Laila et al. (2019) investigated the effect of AMF on Allium cepa L. as a

permanent replacement to phosphorus synthetic fertilizer. Maximum yields
were recorded in the plant treated with AMF, attesting to its potential for use
as a fertilizer. Carina et al. (2016) evaluated the effect of co-inoculation of
Azospirillum and AMF on micro-propagated banana seedlings. The result
obtained indicates that 1.5 × 108 CFU/ml of Azospirillum and 200 g of
AMF had the highest growth and yield output when compared to the control
26 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

plant. Their study showed a synergetic effect between the fungus-bacteria

inoculum used during this experiment. The high doses showed an enhanced
nutritional improvement. After all, it gives that plant a better nitrogen and
phosphorus absorption because it enables the microorganism to solubilize
the nutrients available for the plant nutrient uptake when compared to the
treatment without microbial inoculum.
Igiehon and Babalola (2017) did a review on the sustainable utilization
of AMF as biofertilizers. They noted that AMF could help in the reduction
of wide usage of inorganic chemical fertilizers. AM aids in the uptake of
chemical nutrients in the soil and transports them to various vascular tissues
in the plant with the aid of a phosphate trans-mobilizer. They stressed the
cons facing the possible massive production of AM because of the inhibi­
tion of plant-host microbes. However, the utilization of AMF in several
biological controlled settings (greenhouse and field assay trials) indicated
that it has persisted and portends the capability to colonize some tested
plants like soybeans while they could also enhance the growth and develop­
ment in all ramifications. The authors stated that AM has been proposed as
a first-class new generation bio-fertilizer because it could contribute to the
control and upkeep of agronomic expansion, aid in the controlling of some
soil degradation factors, augmenting phytoremediation and elimination of
other microbes that might hinder the growth of the root system.
Sadhana (2014) wrote an extensive review of the utilization of AM as a
bio-fertilizer. The author demystifies those major microbes (cyanobacteria,
bacteria, and fungi) are used as bio-fertilizers to boosting the soil quality
and vigor for speedy growth and development. That plant plays some
symbiotic association with most of these microbes. Apart from the other
microorganisms and their related strains, a species of fungi AM (arbus­
cular mycorrhizal), has an extensive and unique potential feature above
the others. The author stated that the sporulation of AMF is controlled
by certain soil edaphic and climatic conditions. That soil-based pot assay
is the most widely biological controlled method in the fungal inoculum
production of AM. The authors recommend that a plant’s growth and
nutritional requirements solely reside on the role AM plays in forestry
and agricultural purposes. To boost the plants’ efficiency towards adverse
edaphic and climatic conditions, AMF can be utilized in dual inoculum
forms; Rhizobium, and other bacteria species in different field trials to test
its efficacy and future advances.
Junior et al. (2019) tested and evaluated how agroecological coffee
management influences the positive utilization and diversity of AMF. The
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 27

authors stressed the ecosystem services’ potential and biological importance

of AMF in modern agricultural practices to reduce the impacts of nutrient
deficiency and boost plant growth and development. The biological controlled
experiments were done during the phenological phases (flowering, grain
filling, harvesting) of the coffee plant. Different root and soil samples were
obtained from three controlling systems and areas. The asexual reproductive
bodies (Spores) from the fungi community were removed, identified, and
were assayed using a PCR-DGGE (polymerase chain reaction denaturing
gradient gel electrophoresis). The results from the dendrograms and bio­
informatics indicated no differences between the management systems
and the richness of the morphospecies, the duration, and areas. However, a
little information about some tropical species was noted. The PCR-DGGE
(molecular analysis) also indicated that the organic forest was similar to
the agroecological controlling structure and a high variety of indices were
observed in conservative management. The findings from this study revealed
that there is a need to relate traditional taxonomic valuations with genetic
methods because diverse methods can result in dissimilar results. In conclu­
sion, the authors provided suggestions for sustainable agricultural manage­
ment via agroecological coffee management.
Baslam et al. (2011) tested and evaluated the impact and association of
AMF on the development and growth of lettuce in a greenhouse setting. The
results of the tested biological controlled experiment indicated that the AM
elicited the growth of the lettuce plant, therefore, boosting other macro and
micronutrients (carotenoids, Ca, anthocyanins, Fe, phenolics, Mn, and Cu)
in the tested plant than a none AM symbiotic plants.
Oladele and Awodun (2014) tested and evaluated the reaction of lowland
Oryza sativa to bio-fertilizers inoculated with AMF and its impacts on plant
growth and yield. The results revealed a significant difference in the impact
of the bio-fertilizer, showing positive development and growth on the repro­
ductive and vegetative parts of the rice plant.
Casazza et al. (2017) tested and evaluated the richness and variety of
AMF and how they are related to the soil interaction talus gradient in terms
of plant sustenance and tension tolerance in Florida greeneyes plant. Samples
of the plants were examined and analyzed via molecular assay to determine
the community structure of AM in the plant. The results of the biological
controlled experiment revealed that the AM in Florida greeneyes roots was
subjugated by Endomycorrhizal fungus common to three talus gradient. The
septate endophytes were totally different from the ones formed by AM as
well as the vegetation coverage and the percentage (%) root colonization
28 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

did not impact the plant community positively. The results of the abundance
of AM in the root system of the Florida green eyes showed that there was
a positive correlation between the physical and chemical properties of the
soil, therefore indicating the effect of AM on the quality of the soil. Hence,
the degree of this influence was also correlated with the NMDS (non-metric
multidimensional scaling) initiation of AM showing strong diversity and
community composition at various regions both on the soil quality and the
talus gradient. In conclusion, the authors opined that gradient prompted the
physical disruption of the mountain taluses, which may also result in the
assortment of disorders in the AM group and finally led to different fungi-
plant congregations.
Yeasmin (2017) tested and evaluated the relationship between AM as a
bio-fertilizer and plant growth. The author stressed the need for sustainable
farming using organic fertilizer; bio-fertilizer to replace the widely used
inorganic ones and to combat the food insecurity caused by soil infertility,
nutrient instability, pest resistance, and soil degradation. The introduction
of beneficial microorganisms such as AM fungi can remediate the dire need
for food security. The results of the symbiotic association of the AM in the
root mottled between 10% and 90% with 85% of the plants surveyed. It was
observed that the AM fungi played a significant role in the growth rate of the
plant as well as protection. The rate of the soil phosphorus greatly increased,
and there was a positive correlation between the AM fungi with potassium,
calcium, total nitrogen, soil texture, water holding capacity, phosphate, and
soil pH which as well greatly influences the plant growth. The spores of the
vesicular AM fungi were later abstracted using the wet sieving technique;
slope centrifugation. The plant garden croton was used as a stock inoculum
of AM fungi for bio-fertilizer. The results indicated a sharp improvement
in plant growth, rapid productivity, nutrients stability, and crop yield. In
conclusion, the author recommended AM fungi as a future sustainable green
bio-fertilizer candidate for reducing edaphic and environmental problems
related to inorganic chemicals.
Andrade et al. (2009) did a review on the relationship between AM and
coffee plants. The authors stressed the need to look at the relationship between
the subject areas because of the paucity of literature. However, because of
the economic importance of coffee species, AM association or utilized as a
bio-fertilizer can improve the dietary status and lessen environmental stress
commonly faced by the plant species in the tropics. The authors also eluci­
date and evaluate the natural manifestation of AM fungi in varied soil types
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 29

in cultivated coffee farms and propose an advance survey on the prospective

benefits it tends to portend to related plant species.
Itelima et al. (2018) did a review on the major role of endo and ecto
AM fungi in eliciting and boosting soil fertility and plant productivity. The
authors heralded that plant nutrient is significant in the sustenance of the
ever-teeming growing population. That of recent, chemical fertilizers have
resulted in serious degradation of essential environmental parameters in the
ecosystem, and humans are on the verge of ecological and health risks. A
sustainable agricultural practice of using an ecosystem friendly, eco-safety,
non-toxic, and economical bio-fertilizer for farming are not negotiable at this
extant food security era! The authors heralded that bio-fertilizers can serve
as essential ingredients in nutrient management. In conclusion, the authors
propose AM as a potential bio-fertilizer in improving certain non-living
(abiotic) and living (biotic) factors that militating against plant growth. That
it will help farmers to manage the cost of procuring inorganic chemicals,
thus protecting the ecosystem, and bringing sustainable eco-balance and
productivity of farm plants.
Mycorrhiza formation is recognized to change numerous features of
plant physiology, including hormonal balance, mineral nutrient constituents,
and carbon distribution patterns. Demür (2004) evaluated the influence of
AMF Glomus intraradices Schenck and Smith on the physiological develop­
ment of pepper. For the proper description of the physiological growth of the
target plant to be carried out, some physiological growth parameters were
evaluated in the leaves and the shoots of nonmycorrhizal (NM) and mycor­
rhizal (M). It was observed that all the evaluated physiological parameters
were enhanced in the M pepper plants (by 12%–47%) when compared to
NM plants. It was also discovered that the level of phosphorus concentration
showed a positive correlation with sugar and chlorophyll contents. Their
study showed that enhanced phosphorus concentration might be linked to the
mycorrhizal symbioses with positively influence the physiological activity
of pepper plants.
Berruti et al. (2016) reviewed the past achievements of AMF as an organic
bio-fertilizer. AMF is one of the obligate biotrophic fungi that are symbiotic
to about 80% of higher plants. AMF is considered a bio-fertilizer because of
the roles it plays in nutrients and water uptake in plants, anabolic processes
such as photosynthesis, and protecting plants from disease-causing organ­
isms. In other words, it plays self-ecosystem services in re-instituting and
balancing the missing nutrient links and an alternative to the conventional
inorganic fertilizer in agriculture. That, the key approach to this method is
30 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

by the introduction and reintroduction of the inoculates into the targeted

soil. The authors stressed the need for a genetic engineering procedure in
advancing the genomes of AM to interact with plant-soil host microorgan­
isms that can inhabit its functional role in the ecosystem. The authors, in
conclusion, recommend the use of AM in field trials because it has the
potential to correct the environmental degradation caused by the wildly used
inorganic fertilizers.
Binh et al. (2019) tested and evaluated the effects of AM fungus in the
development and sustenance of 15 agronomic plant species (vegetables,
legumes, and cereals). The authors reconnoitered varied plant types (C4, C3,
dicots, monocots, and non-nitrogen fixer) on how they respond to AM colo­
nization. The results of the study showed that leek plants had more coloniza­
tion potentials, wet, and dry (biomass) responses, and high nutrient contents
compared to the rest of the test plants. More so, the metal (Zn and Cu),
phosphate, and sulfate contents were generally enhanced by the inoculation
of the AM fungus and the ionomes (inorganic chemical nutrients of cellular
organisms in trace composition) fluctuated between the AM fungus and the
plant species. In conclusion, the authors propose a further study of ionomics
in AM fungus to better elucidate its potential role in prospective agricultural
practices to standardize growth and development in crops.
Knerr et al. (2018) tested and evaluated AM fungi associated with natural
and conventional Allium cepa grown in the Pacific Northwest USA. In this
study, the authors compared the AM fungi associations with the root coloni­
zation in field trials fumigated with metam-sodium vs. non-fumigated fields.
The results of the biological controlled experiment revealed that the AM
fungi colonize the roots of Allium cepa in the midsummer in the conservative
fields (67 vs. 51%) than the non-fumigated conservative fields (45 vs. 67%).
A molecular assay using a pyro-sequencing denoted 4 AM fungi of different
orders: Diversispora, Claroideoglomus, Glomus, and Paraglomus, and four
main active taxonomic units (ATUs); [Glomus (MO_G17), Funneliformis
mosseae, Whitfield type 17 Glomus, and Claroideoglomus lamellosum]. The
results of the AM fungi gotten from plants at the midsummer were richer in
organic acid than the conventional form, and the diversity was also greater.
There was no significant influence of organic vs. conservative plants on main
ATUs. However, little richness of ATUs was observed in the organic fields,
but not in conventional fields. The findings of the study indicated that there
was no significant impact of metam-sodium chemigation on the AM fungi
groups found in the Allium cepa crops. The authors recommend sustainable
agricultural practices by the utilization of natural and conservative methods
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 31

in cultivating Allium cepa and the usage of metam sodium to fumigate soil
does not seem to be the chief teamsters of AM fungi populations.

2.4 AMF USED IN THE ECORESTORATION OF HEAVILY

POLLUTED SOIL, DISEASE, AND ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS

Nurbaity et al. (2016) tested and evaluated the application of Endomycor­

rhizal fungus (Glomus sp.) and Gammaproteobacteria (Pseudomonas
diminuta) to lessen the utilization of inorganic fertilizers in the cultivation of
Ipomoea batatas. A biological controlled greenhouse trial was conducted to
test the efficacy of the Endomycorrhizal and Gammaproteobacteria on potato
cultivated on different soil types (Inceptisols and Andisols) mixed with N
(Nitrogen), P (Phosphorus), and K (Potassium) fertilizer of concentration;
0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%. The results of the biological controlled experiment
revealed that the application of the Endomycorrhizal and Gammaproteo­
bacteria microbes lessen the inorganic fertilizer (NPK) to 50%, increase
the uptake of nutrients, and elicited rapid growth in the Ipomoea batatas
plant. The results of the responses of the different soils used indicated that
Inceptisols had a better positive reaction compared to Andisols. The findings
in this study revealed that bio-fertilizers can lessen the impact of inorganic
chemical fertilizers. The authors proposed the sustainable utilization of
bio-fertilizers to forestall and economically viable plant production and a
greener ecosystem for Ipomoea batatas production.
Pozo et al. (2002) tested and evaluated the local impact of AM fungi on
the security of tomato crops against plant infection and total cleanses of it.
Two AM fungi (G. intraradices and G. mosseae) were used to provoke local
resistance to the tomato root disease (P. parasitica). The results of the study
revealed that G. mosseae was able to effectively reduce the disease signs
caused by P. parasitica contagion. The facts indicated a mixture of both
systemic and local mechanisms elicited by bio-protector (AM fungi) impact
from the biochemical analysis. These effects were new hydrolytic enzymic
defense iso-forms (superoxide dismutase, chitinase, and β-1,3-glucanase,
chitosanase) generated by the AM strain to induce fortification against
oxidative stress in the tomato plant cell. However, a systemic modification
of the action of some of the defense iso-forms was also noticed in some root
parts of non-mycorrhizal plants. The results of the root protein analysis also
supported the systemic impact of the symbiotic AM fungi on the effective
resistance of the tomato plant to the P. parasitica disease.
32 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Barea et al. (1998) tested and evaluated the biocontrol impact of the strain
of AM fungi in the control of soil-borne plant disease. In this study, 3 (three)
strains of AM fungi [F113, F113G22, and F113 (pCU203)] were tested.
The result of the study showed that strain F113 which is the wild-form and
strain F113G22 which is then transformed type elicited the development of
mycelial and spores from G. mosseae growing in a colonized tomato. While
strain F113 (pCU203) had no negative impact on the mycelial growth, but
not to the spore development of G. mosseae but, sensitive to a concentration
(10 μM) of DAPG, that can cause the production of the rhizosphere. The
findings of the study showed that F113 had the ability to produce DAPG
(2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol) which is capable of controlling soil-borne plant
diseases.
Garg and Chandel (2010) did a review on the sustainable advances of AM
fungi in the biocontrol of environmental stressors. The authors opined those
environmental variations caused by natural and anthropogenic activities have
intensified air, water, and soil pollution, which have led to the contamination
of agricultural lands and results in the global reduction of farm yields, capital
returns, and food insecurity. The use of novel technology like bio-fertilizer
derived from microbes to combat agro-chemicals like heavy metals (HMs)
is a restoration model for a sustainable ecosystem. AM fungi play a pivotal
role in soil fertility, crop productivity, and the bio-control of environmental
contaminants and plant pathogens, the authors stated. They do this by
secreting specific enzymes that will induce the plant cell to be resistant to
infection and the soil microbes to mutual degrade some chemical structure
therein. The authors recounted that in-depth scientific information on the
biological composition of AM fungi is still lacking. However, recommend
AM as a first-class bio-control organism against environmental stress, heavy
metal control, and for the control of plant pathogens because it was environ­
mentally friendly, non-toxic, and cheap.
Hussain et al. (2017) did a review on AM fungi as a biocontrol agent
in contemporary sustainable agro practices. The authors condemned the
indiscriminate use of inorganic chemicals, which has resulted in various
deteriorations of the quality of the environment. The use of inorganic chemi­
cals such as fertilizers have changed the natural settings of the soil and water
contents and caused serious ecological and health impacts on the ecosystem.
To bring about environmental and food safety, a sustainable approach to
agricultural fertilizers; using AM fungi as a bio-fertilizer and bio-control of
environmental pollutants and pathogen have been recommended by many
schools of scientific thought because it is environmentally safe, non-toxic,
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 33

and cheap. The authors opined that vesicular AM fungi have the potentials
beyond normal usage and portend to be one of the bio-control tools for future
sustainable management of problems encountered in modern agriculture.
The mode of action of this fungus is via integrated pattern with similar fungi
strains and soil bacteria, colonize the roots of the plant and affect the physi­
ological activities of the host plant, thereby accelerating plant nourishment,
and improve the soil structure, quality, and health status. The authors, in
conclusion, recommend vesicular AM fungi as a special candidate for large
scale use as a bio-control agent. However, still, at its nascent stage, it has
the potential to correct the anomalies caused by the conversion of inorganic
chemicals in the environment.
Cabral et al. (2015) did a review of the phytoremediation potentials of AM
fungi on sites contaminated with HMs. The authors recounted the complex
role microbes play in decontaminating pollutants in the environment. The
role of AM has been stressed by numerous researchers in the bio-control of
pathogens, chemicals, and nutrient stabilization in deficient agricultural soils.
AM has been considered as the most viable organism because of its broad-
spectrum presence in the soil and roots of higher plants and the symbiotic
role it plays in their bio-mechanism. The authors remarked that one of the
phytoremediation potentials of AM is the possession of natural contrivances
in resisting and tolerating heavy and trace metals in the media they habit.
Because of this, the authors recommend the utilization of AM fungi because
of the benefits it tends to portend for a sustainable phytoremediation purpose.
Garg et al. (2017) did a review on the molecular and physiological
mechanism of AM fungi and its ability to tolerate HM in the plant. The
authors recounted that AM a symbiotic fungus has been recorded as one
of the plant root fungi to reduce HM stress in crops. This is because of its
biochemical, physiological, and molecular variations of the rhizosphere
(root micro-biome) in the plant they inhabit. The authors backed these
facts by establishing that the node of the actions of AM fungi; chelating of
noxious metal ions to the wall of the plant cell, secretion of bio-chemical
organic compounds (enzymes) such as oxalic and citric acids, glomalin, and
glycoprotein have aided it to bind and reduce the HMs absorption in plants.
Also, AM fungi likewise, augment the antioxidant defense reactions to offset
HMs oxidative pressure. More so, it regulates the genome responsible for
nutrient absorption of phytochelatins and metallothioneins, thus stimulating
the sequestration of HMs in the mycorrhizal as well in the plant host plant
structures. On this ground, the authors recommend AM fungi as a potential
cleaning agent of HMs in agricultural soils.
34 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Medina and Azcón (2010) did a review on the efficacy of the utilization
of AM fungi as a natural cleanser to advance the performance and quality of
plant under serious environmental stress. The authors recounted the stressed
plant undergoes serious HMs contamination from polluted sites and adverse
weather conditions. That to improve this dire state, AM fungi which have
been documented and proposed to be one of the bio-control microbes can
be utilized to buffer such conditions, creating a mechanism that will enable
the plant to be HMs tolerant and drought resistant. In the same vein, the
application of this natural buffer can aid, alter the degradation of the soil
characteristics. Some agricultural wastes (rock phosphorus, sugar beet, and
dry lime cake), can be used as a mixture or bio-sorption substrate with AM
to increase its vigor and bio-control abilities; increase the enzyme produc­
tion, nutrient availability, tolerance to arid and HMs conditions of the plants.
In conclusion, the author proposed an integrated treatment of soil with AM
and agricultural waste residues as a re-vegetation method for plants recital
in phosphate deficiency soil under serious arid region and the treatment of
inorganic waste residues in agricultural land. This will serve as an effective
bio-tech apparatus for the recovery of HMs polluted soils.
Hashem et al. (2019) tested and evaluated tolerance of chickpea to arid
conditions by using AM fungi as a biocontrol agent. The authors recounted
the utilization of AM with biochar to improve the quality of plants to
ameliorate some environmental stressors. The biological controlled experi­
ment involved two treatments (AM and bio-char). They were applied as
individual and combined treatment(s) of chickpea crop plants. The results
of the biological study revealed that the treatments provoked the growth
and development of the root and shoot length and other sprouting parts of
the plant when inoculated. It was also noticed that the resistance rate of the
arid condition also increased, therefore stabilizing the water content and
membrane stability index of the plant vascular systems. When both treat­
ments were combined, the rate of anabolism specifically, photosynthesis
increased and led to net photosynthetic effectiveness. Individual treatment
with AM fungi and bio-char respectively, or in amalgamation, alleviated
the poisonous impacts to a significant amount and initiated an important
improvement in water content and membrane stability index of the plant
vascular systems under standard settings. More so, alterations with AM
fungi and bio-char inoculation augmented the N-fixation qualities as well
as the amount and load of protuberances, leg-hemoglobin substances, and
activity of some enzymes is related to the control plants. The findings of their
study indicated that chickpea was able to adapt to drought conditions after
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 35

the treatment with the mixtures (AM fungi and bio-char), able to regulate
the uptake or absorption of phosphate and nitrogen and production of chlo­
rophyll for photosynthetic processes. The authors recommend the bio-char
and AM as potential bio-control agents for sustainable agricultural purposes.
Agely et al. (2005) tested and evaluated the use of AM fungi as and
hyper-accumulator of toxic Arsenic (As) from the Chinese brake fern. The
authors recounted the hyper-accumulative potential of Chinese brake fern
from previous literature on its role in the uptake of As from contaminated
soils in South America. A greenhouse biological controlled three factorial
experiment was conducted with a concentration of As (0, 50, and 100 mg
kg–1) and phosphate (0, 25, and 50 mg kg–1) and with or without Chinese
brake fern contaminated The results of the biological controlled experiment
showed that the AM fungi tolerated the altered concentrations of the As, as
well as increased the leaf biomass of the fern plant. Besides, the fungi also
amplified the absorption of As across an assortment of phosphate concentra­
tions, whereas phosphate uptake was in general enhanced on the condition of
no As alteration. The findings from this study revealed that AM fungi have
significant hyper-accumulative potentials towards As uptake by Chinese
brake fern. In conclusion, the authors recommend the use of AM fungi as
a phyto-cleanser to remediate the impact of any polluted soil and propose a
commercial production for agricultural purposes.
Sara et al. (2008) tested and evaluated the influence of AM fungi on the
growth of Zea mays under cadmium stressed environment and phosphate
source. The bio-control roles of AM fungi in the mitigation of environmental
stressors were documented from various kinds of literature by the authors.
The biological controlled experiment was done in a water system devoid of
the soil environment (hydroponic) in an arbitrary 2×2×2 factorial setting.
The plant Zea mays was inoculated with a strain of AM fungi Glomus
macrocarpum and exposed to 0–20 µmolL–1 and 0–20 µmolL–1 nutrient
concentration of Cd and P, respectively. The results of the study showed that
AM fungi elicited the growth of the Zea mays while Cd lessen the dry mass
content of the plant. The accumulation of Cd was strictly found in the root
region. While there was no significant impact between Cd in the AM fungi
and the non-inhabited AM plants. Further results showed traces of Cd in the
root cell wall compared with the cytoplasm of the cell, and 26% in the cell
wall of the non-inhabited AM plant compared to the cytoplasm of the same
cell. The results of the comparison of the root and shoot system showed more
Cd in the AM inhabited plants compared to the non-inhabited AM plants.
The length and colonization of the mycorrhizal mycelium were reduced by
36 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

the addition of Cd addition. This was the result of the high phosphate supply.
When guaiacol peroxidase and some protein, nutrients were added to the
Cd, the AM fungi mycelium showed no root induction indicating maximum
tolerance to Cd reaction. The author concluded in their findings that Cd
affected the AM fungi relationship with the plant roots, however, an addition
of nutrients and enzyme (peroxidase) to the media, made it more efficient to
subdue cadmium stress.
Christophersen et al. (2012) tested and evaluated the extrication and the
colonization effects of AM fungi to As (Arsenic) tolerance in barrel clover
plants. The authors tested three hypotheses and measured the genetic expres­
sion of the plants as well as the impact of As on the plant’s genome. The results
of the biological controlled experiment revealed that the plants displayed
high gene expression (MtPT4) and those injected with G. mosseae showed
higher selectivity counter to As and much lesser expression (MtPht1:1) and
a specific degree of MtPht1:2 expressions to G. intraradices injected with
non-Mycorrhizal plants. The findings of their study showed active phosphate
and/or As selectivity in AM plants specifically to G. mosseae. That, the degree
to which this selectivity is not clear. However, depended on the uptake of the
phosphate and As in their cell wall. The clear, up-regulation of the genomes
(PCS and ACR) gene in AM fungi, plants, might also be involved and need
an additional inquiry.
Clark and Zeto (1996) isolated and tested Fe (iron) acquirement by AM
fungi in Zea mays cultivated in a high pH (alkaline) soil. The results of the
roots and shoot biomass were higher in AM fungi, plants than what was
obtained in non-AM fungi plants. The result of the contents and concentra­
tions of elemental nutrients in the plant leaf was slightly more in AM fungi,
plants compared to non-AM fungi plants. There was an improvement of iron
contents under severe Fe conditions of the Zea mays plant when inoculated
with AM strain. Findings from the study indicated that the benefits (booting
of Fe deficiency by AM fungi) derived by the plant, cannot be replicated in a
field setting because the outputs were extremely low for a rapidly developing
plant of such. In conclusion, the authors recommend better host plants and
the addition of phosphate to boost the uptake and control of iron by the AM
fungi.
Evelin et al. (2009) did a review on the mitigation of salinity stress in soil
using AM fungi. The authors recounted the environmental stress faced by
plants under serious saline conditions. AM fungi use enhance mechanism in
alleviating saline stress in the plant which is nutrient acquirement; Ca, Mg,
N, and P, upkeep of the Na+-K+ ion potentials of the plant K, biochemical
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 37

alterations and balance of some plant chemicals; antioxidants, carbohydrates,

polyamines, betaines, and prolines, physiological alteration and balance of
some plant activities; N-fixation, root nodulation, accumulation of abscisic
acid (ABA), the hydro status of the plant, relative penetrability and efficacy
of photosynthesis and molecular alteration of gene expression of some plant
extreme-structures such as LsP5CS, Lslea, Na(+)/H(+), Lsnced, antiporters,
and PIP, antiporters, Lsnced, Lslea, and LsP5CS. The authors in conclusion
recommend that extreme structural and molecular alterations of AM fungi
should be looked into for further research and large-scale production.
Ferrol et al. (2009) did a review of the survival methods of AM fungi in
the copper polluted ecosystem. The authors recounted that the mechanism
that AM fungi use in the mitigation of copper in polluted soils are found in
their intra-cellular media and cell cytoplasm-cytosol. The copper is therefore
trans-located to the several sub-cellular parts via the root vacuoles that may
create lesser damage to the plant. The AM fungi have also evolved with
time some compartmentalization approaches or strategies with extra-radical
reproductive structure and intra-radical vesicles. More so, they have an
antagonistic mechanism to reduce the oxidative stress of copper as well as to
repair damaged tissues induced by the toxic Cu.
Ferrol et al. (2016) tested and evaluated the HMs absurdity in AM fungi,
its mechanism, and prospective utilization. That is a close association of AM
fungi with the root cortex of plants; the external hyphae absorb nutrients
such as phosphate, manganese, iron, zinc, and copper. Above and beyond,
the AM fungi not only improve the nutrient quality of the plant but also aid in
the remediation of the HMs impacts as well. This makes AM fungi a potent
bio-regulatory organism against nutrient deficiency in the soil and alleviation
of soil toxins. In conclusion, the authors proposed an in-depth investigation
of the homeostatic response of AM fungi to plant HMs acquirement under
lacking and noxious HMs conditions.
Galli et al. (1994) did a review on the potential ability of AM fungi on
chelating HMs from the soil to eke plant growth (nutrients) and alleviating
eco-stress. The authors stated that this has also been demonstrated by many
studies. However, the extra-matrical mycelium of the fungi cell wall has
mechanisms such as melanin, cellulose, and chitin that allow the chelating
of HMs and enable the fungi to decontaminate the toxic soil. In conclusion,
the authors proposed the utilization of multi chains of phosphate granules
with mixtures of nitrogen and sulfur as bio-sorption agents for effective soil
remediation.
38 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Jambon et al. (2018) wrote a comprehensive review on the application

of mycorrhizal fungi for their bioremediation potential of an inorganic and
organic pollutant that is available in the groundwater and soil. Also, their
effectiveness in promoting plant growth was emphasized. The authors also
highlighted the synergetic effects of mycorrhizal fungi with free-living
saprotrophs and bacteria for their degradative potential for highly polluted
environments. Profiting from improved knowledge of microbial community
structure and their gathering gives a proper understanding of how holobiont
can be altered to increase their rate of pollutant degradation and drastic
improvement of agricultural plant growth. The authors provide a holistic and
proper understanding of plant-bacteria-fungi interfaces and the prospects of
utilizing these tripartite interfaces to improve the efficiency of phytoreme­
diation of organic pollutants.
Chen et al. (2018) reviewed the ecological role of AMF and its advanta­
geous services in agriculture. The authors hailed AM as one of the most effec­
tive symbionts with several ecological functions including plant boosters,
stress-tolerant, and resistance, soil pH buffer, soil profile management, and
fertility enhancer. The ability of AMF to interact with most plant species
especially, tree fruits, vegetables, cereals, and legumes make it a sustainable
bio-fertilizer for agriculture. The authors stated several types of research
that have stressed the utilization of AM and re-echo its signaling trails as
a further intervention for ecosystem reconstruction and management. Still,
they stressed the exchange of nutritional benefits the association tends to get
during the interactive biological functioning. Because of the benefits, the
authors concluded that AM stands the chance to be used in different related
areas (landscaping and horticulture) apart from agriculture and recommend
it for novel developments in these areas.

2.5 IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL STRUCTURE AND BIODIVERSITY

It has been observed that the effect of AMF on various soil activities is a very
complex process to define because there is the various level of variation which
depends on types of plants, environmental condition, and the types of fungal
genotypes. In view of the aforementioned, Hamel wrote a comprehensive
review on the effect of AMF-microbe interactions, mobilization of nitrogen
and phosphorus most especially in the root zone, the types of mycorrhizo­
sphere as well as the significance of AMF in the root zone of the phosphorus
and nitrogen dynamics. It was observed that the spatial arrangement of the
hyphae and the roots in the soil gives a better understanding that AMF may
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 39

increase the process of reabsorption of nutrients losses mainly through root

exudation. These fungi portend the capability to influence other soil micro­
organisms, which infers that they play a crucial role in various biochemical
reactions that occur in the soil, such as nitrification and mineralization of
organic matter. They also highlighted that AMF has the potential to utilize
organic sources of nitrogen and nitrogen while AMF has been highlighted
to have the capability to enhance the capability of the plant to compete with
saprotrophs for the absorption of nitrogen and phosphorus. This might be
liked by the fact that AMF could utilize amino-acid-N, their capability to
produce phosphatase enzymes as well as the production of organic anions.
It has been stated that AMF possesses improved competitive capacity of
mycorrhizal plants under conditions of low soil Nitrogen and phosphorus
level which could minimize the populations of saprotrophic populations,
and whenever this occurs, it could regulate soil matter production rate. This
shows that adequate management of beneficial soil resources could be led to
an effective sustainable cropping system for effective crop production.
Berardia subacaulis Vill has been recognized as a monospecific genus
that is endemic to the southwestern Alps where it is cultivated on alpine
screes, which are life-threatening environments characterized by limiting
growth conditions and soil disturbance. The rate of root colonization in this
region by AMF has been recognized as highly significant to these regions
because it plays a high impact on the stress tolerance and plant nutrition as
well as amendment and restructuring of soil.
Casazza et al. (2017) evaluated the biotic factor and soil features that
enhance the community composition and abundance of AMF in the roots
of B. subacaulis, which had formerly been discovered to be mycorrhizal.
Hence, the authors evaluate the effects of environmental and soil properties
of AMF community composition and abundance available in the roots of B.
subacaulis, sampled on three different scree slopes were analyzed. The result
indicated that the dark septate endophytes and vegetation coverage did not
affect the plant community and the percentage of AMF colonization. The
abundance of the AMF in the roots could be linked to the presence of some
chemicals mainly inform of potassium and calcium and AMF colonization,
physical properties such as field capacity, cation exchange, and electrical
conductivity which indicated that AMF could enhance the quality of the soil
tested. The NMDS experiment performed on the AMF community indicates
that the diversity of AMF present on various sites was stimulated by the
slope and the quality of the soil. Their study showed that slope stimulates
40 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

physical disturbance of alpine screes which might have led to disruption

tolerant AMF taxa, which constitutes various plant-fungus assemblages.
Biological invasions have been recognized as a significant Biological
invasions alteration that can influence the soil diversity and ecosystem
function. It has been acknowledged that soil microorganisms play a crucial
role in plant development and their eventual establishment. But there is a
need to establish their role in biological inversions. The fastest approach
to it is to inquire whether invasive plants host has numerous microbes than
their nearby native plant species. Because of the aforementioned, DeBellis
et al. (2019) evaluated the variation that occurs in the related microorganism
of native exotic Norway maple (A. platanoides L.) and sugar maple (Acer
saccharum Marsh.) obtained from a forested reserve in eastern Canada. The
authors utilized microscopy to investigate root fungi and high-throughput
sequencing for the molecular characterization of the fungal, bacteria, and AM
communities of the maple species. The result obtained indicates that there
was variation in the root-related fungal and bacterial community between
the host species. Moreover, the operational taxonomic units of the fungal
and bacterial found in the Norway maple was greater than the operational
taxonomic units while the indicator species evaluation shows that there were
three bacterial and nine fungal operational taxonomic units with special refer­
ence for sugar maple Also, the highest dominant bacterial phyla discovered
on the roots of both maple species were Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria
respectively. The following fungal species discovered with the sugar maple
were Hypocreales, Agaricales, Helotiales, Capnodiales, Pleosporales, while
those found on the Norway maple roots were Trechisporales, Helotiales,
Pleosporales, Hypocreales Agaricales, respectively. The highest dominant
orders discovered in the sugar maple were Hypocreales and Capnodiales
while the level of Dark septate fungi colonization was significant in sugar
maple, but the rates of colonization by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal
communities were not observed. Their study indicated that two congeneric
plant species planted at a close distance can harbor specific root microbial
communities. Their study provides a baseline for the significance of plant
species in the structuring root-related microbe community. Also, the high
level of colonization detected in the Norway maple showed that AMF had
great compatibility in the introduced range. Their study also showed that
plant-related microbial communities could influence host fitness and role
in numerous ways. Hence their study indicated that biotic interaction could
play a role in the dynamics between invasive and native species.
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 41

2.6 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Wehner et al. (2009) wrote a comprehensive report on the protective roles

of AMF against some pathogens that could affect the root of crops, and the
modes of actions of these fungi were also highlighted. It has been stated
that there is a tendency that the AMF taxa differ in numerous ways that
they could limit the adverse effects of pathogens on the host plants, but
the synergetic effect among different members of AMF assemblages and
communities might lead to enhanced protection of pathogen. Therefore, the
authors described the between AM and pathogenic fungi and cited some
specific examples that compare the efficacy of single- and multi-species AM
fungal assemblages. The authors also highlight the specific modes of action
by which AMF exhibits their protective role against their pathogens, and
special interests were placed on the functional diversity among AM fungal
taxa in terms of their modes of action. The authors proposed that functional
complementarity among AMF fungal taxa in relationship with pathogen
might be linked to the reason for the association between plant productivity
and AMF fungal diversity.

2.7 MODES OF ACTION OF AMF AGAINST PESTS AND

PATHOGENS

AMF has the capability to mitigate against the biotic stress using several
approaches such as competition with the pathogens or through indirect
means mainly by plant-mediated influence. The direct influence includes
completion for nitrogen, carbon, and other growth factors and survival
for niches or specific infection sites. It has been highlighted that AMF
possesses the capacity to minimize the effect of pathogenic fungi present in
the root region of plants (Filion et al., 2003). Apparently, AMF and patho­
genic utilized the available resources within the root, containing infection/
establishment location, space, and the rate of their photosynthesis (Whipps,
2004). Moreover, it has been documented that a negative correlation exists
among the pathogenic microorganisms and AMF that dwells in the soil and
the roots (St. Arnaud and Elsen, 2005).
Cordier et al. (1998) also affirmed that arbusculated cells could inhibit
pathogenic oomycete Phytophthora. Also, AMF has the capacity to cause
changes in the root system structure in morphology as well as in the root
exudates (Pivato et al., 2008). The alteration may affect the rate of infec­
tion against the invading pathogens, and this may also affect the microbial
42 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

population of the mycorrhizosphere which empowers the capability of the

microbiota to inhibit many pathogens (Badri and Vivanco, 2009).
Vos et al. (2011) also affirmed that alteration in the level of root exuda­
tion may affect the nematodes and microbial pathogens. Recently it was
documented that AMF has the capacity to regulate the capability of AMF
to reorganize or regulate the rate of expression available in plants gene
(Campos-Soriano et al., 2012). This may also influence the rates of secondary
or primary metabolism of the plant which are all utilized in plant defense
(Lopez-Raez et al., 2010a, b).
Moreover, it has been observed that AMF has the capability to stimulate
plant defense response at the beginning of attachment to their plant host
just like other biotrophs (Paszkowski, 2006). Hence, after the successful
colonization, the AMF has the capability to endure the plant counter-reaction
which it could overcome as time goes on and energetically modify plant
defense rejoinders. This then led to stimulation of the plant defense after a
challenger attack which is referred to as priming (Pozo and Azcon-Aguilar,
2007). Priming helps the plant to get ready for any attack by forging a body
that may be faster and/or stronger compared to a plant that has not been
previously exposed to prime stimulus thereby enhancing the plant resistance
(Walters and Heil, 2007).

2.8 REGULATION OF THE PLANT HOST IMMUNE SYSTEM

The stimulation of resistance around the root of the pant by AMF does not
require direct stimulation of defense mechanisms but can be obtained can result
from sensitization of the tissue upon suitable prompt to show basal defense
mechanisms more proficiently after successive pathogen attack (Jung et al.,
2012). The stimulation of resistance that occurs whenever AMF colonizes a
plant might not need direct stimulation of the defense mechanism but could be
from the triggering of the tissue by necessary stimulation to show dense action
more enhanced after the pathogen attack (Jung et al., 2012). The priming of
the immune system of the plant has been documented to be common when­
ever beneficial microorganisms come in contact with the plant host system in
comparison to direct stimulation of the defense (Conrath, 2009). Several modes
of action have been highlighted to be involved in the stimulation of the primed
state as a moderate build-up of defense-associated molecules such as chromatin
modifications and transcription factors or MAP kinases (mitogen-activated
protein kinase) (Pastor et al., 2012). Benhamou et al. (1994) stated that there was
a strong defense mechanism that was triggered as the Mycorrhizal-transformed
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 43

carrot roots showed a powerful defense reaction as the location when attacked
by Fusarium.
Moreover, it has been observed that in tomato, AM colonization systemi­
cally guilds the root of tomato plant against the action of Phytophthora
parasitica infection but the AMF develop a papilla-like structure around the
location of pathogen infection through the dropping of non-esterified callose
and pectins that could avert the action pathogens from spreading around
the plant hosts. They also prompt the build-up of β-1,3 glucanases and
mycorrhizal-transformed carrot roots displayed stronger defense reactions
at sites challenged by Fusarium (Benhamou et al., 1994). In tomato, AM
colonization systemically protected roots against Phytophthora parasitica
infection. Only mycorrhizal plants formed papilla-like structures around the
sites of pathogen infection through deposition of non-esterified pectins and
callose, preventing the pathogen from spreading further, and they accumu­
lated significantly more PR-1a than those that are not mycorrhizal plants
upon Phytophthora attack (Pozo et al., 1999, 2002).
Also, the build-up of the following compounds such as solavetivone,
phytoalexins, and rishitin were discovered inside mycorrhizal potatoes when
Rhizoctonia infection but interestingly AMF does not have any influence on the
level of these compounds (Yao et al., 2003). The build-up of several phenolic
compounds could be linked to the protective role against F. oxysporum by date
palm trees (Jaiti et al., 2007), while the action of the priming has also been
confirmed as a protective mechanism against nematode (Hao et al., 2012).
Also, the primed response is not limited to plant roots but could also be found
in the shoot region (Pozo et al., 2010). Moreover, it was observed that a high
level of induced systemic resistance (ISR) was observed in the tomato plant
against the action of necrotrophic foliar pathogen Botrytis cinerea (BC). It was
discovered that the amount of the pathogen available in mycorrhizal plants
was significantly reduced while there was an enhanced manifestation of some
defense-associated, jasmonate-regulated available in the plants (Pozo et al.,
2010). The application of tomato mutants impaired in jasmonate acid signaling
affirmed that jasmonate acid is necessary for AM-induced resistance against
Botrytis (Jung et al., 2012).

2.9 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION

This chapter has established the significance of AMF in sustainable organic

agriculture. This chapter has also validated the sustainable application of
AMF for their effectiveness against pest and plant pathogens, their application
44 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

as a biofertilizer, they restructure of dilapidated soil, and ecorestoration of

heavily polluted soil. It was also affirmed that the colonization of AMF with
roots of the plant could enhance the host plant physiology. This also plays
a crucial role in regulating the capacity of the plants to regulate abiotic and
abiotic stress. The modes of action utilized by AMF have been discussed
extensively in this chapter. Also, the role of AMF in the maintenance of
soil diversity and its functions with other beneficial microorganisms has
been elucidated in detail. Furthermore, specific examples have been cited
that illustrates the potential of AMF as a plant enhancer for improvement of
the plant in term of yield and growth parameters after applying them as an
inoculant to various crops.

KEYWORDS

• abiotic stresses
• arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
• biofertilizer
• biotic stress
• ecorestoration
• organic agriculture

REFERENCES

Adetunji, C. O., & Ugbenyen, A. M., (2019). Mechanism of action of nanopesticide derived
from microorganism for the alleviation of abiotic and biotic stress affecting crop
productivity. In: Nanotechnology for Agriculture: Crop Production and Protection.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9374-8_7.
Adetunji, C. O., (2019). Environmental impact and ecotoxicological influence of bio-fabricated
and inorganic nanoparticle on soil activity. In: Panpatte, D., & Jhala, Y., (eds.), Nanotech­
nology for Agriculture.Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9370-0_12.
Adetunji, C. O., Egbuna, C., Tijjani, H., Adom, D., Khalil, L., Al-Ani, T., & Partick-Iwuanuyanwu,
K. C., (2019). Pesticides, home made preparation of natural biopesticides and application.
In: Natural Remedy for Pest, Diseases and Weed Control (pp. 1–12). Elsevier.
Adetunji, C. O., Kumar, D., Raina, M., Arogundade, O., & Sarin, N. M., (2019b). Endophytic
microorganisms as biological control agents for plant pathogens: A panacea for sustainable
agriculture. In: Plant Biotic Interactions. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26657-8_1.
Adetunji, C. O., Oloke, J. K., Bello, O. M., Pradeep, M., & Jolly, R. S., (2019d).
Isolation, structural elucidation and bioherbicidal activity of an eco-friendly
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 45

bioactive 2-(hydroxymethyl) phenol, from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (C1501) and its

ecotoxicological evaluation on soil. Env. Tech. Innov., 13(2019), 304–317.
Adetunji, C. O., Panpatte, D., Bello, O. M., & Adekoya, M. A., (2019c). Application of
nanoengineered metabolites from beneficial and eco-friendly microorganisms as biological
control agents for plant pests and pathogens. In: Nanotechnology for Agriculture: Crop
Production and Protection. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981–32-9374-8_13.
Agely, A. L., Sylvia, D. M., & Ma, L. Q., (2005). Mycorrhizae increase arsenic uptake by the
hyperaccumulator Chinese brake fern (Pteris vittata L.). J. Env. Qual., 34(6), 2181–2186.
Andrade, S. A. L., Mazzafera, P., Schiavinato, M. A., & Silveira, A. P. D., (2009). Arbuscular
mycorrhizal association in coffee. The J. Agri. Sci., 147(2), 105–115. https://doi.org/
10.1017/S0021859608008344.
Azizah, H., & Idris, Z. A., (1996). Microbes: How they can do wonders to soil fertility.
Malaysian Technol. Bull. 4, 92–94.
Badri, D. V., & Vivanco, J. M., (2009). Regulation and function of root exudates. Pl. Cell Env.,
32, 666–681.
Barea, J. M., Andrade, G., Bianciotto, V., Dowling, D., Lohrke, S., Bonfante, P., O’Gara, F., &
Azcon-Aguilar, C., (1998). Impact on Arbuscular mycorrhiza formation of Pseudomonas
strains used as inoculants for biocontrol of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens. Appl. Env.
Microb., 64(6), 2304–2307.
Baslam, M., Garmendia, I., & Goicoechea, N., (2011). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
improved growth and nutritional quality of greenhouse-grown lettuce. J. Agri. Food
Chem., 59(10), 5504–5515. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf200501c.
Benhamou, N., Fortin, J. A., Hamel, C., St Arnaud, M., & Shatilla, A., (1994). Resistance
responses of mycorrhizal Ri T-DNA-transformed carrot roots to infection by Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. chrysanthemi. Phytopathology, 84, 958–968.
Berruti, A., Lumini, E., Balestrini, R., & Bianciotto, V., (2016). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
as natural biofertilizers: Let’s benefit from past successes. Fron. Microbiol., 6(426).
https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01559.
Binh, T. T., Tran, A. B., Stephanie, J., Watts-Williams, A. C., & Cavagnaro, T. R., (2019).
Impact of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus on the growth and nutrition of fifteen crop and
pasture plant species. Func. Plant Biol., 46(8), 732–742. https://doi.org/10.1071/FP18327.
Bonfante, P., & Perotto, D. S., (1995). Strategy of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi when infecting
host plants. New Phytology, 130, 3–21.
Bonifacio, E., Nicolotti, G., Zanini, E., & Cellerino, G. P., (1999). Heavy metal uptake by
mycorrhizae of beech in contaminated and uncontaminated soils. Fresenius Environ. Bull.,
7, 408–413.
Cabral, L., Soares, C. R., Giachini, A. J., & Siqueira, J. O., (2015). Arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi in phytoremediation of contaminated areas by trace elements: Mechanisms and
major benefits of their applications. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 31(11), 1655–1664.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274–015–1918-y.
Carina, V. T., Emilia, M. M., Miguel, U. S., Ortiz, D. R., Manjunatha, B., Thangaswamy, S.,
& Mulla, S. I., (2016). Effect of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Azospirillum
on growth and nutrition of banana plantlets during acclimatization phase. J. Appl. Pharm.
Sci., 6(06), 131–138.
Casazza, G., Lumini, E., Ercole, E., Dovana, F., Guerrina, M., Arnulfo, A., et al., (2017). The
abundance and diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are linked to the soil chemistry
of screes and to slope in the Alpic paleo-endemic Berardia subacaulis. PLoS One, 12(2),
e0171866. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171866.
46 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Chen, M., Arato, M., Borghi, L., Nouri, E., & Reinhardt, D., (2018). Beneficial services of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-from ecology to application. Front. Plant Sci., 4. |https://
doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01270.
Christophersen, H. M., Smith, F. A., & Smith, S. E., (2012). Unraveling the influence of
arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization on arsenic tolerance in Medicago: Glomus mosseae
is more effective than G. intraradices, associated with lower expression of root epidermal
Pi transporter genes. Front. Physiol., 13(3), 91. doi:10.3389/fphys.2012.00091.
Clark, R. B., & Zeto, S. K., (1996). Iron acquisition by mycorrhizal maize grown on alkaline
soil. J. Plant Nutr., 19, 2.
Conrath, U., (2009). Priming of induced plant defense responses. In: Loon, L. C. V., (ed),
Advances in Botanical Research (pp. 361–395). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0065-2296(09)51009-9.
Cordier, C., Pozo, M. J., Barea, J. M., Gianinazzi, S., & Gianinazzi-Pearson, V., (1998). Cell
defense responses associated with localized and systemic resistance to Phytophthora
parasitica induced in tomato by an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus. Mol. Plant-Microbe
Interact., 11, 1017–1028.
Danneberg, G., Latus, C., Zimmer, W., Hundes-Hagen, B., Schneider-Poetsch, H., & Bothe,
H., (1992). Influence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza on phytohormone balances in
maize (Zea mays L.). Journal of Plant Physiology, 141, 33–39.
DeBellis, T., Kembel, S. W., & Lessard, J. P., (2019). Shared mycorrhizae but distinct
communities of other root-associated microbes on co-occurring native and invasive
maples. Peer J. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7295.
Demür, S., (2004). Influence of arbuscular mycorrhiza on some physiological growth
parameters of pepper. Turk. J. Biol., 28, 85–90.
Douds, D. D., & Millner, P., (1999). Biodiversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in agroeco­
systems. Agri, Ecosys. Environ., 74, 77–93.
Evelin, H., Kapoor, R., & Giri, B., (2009). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in alleviation of salt
stress: A review. Annals Botany, 104(7), 1263–1280. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcp251.
Ferrol, N., Gonzalez-Guerrero, M., Valderas, A., Benabdellah, K., & Azcon-Aguilar, C.,
(2009). Survival strategies of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Cu-polluted environments.
Phytochem. Rev., 8(3), 551–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-009-9133-9.
Ferrol, N., Tamayo, E., Martínez, E., & Paola, V., (2016). The heavy metal paradox in
arbuscular mycorrhizas: From mechanisms to biotechnological applications. J. Exp. Bot.,
67(22), erw403. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erw403.
Filion, M., St Arnaud, M., & Jabaji-Hare, S. H., (2003). Quantification of Fusarium solani f.
sp. phaseoli in mycorrhizal bean plants and surrounding mycorrhizosphere soil using real-
time polymerase chain reaction and direct isolations on selective media. Phytopathology,
93, 229–235.
Galli, U., Schüepp, H., & Brunold, C., (1994). Heavy metal binding by mycorrhizal fungi.
Physiologia Plantarum, 92(2), 364–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1994.
tb05349.x.
Garg, N., & Chandel, S., (2010). Sustainable Development Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Networks:
Process and Functions. a Review on Agronomy and Sustainable Development (Vol. 30,
No. 3). Springer Verlag/EDP Sciences/INRA.
Garg, N., Singh, S., & Kashyap, L., (2017). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and heavy metal
tolerance in plants: An insight into physiological and molecular mechanisms. In: Varma, A.,
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 47

Prasad, R., & Tuteja, N., (eds.), Mycorrhiza-Nutrient Uptake, Biocontrol, Ecorestoration.
Springer, Cham., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68867-1_4.
Gianinazzi, S., Schuepp, H., Barea, J. M., & Haselwandter, K., (2002). Mycorrhizal
Technology in Agriculture-From Genes to Bioproducts (p. 296). Springer, Basel. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-8117-3.
Grant, C., Bitman, S., Montreal, M., Plenchette, C., & Morel, C., (2005). Soil and fertilizer
phosphorus: Effects on plant supply and mycorrhizal development. Canadian J. Plant
Sci., 85, 3–14. https://doi.org/doi:10.4141/P03-182.
Hamel, C., (2004). Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on N and P cycling in the root
zone. Can. J. Soil Sci., 84, 383–395.
Hao, Z., Fayolle, L., Van, T. D., Chatagnier, O., Li, X., Gianinazzi, S., & Gianinazzi-Pearson,
V., (2012). Local and systemic mycorrhiza-induced protection against the ectoparasitic
nematode xiphinema index involves priming of defense gene responses in grapevine. J.
Exp. Bot., 63, 3657–3672.
Hashem, A., Kumar, A., Al-Dbass, A. M., Abdulaziz, A. A., FahadAl-Arjani, A. B., Garima,
S., Farooq, M., & Fathi, A. E., (2019). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and biochar
improves drought tolerance in chickpea. Saudi J. Biol. Sci., 26(3) 614–624. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.11.005.
Hussain, M., Hussain, D. Z. D., & Reshi, A., (2017). Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM)
fungi-as a major biocontrol agent in modern sustainable agriculture system. Russian
Agri. Sci., 43(2), 138–143. https://doi.org/10.3103/S1068367417020057.
Igiehon, N. O., & Babalola, O. O., (2017). Bio-fertilizers and sustainable agriculture:
Exploring arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 101(12). https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00253-017-8344-z.
Itelima, J. U., Bang, W. J., Onyimba, I. A., & Egbere, O. J., (2018). A review: Biofertilizer;
a key player in enhancing soil fertility and crop productivity. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol.
Rep., 2(1), 22–28.
Jaiti, F., Meddich, A., & El Hadrami, I., (2007). Effectiveness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
in the protection of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) against bayoud disease. Physiol.
Mol. Plant Pathol., 71, 166–173.
Jambon, I., Thijs, S., Weyens, N., & Vangronsveld, J., (2018). Harnessing plant-bacteria­
fungi interactions to improve plant growth and degradation of organic pollutants. J. Plant
Interactions, 13(1) 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/17429145.2018.1441450.
Jastrow, J. D., Miller, R. M., & Lussenhop, J., (1998). Contributions of interacting biological
mechanisms to soil aggregate stabilization in restored prairie. Soil Biol. Biochem., 30,
905–916.
Jung, S. C., Martinez-Medina, A., Lopez-Raez, J. A., & Pozo, M. J., (2012). Mycorrhiza-
induced resistance and priming of plant defenses. J. Chem. Ecol., 38, 651–664.
Junior, P. P., Moreira, B. C., Da Silva, M. C. S., Veloso, T. G. R., Stürmer, S. L., Fernandes, R.
B. A., De Sá Mendonça, E., & Kasuya, C. M., (2019). Agroecological coffee management
increases arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi diversity. PLoS One, 14(1), e0209093. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209093.
Knerr, A. J., Wheeler, D., Schlatter, D., Sharma-Poudyal, D., Du Toit, L. J., & Paulitz, T. C.,
(2018). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in organic and conventional onion
crops in the Columbia Basin of the Pacific Northwest United States. Phytobiomes J., 2,
194–207.
48 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Kucey, R. M. N., & Paul, E. A., (1982). Carbon flow, photosynthesis and N2 fixation in
mycorrhizal and Nodulated fababeans (Vicia faba L.). Soil Biol. Biochem., 14, 407–412.
Laila, A., Trisnaningrum, N., & Hamawi, M., (2019). Significant potential of arbuscular
mycorrhizae fungi to increase on yield of Shallot. IOP. Conf. Series: Earth Environ. Sci.,
292, 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/292/1/012017.
Lopez-Raez, J. A., Flors, V., Garcia, J. M., & Pozo, M. J., (2010b). AM symbiosis alters
phenolic acid content in tomato roots. Plant Signal Behav., 5, 1138–1140.
Lopez-Raez, J. A., Verhage, A., Fernandez, I., García, J. M., Azcón-Aguilar, C., Flors, V.,
& Pozo, M. J., (2010). Hormonal and transcriptional profiles highlight common and
differential host responses to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the regulation of the
oxylipin pathway. J. Exp. Bot., 61(10), 2589–2601.
Maeder, P., Fliessbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P., & Niggli, U., (2002). Soil fertility
and biodiversity in organic farming. Science, 296(5573), 1694–1697.
Marschner, H., & Dell, B., (1994). Nutrient uptake in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Plant Soil, 159,
89–102.
Masri, B. M., (1997). Mycorrhizal Inoculation for Growth Enhancement and Improvement of
the Water Relations in Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) Seedlings. Ph.D. Thesis.
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
McGonigle, T. P., & Miller, M. H., (1996). Development of fungi below ground in association
with plants growing in disturbed and undisturbed soils. Soil Biol. Biochem., 28, 263–269.
Medina, A., & Azcón, R., (2010). Effectiveness of the application of arbuscular mycorrhiza
fungi and organic amendments to improve soil quality and plant performance under stress
conditions. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nut., 10(3), 354–372.
Nurbaity, A., Sofyan, E. T., & Hamdani, J. S., (2016). Application of Glomus sp. and
Pseudomonas diminuta reduce the use of chemical fertilizers in the production of potato
grown on different soil types. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Env. Sci., 41(1), 012004. https://doi.
org/10.1088/1755-1315/41/1/012004.
Oladele, S., & Awodun, M., (2014). Response of lowland rice to bio-fertilizer inoculation and
their effects on growth and yield in Southwestern Nigeria. J. Agric. Environ. Sci., 3(2),
371–390.
Pastor, V., Luna, E., Mauch-Mani, B., Ton, J., & Flors, V., (2012). Primed plants do not forget.
Environ. Exp. Bot. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2012.02.013.
Paszkowski, U., (2006). Mutualism and parasitism: The yin and yang of plant symbioses.
Curr. Opin. Plant Biol., 9, 364–370.
Pivato, B., Gamalero, E., Lemanceau, P., & Berta, G., (2008). Cell organization of Pseudomonas
fluorescens C7R12 on adventitious roots of Medicago truncatula as affected by arbuscular
mycorrhiza. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 289, 173–180.
Pozo, M. J., & Azcon-Aguilar, C., (2007). Unraveling mycorrhiza-induced resistance. Curr.
Opi. Plant Biol., 10, 393–398.
Pozo, M. J., Azcon-Aguilar, C., Dumas-Gaudot, E., & Barea, J. M., (1999). β-1,3-glucanase
activities in tomato roots inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and/or Phytophthora
parasitica and their possible involvement in bioprotection. Plant Sci., 141, 149–157.
Pozo, M. J., Cordier, C., Dumas-Gaudot, E., Gianinazzi, S., Jose, M. B., & Azcón-Aguilar,
C., (2002). Localized versus systemic effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on defense
responses to Phytophthora infection in tomato plants. J. Exp. Bot., 53(368), 525–534.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jexbot/53.368.525.
Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Organic Agriculture 49

Pozo, M. J., Jung, S. C., Lopez-Raez, J. A., & Azcon-Aguilar, C., (2010). Impact of arbuscular
mycorrhizal symbiosis on plant response to biotic stress: The role of plant defense
mechanisms. In: Kapulnick, Y., & Douds, D. D., (eds.), Arbuscular Mycorrhizas:
Physiology and Function (pp. 193–207). Springer, Dordrecht.
Read, D. J., Lewis, D. H. A., Fitter, H., & Alexander, I. J., (1992). Mycorrhizas in Ecosystems.
CAB International, Oxford.
Richardson, D. M., Allsopp, N., Antonio, C. M. D., Milton, S. J., & Rejmanek, M., (2000).
Plant invasions-the role of mutualisms. Biol. Reviews Cambridge Philos. Soc., 75, 65–93.
Sadhana, B., (2014). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as biofertilizers: A review. Int. J.
Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sc., 3(4), 384–400.
Sara, A. L. D. A., & Adriana, P. D., D. S., (2008). Mycorrhiza influence on maize development
under Cd stress and P supply. Braz. J. Plant Physiol., 20(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/
S1677-04202008000100005.
Schreiner, R. P., & Bethlenfalvay, G. J., (1996). Mycorrhizae, biocides, and biocontrol. 4.
Response of a mixed culture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and host plant to three
fungicides. Biol. Fertil. Soils., 23, 189–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00336062.
Sramek, F., Dubsky, M., & Vosatka, M., (2000). Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and
Trichoderma harzianum on three species of balcony plants. Rostlinna Vyroba, 146,
127–131.
St Arnaud, M., & Elsen, A., (2005). Interaction of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with soil-borne
pathogens and non-pathogenic rhizosphere microorganisms. In: Declerck, S., Fortin, J. A.,
& Strullu, D. G., (eds.), In Vitro Culture of Mycorrhizas (pp. 217–231). Springer, Berlin.
Sturz, A. V., Carter, M. R., & Johnston, H. W., (1997). A review of plant disease, pathogen
interactions and microbial antagonism under conservation tillage in temperate humid
agriculture. Soil Tillage Res., 41, 169–189.
Timmer, L., & Leyden, R., (1980). The relationship of mycorrhizal infection to phosphorus-
induced copper deficiency in sour orange seedlings. New Phytologist, 85, 15–23. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1980.tb04443.x.
Vos, C., Claerhout, S., Mkandawire, R., Panis, B., De Waele, D., & Elsen, A., (2011). Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi reduce root-knot nematode penetration through altered root exudation
of their host. Plant Soil, 354, 335–345.
Walters, D., & Heil, M., (2007). Costs and trade-offs associated with induced resistance.
Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol., 71, 3–17.
Wehner, J., Antunes, P. M., Powell, J. R., Mazukatow, J., & Rillig, M. C., (2009). Plant
pathogen protection by arbuscular mycorrhizas: A role for fungal diversity? Pedobiologia,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedobi.2009.10.002.
Whipps, J. M., (2004). Prospects and limitations for mycorrhizas in biocontrol of root
pathogens. Can J Bot., 82, 1198–1227.
Yao, M. K., Desilets, H., Charles, M. T., Boulanger, R., & Tweddell, R. J., (2003). Effect
of mycorrhization on the accumulation of rishitin and solavetivone in potato plantlets
challenged with Rhizoctonia solani. Mycorrhiza, 13, 333–336.
Yeasmin, T., (2017). Association of arbuscular mycorrhizas in plants: Future perspectives
of biofertilizer in Bangladesh. In: 10th International Conference on Agriculture and
Horticulture. London, UK.
CHAPTER 3

AZOSPIRILLUM BIOINOCULANT
TECHNOLOGY: PAST TO CURRENT
KNOWLEDGE AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS
PALANI SARANRAJ,1 ABDEL RAHMAN M. AL-TAWAHA,2
PANNEERSELVAM SIVASAKTHIVELAN,3
ABDEL RAZZAQ M. AL-TAWAHA,4 KANGASALAM AMALA,1
DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,5 and JEYABALAN SANGEETHA6

1
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous),
Tirupattur–635601, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
2

Maan, Jordan
Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture,
3

Annamalai University, Chidambaram–608002, Tamil Nadu, India

Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
4

University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

5
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad,
Karnataka–580003, India
6
Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala,
Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India

ABSTRACT

Azospirillum is a curve-shaped vibroid Gram-negative, measuring about

1–1.5 μm in diameter, motile because of possessing Peritrichous flagella that
are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions
52 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

in association with the roots of cereals. Azospirillum was well known for
many years as PGPR because it was isolated from the rhizosphere region
of many grasses and cereals universally in tropical as well as in temperate
climates. Azospirillum is considered as the most valuable bioinoculant in
the group of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) because it is
not only the microorganism capable of colonizing the roots of agricultural
crops, along with root colonization Azospirillum sp. have the tendency of
producing more beneficial compounds which are highly beneficial to crops.
Azospirillum biofertilizers have a history going back to the beginning of the
20th century. However, researchers still must find innovative and novel strains
and improve production strategies and methods of application and mode
of action. Azospirillum is one of the widely used biofertilizers in organic
farming. Azospirillum sp. contribute to increased yields of cereal and grasses
by improving root development in properly colonized roots, increasing the
rate of water and mineral uptake from the soil, and by biological nitrogen
fixation. A better understanding of the basic biology of the Azospirillum
microbe and plant root interaction may lead to greater efficacy in its appli­
cation as an effective biological nitrogen-fixing biofertilizer. The products
containing Azospirillum strains and their use begin to play an important role
in recent agriculture and as an alternative to expensive chemical fertilizers
and sometimes not environmentally friendly products. This chapter analyzes
the genus Azospirillum, taxonomy, occurrence, distribution, characters,
interactions, nitrogen fixation, growth hormones, siderophore production,
and nutrient uptake.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

India is one of the important countries which are playing a major role in
bio inoculants production and consumption for agricultural purposes. It was
predictable that the current level of biological fertilizer usage is relatively
low, and it is expected to increase to 80,000–85,000 tons by 2025 (Bhat­
tacharyya and Kumar, 2000). In order to enhance the productivity of agri­
cultural land, different types of crop nutrients are contributing and playing a
vital role in the maximization of growth, yield, and biochemical parameters
of agricultural crops. Out of various nutrients required, the highly required
nutrient for increasing plant growth is nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
(NPK), and in the short term, it is referred to as NPK.
Microorganisms are commonly used as bioinoculants and the most
commonly used microbial fertilizers are Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 53

sp., Bradyrhizobium sp., Azospirillum sp. and Azotobacter sp.), nitrogen-

fixing cyanobacteria or blue-green algae (BGA) (Anabaena sp.), phosphate
solubilizing bacteria (PSB) or phosphate solubilizers (Pseudomonas putida),
biocontrol agents (Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus sp. and Trichoderma
sp.), microbial insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana,
Metarhizium sp. and Verticillium sp.) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi
(Pindi, 2012). When applied to the agricultural field, the microbial inocu­
lants promote the plant growth by various beneficial activities, viz., fixation
of atmospheric nitrogen, production of plant growth-promoting phytohor­
mones, solubilization of complex phosphates into simple phosphates, and
solubilization of various minerals and nutrients for plant uptake. An efficient
microbial inoculant should be viable for a minimum of six months. The
major factors responsible for the viability of microbial biofertilizers during
mass production, formulation, storage, transportation, and field application
are related directly to the plant growth-promoting potential of a biofertilizer
formulation.
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) which is familiarly
called PGPR, plays a key role in cycling of various nutrients, producing
plant-growth-promoting hormones, preventing from various phytopatho­
gens, solubilizing inorganic phosphates, maintaining the soil fertility, and
establishing the positive interactions with plant roots in agro environment
through Rhizosphere and Phyllosphere. In the current research, agricultural
scientists are giving more interest in the improvement of the positive interac­
tions and beneficial associations between microorganisms and plants (Bilal
et al., 2014). Microbial colonization in plant roots is influenced by various
biotic and abiotic factors such as dynamics of microbial population, nature of
soil, and characteristics of plants. Biological and chemical alterations of the
rhizosphere environment also influence the health of plants through various
factors like production of plant growth-promoting hormones, mobilizing
various nutrients, and suppressing the phytopathogens through induced
systemic resistance (ISR).
Azospirillum is a Gram-negative spiral-shaped bacteria that are capable
of fixing atmospheric nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions in associa­
tion with the roots of cereals, particularly paddy (Oryza sativa L.) (Bashan
and Levanony, 1990). The genus Azospirillum is distributed widely in the
rhizosphere of tropical and sub-tropical grasses, particularly cereals (Bashan
and Holguin, 1997). The mechanisms by which Azospirillum sp. can exert
a positive effect on plant growth were probably composed of multiple
effects (Pereyra et al., 2007). However, these beneficial effects by Azospi­
rillum inoculation are not consistent (Shanon, 2013). In the mid-70s, it was
54 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

recognized that the strains of Azospirillum are abundantly associated with

the rhizosphere region in the roots of cereals and millets and helps in fixing
substantial amounts of nitrogen. The Azospirillum sp. is the most widely
studied PGPR than the other rhizosphere microorganisms because of its
multiple benefits to the agricultural crops, particularly cereals (Bashan and
de-Bashan, 2010).

3.2 THE GENUS AZOSPIRILLUM AND ITS TAXONOMY

The soil nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azospirillum sp. was first isolated in

the year 1925 and described by a Dutch Microbiologist M. W. Beijerinck
from nitrogen-poor sandy soils of the Netherlands (Beijerinck, 1925). That
was a significant landmark in the contribution in the field of non-symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In 1976, Dobereiner and Day reported a
new diazotrophic association between a curved bacterium and the grass
Digitaria decumbens and named as Spirillum lipoferum. At the time of its
isolation from soil, the soil bacterium Azospirillum was originally named
as Spirillum lipoferum. The Spirillum lipoferum was classified under genus
Spirillum of the order Pseudomonadales by Breed et al. (1957). Becking
(1963) described the Azospirillum as Spirillum of vibrioid in nature and
worked on the taxonomy of the bacterium. After few decades, the genus
Spirillum was renamed as Azospirillum.
Dobereiner et al. (1976) reported that the occurrence of Azospirillum
lipoferum in tropical soil and they are responsible for the nitrogen fixation
in grasses because of their occurrence near the root regions and with the
root tissues. Worldwide, Azospirillum species has been isolated from the
roots of numerous grasses, cereals, legumes, millets, and other non-cereal
crop plants and from tropical, subtropical, and temperate soils (Tilak, 1997;
Purushothaman, 2002).
Azospirillum is a Gram-negative, motile, and spiralor vibrioid shaped
bacilli, which is the common inhabitant of root and soil. Among the various
species, the most thoroughly studied Azospirillum species are Azospirillum
brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum. A number of physiological
and morphological characteristics differentiates the various species of
Azospirillum. In Brazil, Azospirillum amazonense is an acid-tolerant
species, isolated from the grasses and palm trees. In Pakistan, Azospirillum
halopareferens was isolated from the root surface of Leptochloa fusca
(Reinhold et al., 1987).
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 55

The occurrence of Azospirillum in the rhizosphere of cereal crops was

varied from 1% to 10% of total rhizosphere population was reported by Okon
(1985). More than 100 Azospirillum sp. are present in the soil and compara­
tively the populations of Azospirillum species are more in rhizosphere soil
than in the non-rhizosphere soils (De Coninck et al., 1988). Michiels et
al. (1989) recorded the presence of Azospirillum species in different agro­
climate zones in crops which are prevalent in all over the universe. Sumner
(1990) reported the occurrence of multiple number of Azospirillum sp. in
various agricultural crops like rice, maize, sorghum, wheat, and pearl millet.
According to Krieg (1976), the Spirillum lipoferum belong to the
genus Azospirillum but its taxonomic position was completely uncertain.
Azospirillum is having a distinct feature that is the production of Poly-β­
hydroxybutyrate granules, in the short term, it is called PHB (Dobereiner
and Day, 1976; Okon et al., 1976). Spirillum lipoferum was rearranged into
three major groups based on its denitrification efficiency when cultures were
grown with ammonium nitrate (Neyra and Dobereiner, 1977). Strains with
high denitrification rate were placed under Group I. The Azospirillum strains
which are failed to exhibit the disappearance of nitrate were included in the
Group III. Strains with intermediate level of nitrite are coming under the
Group II. At present, seven species, viz., Azospirillum brasilense, Azospi­
rillum lipoferum, Azospirillum amazonense, Azospirillum halopraeferens,
Azospirillum irakense, Azospirillum largimobile and Azospirillum doberein­
erae have been described in the genus Azospirillum.

3.3 OCCURRENCE, DISTRIBUTION, AND ISOLATION OF

AZOSPIRILLUM

Azospirillum was well known for many years as PGPR because it was
isolated from the rhizosphere region of many grasses and cereals universally
in tropical as well as in temperate climates (Steenhoudt and Vanderleyden,
2000). Since the 1970s, the Azospirillum sp. has the consistency and was
proven as very promising PGPR because this bacterium was the selective
microflora for fixing the atmospheric nitrogen in the environment (Bashan
et al., 2004).
The global occurrence and distribution of Azospirillum from various
geographical regions of our universe was reported by Amer et al. (1977).
They reported the occurrence of Azospirillum sp. in the rhizosphere and rhizo­
plane of agricultural crops which are belonging to the family Leguminosae,
56 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Cruciferceae, Gramineae, Solanaceae, and Tiliaceae. The occurrence of

Azospirillum from continuous cultivation of the barely was reported by
Idris et al. (1981). Nayak (1981) isolated the Azospirillum lipoferum and
analyzed that the variations in their nitrogen-fixing efficiencies was wide in
the surface of root and leaf of multiple medicinal plants such as Euphorbia
hirta, Ipomoea repens, Phyllanthus niruri, Clerodentron viscosum, Pistilla
stratiotes, Leucas aspera, Cyprus sp. and Marsilia quadrifolia. Tilak and
Murthy (1981) documented the occurrence of Azospirillum brasilense as a
microaerophilic because it requires only the minute quantity of oxygen for
its survival, and this cannot be able to survive in the presence of high level
of oxygen. They also noticed the Azospirillum sp. as non-symbiotic nitrogen
fixer because of its association with the roots of agricultural crops like rice,
sorghum, and maize.
Purusothaman and Oblisami (1985) reported the presence of nitrogen-
fixing Azospirillum sp. in the rhizosphere region of herbal plants like
Cynodon dactylon, Boerhavia diffusa, Ipomea sp. and Cyperus rotundus
which are growing in the stress-tolerant saline and alkaline soils. Widespread
geographic distributions of Azospirillum sp. are documented by a number of
researchers, and its abundance was particularly observed in the rhizosphere
region of tropical soils. Climatically, Azospirillum sp. is able to survive
and grow in both cold and temperate climates. In the rhizosphere region,
the occurrence of Azospirillum sp. was varied from 1% to 10% of the total
rhizosphere microbial population. According to DeConinck et al. (1988),
the population of Azospirillum sp. in the rhizosphere soil was comparatively
more than the soil of the non-rhizosphere region.
Michiels et al. (1989) isolated the Azospirillum sp. globally from the
wide variety of plants from tropical region, temperate region, salt-affected
soil region, desert soil region to water flooded conditions. Likewise, Sumner
(1990) also reported the occurrence of Azospirillum sp. in the rhizosphere
region of field crops such as rice, maize, wheat, sorghum, and pearl millet.
The rare air-borne phase dispersal of Azospirillum sp. in air was reported
by Bashan (1990). Under diverse agronomic practices, George (1990)
detected the Azospirillum from the roots of the coconut plant. The presence
of Azospirillum sp. in the roots of sunflower was recorded in the research
of Fages and Lux (1991) and the prevalence of Azospirillum sp. in the phyl­
losphere region of marine mangrove plants was proposed by Chaudhury
and Sengupta (1991).
Roots of non-graminaceous crops also act as a source of Azospirillum
brasilense. In Japan, Gamo and Alm (1991) isolated the Azospirillum sp.
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 57

from the roots of five non-graminaceous crops including Spinacia oleracea,

Brassica chinesis, Brassica rapa, Glycine max and Cucumis sativas. Singh
(1992) isolated the Azospirillum sp. within the stem and root nodules and
stems of Aeschynomene indica and Aeschynomene aspera. Azospirillum
mostly lives in association with the plants, particularly in their rhizosphere
region of the root as Ectosymbiont (on the root surface) and to a lesser extent
as Endosymbiont (inside the root) (Saha et al., 2001).
In the Tundra and Canadian high arctic region, Nosko et al. (1994)
isolated the Azospirillum species from the 10 graminoid root species which
are adjacent to the soil. Bashan and Holguin (1995) reported that the species
of Azospirillum are able to colonize an average of 64 plant species, and
among that, 18 plant species were belonged to weed species. Baldani et
al. (1997) grouped the nitrogen-fixing bacteria into three categories based
on their colonizing ability in graminaceous plants. The three categories are
rhizosphere diazotrophs, facultative endophytic diazotrophs and obligate
endophytic diazotrophs. Nath et al. (1997); Webber et al. (1999); and
Hartman and Bashan (2009) isolated the Azospirillum sp. from the crop plants
including grasses and cereals. Kirchhof et al. (1997) isolated the endophytic
Azospirillum lipoferum from the rhizosphere of Muscanthus sp., Muscanthus
sinensis, Pennisetum purpureum and Spartina pectinata.
Kavitha (2000) isolated the Azospirillum spp. from the wetland rice
field and reported that the 18% of the heterotrophic population of bacteria
are belonged to the genus Azospirillum. Yu and Mohan (2001) isolated the
thermotolerant strains of Azospirillum from an aerated lagoon, where pulp
and paper mill effluent are treated. Ravi Kumar et al. (2002) isolated the
high-density saline tolerant Azospirillum strain from the roots of Avicennia
marina which was more prevalent in the alkaline soils.
Around 300 isolates of Azospirillum sp. was isolated from the root tissues
of cashew and its characteristics were completely studied by Purushothaman
(2002). Azospirillum sp. has a tendency to survive in both saline and non-
saline soils. The work of Saleena et al. (2002) was an evidence for that. They
studied the diversity of Azospirillum in the rhizosphere of paddy plants which
are grown in the soil of coastal agro-ecosystem with saline and non-saline
nature. They also reported the predominance of two different Azospirillum
sp. viz., Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum on the coastal
soil. Rao and Charyulu (2003) stated the rhizosphere region soil of foxtail
millet contains associative symbionts like Azospirillum spp.
Yasmin et al. (2004) isolated and characterized different plant growth-
promoting bacteria (PGPB) Azospirillum sp. in four soils and evaluated their
58 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

potential use as biofertilizers for rice. Azospirillum sp. were isolated from the
rhizosphere and rhizoplane of certain medicinal herbs, viz., Catharanthus
roseus, Ocimum sanctum, Phyllanthus amarus, Coleus forskholii and Aloe
vera and arid mine tailings.
Usha and Kanimozhi (2011) isolated the 10 strains of Azospirillum from
the paddy field soil and characterized based on its morphological characters,
cultural characters, and biochemical characters. Salt tolerance of the identi­
fied isolates was studied and it was observed that out of 10 strains, four
strains were highly tolerant up to 70 mM. They concluded that the coastal
environment frequently using the Azospirillum species for the cultivation of
paddy plants.
Somayeh et al. (2012) tested the effectiveness of Azospirillum strains
which are isolated from the wheat rhizosphere soil of saline stress environ­
ment under greenhouse conditions. In their experiment, they irrigated the
wheat plants with different electrical conductivities of 0.7 dSm–1, 4 dSm–1,
8 dSm–1 and 12 dSm–1. They reported that the plants inoculated with saline
tolerant species of Azospirillum had higher nitrogen concentrations at all
water salinity levels.
Ramyaanandan et al. (2013) selected five regions for paddy field rhizo­
sphere soil collection and isolated 13 Azospirillum species. Among the 13
isolates, five were screened on the basis of sub-surface pellicle formation,
size in micrometry, indole acetic acid production, and exopolysaccharide
production. Out of five isolates, two Azospirillum isolates had shown
more amounts of indole acetic acid and exopolysaccharide production,
so that two isolates were selected for mass cultivation and seed dressing.
With these two Azospirillum biofertilizers, pot culture experiments were
conducted, and the plant growth parameters were evaluated under drought-
prone conditions.

3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF AZOSPIRILLUM

Azospirillum is a curve-shaped vibroid Gram-negative, measuring about

1–1.5 μm in diameter, motile because of possessing peritrichous flagella for
swarming and a polar flagellum for swimming. The reserved cell inclusion
energy is stored in the form of poly β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) granules for
preventing the cell during the lack of energy (Okon et al., 1976). Dobereiner
et al. (1976) reported the Azospirillum sp. as an aerobic microorganism,
but they are able to grow under microaerophilic conditions too that require
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 59

oxygen at a low level. Surprisingly, it was observed that the Azospirillum sp.
was highly effective in fixing atmospheric nitrogen under microaerophilic
conditions.
Carbon source is the major nutrient requirement for the growth of bacteria
and act as a backbone for the bacteria cell. Around 50% of the dry weight
of bacteria is due to the carbon source. The salts present in the organic acids
like acids like malate, succinate, lactate, and butyrate were preferably have
been found to be an efficient and satisfactory carbon and energy sources for
Azospirillum growth (Okon et al., 1976).
Loh (1982) reported that the growth of Azospirillum brasilense was good
and luxuriant in the presence of succinate, but glucose does not showed any
growth. In contrast, Azospirillum lipoferum could able to grow on both succi­
nate and glucose. Both Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum
were differed in another way also. The Azospirillum brasilense could grow
well and luxuriant on fructose, gluconate, galactose, and arabinose. Whereas,
glucose, mannose, sorbose, and α-keto glutaric acid supported the growth of
Azospirillum lipoferum to a greater extent. This shows that the nutritional
requirements of Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum were
completely different (Del Gallo et al., 1984).
Chemotaxis is the process of movement of bacteria towards food (posi­
tive chemotaxis) and away from the toxic substance (negative chemotaxis).
Azospirillum exhibit positive chemotaxis towards root exudates, organic
acids, sugars, amino acids, and aromatic compounds (Zhulin and Armitage,
1993; Lopez de Victoria et al., 1994). Next to carbon source, the most needed
nutrient requirement for microbial growth is nitrogen source. Ammonium
or ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, amino acids, and molecular nitrogen can serve
as nitrogen sources (Hartmann and Zimmer, 1994).
Azospirillum species can form the cyst under unfavorable conditions such
as desiccation (extreme dryness) and nutrient limitation (lack of essential
nutrients) (Sadasivan and Neyra, 1987). Tal et al. (1990) noticed that under
conditions of stress and starvation, the accumulation of abundant poly-ß­
hydroxybutyrate granules during encystations can serve as carbon and
energy source for microorganisms. When compared to the other free living
nitrogen fixing bacteria, Azospirillum is considered to be more efficient
with nitrogenase properties comparatively better than other nitrogen fixing
microorganisms (Okon, 1985). Phytohormone production and nitrogen fixa­
tion processes are the potential attributes for the plant growth-promoting
character of Azospirillum (Steenhoudt and Vanderleyden, 2000).
60 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

3.5 AZOSPIRILLUM-PLANT INTERACTION

Nitrogen fixation is the key function of the Azospirillum sp. (Dobereiner

and Day, 1976). Nitrogen fixation is the key function of the Azospirillum
sp. The process of fixation of atmospheric nitrogen was carried out only
under anaerobic conditions because the major enzyme required for nitrogen
fixation is nitrogenase was sensitive to oxygen, and the process will be
disturbed in the presence of oxygen (Steenhoudt and Vanderleyden, 2000).
Further studies on the Azospirillum bioinoculant pinpointed the various
beneficial effects on morphological and physiological changes in plants in
the inoculated roots that would lead to an improvement in uptake multiple
numbers of minerals and enhancement of water uptake (Okon and Kapulnik,
1986). Other physiological changes like getting resistance against the abiotic
stresses also reported in the Azospirillum inoculated plants. Creus et al.
(2005) inoculated the Azospirillum on the wheat seedlings and observed the
development of osmotic stress. The growth efficiency of wheat with Azospi­
rillum inoculated and non-inoculated seedlings was compared. It was found
that the bioinoculant inoculated seeds has showed more fresh weight and
yield of wheat when compared to non-inoculated seeds.
Plants exposed to salt stress have a possibility of suffering from water
deficient. It was proved that inoculating with 108 cells of Azospirillum
brasilense on root seedlings and thereafter exposed to mild and severe salt
stress significantly reversed part of the negative effects. Casanovas et al.
(2003) carried out the field experiments with the bioinoculant Azospirilla on
Sorghum bicolor and Zea mays. Results have shown a significant increase in
the growth, yield, and biochemical composition of crops along with better
water and mineral uptake. Creus et al. (2004) reported that the Azospirillum­
inoculated with the wheat seedlings were able to survive when exposed to
the excess saline concentration up to 320 mM NaCl (sodium chloride) for an
average of three days. The inoculation technology with Azospirillum sp. was
extended to arid soil regions where the water scarcity was very high in order
to protect the crops against drought conditions. Results of the experiments
showed the significant increase in water content of plant, relative water
content, water uptaking potential, apoplastic water fraction and lower cell
wall modulus of elasticity values in Azospirillum-inoculated plants.
The beneficial effect of Azospirillum sp. in plants relies on the good
colonization of roots and rhizosphere region. Root colonization is consid­
ered an important factor for creating the relationship of microorganisms
with the plant, not only in infection caused by soil-borne phytopathogens
(Negative effect) but also for the beneficial association with the plant growth
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 61

supporting microorganisms (positive effect). During the positive effect, the

first event in the colonization process is the adhesion of the bacteria to the
plant roots. This Azospirillum-root interaction is a two-step process. The first
step is adsorption mediated by the help of bacterial proteins. The second step
is anchoring involved by the bacterial polysaccharides. The root coloniza­
tion of Azospirillum sp. was highly depending on the active motility and
chemotaxis towards the root exudates (Creus et al., 2004).
The distribution of Azospirillum isolates in the plant roots was studied
by using the technique which analyzes the GFP-protein and tag bacteria.
Liu et al. (2003) confirmed the colonizing pattern of Azospirillum sp.
with plant roots. Some nitrogen-fixing strains of Azospirillum lipoferum
and Azospirillum brasilense are established on the plant root surface, but
other strains are not capable of colonizing the root interior surface in the
apoplast and intercellular spaces. This ability means the lower vulnerability
to harsh conditions that are imposed by the soil environment, which in turn
supports the plant growth-promoting activities (Sturz and Nowak, 2000).
The rhizobacteria which are establishing their relationship inside the plant
roots are considered as endophytes. These microorganisms stimulate the
plant growth by producing plant-growth-promoting hormones, enhance
plant disease resistance against plant pathogens or improve the mobilization
of nutrients in soil.

3.6 NITROGEN FIXATION BY AZOSPIRILLUM

Biological nitrogen fixation is a combination of microbiological and

biochemical process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into simple
ammonia that plants can use. Many workers reported the beneficial role of
Azospirillum inoculation in enhancement of total nitrogen content, shoot,
and grain yield of multiple plants (de Freitas, 2000; Saubidet et al., 2002;
Kim et al., 2005; Felici et al., 2008; Bashan and DeBashan, 2010). In the
beginning, the mode of action of Azospirillum sp. has not been well defined
and not agreed up to 20 years of research. Although, Hartmann and Zimmer
(1993) well defined the physiological properties of Azospirillum. Among
them, the important characteristics are phytohormones production and its
activities, nitrogen fixation ability, undefined signal molecules that interfere
with plant metabolism, nitrite production and uptake of minerals.
The free-living Azospirillum bacterial strains are playing a vital role in
the nitrogen cycle by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen efficiently, and they are
associated with the rhizosphere region of the plant roots and participate in
62 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

the nitrogen cycle (Heulin et al., 1987). The nitrogen balances in the plants
are balanced through the nitrogen cycle. Among the various roles, the major
role played by the Azospirillum species for improving the plant growth is
nitrogen fixation through the nitrogen cycle. The acetylene reduction assay
(ARA) is the method which was used to evaluate the incorporation of atmo­
spheric nitrogen into the host plant by Azospirillum sp. (Van Berkum and
Bohlool, 1980).
Tarrand et al. (1978) reported the efficiency of seed inoculation with
Azospirillum in enhancing the seedling growth and vigor index in maize,
sorghum, sunflower, bhendi, cotton, and rice. Kapulnik et al. (1985) reported
an increase in the total nitrogen content in the shoots and grains of the plants
inoculated with Azospirillum sp. According to Lima et al. (1987), 50% of
the nitrogen content was supplied to the agricultural crops like Sugarcane,
Panicum maximum and Paspalum notatum through Azospirillum sp. Mallik
et al. (1987) showed that the grass derived its 30% to 60% of atmospheric
nitrogen from Azospirillum brasilense. Kucey (1988) indicated that the
inoculation of Azospirillum sp. in wheat and maize maximize the efficiency
of nitrogen fixation in plants up to 18%.
Inoculation of Azospirillum increased the dry weight of root, shoot, and
grain yield in finger millet (Rai, 1991), growth of jute (Bali and Mukerji,
1991), fruit production in pepper (Bumgardner and Mardon, 1992), increased
germination in giant cactus (Puente and Bashan, 1993), increased number
of seed per cob in maize (Fulchieri and Frioni, 1994) and increased seed
germination and vigor index of chilies (Devi et al., 1995). Ignatov et al.
(1995) proposed that the efficiency of nitrogen fixation was enhanced by
Azospirillum brasilense in addition with wheat germ agglutinin. Bashan and
Dubrovsky (1996) reported the nitrogen-fixing efficiency of Azospirillum
isolates as 4.0 g N ha–1 day–1 in sorghum and 15 to 25 g N ha–1 day–1 in Corn.
Nitrogenase enzyme is an enzyme that plays a major role in the fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation by an aerobic bacterium is a highly
energy-requiring process that requires an efficient oxidative phosphoryla­
tion process for the generation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), while the
oxygen is toxic for the nitrogenase complex. The nitrogenase activity of
single Azospirillum inoculum is comparatively less when compared to the
dual Azospirillum inoculum and in other bacterial mixed cultures even if they
originate from the entirely different ecosystem (Holguin and Bashan, 1996).
Ghosh and Puste (1997) concluded that the Azospirillum lipoferum
inoculation in rice-wheat cropping sequence have the ability to increase the
nitrogen content in soil between 35% and 36% and 7% to 9%. Christiansen-
Weniger (1997) found that the nitrogenase activity induced by Azospirillum
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 63

sp. significantly increased the tumor structure inhibiting efficiency in plants

when compared to the untreated control plants. Unexpectedly, Yoneyama
et al. (1997) reported that the contribution of Azospirillum sp. in biological
nitrogen fixation and nitrogen uptake in different varieties of sugarcane.
Marchal and Vanderleyden (2000) suggested that the inoculation of Azospi­
rillum species might improve the nitrogen fixation efficiency and popula­
tion of beneficial bacteria on roots of agricultural crops and consequently
increased the production of plant growth-promoting substances.
In numerous greenhouse experiments and field experiments, inoculation
of Azospirillum significantly reduces the required dose of nitrogen fertilizers
in agricultural crops due to its replacement (Raja et al., 2006; Cassan et al.,
2009). Oedjijono et al. (2014) observed the occurrence of Azospirillum spp.
in iron-rich sands and rhizosphere soils. It was reported that the Azospirillum
isolates are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, producing indole acetic
acid, and solubilizing inorganic phosphates under laboratory conditions.
Most of Azospirillum isolates were capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen
ranging from 5.73–99.539 ppm of iron. Bassam et al. (2014) evaluated the
efficiency of Azospirillum bioinoculant for its biological nitrogen fixation
capability in the presence of molybdenum and found that the pre-inoculation
with Azospirillum increases the yield and biochemical characters of soybean.
Siddhartha et al. (2014) evaluated the association of Cymbopogon winte­
rianus with the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Azospirillum.

3.7 GROWTH HORMONE PRODUCTION BY AZOSPIRILLUM

Apart from nitrogen fixation, many Azospirillum isolates were proved to

secrete other biologically significant growth hormones include indole acetic
acid (IAA), indole lactic acid, indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), indole-3-ethanol,
indole-3-methanol, unidentified indole compounds, gibberellins, abscisic
acid (ABA) and cytokinins in lower quantities and auxin like phenylacetic
acid (Bottini et al., 2004). Azospirillum uses the amino acid tryptophan as a
precursor for IAA production. Since root exudates contain tryptophan, IAA
production by Azospirillum will be of significant importance in the plant
rhizosphere regions (Thuler et al., 2003).
Horemans et al. (1986) compared the efficiency of IAA production by
Azospirillum sp. Comparatively, Azospirillum brasilense produce extremely
high amount of IAA than Azospirillum lipoferum. Zakharova et al. (2000)
performed the biochemical studies and high-pressure liquid chromatography
(HPLC) analysis of Azospirillum brasilense and revealed high motive force
64 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

towards tryptophan for IAA synthesis and this shows that indole act as the
precursors for IAA in a tryptophan-independent pathway. The concentration
of IAA was varying during different growth phases of the bacteria. The IAA
concentration was low during the logarithmic or exponential growth phase
and rapidly increased in the beginning of stationary phase. The significant
increase of IAA was due to the presence of tryptophan in the culture medium
(Ona et al., 2003; Tank and Saraf, 2003; Malhotra and Srivastava, 2009).
Phytohormones synthesized by Azospirillum indirectly influenced the
uptake of minerals in the inoculated plants through (a) development of
root hairs, (b) rate of respiration, (c) metabolism proliferation and (d) root
proliferation (Molla et al., 2001; Radwan et al., 2002; Thuler et al., 2003).
Naiman et al. (2009) inoculated the wheat with dual inoculants Azospirillum
brasilense and Pseudomonas fluorescens strains and demonstrated that the
development of roots and nitrogen-fixing efficiency was supported by the
production of plant growth-promoting substances. The beneficial effect of
Azospirillum sp. on plants has been initiated due to the production of gibber­
ellins. The production of gibberellins has the ability to increase the root hair
density in plants.

3.7.1 INDOLE ACETIC ACID (IAA)

In the culture medium supplemented with tryptophan, the Azospirillum

sp. produced high quantities of indole acetic acid (IAA). El-Khawas and
Adachi (1999) found that the addition of supernatants of filter-sterilized
Azospirillum culture have the tendency to increase the root elongation, root
surface area, root dry matter, and development of lateral roots and root
hairs. The concentration of the supernatant should be optimum. In case,
the concentration of the supernatant is high means it strongly inhibited the
root elongation, lateral root development and caused nodule-like tumors on
the roots. According to Dobbelaere et al. (1999), the addition of tryptophan
enhanced the root morphology of plants by replacing Azospirillum cells
with indole acetic acid.
Endophytic colonization of Azospirillum induces the formation of para-
nodules in the roots of rice through the Auxins, 2,4-D, naphthalene acetic acid
(NAA), and IAA enhanced polygalacturonase activity (Sekar et al., 1999).
Combination of plant growth-promoting substances and auxin produced as
a result of Azospirillum inoculation leads to morphological changes in the
plant roots (Bashan and Holguin, 1997). Further evaluation by Dobbelaere et
al. (1999) showed that the biosynthesis of auxin by Azospirillum brasilense
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 65

showed an alteration in morphology of roots in wheat. It shows that the indole

acetic acid synthesized by Azospirillum brasilense helps in the proliferation
of wheat roots.
Zakharova et al. (2000) assessed the efficiency of Azospirillum brasi­
lense for the production of indole acetic acid by using chemical methods
and with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) of possible
precursors like indole, anthranilic acid and tryptophan. It was revealed that
the high motive force was must needed for the synthesis of tryptophan from
chorismic acid and synthesis of indole acetic acid from tryptophan and
unlikely this makes it anthranilic acid and indole that can act as a precursor
for indole acetic acid through tryptophan-independent pathway. The regu­
lation of indole acetic acid synthesis by Azospirillum brasilense was also
supported by vitamins. Trace amount of vitamin B, especially the pyridoxine
and nicotinic acid supported the Azospirillum brasilense for the indole acetic
acid production.
Molla et al. (2001) reported that the cell-free supernatant of Azospirillum
brasilense induced the highest number of roots and increased root length
in soybean. Ona et al. (2003) conducted the research on indole acetic acid
production by several strains of Azospirillum and confirmatory that the
production of indole acetic acid was highly dependent on the culture media
used and the availability of an amino acid tryptophan as a precursor. Among
the multiple strains tested, Azospirillum brasilense produced the highest
concentration of indole acetic acid among the strains tested. It was also
observed that the pH of the culture medium has a significant effect on the
level of indole acetic acid produced.

3.7.2 GIBBERELLINS

Next to indole acetic acid production, the beneficial effect of Azospirillum

on plant was the production of gibberellins. The plant growth-promoting
hormone gibberellins are responsible for increasing the root hair density.
The gibberellin-producing strains Azospirillum lipoferum and Azospirillum
brasilense produce gibberellin when cultured in the presence of glucosyl
ester or glucoside of gibberellin A20 in the culture medium and hydrolyze
the both conjugates. The findings of Piccoli et al. (1997) in vitro study
supported the hypothesis that plant growth promotion was induced as a result
of a combination of both gibberellin production and gibberellin-glucoside or
glucosyl ester deconjugation by the Azospirillum species.
66 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Lucangeli and Bottini (1997) explained the involvement of Azospirillum

produced gibberellin in promoting the growth and yield of maize. Piccoli et
al. (1999) showed the effect of oxygen concentration and water potential on
growth of Azospirillum lipoferum and its ability of gibberellin A3 produc­
tion. It was observed that the increase in oxygen concentration and water
potential was directly proportional to the production of gibberellin. Cassan et
al. (2001) found that the bacterial enzyme 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxy­
genase produced by Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum are
responsible for the biosynthesis of plant growth-promoting gibberellin.

3.8 SIDEROPHORE PRODUCTION BY AZOSPIRILLUM

Siderophores (a Greek word which means “iron carrier”) is defined as an

iron-chelating, low molecular weight substance (500–1000 Daltons) with
virtual specific ligand and the term Siderophore was first coined by Lank-
ford (1973). Iron is the major component which supports the biosynthesis of
siderophores, and they support the iron to the microbial cells. Siderophores
play a major role in the uptake of iron by microbial cells. The PGPR secretes
the iron-chelating compounds which are involved in sequestering of iron
molecules in the root zone, making it unavailable to some rhizosphere
microorganisms. Siderophores also bind to other metals such as Manganese,
Chromium, Cadmium, and Lead (Birch and Bachofen, 1990) and act as a
growth factor for enhancing plant growth and phytopathogenic suppressive
agents for controlling plant diseases (Calvente et al., 2001).
Siderophores produced by root colonizing microbes may provide Fe to plant
that can use the predominant siderophores types (Crowley and Wang, 2004;
Lenin and Jayanthi, 2012). Many microorganisms have the ability to produce
siderophores. Iron act as a co-factor for various enzymes such as peroxidase,
aconitase, catalase, nitrogenase complex and ribonucleotide diphosphate
reductase (Byers and Arceneaux, 1977). Suslow and Sehroth (1982) concluded
that many microorganisms are able to produce the siderophore produced by the
Azospirillum species helps in improving the iron nutrition and offers protection
and resistance against the phytopathogens in plants.

3.9 ENHANCED MINERAL UPTAKE

Inoculation of Azospirillum biofertilizer enhanced the uptake of minerals

like NO3–, NH4+, PO42–, K+, Rb+ and Fe2+ (Sarig et al., 1988) and this kind of
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 67

minerals uptake results in an increase in dry matter production and minerals

accumulation in stem and leaves of plants. At the time of the plant reproduc­
tive period, these uptake minerals are transferred to the particles and spikes
of plants and gives higher yield (Malhotra and Srivastava, 2009).
An increase in the efficiency of mineral uptake by plants inoculated with
Azospirillum sp. has been observed as an important factor for the significant
increase in the volume of root and not as a specific enhancement because
of the normal iron uptake mechanism (Murthy and Ladha, 1988). Increased
mineral uptake was observed in the inoculated roots, provided by enhance­
ment in proton efflux activity of plant root particularly wheat inoculated
with Azospirillum bioinoculant (Bashan et al., 1989; Bashan, 1995). This
proton efflux activity is directly related to the balance of ions in plant roots.
Conformity studies on the proton efflux phenomenon in wheat showed that
Azospirillum inoculation enhanced the proton efflux and root elongation in
wheat (Carillo et al., 2002; Creus et al., 2004).

3.10 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In the present-day situation, intensive agriculture needs the use of integrated

nutrient management systems involving organic and inorganic sources
of plant nutrients to sustain the yield of crop plants. Biofertilizers form an
integral part of IPNS (integrated plant nutrition system) and organic farming,
which constitutes the present as well as the future mandate of agriculture.
Azospirillum spp. is of ubiquitous distribution globally in tropical, subtropical,
and temperate climatic conditions and with a widespread of agricultural crops
grown in different spectrum of soil types. Azospirillum spp. fixes atmospheric
nitrogen and has been isolated from the rhizosphere of a variety of tropical
and sub-tropical non-leguminous plants.
The occurrence of nitrogen-fixing Azospirillum species was observed in
the roots of rice, sorghum, and maize. Various cereals have responded differ­
ently to field inoculation with this organism. Worldwide data accumulated
over the past 20 years on field inoculation with Azospirillum has concluded
that these bacteria are capable of increasing the yield of various agricultural
crops in different soil and climatic regions.
Some of the most promising organisms, capable of colonizing roots in
large numbers and exerting beneficial effects on plants belong to the genus
Azospirillum. Azospirillum enhances the proper usage of fertilizers applied
and enriching the soil with nitrogen that is fixed in association with the
roots. The Azospirillum inoculant is efficiently used so far as carrier-based
68 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

inoculant, and this is high adsorptive, easy to process, and non-toxic to

Azospirillum. The use of a microbial inoculant is primarily concerned
with crop productivity, not bacterial physiology nor ecology. Inoculant
manufacturers must accept this reality and ensure that the probability of
successful inoculation is maximized. Since crop response to inoculation,
in most instances, is the result of appropriate strain selection and target
organism population.
Azospirillum is considered a commercial inoculant for improving crop
yields. The development of an effective seed or soil applied legume inocu­
lant requires the integration of physical, chemical, and biological processes
was stated by various researchers. Much research in this universe is done on
Azospirillum strain selection and inoculation response. However, research
conducted on inoculant production and formulation technologies is limited.
A breakthrough is needed in inoculant technology to improve the shelf life
and field efficacy of biofertilizers in India to make them commercially viable
and acceptable to farmers.

KEYWORDS

• acetylene reduction assay

• agricultural crops
• Azospirillum species
• enhanced mineral uptake
• gibberellins
• indole acetic acid
• induced systemic resistance
• nitrogen fixation
• nitrogenase enzyme
• phytohormones
• plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
• plant rhizosphere
• poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate granules
• rhizosphere soil
• siderophores
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 69

REFERENCES

Amer, H. A., Eid, M., Hegazi, N. A., & Monib, M., (1977). A survey on the occurrence of N2
fixing Spirillum in Egypt. Non-symbiotic N2 Fixation Letters, 5(7), 101, 102.
Baldani, J. I., Caruso, L., Baldani, V. L. D., Goi, S. R., & Dobereiner, J., (1997). Recent
advances in BNF with non-legume plants. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 29(9), 911–922.
Bali, M., & Mukerji, K. G., (1991). Interaction between VA mycorrhizal fungi and root
microflora of jute. Agricultural Management and Ecology, 24(1), 396–401.
Bashan, Y., & de-Bashan, L. E., (2010). How the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum
Promotes plant Growth-A critical Assessment. Advances in Agronomy, 108(5), 78–122.
Bashan, Y., & Holguin, G., (1995). Azospirillum-plant relationships: Environmental and
physiological advances (1990–1996). Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 43(1), 103–121.
Bashan, Y., & Holguin, G., (1997). Nitrogen fixation and phytohormones production by
Azospirillum. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 54(7), 560–568.
Bashan, Y., & Levanony, H., (1989). Factors affecting adsorption of Azospirillum brasilense Cd
to root hairs as compared with root surface of wheat. Canadian Journal of Microbiology,
35(2), 936–944.
Bashan, Y., & Levanony, H., (1990). Current status of Azospirillum inoculation technology-
Azospirillum as a challenge for agriculture. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 36(4),
591–608.
Bashan, Y., (1995). Short exposure to Azospirillum brasilense cd. inoculation enhanced
proton efflux of intact wheat roots. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 36(9), 419–425.
Bashan, Y., Holguin, G., & De Bashan, L. E., (2004). Azospirillum-plant relationships:
Physiological, molecular and environmental advances (1997–2003). Canadian Journal
of Microbiology, 50(3), 521–577.
Bassam, K. A. J., Halimi, M. S., Radziah, O., Sheikh, H. H., Hossain, K., & Saikat, H. B.,
(2014). Effect of Azospirillum in association with molybdenum on enhanced biological
nitrogen fixation, growth, yield and yield contributing characters of soybean. Journal of
Food, Agriculture and Environment, 12(2), 302–306.
Becking, J. H., (1963). Fixation of molecular nitrogen by an aerobic Vibrio or Spirillum.
Antonie von leeweenhook. Journal of Microbiology, 29(3), 326–328.
Beijerinck, M. W., (1925). Zentrabl. bakteriol. parasitenkol, infekionskr. Journal of Agricultural
Advances, 263(2), 353–359.
Bhattacharya, P., & Kumar, R., (2000). Liquid biofertilizer-Current knowledge and future
prospect. Paper Presented in National Seminar on Development and Use of Biofertilizers
(pp. 45–53). Biopesticides and organic manures, Kalyani, West Bengal, India.
Bilal, G., Rasul, J. A., Quershi, K. A., & Malik, A., (2014). Characterization of Azospirillum
and related diazotrophs associated with roots of plant growing in saline soils. World
Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 6(4), 46–52.
Birch, L., & Bachofen, R., (1990). Complexing agents from microorganisms. Experimental
Biology, 46(1), 827–834.
Bottini, R., Cassan, F., & Piccoli, P., (2004). Gibberellin production by bacteria and its
involvement in plant growth promotion and yield increase. Applied Microbiology and
Biotechnology, 65(2), 497–503.
Breed, R. S., Murray, E. G. D., & Smith, N. R., (1957). Bergey’s Manual of Determinative
Bacteriology (pp. 254–257). Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland.
70 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Bumgardner, C. J., & Mardon, D., (1992). Effects of Azospirillum lipoferum on dry matter
accumulation and fruit production in greenhouse-grown bell pepper (Capsicum annuum)
plants. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science (USA), 53(9),101–108.
Byers, B. R., & Arceneaux, J. E. L., (1977). Microbial transport and utilization of iron. In:
Weintberg, E.D., & Marceli, D., (eds.), Microorganisms and Minerals. New York.
Calvente, V., De Orellano, M. E., Sansone, G., Benuzzi, D., & Sanz De, T. M. I., (2001).
Effect of nitrogen sources and pH on siderophore production by Rhodotorula strains
and their application to biocontrol of phytopathogenic moulds. Journal of Industrial
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 26(7), 226–229.
Carillo, G. A., Li, C. Y., & Baston, T., (2002). Increased acidification in the rhizosphere of cactus
seedlings induced by Azospirillum brasilense. Naturwissenschaften, 89(2), 428–432.
Casanovas, E. M., Barassi, C. A., Andrade, F. H., & Sueldo, R. J., (2003). Azospirillum
inoculated maize plant responses to irrigation restraints imposed during flowering.
Cereal Research Communications, 31(3), 395–402.
Cassan, F., Bottini, R., Schneider, R., & Piccoli, P., (2001). Azospirillum brasilense and
Azospirillum lipoferum hydrolyze conjugates of GA20 and metabolize the resultant
aglycones to GA1 in seedlings of rice dwarf mutants. Plant Physiology, 125(5),
2053–2058.
Cassan, F., Maiale, S. O., Masciarelli, A., Vidal, V., Luna, V., & Ruiz, O., (2009). Cadaverine
production by Azospirillum brasilense and its possible role in plant growth promotion
and osmotic stress mitigation. European Journal of Soil Biology, 45(5), 12–19.
Chaudhury, S., & Sengupta, A., (1991). Association of nitrogen-fixing bacteria with leaves
of Avicennia officinalis L. a tidal mangrove tree of Sundarban. Indian Journal of
Microbiology, 31(7), 321–322.
Creus, C. M., Sueldo, R. J., & Barassi, C. A., (2004). Water relations and yield in Azospirillum­
inoculated wheat exposed to drought in the field. Canadian Journal of Botany, 82(4),
273–281.
Creus, C., Graziano, M., Casanovas, E., Pereyra, M., Simontacchi, M., Puntarulo, S., Barassi,
C., & Lamattina, L., (2005). Nitric oxide is involved in the Azospirillum brasilense­
induced lateral root formation in tomato. Planta, 221(2), 297–303.
Crowley, D. E., & Wang, D., (2004). Utilization of microbial siderophores in iron acquisition
by oat. Plant Physiology, 87(8), 680–685.
Day, J. M., & Dobereiner, J., (1976). Physiological aspects of nitrogen fixation by a Spirillum
from Digitaria roots. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 8(6), 45–50.
De Freitas, J. R., (2000). Yield and N assimilation of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L., var
Norstar) inoculated with rhizobacteria. Pedobiologia, 44(3), 97–104.
DeConinck, K., Horemans, S., Randombage, S., & Vlassak, K. (1988). Occurrence and
survival of Azospirillum spp. in temperate regions. Plant Soil, 110(1988), 213–218.
Del, G. M., Martinez, D. G., Goebel, E. M., Burris, R. H., & Krieg, N. R., (1984). Carbohydrate
metabolism in Azospirillum spp. In: Veeger, C., & Newton, W. B., (eds.), Advances
in Nitrogen Fixation Research (p. 220). Martin Nijhoff. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The
Hague.
Devi, S. N., Vahab, M. A., & Mathew, S. K., (1995). Seedling vigor of chili as influenced by
seed treatment with Azospirillum. South Indian Horticulture, 43(9), 54–56.
Dobbelaere, S., Croonenborghs, A., Thys, A., Van De, B. A., & Van, D. L. J., (1999).
Phytostimulatory effect of Azospirillum brasilense wild type and mutant strains altered
in IAA production on wheat. Plant and Soil, 212(7), 155–164.
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 71

Dobereiner, J., & Day, J. M., (1976). First international on nitrogen fixation, In: Newton, W.
E., & Nyman, C. J., (eds.), Proceedings of International Symposium on Nitrogen Fixation
(pp. 518–538). Washington, State University Press, Pullman, W.A.
Dubrovsky, J. G., Puente, M. E., & Bashan, Y., (1994). Arabidopsis thaliana as a model
system for the study of the effect of inoculation by Azospirillum brasilense Sp 243 on
root heir growth. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 26(4), 1657–1664.
El-Khawas, H., & Adachi, K., (1999). Identification and quantification of auxins in culture
media of Azospirillum and Klebsiella and their effect on rice roots. Biology and Fertility
of Soils, 28 (1), 377–381.
Fages, J., & Lux, J., (1991). Azospirillum and its effect on paddy cultivation. Bioresource
Technology, 13(5), 1156–1162.
Felici, C., Vettori, L., Giraldi, E., Forino, L. M. C., Toffanin, A., Tagliasacchi, A. M., & Nuti,
M., (2008). Single and co-inoculation of Bacillus subtilis and Azospirillum brasilense on
Lycopersicon esculentum: Effects on plant growth and rhizosphere microbial community.
Applied Soil Ecology, 40(2), 260–270.
Fulchieri, M., & Frioni, L., (1994). Azospirillum inoculation on maize (Zea mays): Effect of
yield in a field experiment in Central Argentina. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 26(4),
921–924.
Gamo, T., & Ahn, S. B., (1991). Growth promoting Azospirillum spp. isolated from the
roots of several non-gramineous crops in Japan. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 37(7),
455–461.
George, M., (1990). Azospirillum for nitrogen fixation in coconut (a research note). Philippines
Journal of Coconut Studies, 15(10), 1–3.
Ghosh, A., & Puste, A. M., (1997). Effect of irrigation and seed inoculation with Azospirillum
lipoferum on growth and yield of wheat and residual total soil Nitrogen in rice-wheat
cropping sequence. Oryza, 34(12), 77–79.
Hartmann, A., & Bashan, Y., (2009). Ecology and application of Azospirillum and other plant
growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). European Journal of Soil Biology, 45(9), 1–2.
Hartmann, A., & Zimmer, W., (1994). Physiology of Azospirillum. In: Okon, Y., (ed.),
Azospirillum-Plant Associations. CRC Press, Florida, USA.
Heulin, T., Guckert, A., & Balandreau, J., (1987). Stimulation of root exudation of rice seedlings
by Azospirillum strains: Carbon budget under gnotobiotic conditions. Biological Fertilizers
and Soils, 4(1), 9–14.
Holguin, G., & Bashan, Y., (1996). Nitrogen-fixation by Azospirillum brasilense Cdis
promoted when co-cultured with a mangrove rhizosphere bacterium (Staphylococcus sp).
Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 28(4), 1651–1660.
Horeman, S., De coninck, K., Neuray, J., Hermans, R., & Vlassak, K., (1986). Production of
plant growth substances by Azospirillum sp. and other rhizosphere bacteria. Symbiosis,
5(11), 341–346.
Idris, M., Memon, G., & Vinther, F. P., (1981). Occurrence of Azospirillum and Azotobacter
and potential nitrogenase activity in Danish agriculture soils under continuous barley
cultivation. Acta Agricultural Science, 31(2), 433–437.
Ignatov, V., Stadnik, G., Iosipenko, O., Selivanov, N., Iosipento, A., & Sergeeva, E., (1995).
Interaction between partners in the association. Wheat Azospirillum brasilense sp. 245.
NATO Series, 37(6), 271–278.
Kapulnik, Y., Okon, Y., & Henis, Y., (1985). Changes in root morphology of wheat caused by
Azospirillum inoculation. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 31(8), 881–887.
72 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Kavitha, K., (2000). Studies on Azospirillum Associated with Rice (Oryza sativa L.) (p. 139).
MSc (Ag.) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore.
Kim, C., Kecskes, M. L., Decker, R. J., Gilchrist, K., Newpeter, B., Kennedy, I. R., Kim, S.,
& Tongmin, R., (2005). Wheat root colonization and nitrogenase activity by Azospirillum
isolates from crop plants in Korea. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 51(11), 948–956.
Kirchhof, G., Schloter, M., Assmuss, B., & Hartmann, A., (1997). Molecular microbial
ecology approaches applied to diazotrophs associated with non-legumes. Soil Biology
and Biochemistry, 29(7), 853–862.
Krieg, N. R., (1976). Taxonomic studies of Spirillum lipoferum. In: Hollander, A., (ed.),
Genetic Engineering for Nitrogen Fixation (pp. 462–472). Plenum Press, New York.
Kucey, R. M. N., (1988). Alternation of size of wheat root systems and nitrogen fixation by
associative nitrogen-fixing bacteria measured under field conditions. Canadian Journal
of Microbiology, 34(3), 735–739.
Lankford, C., (1973). Bacterial assimilation of iron. CRC Critical Reviews of Microbiology,
2(5), 273–331.
Lenin, G., & Jayanthi, M., (2012). Indole acetic acid, gibberellic acid and siderophore production
by PGPR isolates from rhizospheric soils of Catharanthus roseus. International Journal of
Pharmaceutical and Biological Archives, 3(4), 933–938.
Lima, E., Boddey, R. M., & Doberenier, J., (1987). Quantification of biological nitrogen
fixation associated with sugarcane using a 15N aided nitrogen balance. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry, 19(7), 165–170.
Liu, Y., Chen, S. F., & Li, J., (2003). Colonization pattern of Azospirillum brasilense yu62 on
maize roots. Acta Botany, 45 (2), 748–752.
Loh, W. H., (1982). Carbon Metabolism of Azospirillum and Associative Nitrogen Fixing
Microorganism (p. 147). Ph.D. Thesis, Ohio State University, Ohio.
Lopez De, V. G., Fielder, D. R., Zimmer, R. K., & Lovell, C. R., (1994). Motility behavior
of Azospirillum species in response to aromatic compounds. Canadian Journal of
Microbiology, 41(9), 705–711.
Lucangeli, C., & Bottini, R., (1997). Effects of Azospirillum spp. on endogenous gibberellin
content and growth of maize (Zea mays L.) treated with uniconazole. Symbiosis, 23(3),
63–72.
Malhotra, M., & Srivastava, S., (2009). Stress-responsive indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis by
Azospirillum brasilense SM and its ability to modulate plant growth. European Journal
of Soil Biology, 45(9), 73–80.
Mallik, K. A., Zafar, Y., Bilal, R., & Azam, F., (1987). Use of 15N isotope dilution for
quantification of N2 fixation associated with roots of Kallar grass (Leptochloa fusca).
Biological Fertilizers and Soils, 4(3), 103–108.
Marchal, K., & Vanderleyden, J., (2000). The oxygen paradox of dinitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Biological Fertilizers and Soils, 30(1), 363–373.
Michiels, K., Vanderleyden, J., & Van, G. A., (1989). Azospirillum plant root associations.
Biological Fertilizers and Soils, 8(2), 356–368.
Molla, A. H., Shamsuddin, Z. H., Halimi, M. S., Morziah, M., & Puteh, A. B., (2001).
Potential for enhancement of root growth and nodulation of soybean co-inoculated with
Azospirillum and Bradyrhizobium in laboratory systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry,
33(5), 457–463.
Murthy, M. G., & Ladha, J. K., (1988). Influence of Azospirillum inoculation on the mineral
uptake and growth of rice under hydroponic conditions. Plant Soil, 108(8), 281–285.
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 73

Naiman, A., Latronico, A., & Salamone, G., (2009). Inoculation of wheat with Azospirillum
brasilense and Pseudomonas fluorescens impact on the production and culturable
rhizosphere microflora. European Journal of Soil Biology, 45(2), 44–51.
Nath, D. J., Bhattacharjee, R. N., Devi, M. R., & Patgori, S. R., (1997). Widespread occurrence
of Azospirillum in North Eastern Region of India. Advances in Plant Science, 10(5),
189–194.
Nayak, D. N., (1981). Studies on Factors Influencing Nitrogen Fixation in Rice Soils (p. 171).
Ph.D., Thesis, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.
Neyra, C. A., & Dobereiner, J., (1977). Nitrate reduction and nitrogenase activity in Spirillum
lipoferum. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 23(5), 306–310.
Nosko, P., Bliss, L. C., & Cook, F. D., (1994). The association of free-living nitrogen-fixing
bacteria with the roots of High Arctic graminoids. American Journal of Applied Research,
26(4), 180–186.
Oedjijono, N., Endang, S. S., Sukarti, M., & Heru, A. D., (2014). Promising plant growth-
promoting rhizobacteria of Azospirillum spp. isolated from iron sand soils, Purworejo
coast, Central Java, Indonesia. Advances in Applied Science Research, 5(3), 302–308.
Okon, Y., & Kapulnik, Y., (1986). Development and function of Azospirillum-inoculated
roots. Plant and Soil, 90(10), 3–16.
Okon, Y., (1985). Azospirillum is a potential inoculant for agriculture. Trends in Biotechnology,
3(5), 223–228.
Okon, Y., Albrecht, S. L., & Burris, R. H., (1976). Carbon and ammonia metabolism of
Spirillum lipoferum. Journal of Bacteriology, 128(7), 592–597.
Ona, O., Smets, I., Gysegom, P., Bernaerts, K., Impe, J. V., Prinsen, E., & Vanderleyden,
J., (2003). The effect of pH on indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) biosynthesis of Azospirillum
brasilense sp7. Symbiosis, 35(5), 199–208.
Pereyra, M. A., Gonzalez, R. L., Creus, C. M., & Barassi, C. A., (2007). Root colonization
vs. seedling growth, in two Azospirillum-inoculated wheat species. Cereal Research
Communications, 35(7), 1621–1629.
Piccoli, P., Lucangeli, C. D., Schneider, G., & Bottini, R., (1997). Hydrolysis of (17,17­
2H2) gibberellin A20-glucoside and (17,17-2H2) gibberellin A20-glucosyl ester by
Azospirillum lipoferum cultured in a nitrogen-free biotin-based chemically-defined
medium. Plant Growth Regulation, 23(7), 179–182.
Piccoli, P., Masciarelli, O., & Bottini, R., (1999) Gibberellin production by Azospirillum
lipoferum cultured in chemically defined medium as affected by oxygen availability and
water status. Symbiosis, 27(12), 135–145.
Pindi, G., (2012). Gibberellin production by bacteria and its involvement in plant growth
promotion. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 65(10), 497–503.
Puente, M. E., & Bashan, Y., (1993). Effect of inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense
strains on the germination and seedling growth of the giant columnar card on cactus
(Pachycereus pringlei). Symbiosis, 15(6), 49–60.
Purushothaman, D., (2002). Biology of Azospirillum associated with cashew (Anacardium
occidentale). In: National Symposium and XII Southern Regional Conference on
Microbial Inoculants. Annamalai University, India.
Purusothaman, D., & Oblisami, G., (1985). Occurrence of Azospirillum in certain problem
soils of Tamilnadu. Symposium on Soil Biology. HAU, Hissar.
Radwan, F. I., Innes, R. W., Kuempel, P. L., & Rolfe, B. C., (2002). Production of vitamins by
Azospirillum brasilense in chemically-defined media. Plant Soil, 153(2), 97–101.
74 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Rai, R., (1991). Studies on nitrogen fixation by antibiotic-resistant mutants by Azospirillum

brasilense and their interaction with Cheena (Panicummili aceum L.) in calcareous soils.
Journal of Agricultural Science, 105(4), 57–58.
Raja, P., Uma, S., Gopal, H., & Govindarajan, K., (2006). Impact of bio inoculants consortium
on rice root exudates, biological nitrogen fixation and plant growth. Journal of Biological
Science, 6(6), 815–823.
Ramyaanandan, A., Lakshmipriya, D., & Rajendran, P., (2013). Screening of Azospirillum
for enhanced indole acetic acid production and exopolysaccharide for maximizing its
survival rates in drought-prone paddy fields. International Journal of Biology, Pharmacy
and Allied Sciences, 2(12), 2300–2311.
Rao, K. V. B., & Charyulu, P. B., (2003). Population dynamics and nitrogen fixation by
diazotrophic bacteria in the rhizosphere of foxtail millet. Indian Journal of Microbiology,
43(9), 233–236.
Ravi, K. S., Ramanthan, G., Subha, N., Jeyaseeli, L., & Sukumaran, M., (2002). Qualification
of halophilic Azospirillum from mangroves. Indian Journal of Modern Science, 31(7),
157–160.
Reinhold, B., Hurek, T., & Fendrik, I., (1987). Strain specific chemotaxis of Azospirillum sp.
Journal of Bacteriology, 162(8), 190–195.
Sadasivan, L., & Neyra, C. A., (1987). Cyst production and brown pigment formation in
aging cultures of Azospirillum brasilense ATCC 29145. Journal of Bacteriology, 169(3),
1670–1677.
Saha, A. K., Deshpande, M. V., & Kapadnis, B. P., (2001). Studies on survival of Rhizobium
in the carriers at different temperatures using green fluorescent protein marker. Current
Science, 80(5), 669–671.
Saleena, L. M., Rangarajan, S., & Nair, S., (2002). Diversity of Azospirillum strains isolated
from rice plants grown in saline and non saline sites of coastal agricultural ecosystem.
Microbial Ecology, 44(7), 271–277.
Sarig, S., Blum, A., & Okon, Y., (1988). Improvement of the water status and yield of field-
grown grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) by inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense.
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 110(10), 271–277.
Saubidet, M. I., Fatta, N., & Barne, A. J., (2002). The effect of inoculation with Azospirillum
brasilense on growth and nitrogen utilization by wheat plants. Plant Soil, 245(10), 215–222.
Sekar, C., Prasad, N. N., & Sundaram, M. D., (1999). Enhancement of polygalacturonase activity
during auxin induced paranodulation and endorhizosphere colonization of Azospirillum in
rice roots. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 38(11), 80–83.
Shanon, M. C., (2013). Effect of salinity on growth and accumulation of organic and inorganic
ions in cultivated and wild tomato species. Journal of American Society and Horticulture
Science, 112(20), 446–449.
Siddhartha, P. S., Adrita, G., Kalpataru, D. M., Animesh, G., Rumi, K., Himangshu, L., &
Nabanita, H., (2014). Effect of 2,4-D treatment and Azospirillum inoculation on growth
of Cymbopogon winterianus. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 8(9), 955–960.
Singh, K. P., (1992). Influence of stimulated water stress on free proline accumulation in
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 29(3), 319–321.
Somayeh, H. N., Mohammad, J., Farhad, R., & Verma, A., (2012). Yield and yield components
of wheat as affected by salinity and inoculation with Azospirillum strains from saline or
non-saline soil. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 11(12), 113–121.
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology 75

Steenhoudt, O., & Van, D. L. J., (2000). Azospirillum a free-living nitrogen-fixing bacterium
closely associated with grasses: genetic, biochemical and ecological aspects. FEMS
Microbiology Reviews, 24(10), 487–506.
Sturz, A. V., & Nowak, J., (2000). Endophytic communities of rhizobacteria and the strategies
required to create yield enhancing associations with crops. Applied Soil Ecology, 15(2),
183–190.
Sumner, M. E., (1990). Crop responses to Azospirillum inoculation. Advances in Soil Science,
12(11), 53–123.
Suslow, T. V., & Schroth, M. N., (1982). Rhizobacteria of sugar beet: Effect of seed application
and root colonization on yield. Phytopathology, 72(2), 199–206.
Tal, S., & Okon, Y., (1990). Purification and characterization of β-hydroxybutyrate
dehydrogenase from Azospirillum brasinlense. Journal of General Microbiology,
136(10), 645–653.
Tank, N., & Saraf, M., (2003). Phosphate solubilization, exopolysaccharide production and
indole acetic secretion by rhizobacteria isolated from Trigonella foenum-graecum. Indian
Journal of Microbiology, 43(9), 37–40.
Tarrand, J. J., Krieg, N. R., & Dobereiner, J., (2015). A taxonomic study of the Spirillum
lipoferum group with description of a new genus, Azospirillum and two species,
Azospirillum lipoferum (Beijerinck) comb.nov. and Azospirillum brasilense nov.
Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 24(12), 967–980.
Thuler, D. S., Floh, E. J. S., Handro, W., & Barbosa, H. R., (2003). Plant growth regulators
and amino acids released by Azospirillum sp. in chemically defined media. Letters in
Applied Microbiology, 37(9), 174–180.
Tilak, K. V., & Murthy, B. N., (1981). Occurrence of Azospirillum in association with the
roots and stems of different cultivars of barley (Hordeum vulgare). Current Science,
50(1), 496–498.
Tilak, K. V., (1997). Recent developments in Azospirillum plant associations. In: Reddy, S.
M., Srivastava, H. P., Purohit, K., &. Ram, R. S., (eds.), Microbial Biotechnology (pp.
41–51). Scientific Publishers, New Delhi.
Usha, D. K., & Kanimozhi, K., (2011). Isolation and characterization of saline tolerant
Azospirillum strains from paddy field of Thanjavur district. Advances in Applied Science
Research, 2(3), 239–245.
Van, B. P., & Bohlool, B. B., (1980). Evaluation of nitrogen fixation by bacteria in association
with roots of tropical grasses. Microbiology Reviews, 44(8), 491–517.
Webber, O. B., Baldani, V. L. D., Teiveira, K. R. S., Kirchoff, G., Baldani, J. I., & Dobereiner,
J., (1999). Isolation and characterization of diazotrophic bacteria from banana and
pineapple plants. Plant and Soil, 210(10), 103–113.
Weniger, C. C., (1997). Ammonium-excreting Azospirillum brasilense C3: Gus A inhabiting
induced tumors along stem and roots of rice. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 29(12),
943–950.
Yasmin, S., Rahman, B. M. A., Malik, K. A., & Hafeez, F. Y., (2004). Isolation characterization
and beneficial effect of rice associated plant growth-promoting bacteria from Zanzibar
soils. Journal of Basic Microbiology, 44(7), 241–252.
Yoneyama, T., Muraoka, T., Kim, T. H., Dacaney, E. V., & Nakanishi, Y., (1997). The natural
15
N abundance of sugar cane and neighboring plants in Brazil, the Philippines and Miyako
(Japan). Plant Soil, 189(3), 239–244.
76 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Yu, Z., & Mohn, W. W., (2001). Bacterial diversity and community structure in aerated lagoon
by ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis and 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology, 67(5), 1565–1574.
Zakharova, E. A., Iosipenko, A. D., & Ignatov, V. V., (2000). Effect of water-soluble vitamins
on the production of indole-3-acetic acid by Azospirillum brasilense. Microbiology
Research, 155(7), 209–214.
Zhulin, I. B., & Armitage, J. P., (1993). Motility, chemokinesis and methylation-independent
chemotaxis in Azospirillum brasilense. Journal of Bacteriology, 175(10), 952–958.
CHAPTER 4

APPLICATION OF PHOSPHATE
SOLUBILIZING MICROORGANISMS
FOR EFFECTIVE PRODUCTION OF
NEXT-GENERATION BIOFERTILIZER:
A PANACEA FOR SUSTAINABLE
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
CHARLES OLUWASEUN ADETUNJI,1
OSIKEMEKHA ANTHONY ANANI,2 DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,3
and SAHER ISLAM4

Microbiology, Biotechnology, and Nanotechnology Laboratory,

1

Department of Microbiology Edo University Iyamho, Edo State, Nigeria

2
Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Forensic Biology,
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Edo University
Iyamoh, Edo State, Nigeria
3
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biosciences,
4

University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

Phosphorus has been identified as one of the most numerous elements that
are available in the earth’s crust which exists in the form of both inorganic
and organic forms. The presence of phosphorus is available in a very high
concentration but only 0.1% of the entire phosphorus are made available to
the plant which might be linked to their poor solubility and it could form a
78 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

complex with other metallic elements in the soil such as Fe, Ca, Al to form
ferrous phosphate, calcium phosphate, and aluminum phosphate which are
unavailable to the plants. The application of synthetic fertilizer has several
health and environmental hazards such as soil fertility depletion, pollution of
the environment, and eutrophication has necessitated the need to search for an
alternative approach that could help in feeding the ever-increasing population.
The application of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms has been identi­
fied as a sustainable, ecofriendly, green, biocompatible biotechnological tool
that could lead to an increase in agricultural production and ecorestoration
of heavily polluted soil. Therefore, this chapter intends to provide a holistic
detail about the application of phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms and
their interaction with the agricultural crop, their application as a plant growth
promoter, and their utilization for the ecorestoration of heavily polluted soil.
The modes of action utilized by these phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms
were also highlighted. Special emphasis was also laid on the application of
bacterial strain and fungal strains that have been reorganized as phosphorus
solubilizing microorganisms while their relative performance when exploring
under in situ conditions that could lead to enhanced phosphorus solubilization
was also discussed.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The sudden rise in the level of the global population has necessitated an
increase in the request for enhanced food production and the high rates of
anthropogenic problems majorly on the environment have resulted in several
challenges in Agriculture yield (Adetunji et al., 2019a–d; Adetunji, 2019;
Adetunji and Ugbenyen, 2019). These problems have led stimulates several
reactions, and it is of global concern. Therefore, if rapid attention is not given
to these highlighted challenges, it might lead to high rates of inefficiency in
feeding the global population (Ladeiro, 2012). The present population of the
globe has been approximating to be 7 billion but there is a greater tendency
that it will rise drastically to 10 billion in the next 50 years. Hence, there is a
need to identified agricultural methodologies and stratagems that could help
to resolve the problem of feeding the ever-increasing populations (Glick,
2014). Some other specific examples include rapid loss in the production
of agricultural produce, which might be linked to abiotic and biotic stress
imposed on crops planted in the field.
Abiotic stress has been identified as a significant factor that mitigates
against an increase in the production of agricultural production. Examples
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 79

of such abiotic stress include environmental temperature, soil salinization,

drought, soil pH, soil sodification, and rapid loss of soil nutrition. Among
all them, soil sodification and soil salinization have been highlighted as the
major pervasive soil degradation practices that affect the earth jeopardizing
the prospective utilization of soils (Rengasamy, 2006; Ladeiro, 2012). Also,
water and wind erosion is another abiotic factor that could cause a dangerous
impact and led to a high rate of soil degradation (Ladeiro, 2012).
Biotic stress has been highlighted as another serious factor that could
result in a drastic reduction of agricultural yield, which might lead to
diseases and high infestation by agricultural pests. Typical examples of
these microorganisms include parasites, bacteria, viruses, and fungi. These
pathogenic microorganisms could result in a 30% reduction in annual agri­
cultural increases (Fisher et al., 2012). Therefore, there is a need to search
for a sustainable agricultural solution such as the utilization of safe and more
effective pesticides, enhanced agricultural land management, enhanced
application of chemical fertilizers, improved planting of transgenic crops,
and more farm mechanization. Hence, all the aforementioned solutions
could only resolve agricultural challenges for a limited period of time
because of limited resources. This implies that there is a need to search for
more effective solutions that could support sustainable organic agriculture.
The application of eco-friendly biological solutions through the application
of beneficial microorganisms has been highlighted as a striking technology
hypothesized that could mitigate various challenges affection agricultural
challenges.
Phosphorous has been recognized as one of the numerous metallic
elements discovered in the earth’s crust available in the soil in both organic
and inorganic forms (Gyaneshwar et al., 2002). It is normally absorbed and
utilized by plants in the form of the inorganic form (H2PO4-and HPO42–)
(Hinsinger, 2001). It plays a crucial function in the metabolic process which
includes prevention of plant diseases, enhancement of crop qualities, energy
transfer, fixing of nitrogen, improvement in the rate of photosynthesis,
signal transduction, and all these features are related to phosphorous nutri­
tion (Khan et al., 2014). Moreover, it has been discovered that phosphorus
constitutes major parts of microorganisms and plays a vital role such as the
movement and storage of energy, and constitutes a major part of the DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) of all microorganisms.
Phosphorus plays a crucial role in the carbon metabolism, membrane
formation and photosynthesis, elongation of plant roots, and it has been
observed that the deficiency of phosphorus might lead to high instability in
the root architecture (Williamson et al., 2001; Wu, 2005). The significant
80 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

constituent of phosphorus takes in by the plant is build up ingrain in the

form of phytic acid which later become immobile to plants and consequently
affect the development of crops (Richardson, 1994).
The stratagem of improving the presence of a low quantity of phosphorus
fertility production has been recognized as a problem most especially in acid
soils because the high level of phosphorus that will be required might not be
economically and environmentally viable in bioremediation of these soils
(Hinsinger, 2001). The microbial population has been recognized as a major
component of the soil-plant continuum where they play a crucial role in the
development of plants, most especially in sustainable agriculture (Vassilev
et al., 2006).
Phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms have been that they possess
the capability to mineralize phosphorus and solubilize from organic and
inorganic pools of total soil phosphorus and may be applied as inoculants to
enhance P-availability to plants (Richardson, 1994, 2001).
Therefore, this chapter intends to provide a comprehensive review of the
application of phosphorus solubilizing microorganism and their application
in sustainable agriculture for adequate enhancement of agriculture. Special
emphasis was laid on some of their role as biofertilizers, mineralization, and
solubilization of phosphorus, and their methodologies used in the selection
of these potential strains were also highlighted. The mechanism of action
involved in the solubilization was also discussed in detail.

4.2 ISOLATION OF MICROBIAL STRAINS WITH PHOSPHORUS

SOLUBILIZING CAPABILITY

Several beneficial microorganisms have been recognized for their capability

to perform their beneficial role in the plant. Many of them are related to the
plant rhizosphere, and they are commonly referred to as rhizobacteria and
because they possess the capability to enhance plant growth, they are called
plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Typical examples of such bacteria
include Serratia, Alcaligenes, Acinetobacter, Rhizobium, Arthrobacter,
Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, Paenibacillus, Burkholderi, Bacillus, Flavo­
bacterium, Erwinia, and Enterobacter. They are utilized as a biofertilizer
for the enhancement of crops. Phosphorus has been identified as the second
mineral element to nitrogen that could prevent adequate development of
crops. Phosphorus has been identified as an essential element necessary
for the adequate development of plants and constitutes about 0.2% of plant
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 81

dry weight. The plant needs phosphorus from the soil solution as phosphate
anions. Conversely, it has been discovered that phosphate anions are exceed­
ingly reactive and may be immobilized through precipitation with cations
such as Al3+, Ca2+, Fe3+, Mg2+ which varies depending on the types of the soil.
This makes phosphorous not to be available to plant in this form. But several
reports have been documenting the capability of bacterial species to solubi­
lize insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds such as dicalcium phosphate,
rock phosphate (RP), tricalcium phosphate (TCP), and hydroxyapatite.
Microbial solubilization of phosphorus from insoluble phosphates is an
environmentally friendly and cost-effective approach in sustainable soil
management. Introducing the indigenous microorganisms to soil requires
a shorter adaptation period and causes fewer ecological distortions than
exogenous microorganisms. This study was conducted to isolate and
identify the indigenous fungi for phosphate solubilization in Mazandaran,
Iran. A potent phosphate solubilizing fungus was isolated from an Iranian
phosphate mine and selected for solubilization of RP. The identified fungus
was characterized by calmodulin-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
method as Aspergillus tubingensis SANRU (Sari Agricultural Sciences and
Natural Resources University). The phosphate solubilization ability of the
fungal strain was carried out in shake flask leaching experiments containing
various concentrations of RP (1%, 2%, 4%, or 8% w/v). The maximum P
solubilization rate of 347 mg/l was achieved at 1% of RP concentration on
day 9. The regression analysis indicated that the P solubilized mainly through
acidification. This study shows the possibility of using A. tubingensis SANRU
for application in the management of P fertilization. It has been recognized
that numerous proportions of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSMs)
is available in the rhizosphere, and they show more activity than any other
sources (Vazquez et al., 2000).
Normally, 1 gram of fertile soil contains 101 to 1010 bacteria and their
live weight may go beyond 2,000 kg ha–1. It has been observed that the total
number of soil bacterial varies in shapes which include a high proportion
of PSM is concentrated in the rhizosphere, and they are metabolically more
active than from other sources (Vazquez et al., 2000). Usually, one gram of
fertile soil contains 101 to 1010 bacteria, and their live weight may exceed
2,000 kg ha–1. Soil bacteria are in spiral (1–100 μm), cocci (sphere, 0.5 μm),
and bacilli (rod, 0.5–0.3 μm).
However, bacilli have been documented as the most common of all
of them but spirilli are very rare in natural environments (Baudoin et al.,
2002). The population of the phosphorus solubilizing microorganism varies
82 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

from the soil but depends majorly on the numerous soil features such as
phosphorus content, physical, and chemical properties, organic matter, and
cultural activities (Kim et al., 1998; Yahya and Azawi, 1998; Fallah, 2006).

4.3 PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZING MICROORGANISMS (PSMS) AS

BIOFERTILIZER ON THE FIELD, GREENHOUSE, POT ASSAY,
AND LABORATORY TRIALS

The agriculture sector plays a pivotal role in food production. Food is a

major necessity for human health and well-being. Day in, day out, crop
productivity in agro-activities requires the use of inorganic fertilizer to boost
its viability and consistent availability to the teeming hungry population of
the world. However, this chemical (fertilizers), especially the widely used
form; N (Nitrogen), P (Phosphorus), and K (Potassium) in different ratios,
have been used indiscriminately to advance crop output.
Phosphorus, one of the major ingredients used as inorganic fertilizer
is very important in plant development and growth. However, just a small
percentage of it is directly absorbed by the root system of plants, while the
rest is washed away by erosion to nearby water bodies. This might serve
as a precursor of eutrophication if the quantity used or applied during
planting and persistent usage is very high. More so, some of the residues will
combine with specific trace metals (Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium) that the
plants cannot absorb directly because they are in an insoluble state or form.
The role of PSMs in the sustainable utilization and regulation of insoluble
phosphate chelate with specific trace metals in the agro-fertilizer applica­
tion is very important in plummeting the encumbrance faced by farmers in
improving the health, ecological, and productivity status of food crops. It
has been revealed that Phosphate-solubilizing fungi possess the potential to
improve the availability of phosphorus in the soil, most especially in the soil
where there are P-limiting regions. In this regard, Zhang et al. (2018) isolated
two strains AspN-JX16 and TalA-JX04 from the rhizosphere soil of moso
bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis). These strains isolated have been affirmed
to be P-limiting regions in China. The strains were identified as Aspergillus
neoniger and Talaromyces aurantiacus based on morphologic and phyloge­
netic characteristics. They were cultured in a submerged medium containing
potato dextrose liquid medium with six different initial pH values which
vary from 6.5 to 1.5 to assess acid resistance. The phosphate-solubilizing
fungi were cultured in Pikovskaya’s (PVK) liquid media with numerous
pH which entails C6H6Ca6O24P6, Ca3(PO4)2, AlPO4, FePO4, and CaHPO4 to
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 83

assess their P-solubilizing potential. The results obtained show that there
was no significant difference in the biomass of all the fungi cultivated in the
media with numerous initial pH showing that these fungi could be cultivated
when subjected to acid stress. The P-solubilizing potential of TalA-JX04 had
the maximum value followed by CaHPO4, followed by Ca3(PO4)2, FePO4,
C6H6Ca6O24P6, and AlPO4 among all the six types of initial pH treatment
while the P-solubilizing capacity of AspN-JX16 was more significant when
compared to that of TalA-JX04. It was also observed that the fungi enhance
the dissolution of phosphorous potential, which indicates that it had a nega­
tive correlation to the pH of the fermentation broth. This indicates that the
dissolution of Phosphorus sources by producing organic acids. Our result
indicated that AspN-JX16 and TalAJX04 could survive in an acidic environ­
ment and these two fungi have the capability to liberate soluble phosphorus
by breaking the P-breaking down compound, most especially that contain
aluminum, phytate, calcium, iron phosphates. The two had the capacity to be
utilized in the mass production of environment-friendly biofertilizers most
especially in the subtropical bamboo ecosystem.
Phosphorus has been highlighted as one of the most crucial macronutrients
that are important for plant development and growth. It has been observed
that inorganic phosphorus (P), which constitutes 70% of the total P content
in soils could exist inform of iron-complexed, calcium, and aluminum which
are not made available for plant utilization. P2O5 has been applied as a fertil­
izer to augment the nutrient for crop development as a consequence of this
mineral phosphorus. The application of phosphate-solubilizing microorgan­
isms has been applied to decrease the incorporation of mineral phosphorus
to agricultural soils. Sharon et al. (2016) discovered that some bacteria could
solubilize phosphate present in the soil. It was discovered that Pantoea
sp. could solubilize TCP (Ca3(PO4)2) which was determined at the rate of
956 mg L–1. The phosphorus solubilizing producing bacterial strain could
generate different types of gluconic, propionic acids, organic acids, formic,
and acetic. The experiment performed in the greenhouse with a tomato plant
that has been inoculated with Pantoea sp. showed more enhanced biomass
and phosphorus when compared to the uninoculated.
Walpola et al. (2013) isolated a phosphate-solubilizing bacterium and
evaluated their influence on the development of mung bean (Vigna radiata
[L.] R. Wilczek) plants. Their study showed that only two strains possess
that capability to solubilize phosphorous which were Burkholderia anthina
(PSB-2) and Pantoea agglomerans (PSB-1). The highest phosphorus
solubilizing value of 720.75 μg mL–1 was obtained from the cultures that
84 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

were co-inoculated with B. anthina and P. agglomerans. Their result also

indicated that some level of correlation exists between the phosphorus solu­
bilization, pH, the concentration of soluble phosphorus, and titratable acidity
(TA). The two tested strains indicate an increase in the shoot and root dry
matter, phosphorus uptake of mung bean plants, while the addition of TCP
with PSB inoculation enhanced the development of the tested plant. The
incorporation of TCP and phosphorus solubilizing bacteria strains enhanced
the development and uptake of phosphorus mung bean plants. Their study
indicated that they could be applied as a sustainable alternative that could
reduce the challenges of phosphorus in agricultural soils.
The application of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) for the produc­
tion of biofertilizer has enhanced the absorption of phosphorus adsorption
in plants and enhanced the yields in numerous crop species. Baliah et al.
(2016) evaluate the capability of different PSB that dwell in the rhizosphere
of the soil from eggplant, okra, tomato, chili, and cotton. The result indicated
that the population dynamics of PSB were detected in higher content in the
rhizospheric soil of tomato followed by brinjal. It was observed that 6 strains
out of the 10 evaluated strains could solubilize phosphate. The isolated
strains include Pseudomonas putida, P. fluorescens, and Bacillus megate­
rium. Their study showed that the selected strains could utilize amino acid,
vitamin, carbon, and nitrogen as their sources of the nutrient.
The phosphate-solubilizing capability of the microbial community that
dwells in the rhizosphere of mangroves plants was carried out with culture
media. Besides the insoluble type tribasic calcium phosphate was incubated
with the root of white [Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn.] and black
(Avicennia germinans L.) mangrove. Vazquez et al. (2000) demonstrated the
phosphate-solubilizing effectiveness of some bacterial strains isolated from
the rhizosphere of the mangroves. Examples of the isolated strain include
Chryseomonas luteola, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens,
Bacillus licheniformis, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Kluyvera cryocrescens,
Bacillus atrophaeus, Enterobacter asburiae, Paenibacillus macerans,
Enterobacter taylorae, and Xanthobacter agilis. Their study showed that
Aspergillus niger was isolated from the rhizosphere of black mangroves. The
phosphate-solubilizing activity of all the isolates was detected using a solid
medium having tribasic calcium phosphate which serves as a source of phos­
phorus. Their study showed that the Spectrophotometric quantification of the
solubilized phosphate indicated that the A. niger and all the isolated bacterial
strains had an enhanced solubilization activity when tested in submerged
fermentation. Hence, it was observed that V. proteolyticus was the best
solubilizing strain among all the isolated bacteria. The gas chromatographic
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 85

evaluation showed the presence of 11 numerous unidentified non-volatiles

and volatiles organic acids. The highest isolated compounds include isobu­
tyric, acetic acids, lactic, and isovaleric. It was observed that all the bacterial
species generated more than one organic acid while the A. niger generates
only succinic acid. Their study showed that the generation of organic acid by
these mangrove rhizosphere microorganisms represent the modes of action
these microorganisms applied in the solubilization of insoluble calcium
phosphate.
Inorganic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria have been highlighted as a
significant component of microbial populations that occur in the lake sedi­
ments. Moreover, the liberated phosphorous becomes a significant source of
phosphorous for eutrophic algae. Li et al. (2019) isolated and screened inor­
ganic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria mainly from the sediments of Sancha
Lake using the National Botanical Research Institute’s phosphate (NBRIP)
plates. The molecular characterization of these strains was later performed
using the 16S rDNA method. The TCP-solubilizing capability of the Inor­
ganic phosphate-solubilizing strains was eased utilizing PVK liquid medium
and NBRIP-bromophenol blue (BPB). The capability of the Inorganic phos­
phate-solubilizing to liberate phosphorous from the sediments was carried
out by mimicking the lake environment. The authors isolated and screened
a total of 43 Inorganic phosphate-solubilizing strains from the sediments of
Sancha Lake that could be categorized into 10 genera, eight families, and
three phyla. Their study indicated that SWSI1734 and SWSI1728 which
could be classified as Bacillus and a novel strain SWSI1719 belong to the
family Micromonosporaceae. It was discovered that the inorganic phosphate­
solubilizing were very diverse, while it was discovered that Paenibacillus
and Bacillus were the two dominant strains. It was also observed that 30 of
the 43 out of the inorganic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria showed a clear
zone of inhibition on the plates when tested in the liquid culture experiment,
and it was affirmed that all the strains possessed the capacity to soften TCP.
The phosphate-solubilizing capability of the strains was varied significantly
and the strain SWSI1725 of the Bacillus genus indicated the strongest
capability with enhanced phosphate-solubilizing content of 103.57 mg/L.
The sterilized systems indicated significantly enhanced breaking down of
phosphorus hydrochloride (HCl-P) and liberation from the sediments after
inoculation of inorganic phosphate-solubilizing strains, but there was no
significant influence for phosphonium hydroxide (NaOH-P). Their study
indicated that Inorganic phosphate-solubilizing available in the sediments
of Sancha Lake possesses rich diversity and the capability to liberate phos­
phorus in sediments.
86 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Nutrient management has been identified as one of the most crucial

factors required for the successful planting of plants. Biofertilizers can influ­
ence the quality and quantity of the crop. The low phosphate solubility has
been recognized as one of the most crucial factors that prevent adequate
growth of plant growth in the soil. Numerous microorganisms can enhance
the solubility of phosphate, but little has been documented regarding the
magnitude of their phosphorus solubility.
The local population of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria and fungi were
studied in numerous rhizospheres soil samples collected from banana plant
and its effect on spinach plant (Amaranthus cruentus L.) was studied by Reena
et al. (2013). Their result indicated that Aspergillus species (234.12 mm) was
the largest phosphate solubilizers together with (160.82 mm) followed by
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (126.11), Penicillium sp. (99.02), and Micrococcus
sp. (89.4). The best optimization condition that showed that the maximum
condition for fungi and bacteria were the temperature of 37 and 28°C.
Trichoderma sp. has been identified as a known biological control agent
against numerous phytopathogens. Given the aforementioned, Kapri et al.
(2010) evaluates the potentials of 14 strains of Trichoderma sp. isolated from
forest tree rhizospheres of oak, pinus, guava, and bamboo using Trichoderma
selective medium. These isolates were evaluated for their P-solubilizing
capability utilizing National Botanical Research Institute Phosphate (NBRIP)
broth having TCP as the sole Phosphorus source in comparison to the stan­
dard culture of T. harzianum. The result obtained shows that the cultures
were discovered to possess the capability to solubilize TCP but with different
potentials. It was discovered that isolate DRT-1 exhibited the highest level
of soluble phosphate with 404.07 μg.ml–1 followed by the 386.42 μg.ml–1
obtained for the standard culture of T. harzianum after 96 hours of incubation
of 30+10C. The alkaline phosphatases and extra-cellular acid produced from
fungus were induced in the presence of insoluble phosphorus source while
isolate DRT-1 had the highest extra-cellular alkaline phosphatase activity
value of 14.50 U.ml–1 followed by 13.41 U.ml–1 recorded by the standard
culture at 72 hours. It was observed that the culture revealed a much small
acid phosphatase activity. It was observed that Trichoderma sp. inoculation
enhanced the chickpea (Cicer arietinum) growth parameters, most espe­
cially in the phosphorus-deficient soil having only bound phosphate when
performed under the greenhouse. The shoot weight was enhanced by 33%
and 23% by the isolate DRT-1 when amended with 200 and 100 mg TCP kg–1
soil, respectively after 60 d of sowing. Their study indicates the capability
of Trichoderma sp. for the solubilization of fixed phosphates available in the
soil which could improve the level of soil fertility and plant growth.
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 87

Numerous microorganisms have been established to possess the capa­

bility to change the insoluble forms of phosphorus to an accessible soluble
form, thereby contributing to the rate of plant nutrition as plant growth-
promoting microorganisms (PGPM). Oliveira et al. (2009) isolated, screen,
and assessed the phosphate solubilization potential of microorganisms
available in the rhizosphere of maize for the management of soil microbial
communities and to obtain potent microbial inoculants. The authors isolated
45 isolates from 371 colonies derived from the rhizosphere of the soil of
maize cultivated in an oxisol of the Cerrado Biome having phosphorus
deficiency. These microorganisms were selected based on their capability to
solubilize organic and inorganic phosphate sources using a modified PVK
liquid medium culture containing TCP (Ca3(PO4)2), sodium phytate (phytic
acid), aluminum phosphate (AlPO4), and soybean lecithin. These isolated
were characterized using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA for fungi
and 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) for bacteria using the data obtained from
the nucleotide sequence of these microorganisms. Their result indicated that
bacteria generated the highest level of solubilization in medium having TCP.
The most efficient strain was identified as Burkholderia sp. B5 and Bacillus
sp. B17 with 58.5 and 67% total P (Ca3(PO4)2) after 10 days after 10 days
and were obtained from the rhizosphere of phosphorus efficient L3 maize
genotype when performed under phosphorus stress. It was documented that
the fungal population showed the most effective solubilizing phosphorous
sources of lecithin, aluminum, and phytate. Moreover, more diversity of
phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms was observed in the rhizosphere of
phosphorous efficient maize genotypes which shows that the phosphorous
effectiveness in these cultivars could be related to the capability to increase
the microbial relationship of phosphorous solubilizing microorganisms.
Beneficial microorganisms that dwell around the rhizosphere of most
plants have been shown to have high solubilization potentials to insoluble
phosphate compounds in crop nutrition (Chen et al., 2006; Malboobi et al.,
2009). These potentials are based on the ability of the microorganisms to
utilize phosphate in soil via soluble radical forms (carboxyl and hydroxyl)
concerning their low molecular mass, thence converting them into usable
and absorbable forms. PSMs have been used widely as one of the green
biotechnologies in agriculture as a potential green biofertilizer that could be
applied to replace the most widely NPK based inorganic fertilizers. Because
of this, about 30–40 kg of P2O5 per ha and 50–60% PSMs are needed to boost
the quality of crops in farm operation or productivity. Apart from other strains
that dwells in the rhizosphere, other strains of microorganisms like P13
(Pseudomonas putida), P5 (Pantoea agglomerans), and P7 (Microbacterium
88 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

laevaniformans) have been identified as a potential PSMs (Baas et al., 2016).

PSMs have been shown to have inducing potentials by immobilizing certain
heavy metals (HMs) in the soil such as Pb and Fe, and remediating polluted
soil with a low amount of phosphate that cannot cause eutrophication (Park
et al., 2011; Romano et al., 2017).
Mondal et al. (2017) evaluated the use of PSMs as biofertilizer in Zea
mays field at West Bengal in India. The authors stated that phosphorus plays
a significant role in plant growth. That is because of its poor absorption via
the soil to the root system of plants, a more efficient and green application
of PSMs is highly needed. That PSMs aid the rapid increase and uptake of
phosphate by the plant roots. The authors tested and screened different strains
of microorganisms with Halo-zone and pH background checks. The results
of their biological controlled study showed that PSMs can improve the soil
quality, elicit plant growth, and developments when applied to the maize
fields. The authors recommend PSMs as first-class biofertilizer because they
have a greater potential to increase plant productivity when used, their eco­
friendly nature, and their economic benefits.
Anand et al. (2016) did an extensive review on the potentials of PSMs
as substitute biofertilizer in farmland soil. The author stressed the need for
phosphorus as an active ingredient in the ecosystem because of the essential
role it plays in the physiology of plants’ growth and development. However,
it is known as one of the least mobile earth macronutrients as compared to
its likes. The utilization of PSMs to facilitate the exchange and the possible
availability of phosphorus to plants via chelate mineralization is highly
recommended. The mode of action is enhanced by the pH, enzyme secre­
tion from the microbes of the soil, and through the mineralization of certain
organic acids. In conclusion, they suggested the non-application of inorganic
phosphates openly to the soil because of the potential environmental compli­
cations, it portends and recommends the utilization of biofertilizers (PSMs)
as a substitute because it is cheap and eco-friendly.
Din et al. (2019) tested the efficacy of phosphorus solubilizing Aspergillus
niger on Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd) and Abelmoschus esculentus
(Okra) as biofertilizers on agricultural field trials. The Vanadomoybdate
technique was used in quantity the solvable phosphorous and the Heinonen
technique was used to evaluate the concentration of the soil enzymes (phytase
and phosphatase) in the media. The results of the laboratory study indicated
that Aspergillus strain gave out specific catalytic chemicals (phytase and
phosphatase) of amount (133 and 170UI), respectively, after 48 hours of
fermentation, which has the potential to solubilize the hard soil phosphate and
make it accessible or absorbable for plant uptake. Further field trials using
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 89

the same plant species, indicated that the phosphate solubilizing microbe
(Aspergillus sp.) was able to elicit significant growth and development in
several parts of the studied plants when compared with their control. Also,
plants that were inoculated together with a nitrogen-fixing microorganism
(Azotobacter) and phosphate solvable microorganism (Aspergillus sp.) had
well developed and vigorous recital as compared to those that were inocu­
lated along with separate biofertilizer only. In conclusion, the authors recom­
mend Aspergillus sp. as a first-class eco-friendly, non-toxic, and economical
biofertilizers for agricultural practices.
Adnan et al. (2017) tested and evaluated the antagonistic impact of PSB
on the bioavailability of phosphate in highly alkaline and calcification soils.
The authors examined different media (inoculated and control); SSP (single
super phosphorus) (SSP), RP, PM (poultry manure), and FYM (farmyard
manure) with different soil, sea-green (lime) concentrations; 4.78, 10, 15,
and 20%, respectively in the highly alkalized soils for a period of 56 days.
The results of their study indicated that PSB increased the phosphate contents
in the PM and FYM more than the SSP and RP. The addition of the sea-green
to the agricultural soils sharply decreased the bioavailability of the soil phos­
phate, but this was contrarily adverse and buffered by the inoculation of the
PSB when added to the media. In conclusion, they discovered that there were
antagonistic impacts on the soil calcium and phosphate levels. They recom­
mend that PSB with organic manure utilization will aid in improving the
agriculture soil nutrients when used synergistically in agricultural purposes.
Kaur and Reddy (2014) tested and evaluated two PSBs (Pantoeo sp. and
Pseudomonas sp.) isolates on agricultural fields to ascertain their solubility
potentials on RP to elicit fertility substances in soil (nitrogen fixation) and
crop productivity (siderophores and indole-acetic acid; IAA). The results of
their study indicated that both microbes efficiently solubilized and utilized
the RP and free important amount of the phosphate (> 271 µgml–1) in the
laboratory medium. The application of the laboratory trial in the field study,
which lasted for 2 years on wheat and maize plants with and without the
RP, yielded a positive correlation and caused the growth, developments, and
increased enzymatic activities of the plants and soil fertility as related to the
organic carbon contents and RP fertilization associated with their controls.
The authors finally suggested that Pantoea sp. and Pseudomonas sp. along­
side RP, play a significant part in refining crop efficiency in natural farming.
Wu et al. (2019) tested and evaluated the impact of two natural PSBs
JX285 (B. aryabhattai) and HN038 (P. auricularis) on the physiological and
biological uptake of nutrients in Tea-oil seedlings. The results of their study
indicated a sharp significant preferment of the growth of Tea-oil plants after
90 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

inoculation three times, stimulation of the nitrogen and phosphorus concen­

trations in the leaf of the plant, and elevation of the nitrogen, phosphate,
and potassium concentrations in the examined field soils. The authors, in
conclusion, recommended PSBs as an alternative biofertilizer because it aids
in the boosting of the productivity of Tea-oil plants, aid in the decrease of
soil pollution and improves nutrient stabilization in soil.
Walpola and Yoon (2013) isolated and tested the impact of PSBs on
the growth and development of Mung bean. Out of the 31 of the isolated
strains, 2 strains [PSB-1 (Pantoea sp.) and PSB-2 (Burkholderia sp.) were
identified to be more efficient strains and were utilized for advanced studies.
The results of their study revealed high phosphate solubilization of 720.75
μgmL–1 obtained from a combined inoculated culture of Burkholderia anthina
and Pantoea agglomerans. Besides, a positive relationship was observed
between the solvable phosphate and the pH of the medium, and the TA with
the solvable phosphate. The effective strains were later tested in greenhouse
conditions and were observed to improve the growth and development of all
the parts of the Mung bean plants. The authors suggested the utilization of
PSBs as a favorable substitute to abate the phosphorus issues in cultivated
soils.
Suleman et al. (2018) isolated and characterized PSBs to improve the
calcium and phosphate uptake in wheat plants. Around 15 PSBs were used
in this study and were isolated from rhizospheric wheat soils in two regions
of Pakistan. The isolates were later identified with the aid of a light micro­
scope and a 16S rRNA protein sequence machine correspondingly. Among
the identified isolates, two species or strains [MS16 (Pseudomonas sp.) and
MS32 (Enterobacter sp.)] that have the potential to efficiently solubilize
phosphate were resolved numerically (136±280 μgmL–1) and found to both
have the index of solubility of 3.2±5.8. This laboratory in vitro of the effi­
cient strains yielded several acids [22.5±11.8 (gibberellic acid), SI 2.8±3.3
(solubilized zinc compounds), 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
deaminase, and 25.6±28.1 μgmL–1 (IAA)]. The results of the in vitro study
revealed that the PSBs treated with wheat sprouts developed effectively with
an 11% increment as related to the control. There were positive effects in
terms of growth when the strain Pseudomonas sp. was used in the grain pot
assay of 38.5% augmentation and the field trials of 17±18% augmentation
as related to their control, respectively. The results of the acids produced by
the effective strains revealed that the PSBs gluconic acid-producing strains
(Pseudomonas sp.) could be an economical and eco-friendly contender for
advanced plant development and phosphate uptake when used to cultivate
wheat plants.
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 91

Saeed et al. (2015) did comparative work on the impact of chemical

and biofertilizers on the development, biology, and chemical structures of
Cucumis sativus (cucumber). The biological control experiment was done
in four duplicates; T1: Control, T2: Biofertilizer, T3: Chemical, and T4:
Blend treatment (biofertilizer and half-chemical). The results of their study
revealed the momentous variance between the chemical and biofertilizer
when applied to the cucumber. They had a distinct impact and improved the
production and development characters of the study plants. The results of
the relationship between the fruit output and sum fruit mass per crop showed
a strong positive regression of 0.89 which yielded about 50% of the fruit
output difference. The authors recommended the use of the biofertilizer s
because it has improved the crop yield and biological contents significantly.
Atia (2018) isolated and tested the potentials of rhizospheric PSBs in
promoting the characters, growth, and development of Wheat (Triticum
aestivum). Around 30 isolates were obtained and derived from the rhizo­
sphere and 10 efficient solubilizing strains (WumS-3, WumS-4, WumS-5,
WumS-11, WumS-12, WumS-21, WumS-24, WumS-25, WumS-26, and
WumS-28). The results from their study revealed the high solubilizing ability
of the effective designated strains were 4–7 µg/ml index of solubilization
and in the agar dish and 30–246 µg/ml in liquid bouillabaisse respectively.
The best possible environmental conditions for the phosphorus solubili­
zation in the in vitro state were at pH 7 (neutral) and temperature 35°C,
glucose as a good carbon source, and ammonium nitrate as a good nitrogen
source. The findings of the study also revealed that the selected strain was
able to produce plant hormones (IAA), siderophore, HCN, and NH3. The
PSBs showed significant improvement in the seed growth (50–80%), shoot
dimension, and shoot elongation (10–90%) at P<0.05 to their control in the
laboratory. While in normal (natural) settings, there was a significant differ­
ence at P<0.05 in the seed growth (40–80%) shoot elongation (5–34.8%) and
shooting dimension (5–96%) were noticed also. The authors concluded that
the phosphate solubilizing rhizospheric bacteria (PSRB) elicited the plant
growth and development rate of the plant. They recommended the utilization
of the effective strains as a perfect substitute for inorganic fertilizer for the
cultivation of the wheat plant.
Wu et al. (2005) evaluated and tested the efficacy of the sustainable use of
biofertilizer obtained from microbes as a potential candidate and substitute
to inorganic fertilizer for soil productivity and crop output in agriculture. The
authors utilized four biofertilizers comprising of strains of arbuscular mycor­
rhizal fungus, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, PSB, and potassium solubilizing
92 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

bacteria on the soil characteristics and the development of maize plants. The
result of their study showed that the utilization of the mycorrhizal fungus and
the three species of bacteria meaningfully amplified the development of the
maize plant. The microorganisms not only boosted the nutritional values of
the plant but also elicited the soil characteristics. In contrast, of these fungi
beneficial amplification, they also caused or provoked inhibiting impacts
on the PSMs or bacteria, which resulted in the inability for them to fix the
soil nutrients, instead of forming a higher association of colonization during
the greenhouse trials. They recommended multiple applications of different
biofertilizers in agricultural practices, but with the exception of the ones that
have inhibiting potentials.
Vikram and Hamzehzarghani (2008) assessed and tested the effect
of PSBs on the nodule-growth and development features of Greengram
(Vigna radiata). Around 16 strains of PSBs were used in the biological
control experiment (greenhouse settings) to improve the nodule-growth
and development features of Vigna radiata. Triplicates of 18 treatments
were used. The results of their study indicated that the Vigna radiata seeds
(PSBV-13 and PSBV-14) had the highest protuberance amount in terms of
biomass; wet, dry, and total matter of the root and shoot system after 45
days of planting. Most of the PSBs (PSBV-4, PSBV-9, PSBV-12, PSBV-13,
PSBV-14, and PSBV-15), strained used in the study also tested positive in
stimulating the nodule-growth and developmental parameters of the plant.
In conclusion, the authors recommended that the competent PSBs could be
verified for their effectiveness in field settings before endorsing them for
marketable use.
Din et al. (2019) evaluated the impact and utilization of N-fixing
bacteria (Azotobacter)-SR-4 and PSBs (Aspergillus niger)-as biofertilizer
on Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd) and Abelmoschus esculentus (okra).
The method of Kjeldahl was used to determine the biological field control
strains, the Vanadomoybdate method was used to quantify the PSBs and
the Heinonen method was used to evaluate the amount of the enzymes
(phosphatase and phytase) in the media. The results of the field-controlled
experiment revealed that the N-fixer bacteria were able to fix 35.08 mg of
N/g of C after 3 days (72 h) fermentation. In the same way, the PSBs strain
was able to produce biological enzymes of 133 and 170 UI (phosphatase
and phytase) respectively, after 2 days (48 h) which can break and make
soluble rock phosphorus, and make it accessible to the crops. The findings of
their study showed that the tested biofertilizers were able to elicit the growth
and developmental patterns of the plants by increasing their shoot, root,
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 93

leaves, and fruits when related to their control. In conclusion, the authors
recommend the inoculation of the seeds of the tested plants as well as related
species with the tested biofertilizer because they may substitute expensive
and non-eco-friendly noxious inorganic fertilizers.
Fenta and Assefa (2017) isolated and characterized PSBs in Rhizosphere
tomato soil, and evaluated their effect under Green House settings. The
authors examined 11 PSBs (PSB1, PSB2, PSB4, PSB5, PBS6, PSB7, PSB8,
PSB9, PSB10, and PSB11) of which PSB1, PSB2, PSB4, PSB5, and PSB7
were designated out of the 11 strains and were identified to be in the genus
Pseudomonas. Several media were used in culturing the PSBs [TCP, RP,
and BP (bone phosphate)] and were found to be effective after 5, 10, and 20
days incubation periods. The results of their study revealed that all the PSBs
species inoculated in the TCP solubilized effectively at P<0.05 as against
the control. Higher phosphate solubilization (7.64 mg/50 ml) was observed
on day 5, caused by the strain PSB1 while strains PSB4 and PSB5 had 4.79
mg/50 ml on the same day. On day 10, the highest phosphate solubilizing
efficiency was recorded in strains PSB1 and PSB2; 8.19 mg/50 ml and 8.10
mg/50 ml, respectively. The highest phosphate solubilizing efficiency of
11.77 mg/50 ml and 11.33 mg/50 ml in PSB2 and PSB7, respectively were
recorded on day 20. While the least phosphate solubilizing efficiency (5.44
mg/50 ml) was recorded in the strain PSB5. The results of the RP revealed
no significant difference at P>0.05 as against the control at day 5. On day 10,
the highest phosphate solubilizing efficiency (5.02 mg/50 ml) was recorded
in the isolate PSB5 while the lowest (3.46 mg/g) was recorded from strain
PSB4. The highest phosphate solubilizing efficiency (7.928 mg/50 ml) was
recorded in the isolate PSB7 on day 20 while the lowest (4.025 mg/50 ml)
efficiency was in PSB4. The results of the BP showed that the highest phos­
phate solubilizing efficiency (3.020 mg/50 ml) was recorded in strain PSB7
as related to the control. The highest phosphate solubilizing efficiency (7.37
mg/50 ml and 7.025 mg/50 ml) values on day 10 were noticed in isolated
PSB5 and PSB7, respectively while the least (5.47 mg/50 ml) was noticed
in isolated PSB2. The highest phosphate solubilizing efficiency (11.09 mg/
50 ml) recorded on day 20 was noticed in the isolate PSB7 while the least
(9.06 mg/50 ml) was noticed in strain PSB4. The findings of their biological
controlled greenhouse experiment revealed rapid root and shoot elongation
of the plant. The biomass contents of the treated plant showed positive growth
exempting PSB4 with TCP while PSB2, PSB4, and PSB7 revealed strong
maximum uptake of phosphate when compared with the positive control. In
conclusion, the authors recommend the use of PSMs (Rhizosphere strains)
94 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

as a first choice in substituting the health and environmental hazards posed

by the inorganic fertilizer because of their non-toxic nature and eco-safety.
Karpagam and Nagalakshmi (2014) isolated and characterized PSMs for
agricultural utilization. The sum of 37 PSMs associations was isolated in agar
medium (PVK) comprising unsolvable TCP sourced from farm soil. Colo­
nies showing Halo zone were classified as phosphate solubilization. Around
38 of the PSMs were used in this study in which eight effective phosphate
solubilizing strains were utilized for further study having PSI (phosphate
solubilizing index) of 1.13–3.00. The results of the study showed that the 8
effective isolates had three maximum agar phosphate solubilization PS1 (0.37
mgL–1), PS2 (0.30 mgL–1), and PS6 (0.28 mgL–1) in the bouillabaisse media.
The findings of the biological controlled experiment showed that the 3 potent
strains were from the genus Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Rhizobium corre­
spondingly. This fact was based on their structural differences, biology, and
chemical characterizations. In conclusion, the potency isolates were chosen as
first-class candidates (biofertilizer) over the toxic inorganic fertilizer because
they were able to elicit growth in plants when used for agricultural purposes.
Sharon et al. (2016) isolated and evaluated the efficiency of PSBs on
tomato plant growth. The results of the biological pot experiment showed
that the most efficient microorganism, Pantoea sp. in Pot 1, was able to
solubilize TCP (Ca3(PO4)2) at the proportion of 956 mg L–1. It was able
to manufacture a variety of natural acidic; propionic, acetic formic, and
gluconic. The results of the greenhouse experiment revealed that Pantoea
sp. In pot 1 also solubilize and assimilate the soil phosphate, which is used to
manufacture additional biomass as compared with the control but in contrast
with other tomatoes not inoculated with Pantoea sp.
Bahadir et al. (2018) isolated and utilized phosphorus solubilizing bacteria
species in promoting the growth of plants. Around 440 bacteria strains
(Bacillus sp.) from diverse sources were selected qualitatively and quan­
titatively for their effectiveness in solubilizing phosphorus and producing
organic acid. The results of the biological controlled experiments revealed
the mean range of the phosphorus solubilization to be 6.9–95.5 μgmL–1 for
the bacteria strain. While the mean range of the organic acid in considerable
amounts was 70.70–619.20 μgmL–1. The results of the relationships between
the parameters in the media (phosphate, pH, and total organic acid contents)
were positive. Six best phosphate solubilizing strains were further used
in in vitro seed pot trial germination, tested for high IAA (indole-3-acetic
acid) production and molecular identification. The findings of the controlled
biological experiment showed that the strains were able to improve the
plumule and radicle parts of the tested plants. On this ground, the authors
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 95

recommend that the bacteria strains have the potential to elicit growth and
development in crops and should be considered as a first-class biofertilizer.

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL UTILIZATION OF PSMs FOR THE

CLEANING OF POLLUTED ENVIRONMENT

Tirry et al. (2018) isolated and screened 27 resistant microorganisms that

have the potential to stimulate the growth of the plant and abate heavy metal
impacts. The microorganisms were confirmed for Cr (VI) diminution, phos­
phate solubilizing efficiency, production of IAA; IAA, siderophores, Cr, Zn,
Cu, Ni, Pb, and Co reduction. The results of their study reveal that the micro­
organism strain was able to repel the metal contents in the media. The results
of the phosphate solubilizing efficiency of the strains showed that about
37.14% of the strains have the ability of solubilization of phosphorus, about
28.57% of the spores (siderophores) were produced and all the strains were
able to produce effective growth-stimulating hormones (IAA). The results
of a 16S rDNA sequence, identified an isolate to be Cellulosimicrobium sp.
A further Pot essay analysis done in a greenhouse setting indicated that the
isolate was able to elicit growth and development of alfalfa plant as related
to the control and regulated the uptake of the examined metals via the soil
to the plant. In conclusion, the authors recommend Cellulosimicrobium sp.
for the bio-remediation as well as for the promotion of plant growth because
it has importance in the controlling of ecological contaminants in the soil.
Ahemad (2015) did a review on the role of PSBs in remediation of soil
contaminants. The author stressed the importance of toxic metals in the soil.
Those toxic metals reduce the efficiency of plant crops. That PSBs applica­
tion to agricultural soil aid in the reduction of the setbacks encounters by
crops and ensure bioavailability of the proper nutrient uptake by plants.
Lin et al. (2018) evaluated and tested the role of PSBs in improving
copper polluted soil for the efficacy and growth of Wedelia trilobata. The
results of their biological controlled experiment indicated that showed that
the removal efficiency of Cu from soil was facilitated by the impact of the
PSBs and it also spurred the growth and development of the tested plant. The
positive effect on the soil and the plant led to the Cu assimilation by the root
system, translocation, and excellent results.
Min et al. (2017) evaluated a review of the remediation of soil contami­
nated by HMs using PSBs. The authors stressed the role of PSB; biofertilizers
in remediating soil polluted with toxic metals. That PBSs can decontaminate
HMs by improving the plant vigor and resistance capability. Besides, the
96 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

authors also state that PSBs also improve the plants against numerous
maladies and fortify the persistence effectiveness in the phyto-remediating
toxic concentration of HMs. This chapter provides an overview of PSMs
research status and summarizes the remediation effects and mechanisms
of heavy metal contaminated soils by PSMs. The disadvantages of PSMs
for remediation, heavy metal contaminated soils are also analyzed, and the
future research orientation is pointed out accordingly.
Chen et al. (2019) tested and evaluated the application of basic bio-char
obtained from rice husk and sludge with PSBs in the remediation of lead. The
results of their study indicated that the bio-chars rice husk and sludge were
able to remediate the Pb2+ efficiently of about 18.61 and 53.89% correspond­
ingly. But when PSBs were introduced, the percentage remediating efficiency
increased for both bio-chars rice husk and sludge for 24.11 and 60.85%, indi­
vidually. Besides, the PSBs were able to improve significantly the creation
of steady pyromorphite on superficial of sludge bio-char consequent of the
uniformly spread of phosphate and controlled pH released by the microbes.
Furthermore, minor elements lesser than <0.074 mm on the surface, indicated
the production of high pyro-morphite induced by the microbes on the rice and
sludge bio-chars. Nonetheless, the sludge biochar showed higher bio-sorption
potentials which spur the microbes to provide an opposite platform to decon­
taminate the toxic metal. The authors, therefore, recommend the integration
of PSBs and conglomerates of bio-char as the first-class candidate for the
decontamination of toxic HMs in agricultural soils.
Ren et al. (2019) isolated and tested the effect of growth-promoting
microorganisms in decontaminating high concentrations of Cu in agronomic
soils. The authors used metal impervious growth-promoting microorganisms
[J62 (B. cepacia), Y1-3-9 (P. thivervalensis), and JYC17 (M. oxydans)] in the
toxic soil decontamination and enhancement of the growth of B. napus. The
biological control experiment lasted for 50 days. The results of their study
revealed that the Rape plant was able to absorb Cu when inoculated with B.
cepacia, P. thivervalensis, and M. oxydans and increase of biomass (113.38,
66.26, and 67.91%) correspondingly. More so, there was evidence of an
increase in a translocation rate/factor (0.85) when B. cepacia was inoculated
after the 50 days trials, which later elicited the remediation potentials of the
Rape plant to Cu bioavailability to Cu in the soil. The results also showed
that B. cepacia and P. thivervalensis also impacted the soil Cu bioavail­
ability and the water-Cu-water solubility potentials by 10.13 and 41.77%
correspondingly, as related to the control. The results of the antioxidant
actions in the plant leaves indicate that the plant was impacted positively
by the tested microbes via increased concentrations of the antioxidant
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 97

non-enzymatic materials; glutathione and ascorbic acid by 9.89–17.67%

and 40.24–91.22% individually. These activities brought down the oxidative
strain brought about by the toxic metal and the concentration of the peroxi­
dase and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances. A further analysis using the
PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis indicated that the DGGE bands
were dominated by the microbe’s rhizosphere and endosphere, which serve
as important components in the culturing media. The result of an advanced
correlation showed a positive relationship between bacterial communities;
dependent and impendent with the root rhizosphere and endosphere. The
authors concluded that the microbes were able to decontaminate the soil and
recommend the strains as perfect bioremediation organisms.

4.5 MECHANISMS OF PHOSPHORUS SOLUBILIZATION

MICROORGANISMS

Some bacterial species possess the capability to solubilize and perform

mineralization capacity for inorganic and organic phosphorus (Hilda and
Fraga, 2000; Khiari and Parent, 2005). Phosphorus solubilizing activity is
evaluated by the capability of the microorganisms to release metabolites
which include organic acid using their carboxyl and hydroxyl groups chelate
the cation joined to the phosphate, which is later converted to soluble forms
(Sagoe et al., 1998). The process of Phosphate solubilization occurs mainly
by numerous microbial processes and modes of action entailing proton extru­
sion and organic acid production (Surange, 1995). These beneficial micro­
organisms could recycle the insoluble organic and inorganic soil phosphates
mainly by bacteria and fungi (Banik and Dey, 1982). Whitelaw (2000) stated
that phosphorus solubilization is performed by numerous numbers of a large
number of saprophytic fungi and bacteria which could solubilize soluble soil
phosphates through chelation-mediated modes of action.
The inorganic phosphorus is solubilized by the effect of inorganic and
organic acids produced by phosphorus solubilizing bacteria in which carboxyl
and hydroxyl groups of acids chelate cations such as Ca, Al, and Fe and
reduce the pH available in the basic soil (Stevenson, 2005). The phosphorus
solubilizing bacteria possess the capability to dissolve the soil. Through the
generation of low molecular weight organic acids which consists of keto
gluconic acids and gluconic and together with the reduction in the pH of the
rhizosphere (Deubel et al., 2000).
The reduction in the pH of the rhizosphere could be through the
following process such as gaseous (O2/CO2) exchanges, biotical production
98 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

of the proton, and bicarbonate release (anion/cation balance). The rate of

phosphorus solubilization could be linked to the level of pH of the medium.
The liberation of the root exudates such as organic ligands could change
the concentration of phosphorus available in the soil solution (Hinsinger,
2001). The organic acid generated by the phosphorus solubilizing bacteria
could solubilize the phosphorus by reducing the pH, chelation of cations,
and conflicting with phosphate for adsorption locations available in the
soil (Nahas, 1996). Some inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid could
also solubilize phosphate, but they have a lower efficacy when compared
to organic acid when applied at the same pH (Kim et al., 1997). Moreover,
phosphate solubilization is stimulated by the induction of phosphate starva­
tion (Gyaneshwar et al., 1999).

4.6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATION

This chapter has provided comprehensive information on the application

of phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms and their wide application for
the increment of agricultural crop production and their utilization for the
ecorestoration of heavily polluted soil. The modes of action explored by these
beneficial strains were highlighted. There is a need to utilize the application
of genetic engineering for the beneficial microorganisms for the production
of an improved strain that could increase the rise in the production of
absorbable phosphorus by the plant. There is a need to explore the utilization
of agricultural wastes for the mass production of effective strain that could
lead to an increase in the production of phosphorus.

KEYWORDS

• biofertilizer
• ecorestoration
• modes of action
• phosphorus solubilizing microorganism
• plant growth-promoting microorganisms
• sustainable agriculture
• tricalcium phosphate
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 99

REFERENCES

Adetunji, C. O., & Ugbenyen, A. M., (2019). Mechanism of action of nanopesticide derived
from microorganism for the alleviation of abiotic and biotic stress affecting crop
productivity. In: Nanotechnology for Agriculture: Crop Production and Protection.
Springer, Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9374-8_7.
Adetunji, C. O., (2019). Environmental impact and ecotoxicological influence of biofabricated
and inorganic nanoparticle on soil activity. In: Panpatte, D., & Jhala, Y., (eds.), Nanotech­
nology for Agriculture. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9370-0_12.
Adetunji, C. O., Egbuna, C., Tijjani, H., Adom, D., Khalil, L., Al-Ani, T., & Partick-Iwuanuyanwu,
K. C., (2019a). Pesticides, home made preparation of natural biopesticides and application.
In: Natural Remedy for Pest. Diseases and Weed Control (pp. 1–12), Elsevier.
Adetunji, C. O., Kumar, D., Raina, M., Arogundade, O., & Sarin, N. M., (2019b). Endophytic
microorganisms as biological control agents for plant pathogens: A panacea for sustainable
agriculture. In: Varma, A., Tripathi, S., & Prasad, R., (eds.), Plant Biotic Interactions.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26657-8_1.
Adetunji, C. O., Oloke, J. K., Bello, O. M., Pradeep, M., & Jolly, R. S., (2019d). Isolation, structural
elucidation and bioherbicidal activity of an eco-friendly bioactive 2-(hydroxymethyl)
phenol, from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (C1501) and its ecotoxicological evaluation on
soil. Environ. Technol. Innov., 13, 304–317.
Adetunji, C. O., Panpatte, D. G., Bello, O. M., & Adekoya, M. A., (2019). Application of
nanoengineered metabolites from beneficial and eco-friendly microorganisms as
biological control agents for plant pests and pathogens. In: Panpatte, D., & Jhala, Y., (eds.),
Nanotechnology for Agriculture: Crop Production and Protection. Springer, Singapore,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9374-8_13.
Adnan, M., Shah, Z., Fahad, S., Arif, M., Alam, M., Khan, I. A., Mian, I. A., Basir, A., et al.,
(2017). Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria nullify the antagonistic effect of soil calcification
on bioavailability of phosphorus in alkaline soils. Scientific Reports, 7, 16131. https://
doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-16537-5.
Shumaila. B., & Atia, I., (2018). Phosphate solubilizing rhizobacteria as alternative of
chemical fertilizer for growth and yield of Triticum aestivum (var. Galaxy 2013). Saudi J.
Biol. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.05.024.
Baas, P., Bell, C., Mancini, L. M., Lee, M. N., Conant, R. T., et al., (2016). Phosphorus
mobilizing consortium Mammoth P™ enhances plant growth. Peer. J., 4, e2121. doi:
10.7717/peerj.2121.
Bahadir, P. S., Liaqat, F., & Eltem, R., (2018). Plant growth-promoting properties of phosphate
solubilizing Bacillus species isolated from the Aegean Region of Turkey. Turk. J. Bot.,
42, 183–196. https://doi.org/10.3906/bot-1706-51.
Baliah, N. T., Pandiarajan, G., & Kumar, B. M., (2016). Isolation, identification and
characterization of phosphate solubilizing bacteria from different crop soils of
Srivilliputtur Taluk, Virudhunagar District, Tamil Nadu. Trop. Ecol., 57(3), 465–474.
Banik, S., & Dey, B. K., (1982). Available phosphate content of an alluvial soil as influenced
by inoculation of some isolated phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. Plant Soil, 69,
353–364.
Baudoin, E., Benizri, E., & Guckert, A., (2002). Impact of growth stages on bacterial
community structure along maize roots by metabolic and genetic fingerprinting. Appl.
Soil Ecol., 19, 135–145.
100 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Chen, H., Zhang, J., Tang, T., Su, M., Tian, D., Zhang, L., Li, Z., & Hu, S., (2019). Enhanced
Pb immobilization via the combination of biochar and phosphate solubilizing. Environ.
Int., 127, 395–401.
Chen, Y. P., Rekha, P. D., Arun, A. B., Shen, F. T., Lai, W. A., & Young, C. C., (2006). Phosphate
solubilizing bacteria from subtropical soil and their tricalcium phosphate solubilizing
abilities. Appl. Soil Ecol., 34(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2005.12.002.
Deubel, A., Gransee, & Merbach, W., (2000). Transformation of organic rhizodeposits by
rhizoplane bacteria and its influence on the availability of tertiary calcium phosphate. J.
Plant Nutr. Soil Sci., 163, 387–392.
Din, M., Nelofer, R., Salman, M., Abdullaha, Faisal, H. K., Khana, A., Ahmada, M., Jalila,
F., Ud, D., & Khand, M., (2019). Production of nitrogen-fixing Azotobacter (SR-4) and
phosphorus solubilizing Aspergillus niger and their evaluation on Lagenaria siceraria
and Abelmoschus esculentus. Biotech. Rep., 20, e00323.
Fallah, A., (2006). Abundance and distribution of phosphate solubilizing bacteria and fungi in
some soil samples from north of Iran. In: 18th World Congress of Soil Science. Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA.
Fenta, L., & Assefa, F., (2017). Isolation and characterization of phosphate solubilizing
bacteria from tomato (Solanum L.) rhizosphere and their effect on growth and phosphorus
uptake of the host plant under greenhouse experiment. Int. J. Adv. Res., 1–49.
Fisher, M. C., Henk, D. A., Briggs, C. J., Brownstein, J. S., Madoff, L. C., McCraw, S. L.,
& Gurr, S. J., (2012). Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health.
Nature, 484, 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10947.
Glick, B. R., (2014). Bacteria with ACC deaminase can promote plant growth and help to feed
the world. Microbiol. Res., 169, 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2013.09.009.
Gyaneshwar, P., Parekh, L. J., Archana, G., Podle, P. S., Collins, M. D., Hutson, R. A., & Naresh,
K. G., (1999). Involvement of a phosphate starvation inducible glucose dehydrogenase
in soil phosphate solubilization by Enterobacter asburiae. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 171,
223–229.
Hilda, R., & Fraga, R., (2000). Phosphate solubilizing bacteria and their role in plant growth
promotion. Biotech. Adv., 17, 319–359.
Hinsinger, P., (2001). Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by
root-induced chemical changes: A review. Plant Soil, 237, 173–195.
Jamshidi, R., Jalili, B., Bahmanyar, M. A., & Salek-Gilani, S., (2016). Isolation and identifi­
cation of a phosphate solubilizing fungus from soil of a phosphate mine in Chaluse, Iran.
Mycology, 7(3), 134–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2016.1221863.
Kapri, A., & Tewari, L., (2010). Phosphate solubilization potential and phosphatase activity
of rhizospheric Trichoderma spp. Braz. J. Microbiol., 41(3), 787–795. https://doi.org/
10.1590/S1517-83822010005000031.
Karpagam, T., & Nagalakshmi, P. K., (2014). Isolation and characterization of phosphate
solubilizing microbes from agricultural soil. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 3(3), 601–614.
Kaur, G., & Reddy, M. S., (2014). Role of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria in improving the
soil fertility and crop productivity in organic farming. Archives of Agronomy and Soil
Science, 60, 4.
Khan, M. S., Zaidi, A., & Wani, P. A., (2007). Role of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms
in sustainable agriculture: A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev., 27, 29–43.
Khiari, L., & Parent, L. E., (2005). Phosphorus transformations in acid light-textured soils
treated with dry swine manure. Can. J. Soil Sci., 85, 75–87.
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 101

Kim, K. Y. D., Jordan, D., & McDonald, G. A., (1997). Solubilization of hydroxyapatite by
Enterobacter agglomerans and cloned Escherichia coli in culture medium. Biol. Fert.
Soils., 24, 347–352.
Kim, K. Y., Jordan, D., & McDonald, G. A., (1998). Effect of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae on tomato growth and soil microbial activity. Biol.
Fert. Soils, 26, 79–87.
Kumar, A., Baby, K., & Mallick, M. A., (2016). Phosphate solubilizing microbes: An effective
and alternative approach ass biofertilizers. Int. J. Phar. Pharm. Sci., 8(2), 37–40.
Ladeiro, B., (2012). Saline agriculture in the 21st century: Using salt contaminated resources
to cope food requirements. J. Bot. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/310705.
Li, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, J., Xu, W., & Mou, Z., (2019). Characteristics of inorganic phosphate­
solubilizing bacteria from the sediments of a eutrophic lake. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public
Health., 16, 2141. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122141.
Lin, M., Jin, M., Xu, K., He, L., & Cheng, D., (2018). Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
improve the phytoremediation efficiency of Wedelia trilobata for Cu-contaminated soil.
Int. J. Phytoremed., 813–822. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2018.1438351.
Malboobi, M. A., Owlia, P., Behbahani, M., Sarokhani, E., Moradi, S., Yakhchali, B., Deljou,
A., & Heravi, K. M., (2009). Solubilization of organic and inorganic phosphates by three
highly efficient soil bacterial isolates. World J. Microbiol. Biotech., 25(8), 1471–1477.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-009-0037-z.
Min, L., Zedong, T., & Mingyang, S., (2018). Research advances in heavy metal contaminated
soil remediation by phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. Acta Ecologica Sinica,
38(10) https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201703100406.
Munees, A., (2015). Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria-assisted phytoremediation of metalliferous
soils: A review. 3 Biotech, 5, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-014-0206-0.
Nahas, E., (1996). Factors determining rock phosphate solubilization by microorganisms
isolated from soil. World J. Microb. Biotechnol., 12, 18–23.
Oliveira, C. A., Alves, V. M. C., Marriel, I. E., Gomes, E. A., Scotti, M. R., Carneiro, N. P.,
Guimaraes, C. T., et al., (2009). Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms isolated from
rhizosphere of maize cultivated in an oxisol of the Brazilian Cerrado biome. Soil Biol.
Biochem., 41, 1782–1787.
Park, J. H., Bolan, N., Megharaj, M., & Naidu, R., (2011). Isolation of phosphate solubilizing
bacteria and their potential for lead immobilization in soil. J. Haz. Mat., 185(2), 829–836.
Reena, T., Dhanya, H., Deepthi, M. S., & Pravitha, D., (2013). Isolation of phosphate
solubilizing bacteria and fungi from rhizospheres soil from banana plants and its effect
on the growth of Amaranthus cruentus L. IOSR J. Pharm. Biol. Sci., 5(3), 6–11.
Ren, X. M., Shi-Jun, G., Wei, T., Chen, Y., Han, H., Chen, E., Li, B. L., et al., (2019). Effects
of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) inoculation on the growth, antioxidant
activity, Cu uptake, and bacterial community structure of rape (Brassica napus L.) grown
in Cu-contaminated agricultural soil. Front. Microbiol., 10, 1455.
Rengasamy, P., (2006). World salinization with emphasis on Australia. J Exp. Bot., 57,
1017–1023. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erj108.
Richardson, A. E., (1994). Soil microorganisms and phosphorus availability. In: Pankhurst,
C. E., Doulse, B. M., Gupta, V. V. S. R., & Grace, P. R., (eds.), Soil Biota Management in
Sustainable Farming System (pp. 50–62). CSIRO, Australia.
Richardson, A. E., (2001). Prospects for using soil microorganisms to improve the acquisition
of phosphorus by plants. Austr. J. Plant Physiol., 28, 897–906.
102 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Romano, S., Bondarev, V., Kölling, M., Dittmar, T., & Schulz-Vogt, H. N., (2017). Phosphate
limitation triggers the dissolution of precipitated iron by the marine bacterium Pseudovibrio
sp. FO-BEG1. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, 364. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00364.
Saeed, K. S., Ahmed, S. A., Hassan, I. A., & Ahmed, P. H. (2015). Effect of biofertilizer and
chemical fertilizer on growth and yield in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) in greenhouse
condition. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 18(3), 129–134.
Sagoe, C. I., Ando, T., Kouno, K., & Nagaoka, T., (1998). Relative importance of protons and
solution calcium concentration in phosphate rock dissolution by organic acids. Soil Sci.
Plant Nutr., 44, 617–625.
Sandhimita, M., Dutta, S., Banerjee, A., Banerjee, S., Datta, R., Roy, P., Podder, A., et al.,
(2017). Production and application of phosphate solubilizing bacteria as biofertilizer:
Field trial at maize field, Uchalan, Burdwan District, West Bengal. Int. J. Env. Agric.
Res., 3, 1.
Sharon, J. A., Hathwaik, L. T., Glenn, G. M., Imam, S. H., & Lee, C. C., (2016). Isolation of
efficient phosphate solubilizing bacteria capable of enhancing tomato plant growth. J.
Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 16(2), 525–536.
Stevenson, F. J., (2005). Cycles of Soil: Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Micronutrients.
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Suleman, M., Yasmin, S., Rasul, M., Yahya, M., Atta, B. M., & Mirza, M. S., (2018).
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria with glucose dehydrogenase gene for phosphorus uptake
and beneficial effects on wheat. PLoS One, 13(9), e0204408. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0204408.
Surange, S., Wollum, A. G., Kumar, N., & Nautiyal, C. S., (1995). Characterization of
Rhizobium from root nodules of leguminous trees growing in alkaline soils. Can. J.
Microbiol., 43, 891–894.
Tirry, N., Joutey, T., Sayel, H., Kouchou, A., Bahafid, W., Asri, M., & El Ghachtouli, N.,
(2018). Screening of plant growth-promoting traits in heavy metals resistant bacteria:
Prospects in phytoremediation. J. Genet. Eng. Biotech., 16, 613–619.
Vassilev, N., Vassileva, M., & Nikolaeva, I., (2006). Simultaneous P-solubilizing and biocontrol
activity of microorganisms: potentials and future trends. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 71,
137–144.
Vazquez, P., Holguin, G., Lopez-Cortes, A., & Bashan, Y., (2000). Phosphate-solubilizing
microorganisms associated with the rhizosphere of mangroves in a semiarid coastal
lagoon. Biol. Fertil. Soils., 30, 460–468.
Vikram, A., & Hamzehzarghani, H., (2008). Effect of phosphate solubilizing bacteria on
nodulation and growth parameters of green gram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). Res. J.
Microbiol., 3, 62–72. https://doi.org/10.3923/jm.2008.62.72.
Walpola, B. C., & Yoon, M. H., (2013). Phosphate solubilizing bacteria: Assessment of their
effect on growth promotion and phosphorous uptake of mung bean (Vigna radiata [L.] R.
Wilczek). Chilean J. Agr. Res., 73(3). https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-58392013000300010.
Whitelaw, M. A., (2000). Growth promotion of plants inoculated with phosphate solubilizing
fungi. Adv. Agron., 69, 99–151.
Williamson, L. C., Ribrioux, S. P. C. P., Fitter, A. H., & Leyser, H. M. O., (2001). Phosphate
availability regulates root system architecture in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol., 126, 875–882.
Wu, F., Li, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, S., Shi, X., Li, L., & Liang, J., (2019).
Effects of phosphate solubilizing bacteria on the growth, photosynthesis, and nutrient
uptake of Camellia oleifera Abel. Forests, 10, 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10040348.
Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Organic Agriculture 103

Wu, H., (2005). Identification and characterization of a novel biotin synthesis gene in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 71(11), 6845–6855.
Wu, S. C., Cao, Z. H., Lib, Z. G., Cheung, K. C., & Wonga, M. H., (2005). Effects of
biofertilizer containing N-fixer, P and K solubilizers and AM fungi on maize growth: A
greenhouse trial. Geoderma, 125, 155–166.
Yahya, A., & Azawi, S. K. A., (1998). Occurrence of phosphate solubilizing bacteria in some
Iranian soils. Plant Soil, 117, 135–141.
Zhang, Y., Chen, F. S., Wu, X. Q., Luan, F. G., Zhang, L. P., Fang, X. M., Wan, S. Z., et
al., (2018). Isolation and characterization of two phosphate-solubilizing fungi from
rhizosphere soil of moso bamboo and their functional capacities when exposed to
different phosphorus sources and pH environments. PLoS One, 13(7), e0199625. https://
doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199625.
CHAPTER 5

RECENT TRENDS IN THE UTILIZATION

OF ENDOPHYTIC MICROORGANISMS
AND OTHER BIOPESTICIDAL
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE
MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
PESTS, INSECTS, AND DISEASES
CHARLES OLUWASEUN ADETUNJI,1
OSIKEMEKHA ANTHONY ANANI,2 SAHER ISLAM,3 and
DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI4

Microbiology, Biotechnology, and Nanotechnology Laboratory,

1

Department of Microbiology Edo State University Uzairue, Auchi,

Nigeria
2
Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Forensic Biology,
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science,
Edo State University Uzairue, Auchi, Nigeria
Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biosciences,
3

University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

4
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT

The high rate of over-dependence on the utilization of synthetic chemicals

for crop production has resulted in numerous injurious effects such as the
outbreak of secondary pests, pest resurgence, high level of pest resistance
which led to the over-application of these synthetic pesticides to achieve the
expected control outcome. The application of biopesticides derived from a
106 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

beneficial microorganism such as endophytic microorganisms has been high­

lighted as a biotechnological technique that could help in the mitigation of
all the highlighted challenges. This might be linked to the fact that microbial
pesticides possess some special and unique features such as relatively low
toxicity, broad-spectrum against pests and pathogens, insects, high level of
compatibility with smallholder farming, easy production. Therefore, this
chapter discussed the general overview of the application of endophytic
microorganisms and other recent biopesticidal approaches for the manage­
ment of pests and pathogens affecting agricultural productivity. The modes
of action exploited by the endophytic microorganism and other advances in
biopesticidal technology such as nanotechnology, metagenomics, and encap­
sulations were also highlighted. The merits and demerits of biopesticides over
synthetic pesticides were also discussed. Necessary suggestions and future
recommendations were also provided.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Pesticides are utilized for protecting crops from the adverse effect of harmful
agricultural pest and pathogens which normally affect the increase in agri­
cultural production and normally leads to economic losses. The application
of synthetic pesticides has been observed to show several adverse effects on
natural resources and nature with hazardous effects on the environment and
human health (Sinha, 2012; Adetunji et al., 2019a–d; Adetunji, 2019; Adetunji
and Ugbenyen, 2019). Typical examples of such synthetic pesticides include
pyrethroids, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), methyl bromide,
organophosphates which have all been highlighted to exhibit numerous health
challenges, environmental, development of high resistance on targeted pests
as well as an increase in the public awareness about the adverse effect of
synthetic pesticides to discover substitutes for crop protection. Therefore,
there is a need to search for an alternative and sustainable which supports
eco-friendly approaches for the management of these agricultural pests and
pathogens. The application of biopesticides has been recognized as a sustain­
able, eco-friendly, the economical approach that could mitigate against all
the highlighted challenges associated with synthetic pesticides (Khater, 2012;
Fareed et al., 2013).
The world health organization has estimated the level of mortality as
high as 20,000 globally every year besides the adverse effect of pesticides
which includes accumulation as food residues, carcinogenicity, neural
disorders, longer degradation periods, and high and acute residual toxicity.
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 107

The application of biopesticides has been identified as a biotechnological

tool with several merits when compared to synthetic pesticides, which
include enhancement, water solubility, complete biodegradability, and eco­
friendly (Thakore, 2006). The biopesticides derived from microorganism
has been recognized as an alternative path because of their high safety to
the ecosystem and human and their non-target effect to both individual and
organism whenever the biopesticides are applied in individual applications
and within integrated pest management (IPM) (Gašić and Tanović, 2013).
The application of endophytic microorganisms has been highlighted to
be rising most especially in crop production. This might be linked to the role
in the stimulation of plant growth, the supply of nitrogen to plants, stress
alleviation, biological control of pests and pathogens (Beltran-Garcia et al.,
2014b; Santoyo et al., 2016; Maksimov et al., 2018; White et al., 2018).
The increase in crops by endophytic microorganisms could be linked to the
production of plant growth regulation. 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic
acid (ACC) deaminase activity fixing of nitrogen, and solubilization of
phosphorus. Furthermore, diazotrophic endophytes have been recognized as
versatile microbes because they possess the capability to give nutrients to
the plant even in the presence of nodules which could be called ‘associative
nitrogen fixation’ (Carvalho et al., 2014).
Therefore, this chapter intends to discuss detailed information on the appli­
cation of endophytic microorganisms. The modes of action utilized by these
beneficial microorganisms were also highlighted. Some examples of recent
advances in biopesticides were also highlighted, such as nanotechnology,
metagenomics, encapsulations were also highlighted. Future direction and
recommendation of the application of biopesticides were elucidated.

5.2 AGRICULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENDOPHYTIC

MICROORGANISMS AS A POTENTIAL BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
TOOL

Endophytic microorganisms have been recognized as a biotechnological

tool that could be used in the management of several agricultural challenges
mitigating against the increase in agricultural production, most especially
increase in food production. Some of these endophytic microorganisms
have the potential to protect the plant against pests, diseases, and insects,
which have been recognized as potential enemies of crops (Azevedo et al.,
2000). The biotechnological potential of endophytic microorganisms has
been identified in several sectors ranging from industries, agriculture, food,
108 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

pharmaceutical but most especially in the agrochemical industries for the

mass production of agrochemicals as well as genetic vectors (Souza et al.,
2004). These endophytic microorganisms have been identified to possess
the capability to generate several biologically active compounds, antibiotics,
toxins, which play a crucial role in the maintenance of their host plant by
offering higher resistance to several biotic and abiotic stress conditions,
generation of phytohormones, and altering physiological features (Azevedo
et al., 2000). It has been highlighted that these beneficial endophytic micro­
organisms possess the capability to induce a systemic resistance against
several pests and pathogens, which constitutes the major basis for their
utilization as a biological control agent for agricultural pests and pathogens.
They could alter the cell structure of the walls (deposition of lignin) as well
as physiological and biological alteration which could lead to the generation
of proteins and chemical substances which play a crucial role in the defense
of their host. Moreover, the significance of plant growth-promoting bacterial
could be linked to their capability to stimuli generated in the plant itself
by the action of various metabolites such as ethylene, salicylic acid, and
jasmonic acid. The compound could serve as elicitors that could induce a
high level of resistance to external pathogens or pests. This process could lead
to resistance induction which could make the plant generate the enhanced
generation of proteinase-inhibitor compounds as well as plants inhibitors
such as aspartate, serine, and cysteine. The plant may stimulate the build-up of
secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids, synthesis of siderophores
and phytoalexins as well as generation of pathogenesis-related proteins
(PR-protein). Phytoalexins has been recognized as a microbial feature which
build-up around the infection site while Phenylpropanoids could catalyze
the development of trans-cinnamic acid-precursor of numerous compounds
used in plant defense. PR-protein, most especially the peroxidase of phenols,
is involved in the lignification of plant cells and cell walls which play a
crucial role during their defense against pests and pathogens. This could
also trigger hypersensitive response and development of papilla which
could prevent the invasion of pathogenic microorganisms and establishment
in their host. Therefore, the interpretation of the ecological roles of these
beneficial microorganisms as an effective biotechnological tool could lead
to sustainable organic agricultures most especially as a protective agent and
enhancement of plant growth through the prevention of pests and pathogens
(Peixoto et al., 2002). Most of this growth-promoting could be evaluated
using molecular techniques which permit the quantification of genes involved
in the anticipated characteristics while biochemical test could also help in the
establishment of these microorganisms which have several potential such as
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 109

phosphate solubilization, nitrogen fixation, production of indole acetic acid

(Kuklinsky-Sobral et al., 2004), production of siderophores (Compant et al.,
2005), generation of high resistance, biological control of diseases and pests
(Ramamoorthy et al., 2001). Endophytic microorganisms are one of the most
promising microbes that intend to boost agricultural output, defend flora
from herbivores by generating ancillary metabolites with unpleasant and/
or noxious taste to the plant-eating animals and display pesticidal features
examples are I. diterpenes, Nodulisporium sp. and B. daphnoides. AR37 and
AR1 strains have been recognized or rated to have potentials in combating
plant-insects invasion. P. indica and E. coenophiala are the most widely
utilize endophytes that colonize the root system of plants, which assist in
the resilience, development, and growth in plants and aid in the resistance to
abiotic and biotic environmental stresses. P. eupatoriis aids in the inhibition
of the phytopathogen, P. infestans. Some species of endophytes also increase
the uptake of soil phosphate and nutrients in plants.

5.3 MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PEST AND INSECTS

USING ENDOPHYTES

Entomopathogenic fungi are universally utilized as inundate sprays to prevent

plants from the attached of agricultural pests. They possess the capability to
establish themselves as fungal endophytes, which consequently give several
benefits to including protection against numerous agricultural pests. Given
the aforementioned, Bamisile et al. (2019) evaluated one strain of Isaria
fumosorosea and two fungal strains of Beauveria bassiana and assessed their
pathogenicity test against adults of Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri).
The result obtained shows that the tested biological control strains cause
a 50% reduction in the survival rate of D. citri adults after exposure for 5
days. Moreover, the capability of the 3 fungal strains to endophytically colo­
nize Citrus limon was also evaluated while the influence of the endophytic
fungi to stimulate systemic establishment on 3 sequential generations of D.
citri feeding on colonized plants was assessed. The Citrus seedlings were
also inoculated at 4 months post-planting with these fungal strains using
foliar spraying. It was observed that B. bassiana effectively colonized the
seedlings while BB Fafu-13, which was one of the B. bassiana colonization
was maintained for 12 weeks in the colonized seedlings while strain BB
Fafu-16 was obtained back from the plant after 8 weeks post-inoculation.
Moreover, it was observed that Isaria fumosorosea (IF Fafu-1) did not show
any colonization on the plant while the two strains of B. bassiana stimulates
110 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

enhance the development of plant height and level fabrication in endophyti­

cally colonized seedlings. Moreover, the endophytic B. bassiana resulted in
10–15% D. citri adult death after exposure for 7 days while it was observed
that the Female D. citri that fed on the plants inoculated with B. bassiana
laid smaller eggs in comparison to the plant without endophytes inocula­
tion. Also, a decrease in adult emergence was observed on the plant that
was treated with B. bassiana. Their study showed that B. bassiana could be
used as endophytic fungi for the biological control of agricultural pests that
normally affect citrus plants.
Banana (Musa spp.) has been recognized as a significant crop globally
but is normally affected by black Sigatoka disease which could be linked to
the fungus Pseudocercospora fijiensis that affects fruit production. Macedo-
Raygoza et al. (2019) evaluated the significance of Klebsiella pneumonia
and Enterobacter cloacae as endophytic microorganisms with biological
potential against P. fijiensis. The role of these endophytic strains for the
support of plant nutrients in the soil that has a small amount of N-transfer.
These strains were identified using 16S rRNA sequence evaluation and
MALDI-TOF (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight)
mass spectrometry (MS). The result obtained indicated that the endo­
phytic bacteria possess the capability to solubilize phosphate, fix nitrogen,
produce indole acetic acid, negative for 1-aminocyclopropane 1-carboxylic
acid deaminase, and demonstrated a biological control activity against P.
fijiensis. To determine the influence of the endophytes on the plant growth,
a non-endophyte using E. coli strain and two endophytic plant-bacteria were
inoculated for 60 days as heat-killed cells (HKC) and active cells (AC) into
plant microcosms deprived of nutrients and likened to a water-only treat­
ment and a mineral nutrients solution (MMN) treatment. The result obtained
shows that the plant treated with the bacterial endophytes enhances all the
growth parameters and mitigates enhanced senescence which was detected in
MMN treatments which serve as the control. There was the mortality of the
plant after 20 days of applying irrigation water while the plant treated with
MMN enhanced the plants to produce new leaves with almost 30% weight
loss during this period. Moreover, it was observed that the plant inoculated
endophytic bacteria demonstrated an enhanced growth while those plants
treated with E. cloacae AC treated plants exhibited an increase in biomass
when compared to the E. cloacae HKC. Moreover, the plant treated with
E. cloacae AC demonstrated the presence of intracellular bacteria within
root cells, which indicated that an established symbiosis exists between
the endophytic bacterial and the host plant. The authors also validated the
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 111

movement of organic N from bacteria into the plants using three bacteria
that were cultivated with Na15NO3 and NH4Cl as a source of nitrogen source.
The rate of movement of the nutrient from the endophytic bacteria into the
plant was evaluated using pheophytin isotopomer abundance. The relative
abundance of the isotopomers obtained at 874.57, 876.57, 872.57, 875.57,
and 873.57 showed that the plant absorbed 15N atoms directly from bacterial
cells utilizing them as a source of nitrogen to enhance the plant growth in
the soil deprived of nutrients. Their study showed that E. cloacae could be
utilized for the improvement of plant growth and increasing the health of
banana crops.
Azevedo et al. (2000) did a review on the current developments in the
control of agricultural insects of tropical plants using endophytic microbes.
The authors addressed the mechanism of action and the role of endophytic
microbes in stimulating eco-physiological balance against pest and insect
invasion, rebound, and its influence in boosting plant ability to cope with
environmental stress concerning how endophytic microbes regulate the
invasion of plant pest and insect is based on their ability to secrete noxious
substances that can influence the biological genome of the plant to respond
to the pest-insect attack as well as to adapt to variation of environmental
changes. The authors also stressed the importance of entomo-pathogenic
endophytic fungi for the control of insects and pests. In conclusion, they
proposed the utilization of endophytic bacteria and fungi micro-biota
sourced from several citrus trees and medicinal plants as a future driver for
the control of insects and pests’ invasion and rebound in agricultural land.
Kumar et al. (2008) did a review on the management of pests and diseases
using endophytic fungi. The authors stated that endophytic microbes reside
in the inside of vascular tissues of good physical shape plants. That the
microbes have healthy potentials are yet to be tapped. They recounted
that various wild and domesticated plants have been shown to have endo­
phytic metabolites such as isocoumarin, sesquiterpenes, indole, alkaloids
pyrrolizidine, and guanidine derivatives which have been shown to have
special antimicrobial and pesticidal against plant pests and diseases causing
organisms. In conclusion, the authors proposed new ways of engineering
endophytes for sustainable agriculture.
Clifton et al. (2018) tested and evaluated the impact of the endophytic­
entomopathogenic strain of fungi on Glycine max to Aphis glycines and the
proof of identity of Metarhizium brunneum and Beauveria bassiana strains
from agro fields. The authors stated that land-dwelling plants tend to harbor
endophytes on their root system, especially strains of fungi, which may cause
112 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

vicissitudes in plant chemical make-up as well as affect the relationship with

other plant-eating animals. The results from their study showed that the
population of Glycine max was increased with the inoculation of Metarhizium
brunneum strain. However, there was no significant impact of Beauveria
bassiana on Aphis glycines. An endophytic relationship was established in the
stem system of the examined plant, indicating Beauveria bassiana to be more
than Metarhizium brunneum. The authors also stated Metarhizium brunneum
was recovered from the plant stem only, while Beauveria bassiana was
recovered from the leaves and stem, respectively. The study also showed that
some entomo-pathogenic endophytes in Glycine max might harm the plant
as related to their growth, development, and susceptibility to Aphis glycines.
To mitigate this, the authors did genetic phylogenetic sequence analysis on
the strain Metarhizium and identify M. robertsii as the causative agent. The
finding of this study revealed a close wide range of what was obtained in
previous works. In conclusion, the authors suggested that dynamic results
are important in understanding what sustainable environmental approaches
can be utilized in the mitigation of pest-insect invasion and rebound.
Ben et al. (2016) did a mini-review on the sustainable utilization of endo­
phytic fungi for good crop yield and output. The authors stated that endo­
phytic fungi play a vital role in the ecosystem habitation of plants, boost plant
protection and performance against pests, diseases, and ecological stressors.
They can do these because of encrypted second level organic unstable
metabolites. More so, endophytic fungi are also used to correct post-harvest
problems faced in agricultural practices, especially in cereals preservation
and management. The authors contended that agricultural practices such as
uncontrolled chemical application, seed treatments, and plant breeding, are
one of the reasons endophytic fungal loss their vegetative spores, which in
turn reduce their effectiveness and diversity in their primary symbiotic role
in the ecosystem. In conclusion, they proposed sustainable approaches to
mitigate these negative effects in contemporary agro practices.
Li et al. (2015) isolated, tested, and evaluated the interaction of some
endophytic plant bacteria on some plant pests. Around 84 endophytic bacteria
were isolated from six congregations of plants designated for required char­
acteristics (cultivars) of attractive plantain lilies (hostas). From the isolates,
five strains were identified after morphological characterization using rDNA-
16S sequence scrutiny. The results from the DNA scrutiny revealed that the
isolates ‘Blu-v2’ was identified from a ‘blue Umbrella’ cultivar as Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens and exhibited strong anti-fungal qualities and the ability
to prevent feeding by Spodoptera fruigiperda (Fall armyworms). The result
of the lipo-peptides of Blu-v2 did not display any noxiousness to the larvae
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 113

of Spodoptera fruigiperda. A further test of strain (Blu-v2) in a greenhouse

setting inoculated into small sprouts of hosta leaves of infected bacteria and
non-affected bacteria, in a 7-day trial period, revealed a significant reduction
in the weights of the Fall armyworms larvae nourished with infected bacteria
(E+) as compared to non-affected bacteria (E−) plants. The results of the
death rate of Fall armyworms larvae nourished with non-affected bacteria
leaves was lesser (3.33%) as compared to that of Fall armyworms larvae
fed infected bacteria leaves (30%). In conclusion, the authors recommend
that endophytic bacteria of strain Blu-v2 has probable worth as a bio-control
mediator to decrease harm from fungal causative agents or pathogens as well
as insect-pest plantain lilies cultivars.
Harman and Uphoff (2019) did a review on the ecological benefits derived
from soil-root endophytic symbiotic microorganisms. The authors opined
those plants should not be considered as an object onto themselves, nonethe­
less as the noticeable fragment of flora-microbe multiplexes which are best
known as genome or “holobiomes.” That some microbes, when given the
chance to dwell in the rooted flora will take the advantage of becoming root-
rot symbiont. In such association, the microorganisms spur the development,
growth, and yield of the roots and shoots system of the plant via absorption,
fixation, and uptake of nutrients, enhancement of photosynthetic reactions,
protection against ecological stress (abiotic and biotic), and resistance against
pest invasion and rebounds. An extensive phylogenetical literature was done
on various improved holobiomes on Piriformospora indica, Trichoderma,
Rhizobiaceae, and Arbuscular mycorrhizae. These species exhibit various
styles of inhabiting flora parts especially the root system. However, they
all possess useful to localize and systemic variations in the flora genome;
reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are biochemical reactive species
encompassing oxygen which are alike. The authors recounted that ROS have
been shown to regulate overexcitation of photosynthetic pigment and reduce
ecological pressures on flora. They also stated that ROS controls the cellular
environment of floral biochemical compositions as well as the gene expres­
sion. Enhanced plant holobiomes (EPHs) have the ability to intensify photo­
synthesis, development, and growth of plants alongside the organic matter
of the soil. The synergy of the EPHs and the soil organic matter (SOM)
have been shown to improve the CO2 quality in the atmosphere, reduction of
greenhouse gases (GHGs), and aid in the stabilization of climatic factors in
the ecosystem. In conclusion, the author proposes the development of EPHs
as an enterprise that has the prospect to improve farm crops against pest and
insect attack as well as reduces global warming episodes.
114 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Gonzalez et al. (2016) did a review on the novel prospects for the incor­
poration of microbes into natural pest regulatory flora greenhouse settings.
The authors stated the need to use natural enemies of pests to combat pest
infestation in an ever-multifaceted ecosystem. They also stated that these
natural pest enemies are too expensive to purchase, rarely available, and not
really effective enough. Based on these, the use of natural control microbes
(‘microbials’), a novel development, are utilized. The authors opined in their
review, that, there is the possible need to integrate natural enemies of the
pest with microbials to explore better future ways of controlling plant pests
and climatic management. They also explore different ways of the utilization
of microbes, for example, endophytes in the bio-control of insect-microbes
associations. In conclusion, the authors recommend the integrated optimiza­
tion of insect-microbials as natural enemies to arthropod pests in greenhouse
agro cultivation.
Kitherian (2017) did a review on the control of insect pests using bio­
nano and nano-particles. Food security has been on the forefront in a call
for sustainable development worldwide. The call for safe food by food
scientists has triggered diverse several green novel technologies ways of
securing food for the present and future generations. The authors stressed
the need for sustainable agriculture to mitigate the problems facing food
such as pesticide accumulation, pest, and insect outbreaks, stunted growth in
plants, pre, and post-harvest storage. The authors, in conclusion, propose the
utilization of bio-nano particles for the control of pest-insect in agricultural
farms, because, it is cheap, eco-friendly, and green.
Bong and Sikorowski (1991) discovered that Pseudomonas maltophila
possess the capability to induce changes in larval development and a decrease
in the development of Helicoverpa zea. Thuler et al. (2006) affirmed that
strains of EN5 of Alcaligenes piechaudii and EN4 of Kluyvera ascorbata
could decrease the viability of Plutella xylostella in about 80 to 50% which
could be applied for intensive field trial for the management of these insects.
Moreover, Praça (2012) discovered that B. thuringiensis strains S1905 and
S2122 could induce 100% of mortality in caterpillars in the 3° instar of
Plutella xylostella in assessment implemented 48 h after caterpillars had been
wide-open to discriminating bioassays, whereas S2124 triggered 58.33% of
death after the similar period and 98.33% of death after 96.
Moreover, the CL50 values vary from 2.33 to 4.84 ng/mL possesses a
similar result when toxicity was carried out in comparison to the control.
Viana et al. (2009) discovered that 12 out of the 58 strains of B. thuringiensis
evaluated against caterpillars of Plutella xylostella possessed that capability
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 115

to induce 100% mortality within 24–48 h: 3A.140, T3A.259, T08.024, E1,

E26, 2.7L, 1.7L, E22, 22.7L, 49.19A, and E2. Also, Castelo Branco et al.
(2003) reported 100% of death for larvae of Plutella xylostella, most espe­
cially in the 2° instar when B. thuringiensis was applied.
Castelo et al. (2003) observed 100% mortality for larvae of Plutella
xylostella in the 2° instar with the application of B. thuringiensis. Macedo et
al. (2012) also reported that some local strains of B. thuringiensis (S1301,
S1264, S602) could inhibit 75% of mortality after dilution of 50 times.
Moreover, it was discovered that among all the tested strains S602 and S1264
showed 75% mortality after dilution of 50 times to D. saccharalis. Melatti
et al. (2010) also discovered that B. thuringiensis could prevent the develop­
ment of cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii). It was later discovered that Bacillus
kurstaki S1168 and Bacillus aizawai S1576, S29, S616, S40, exhibited the
highest mortality rate against Aphis gossypii which led to more than 50%
mortality rate. Amongst the evaluated strains, S1168 and S29 were the most
active in the selective bioassay, producing deaths of 73 and 76% against A.
gossypii, respectively.
In a similar study, Polanczyky et al. (2003) evaluated the biological
potential of 58 subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis against S. frugiperda.
The result obtained indicated that Bacillus thuringiensis morrisoni triggered
80% of death in caterpillars. In a similar vein, Berlitz et al. (2003) evaluate
the effect of 24 isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis derived from rice-growing
regions of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil for the biological control of S. frigi­
perda. The result obtained reveals the greatest death rates between 31.6%
and 100% with only 5 isolates.
Also, Campanini et al. (2012) evaluated the biological control potential
of B. thuringiensis against Sphenophorus levis and Spodoptera frigiperda.
It was later discovered that IB8.2 and IB17.3 were the most effective in the
biological control of caterpillars of S. frugiperda while it was discovered that
IB26.2 showed more than 75% mortality against the larvae S. levis.
Lucho (2004) discovered that the CL50 of Cry proteins of Bacillus
thuringiensis aizawai destroy the caterpillars of S. frugiperda in the 3° instar.
The outcomes showed that CL50 of 2.22, 0.41, and 0.18 μg/mL for 2, 3, and 4
days after the treatment of the biological control agent. It was discovered that
a very high level of inhibition was demonstrated by the following proteins
such as Cry1D, Cry1Aa, Cry1C, and Cry1Ab respectively from Bacillus
thuringiensis aizawai against Spodoptera frugiperda. Furthermore, Knaak
et al. (2007) established that proteins Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab produced by
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki HD73 and Bacillus thuringiensis aizawai
116 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

407 showed a CL50 9.29 and 1.79 μg/cm2 against caterpillars in the 1° instar.
Azambuja and Fiuza (2003) also affirmed that two natural isolates Bacillus
thuringiensis isolated from rice-growing regions of Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil could inhibit the caterpillars of Anticarsia gemmatalis.
Pinto et al. (2003) utilized six isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis that possess
genes from the class cry3 or cry7 that could be stimulated and regulate the
activity of class cry3 or cry7 that could synthesize the production of proteins
insecticidal to coleopterous. The authors’ evaluated the influence of these
proteins against the Oryzophagus oryzae. The result revealed that 2 induced
corrected killing of 100%, 3 between 59% and 67%, and 1 around 50%.
Steffens et al. (2001) recorded 53.41% mortality of larvae of O. oryzae from
isolates of B. thuringiensis having cry3 genes with inhibitory activity against
coleopterous. The high rate of inhibition might be linked to the presence of
the two genes such as cry7 and cry3 genes, which categorize proteins explicit
to coleopterous.
Castilhos-Fortes et al. (2002) evaluated 57 strains of these bacteria and
discovered that seven showed an enhanced activity. These strains had the
following inhibitory such as B. thuringiensis kurstaki (Btk) with 28.57%,
B. thuringiensis roskildiensis (Btr) and B. thuringiensis sooncheon (Bts)
with 100%, B. thuringiensis colmeri (Btc) with 42.85%, B. thuringiensis
huazhongensis (Bth) with 57.1%, B. thuringiensis yunnanensis (Bty) with
71.4% and B. thuringiensis brasiliensis (Btb) with 52.3% mortality after
7th day after treatment application. The author later utilized isolate B.
thuringiensis roskildiensis and B. thuringiensis sooncheon which induced
100% of death in the pre-selective assays. Broderick et al. (2000) evaluated
the synergetic effect of zwittermycin A of Bacillus cereus when combined
with B. thuringiensis against lepidopterous Lymantria dispar (L.). The result
obtained showed that the combinatory effect of zwittermycin A of Bacillus
cereus when combined with B. thuringiensis resulted in 35% in the mortality
of the lepidopterous Lymantria dispar. Ma et al. (2008) tested the effect of
B. bassiana and Cry 1Ac protein of B. thuringiensis and evaluated their
effectiveness against Ostrinia furnacalis. The result obtained showed that
the induced high mortality against the tested larvae of Ostrinia furnacalis.

5.4 MANAGEMENT OF ROOT BORNE DISEASES AFFECTING

CROPS USING ENDOPHYTES

Dutta et al. (2014) did a review on the utilization of endophytes as an

apparatus for phyto-protection. The authors recounted that bacterial or fungi
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 117

microbes that are endophytes are symptom-less organisms that are cosmo­
politan in all living flora species parts. These symbiotic plant-microbes can
inhabit the inner tissues of the plant and thus improving their performance.
Numerous fungal-bacteria endophytic organisms secrete second-level
growth hormones or metabolites, for example, gibberellin and auxin in the
plant host they inhabit. Most of these secondary or second level metabolites
elements or substances found in the plants have antibacterial and antifungal
qualities that can powerfully inhibit the growing of additional microbes
as well as disease-causing organisms in crops. The authors, in conclusion,
recommend the utilization of bacterial-fungi endophytes in the mitigation of
plant diseases.
Khare et al. (2018) did a review on the connections between different
flora and endophytic organisms and their prospects. The authors stated the
benefits derived from endophytic microbes such as defense retort against
diseases causing organisms. An interesting aspect of this is the possession
of metabolites that aid in the protection of the plant against pathogens.
The authors were able to explore several areas endophytic microbes can
be utilized in agriculture as well as in human health protection from plant
pathogens.
Gond et al. (2010) did a review on the role endophytic fungal play in
plant protection. The authors recounted that every flora inhabits endophytes
in their tissues without endangering or resulting in any disease therein.
However, they harbor latent natural or biological products that serve as
warfare against disease-causing organisms. Examples of such biological
properties are immunosuppressive substances, insecticide, nematicide,
antioxidant, antiviral, antimycotic, antibiotic, and anticancer. Some of the
natural products derived from endophytic microbes are taxol, 3-hydroxy­
propionic acid, loliterm B, cryptocandin, jesterone, oocydin, ambuic acid,
noxious alkaloids, and cytochalasines. The authors, in conclusion, propose
microbial endophytes as first-class engineering industries.
Muthukumar et al. (2017) did a review on the role of endophytes in the
control of plant disease. The authors stated that plant roots are dominated
with endophytes in the following ranks fungi > bacteria > virus. That the
present techniques used in the control of flora disease are the application
of agricultural chemicals. This method has been known for its noxious
ecological and human health concerns. However, a novel natural method
using biological optimize endophytic microbes in the biological control of
several flora pathogens. They can combat diseases using a series of asso­
ciations like trophobiotic, commensalism, cannibalistic, and mutualistic in
118 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

enhancing plant-microbes resistance. The authors concluded that endophytes

are the first choice in phyto-protection of plants against pre- and post-harvest
preservations.
Rabiey et al. (2019) did a review on the bio-control of tree pathogens
using endophytic microorganisms. Tress disease has been managed with
agrochemicals which have been shown to have residual effects in the
ecosystem. Nonetheless, several pressures on the concern ecological and
health risks associated with their usage have necessitated the proposition of a
green bio-endophytic anti-disease agent for the management of tree diseases.
Its usage has shown to be environmentally friendly, cheap, and increase the
plant’s adaptability to future disease rebounds. The authors stressed when
these endophytic microorganisms are deploying in the soil as inoculants,
they stimulate the environment of the plants (phyto-sphere). Examples of
such organisms are the phylloplane microbes (fungi, yeasts, and bacteria).
These microorganisms have the potential to bio-control plant pathogens
and overcome several challenges faced by the plants. The utilization and
optimization of these groups of microbes are competent and more effective
in phyto-disease control because of the genome found in their chromosomes.
However, the authors stated that the selective latent advantageous and utiliz­
able pattern of most endophytic organisms has not been fully understood. In
conclusion, the authors were able to explain how the endophytes can upset
and interact with each other in the bio-control of diseases.
Waqas et al. (2015) did a tested and evaluated how endophytic microbes-
fungi promote growth in plants as well as mitigate root-rot disease. The
authors opined that crops that are resistant to disease have a genetic trait that
can be used for an agro purpose. Endophytes, especially fungi have growth
stimulating enzymes-gibberellins, which have little or no role in the preven­
tion of plant disease. The authors looked at the role of two strains of fungi
(P. citrinum and A. terreus) in stimulating growth and bio-control of diseases
in Helianthus annuus as well as the ability to control signaling hormone as
regards to plant defense against Sclerotium rolfsii, in a biological controlled
experiment for three days interval; in a 12-day trial period (3, 6, and 12
days). The results of their study indicated that chlorophyll content, photo­
synthesis, transpiration, diameter, length, and biomass of the shoot system
were elicited by the inoculated fungi as compared to their control within the
trial periods. The findings of their study revealed other negative influences
caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. The authors also noticed that P. citrinum had
a more positive influence on the sunflower than A. terreus to Helianthus
annuus. In conclusion, the endophytic fungi were able to restructure the flora
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 119

growth during the pathogenic invasion and respond swiftly in the defense of
the flora immune system against the pathogen. They propose the utilization
of both strains of fungi for the sustainable management of crops because of
their eco-friendly nature and economical usage as against the widely used
agro fungicide(s).

5.5 MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY

HEAVY METAL USING ENDOPHYTES

Ikram et al. (2018) tested and evaluated the potential effects of indole-3­
acetic acid (IAA) generating endophytic fungi in the remediation of heavy
metal in wheat crops cultivated in polluted soils. The authors stressed the
need of utilizing endophytic microorganisms for the remediation of heavy
metals (HMs) in seriously impacted agricultural soils. Those cheap and
effective ways are needed to make different strains of endophytes available
for efficient plant growth. The authors applied IAA P. roqueforti strain as
well as a mixture of it with waste effluents, to remediate heavy metal in
wheat polluted soils. The results of the study revealed that the mixtures (P.
roqueforti and wastes effluents), elicited the nutrients level, growth of the
roots and reduced drastically the HMs in the soils of shoots and roots of
the plants. In contrast, the wheat plants not inoculated under HMs stress
were underdeveloped with signs of chlorosis. The findings from their study
revealed that the endophyte used was able to establish a closed nonparasitic
association with the plant host and was a useful tool for phytoremediation
and bio-stabilization of soil HMs in and agroecosystem.
Domka et al. (2019) did a review on the role of endophytic fungi in
the adaptability of HMs noxiousness in soil cultivated plants. The authors
recounted the environmental problems caused by HMs in the ecosystem.
That micro-remediation is an effective substitute for a sustainable environ­
ment as against other conventional methods. Microbes such as endophytic
fungi have been shown to have high tolerance limits to HMs toxicity and
other soil stressors. In conclusion, the authors proposed endophytic fungi as
a first-class candidate for effective remediation of HMs toxicity in agricul­
tural soils.
Rizvi et al. (2017) tested and evaluated the stress mitigation of HMs
and the bio-toxic influence on Triticum aestivum (wheat plant), using effec­
tive endophyte, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The authors opined that speedy
development and uncontrolled HMs release the ecosystem have warranted
120 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

serious concerns both locally and globally. The biological controlled experi­
ment involved the bio sequencing of strains of rhizosphere using 16S rDNA.
The results of the analysis indicated Pseudomonas aeruginosa as the main
isolates. The strain was later subjected to some HMs (Cr, Cd, and Cu) of
various concentrations. The results of the biological controlled experi­
ments revealed that P. aeruginosa strain was able to endure a high level
of Cr, Cd, and Cu of concentrations 1000 μg ml–1, 1000 μg ml–1, and 1400
μg ml–1 respectively. The results of the phytotoxic impacts on the Triticum
aestivum, amplified with increases in the levels of Cr, Cd, and Cu. The strain
inoculated Triticum aestivum had better yields and growth under the studied
HMs stress. The dry mass (biomass) of the roots inoculated flora root was
improved by 48, 28, and 44% at the rate of 204 mg/kg (Cr), 36 mg/kg (Cd),
and 2007 mg/kg (Cu) correspondingly. The findings of this study showed
that P. aeruginosa strain had the potential to mitigate HMs in polluted soils
as well as stimulate growth and development in Triticum aestivum plant.

5.6 THE APPLICATION OF NANOAGROPARTICLES AS A

REPLACEMENT FOR PESTICIDES

Several pieces of research around the world have raised numerous concerns
on the detrimental effects of synthetic pesticides. Some typical examples
include neonicotinoids, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam have been high­
lighted to be very toxic to terrestrial and aquatic microorganisms, and a high
level of pollution has been recorded in the ecosystem (Krupke et al., 2012).
Numerous organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) have been reported to lead
to a high level of toxicity and they possess the capability to build up in the
body which results in a high level of biomagnification in higher tropical
organisms, which might lead to disruption in the food chain and ecosystem
(Gill and Garg, 2014). Some OPPs possess the capability to enter into the
water bodies and give rise to a high level of pollution in drinking water
(Baker et al., 2013c). Moreover, some commonly applied OPPs the herbicide
glyphosate was discovered to have a diverse effect against human beings
(Guyton et al., 2015). The OPPs possess the capability to enter into the
food system of a human being, most especially their diet, and their presence
has been identified in the breast milk. Some adverse effect associated with
these synthetic pesticides includes diabetes, cancer, infertility, neurological
effects, respiratory diseases, genetic disorders, Parkinson disorder, and fetal
diseases (Hu et al., 2015).
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 121

Several drastic measures have been put in place for the reduction of the
high level of pollutants using conventional techniques such as transporta­
tion of pollutants to offsite dumping yards, vitrification, the addition of
reactants, excavation, excavation (Singh et al., 2016). However, most of
these processes involved several expensive techniques for the management
of these pollutions most especially in developing countries where there is
a lack of economic development and scientific advancement (Kang, 2014).
Therefore, the application of biopesticides has been identified as sustain­
able from beneficial microorganisms for the production of agrochemical-based
products that are environmentally friendly in nature. Furthermore, the intro­
duction of nanotechnology for the synthesis of nanobiopesticides has been
identified as a sustainable biotechnological tool that could help to overcome
all the highlighted challenges associated with synthetic pesticides. One of the
merits of eco-friendly based biopesticides is that they are unable to meet up
with the market demand and deprived performance, which has instigated the
scientific community to invent new alternative strategies. Hence, the utiliza­
tion of beneficial microorganisms such as endophytic microorganisms for the
synthesis of nanobiopesticides will go a long way in mitigating all the negative
challenges associated with synthetic pesticides.
Teodoro et al. (2010) stated the insecticidal action of nanostructured
aluminum against Rhyzopertha dominica and Sitophilus oryzae, which
are a major pest of stored food. The result obtained showed that the nano­
aluminum exhibited a high death rate when compared to the commercial
insecticidal dust used as control. Liu et al. (2006) also evaluated the effect of
silica nanoparticles as a vehicle for effective delivery of pesticides such as
validamycin for improvement of activity and decrease the level of toxicity
in comparison to free validamycin. The study established that the action
of nanoparticles and their release rate depend mainly on the temperature
and pH of the dissolution medium. Also, the action of silver-zinc and silver
combined nanoparticles was evaluated against Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonsco­
lombe which led to mortality LC50 at 539.46 and 424.67 mg/mL respectively
(Rouhani et al., 2012).

5.7 DIFFERENT TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES UTILIZED IN THE

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM

Nanoagroparticles have been identified as a new paradigm that could enhance

and led to an increase in agricultural production and that could mitigate against
several challenges affecting the increase in agricultural production. There is
122 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

numerous class of nanoparticles used in agriculture and their action depend

on the mechanism of action. Examples of nanoparticles include aluminum,
silver, zinc, copper, silica, gold, multiwalled carbon nanotubes (Sabir et al.,
2014). In sustainable agriculture, their application depends on features of the
nanoparticles such as control release of the component, solubility, non-self­
decomposition, specificity most especially, the nanoagroparticles normally
utilized as conjugated or tagged with carrier molecules that could lead to
the development of liposome-based products, polymerization, immobilized
association, emulsion, and hydrogel. Some other features of designed nano­
agroparticles include highly sensitive with negligible usage and maximum
action, cost-effective, biocompatible that could enhance and lead to an
increase in agricultural crop productivity.

5.8 APPLICATION OF NANOAGROPARTICLES AS POTENT

ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS AGAINST PHYTOPATHOGENS

In the agriculture sector, effective management of microbial infestation is

an important factor, and pathogenic microorganisms can cause a deleterious
effect on crop productivity (Bhardwaj et al., 2014). In recent years, the
emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms has posed a risk to mankind
(Baker and Satish, 2015). The inappropriate and over usage of microbicidal
chemicals agents, especially fungicides and bactericides, have resulted in the
development of the application of beneficial microorganisms as an active
antimicrobial agent in the preparation of nanoagroparticles against phyto­
pathogens. In the agricultural sector, the application of nanoagroparticles has
been recognized to play a crucial role in the management of microbial infes­
tation and most especially for the treatment of pathogenic microorganisms
which cause deleterious effect on crop productivity (Bhardwaj et al., 2014).
The increase in the high level of resistance from the constant application of
synthetic pesticides has led to the development of a high resistance which
results in the pathogens invading crops (Baker and Satish, 2015). Therefore,
the application of nanoagroparticles has been recognized as sustainable and
effective eco-friendly nanobiopesticides with a novel mechanism of action
that could reduce the high level of resistance caused by highly resistant patho­
genic strains. The sizes of these nanoagroparticles enable them to destroy the
cell wall of different pathogenic microorganisms and cause a high level of
destabilization on the cell membrane, which eventually leads to an eruption of
the cellular contents and which eventually causes the interaction of the nano­
agroparticles. The crucial cellular contents of the pathogenic microorganisms
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 123

lead to disruption in the metabolism (Baker and Satish, 2012, 2015; Baker et
al., 2015).

5.9 APPLICATION OF NANOAGROPARTICLES AS POTENTIAL

FUNGICIDES

Fungal diseases have been highlighted to be responsible for almost 70%

of the crop diseases in comparison with pathogens which are responsible
for high economic losses on agricultural food commodities (Agrios, 2005).
Several crops such as grapevine, rice, groundnut, wheat, barley have b
discovered to have a high susceptibility to the attack of fungal pathogens
(Dhekney et al., 2007). The application of fungicides has been utilized for
the management of this fungal pathogen, but their application is endowed
with several environmental and health hazards that affect the ecosystem and
also non-targeted microorganisms (Patel et al., 2014).
Therefore, the application of nanoagroparticles derived from a beneficial
microorganism such as endophytes could be a sustainable biotechnological
tool for the management of agricultural fungal pathogens (Marziye et al.,
2014). The utilization of silver nanoparticles has been described as an effec­
tive nanobiopesticides with enhanced activity against rice blast disease
triggered by Magnaporthe grisea. The utilization of silver nanoparticles
has been recorded to prevent the utilization of synthetic fungicides such as
azoxystrobin and isoprothiolane.
Ouda (2014) discovered that 15 mg/L of copper nanoparticles could
suppress the effect of Botrytis cinerea (BC) and Alternaria alternata. Also,
Wani and Shah (2012) discovered that magnesium and zinc oxide (ZnO)
exhibited an enhanced inhibitory effect against the spores of several patho­
genic fungal such as Mucor plumbeus, A. alternata, Rhizopus stolonifer,
Fusarium oxysporum silver nanoparticles fabricated from Al-Othman
et al. (2014), also validated the effect of Aspergillus terreus (KC462061)
against aflatoxin producing isolates of Aspergillus flavus. Parizi et al. (2014)
established that magnesium oxide nanoparticles could be used against F.
oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici which have been highlighted to be responsible
for the wilting in the tomato plant.
Ramy and Ahmed (2013) evaluated the influence of ZnO nanoparticles
against F. oxysporum and Penicillium expansum in an in vitro antifungal
assay. The result obtained indicates that the antifungal action exhibited by
the nanoparticles is concentration-dependent. The 12 mg/L ZnO nanopar­
ticle’s highest inhibitory effect was recorded against the mycelia growth
124 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

was discovered to be 100 and 77% against P. expansum and F. oxysporum,

respectively. Furthermore, these nanoparticles also reduced the level of
mycotoxins production. The scanning electron microscopy was used to
establish that the nanoparticles from the ZnO-induced several malformations
on the treated pathogens. Ouda (2014) also compared the antifungal activities
of copper and silver nanoparticles against B. cinerea and A. alternata. The
result obtained showed that 15 mg/L concentration of silver nanoparticles
demonstrated a very high inhibitory effect against fungal hyphae growth.
The microscopic evaluation also affirmed that the nanoparticles exhibited a
high level of damage against the conidia and the hyphae. Also, high damage
was observed on the lipid content, sugar, n-acetyl glucosamine when treated
with silver nanoparticles.

5.10 APPLICATION OF NANOAGROPARTICLES AS POTENTIAL

NANOBACTERICIDES

Several scientists have validated the effect of nanoparticles with enhanced

antimicrobial activity against several pathogenic bacteria (Baker et al.,
2015). Chowdhury et al. (2014) tested the antibacterial of silver nanoparticles
against multidrug-resistant (LBA4404 MDR) Agrobacterium tumefaciens
and the normal strain (LBA4404). Their study showed that spherical silver
nanoparticles with 5–40 nm exhibited the highest antifungal effect against
these tested bacterial pathogens.

5.11 APPLICATION OF BIONANO-HYBRID AGROPARTICLES

AGAINST PHYTOPATHOGENS

Bio-nano hybrid agroparticles has been identified as a complex nanosystem

which absolutely depends on bioconjugation chemistry. Bioconjugation
gives significant interest in the biology of insightful activities. In this
regard, biomolecules are utilized together with molecules or biomolecules
with nanoparticles have been identified as significant Biotechnological
tools. The biosynthesis of the bioconjugation approached highlighted the
biochemical properties and physicochemical features of the nanomaterials as
well as the biological materials. The relationship between biomolecules and
nanoparticles depends on the functional moieties and electrostatics forces
on the nanoparticles, which might lead to the development of functionalized
nanoparticles in a reversible manner (Bagwea et al., 2003). The functional
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 125

moieties can develop a hydrophobic relationship and covalent bonding (Baker

and Satish, 2012, 2015). The utilization of active metabolites and biologi­
cally active molecules from endophytic microorganisms could be used for
the development of bio-nano-hybrid conjugates which could prevent all the
adverse effects of pesticides resistance developed by agricultural pathogen
whenever synthetic pesticides are applied for the management of agricultural
pests and diseases.

5.12 APPLICATION OF ENCAPSULATION FOR ENHANCEMENT

OF BIOPESTICIDE ACTIVITY

Encapsulation has been identified as techniques used for the preservation

of the active ingredients present in the formulation in close contact. The
delivery of encapsulated viral particles has been recognized as a preferred
delivery system to prevent the loss of the activity when exposed to solar
radiation and protect the viral insecticidal activity. Nucleopolyhedrovirus of
Heliotis and Bacillus thuringiensis have been successfully encapsulated in
starch granules. Some encapsulation materials such as maize starch, gelatin,
calcium alginate, and chitin have been used to maintain the viability of
active ingredients. Moreover, Spodoptera frugiperda Nucleopolyhedrovirus
(SfNPV) has been successfully encapsulated using Eudragit-S100 micropar­
ticles. It was discovered that the resulting particles showed more resistance to
UV-inactivation rather than using Nucleopolyhedrovirus alone (Ravishankar
and Venkatesha, 2010; Haase et al., 2015).

5.13 APPLICATION OF METAGENOMIC TECHNIQUES FOR

ENHANCEMENT OF BIOPESTICIDE ACTIVITY

Metagenomic study involves identification, determination, characterization,

and functional evaluation of novel strains, most especially from environ­
mental samples, entails the isolation of DNA from the soil and detection,
isolation, and screening of oppressive compounds from microorganisms.
The utilization of next-generation, sequencing, new genomic techniques
offer a novel and economical fast technology that could depict microbial
diversity without any need to utilize cultural techniques (Hirsch et al., 2012).
The application of metagenomics identification has been recognized in the
identification of beneficial microorganisms, most especially the endophytic
microorganisms, and other related microbes, and their interaction with
126 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

agricultural pests. This has been recognized to be visible because metage­

nomics could be used to establish that some endophytic fungi possess the
capability to exhibit toxic reactions for plant pathogens through the produc­
tion of secondary metabolites and inhibition of their growth (Porras-Alfaro
and Bayman, 2011).

5.14 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATION

This chapter has provided a comprehensive report on the application of

endophytic microorganisms as well as their application for the biological
control of pests, insects, and pathogens affecting increases in agricultural
production. Moreover, the modes of action utilized by these beneficial endo­
phytic microorganisms were also highlighted. Therefore, there will be a need
to know the diversity of these endophytic, their function, and frequency to
have proper knowledge that will expand the Biotechnological application
of these beneficial microorganisms, most especially their application in the
production of eco-friendly agrochemicals. This will also serve as eco-friendly
biotechnology approaches for the management of a heavily contaminated
environment. There is a need to explore the biotechnological potential of
endophytic microorganism that dwell in a marine region and the detection as
well as structural elucidation of diverse and unique biological active metabo­
lites with enhanced activity for the management of pests and diseases. This
will also enhance a resourceful, cost-effective, and ecological substitute for
the resolution of damages instigated by pest insects in agriculture.
The regulatory authorities also need numerous knowledge on microbial
pesticides an identification, evaluation of their adverse effect on the environ­
ment and humans as well as affirming their efficacy against pests. There
is also a need to define and harmonize regulatory techniques for microbial
pesticides in different regions of the world. The process of regional harmo­
nization in facilitating regulations is one most significant barrier to the
great implementation of microbial pesticides. There is a need to develop
several areas of microbial pesticides adaptation and development. These
include enhancing the product range targeting the major plant protection
challenges, development of resilient microbes, production of quantity and
quality product in the market, guaranteeing satisfactory intellectual property
rights for examining, generate a healthy supervisory atmosphere, regulatory
coordination across the region, and inspiring public-private partnerships to
fascinate more small-medium entrepreneurship into the microbial pesticide
industry.
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 127

KEYWORDS

• endophytes
• heavy metals
• indole-3-acetic acid
• mineral nutrients solution
• modes of action
• nanotechnology
• organophosphorus pesticides
• pathogens

REFERENCES

Adetunji, C. O., & Ugbenyen, A. M., (2019). Mechanism of action of nanopesticide derived
from microorganism for the alleviation of abiotic and biotic stress affecting crop
productivity. In: Nanotechnology for Agriculture: Crop Production and Protection. https://
doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9374-8_7.
Adetunji, C. O., (2019). Environmental impact and ecotoxicological influence of biofabricated
and inorganic nanoparticle on soil activity. In: Panpatte, D., & Jhala, Y., (eds.), Nanotech­
nology for Agriculture. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9370-0_12.
Adetunji, C. O., Egbuna, C., Tijjani, H., Adom, D., Khalil, L., Al-Ani, T., & Partick-Iwuanuyanwu,
K. C., (2019a). Pesticides, home made preparation of natural biopesticides and application.
In: Natural Remedy for Pest, Diseases and Weed Control (pp. 1–12) Elsevier.
Adetunji, C. O., Kumar, D., Raina, M., Arogundade, O., & Sarin, N. M., (2019b). Endophytic
microorganisms as biological control agents for plant pathogens: A panacea for sustainable
agriculture. In: Varma, A., Tripathi, S., & Prasad, R., (eds.), Plant Biotic Interactions.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26657-8_1.
Adetunji, C. O., Oloke, J. K., Bello, O. M., Pradeep, M., & Jolly, R. S., (2019d). Isolation, structural
elucidation and bioherbicidal activity of an eco-friendly bioactive 2-(hydroxymethyl)
phenol, from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (C1501) and its ecotoxicological evaluation on
soil. Environ. Technol. Inno., 13(2019), 304–317.
Adetunji, C. O., Panpatte, D. G., Bello, O. M., & Adekoya, M. A., (2019c). Application
of nanoengineered metabolites from beneficial and eco-friendly microorganisms as
biological control agents for plant pests and pathogens. In: Panpatte, D., & Jhala, Y.,
(eds.), Nanotechnology for Agriculture: Crop Production and Protection. Springer,
Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9374-8_13.
Al-Othman, M. R., El-Aziz, A. R. M. A., Mahmoud, M. A., Eifan, S. A., El-Shikh, M. S., &
Majrashi, M., (2014). Application of silver nanoparticles as antifungal and antiaflatoxin
B1 produced by Aspergillus flavus. Dig. J. Nanomater. Biostruct., 9, 151–157.
Azambuja, K., & Fiuza, L. M., (2003). Isolation of Bacillus thuringiensis pathogenic to
Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). In: Shows of Scientific Initiation of
Unisinos. São Leopoldo.
128 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Azevedo, J. L., Maccheroni, J. W., Pereira, J. O., & Araujo, W. L., (2000). Endophytic micro­
organisms: A review on insect control and recent advances on tropical plants. Elect. J.
Biotech., 3(1), 40–65.
Bagwea, R. P., Xiaojun, Z., & Weihong, T., (2003). Bioconjugated luminescent nanoparticles
for biological applications. J. Dispers. Sci. Technol., 24, 453–464.
Baker, S., & Satish, S., (2012). Endophytes: Towards a vision in synthesis of nanoparticles for
future therapeutic agents. Int. J. Bio-Inorg. Hybrid Nanomater., 1, 67–77.
Baker, S., & Satish, S., (2015). Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles by Pseudomonas veronii
AS41G inhabiting Annona squamosa L. Spectrochim. Acta Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc., 150,
691–695.
Baker, S., Kumar, K. M., Santosh, P., Rakshith, D., & Satish, S., (2015). Extracellular
synthesis of silver nanoparticles by novel Pseudomonas veronii AS41G inhabiting Annona
squamosa L. and their bactericidal activity. Spectrochim. Acta Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc.,
136, 1434–1440.
Baker, S., Vinayaka, A. C., Manonmani, H. K., & Thakur, M. S., (2013c). Development
of dipstick-based immuno-chemiluminescence techniques for the rapid detection of
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Luminescence, 27, 524–529.
Bamisile, B. S., Dash, C. K., Akutse, K. S., Qasim, M., Aguila, L. C. R., Wang, F., Keppanan,
R., & Wang, L., (2019). Endophytic Beauveria bassiana in foliar-treated citrus lemon
plants acting as a growth suppressor to three successive generations of Diaphorina
citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae). Insects, 10, 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects
10060176.
Beltrán-García, M. J., (2019). Enterobacter cloacae, an endophyte that establishes a nutrient-
transfer symbiosis with banana plants and protects against the black sigatoka pathogen.
Front. Microbiol., 10, 804. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00804.
Beltran-Garcia, M. J., White, J. F., Padro, F. M., Prieto, K. R., Yamaguchi, L. F., Torres, M. S.,
Kato, M. J., et al., (2014b). Nitrogen acquisition in Agave tequilana from degradation of
endophytic bacteria. Sci. Rep., 4, 6938. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep06938.
Ben J. J. L., John R. C., & Linda, J. J., (2016). Fungal endophytes for sustainable crop
production. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 92(12), fiw194. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/
fiw194.
Berlitz, D. L., Azambuja, D. L., Azambuja, A. O., Antonio, A. C., Oliveira, J. V., & Fiuza, L.
M., (2003). New insulated and Cry Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis applied in the
control of caterpillars of Spodoptera frugiperda. In: III Brazilian Congress of Irrigated
Rice and XXV Meeting of the Irrigated Rice Culture. Camboriú. Analls. Camboriú.
Bhardwaj, D., Ansari, M. W., Sahoo, R. K., & Tuteja, N., (2014). Biofertilizers function as
key player in sustainable agriculture by improving soil fertility, plant tolerance and crop
productivity. Microb. Cell Fact., 13, 66.
Bong, C. F. J., & Sikorowski, P. P., (1991). Effects of cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus and
bacterial contamination on growth and development of the corn earworm, Helicoverpa
zea. J. Invert. Pathol., 57(3), 406–412.
Broderick, N. A., Goodman, R. M., Raffa, K. F., & Handelsman, J., (2000). Synergy
between zwittermicin A and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki against gypsy moth
(Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Biol. Contr., 29(1), 101–107.
Campanini, E. B., Davolos, C. C., Alves, E. C. C., & Lemos, M. V. F., (2012). Characterization
of new isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis for control of important insect pests of agriculture.
Bragantia, 71(3), 362–369.
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 129

Carvalho, T. L. G., Balsemao-Pires, E., Saraiva, R. M., Ferreira, P. C. G., & Hemerly, A.
S., (2014). Nitrogen signaling in plant interactions with associative and endophytic
diazotrophic bacteria. J. Exp. Bot., 65, 5631–5642. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eru319.
Castelo, B. M., França, F. H., Pontes, L. A., & Amaral, P. S. T., (2003). Evaluation of the
susceptibility to insecticides in the moth populations in moth-of-cruciferous some areas
of Brazil. Hort. Braz., 21(3), 549–552.
Castilhos-Fortes, R., Matsumura, A. T., Diehl, E., & Fiuza, L. M., (2002). Susceptibility of
Nasutitermes ehrhardti (Isoptera: Termitidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies. Braz.
J. Microb., 33(3), 219–222.
Chowdhury, S., Basu, A., & Kundu, S., (2014). Green synthesis of protein capped silver
nanoparticles from phytopathogenic fungus Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) goid with
antimicrobial properties against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Nanoscale Res. Lett., 9, 365.
Clifton, E. H., Jaronski, S. T., Coates, B. S., Hodgson, E. W., & Gassmann, A. J., (2018).
Effects of endophytic entomopathogenic fungi on soybean aphid and identification of
Metarhizium isolates from agricultural fields. PLoS One, 13(3), e0194815. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal. pone.0194815.
Compant, S., Duffy, B., Nowak, J., Clement, C., & Barkai, E. A., (2005). Mini-review: Use of
plant growth-promoting bacteria for biocontrol of plant diseases: Principles, mechanisms
of action, and future prospects. Appl. Environ. Microb., 71(9), 4951–4959.
Dhekney, S., Li, A., Anaman, M., Dutt, M., Tattersall, J., & Gray, D., (2007). Genetic
transformation of embryogenic cultures and recovery of transgenic plants in Vitis vinifera,
Vitis rotundifolia, and Vitis hybrids. Acta Hortic., 738, 743–748.
Domka, A. M., Rozpaądek, P., & Turnau, K., (2019). Are fungal endophytes merely
mycorrhizal copycats? the role of fungal endophytes in the adaptation of plants to metal
toxicity. Front. Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00371.
Dutta, D., Puzari, K. C., & Gogoi, R., (2014). Endophytes: Exploitation as a tool in plant
protection. Biol. Technol., 57, 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-8913201402043.
Fareed, M., Pathak, M. K., Bihari, V., Kamal, R., Srivastava, A. K., & Kesavachandran, C.
N., (2013). Adverse respiratory health and hematological alterations among agricultural
workers occupationally exposed to organophosphate pesticides: A cross sectional study
in North India. PLoS One, 8(7).
Gašić, S., & Tanović, B., (2013). Biopesticide formulations, possibility of application and
future trends. Pesticidii Fitomedicina, 28(2), 97–102.
Gill, H. K., & Garg, H., (2014). In: Soloneski, S., (ed.), Pesticides: Environmental Impacts and
Management Strategies, Pesticides-Toxic Aspects. InTech, London. http://dx.doi.org/10.
5772/57399.
Gond, S., Verma, V. C., Mishra, A., Kumar, A., & Kharwar, R. N., (2010). Role of fungal
endophytes in plant protection. In: Arya, A., & Perrello, A., (eds.), Management of
Fungal Plant Pathogens. CAB International, UK.
Gonzalez, F., Tkaczuk, C., Dinu, M. M., Fiedler, Ż., Vidal, S., Zchori-Fein, E., & Messelink,
G. J., (2016). New opportunities for the integration of microorganisms into biological pest
control systems in greenhouse crops. J. Pest Sci., 89, 295–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10340-016-0751-x.
Guyton, K. Z., Loomis, D., Grosse, Y., El Ghissassi, F., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., Guha, N.,
Scoccianti, C., et al., (2015). Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion,
diazinon, and glyphosate. Lancet Oncol., 16, 490–491.
130 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Haase, S., Sciocco-Cap, A., & Romanowski, V., (2015). Baculovirus insecticides in Latin
America: Historical overview, current status and future perspectives. Viruses, 7, 2230–2267.
Harman, G. E., & Uphoff, N., (2019). Symbiotic root-endophytic soil microbes improve crop
productivity and provide environmental benefits. Scientifica. https://doi.org/10.1155/
2019/9106395.
Hirsch, J., Strohmeier, S., Pfannkuchen, M., & Reineke, A., (2012). Assessment of bacterial
endosymbiont diversity in Otiorhynchus spp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larvae using
a multitag 454 pyrosequencing approach. BMC Microbiology, 12(1), S6. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029268.
Hu, R., Huang, X., Huang, J., Li, Y., Zhang, C., Yin, Y., Chen, Z., et al., (2015). Long and short
term health effect of pesticides exposure: A cohort study from China. PLoS One., 10.
Ikram, M., Ali, N., Jan, G., Jan, F. G., Rahman, I. U., Iqbal, A., & Hamayun, M., (2018). IAA
producing fungal endophyte Penicillium roqueforti Thom. enhances stress tolerance and
nutrients uptake in wheat plants grown on heavy metal contaminated soils. PLoS One,
13(11), e0208150. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208150.
Kang, J. W., (2014). Removing environmental organic pollutants with bioremediation and
phytoremediation. Biotechnol. Lett., 36, 1129–1139.
Khater, H. F., (2012). Prospects of botanical biopesticides in insect pest management.
Pharmacologia, 3(12), 641–656.
Kitherian, S., (2017). Nano and bio-nanoparticles for insect control. Res. J. Nanosci.
Nanotech., 7(1), 1–9.
Knaak, N., Rohr, A. A., & Fiuza, L. M., (2007). In vitro effect of Bacillus thuringiensis strains
and cry proteins in phytopathogenic fungi of paddy rice-field. Braz. J. Microb., 38(3), 1–7.
Krupke, C. H., Hunt, G. J., Eitzer, B. D., Andino, G., & Given, K., (2012). Multiple routes
of pesticide exposure for honey bees living near agricultural fields. PLoS One, e29268.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029268.
Liu, F., Wen, L., Li, Z., Yu, W., Sun, H., & Chen, J., (2006). Porous hollow silica nanoparticles
as controlled delivery system for water-soluble pesticide. Mater. Res. Bull., 41, 2268–2275.
Lucho, A. P. R., (2004). Management Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith 1797) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) in irrigated rice. São Leopoldo: Dissertation (Master). Diversity and Wildlife
Management (p. 73) Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Sao Leopoldo, UNISINOS.
Ma, X. M., Liu, X. X., Ning, X., Zhang, B., Guan, X. M., Tan, Y. F., & Zhang, Q. W., (2008).
Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry 1Ac and Beauveria bassiana on Asiatic corn
borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). J. Invert. Pathol., 99(2),123–128.
Macedo, C. L., Martins, E. S., Macedo, L. L. P., Santos, A. C., Praça, L. B., Góis, L. A. B., &
Monnerat, R. G., (2012). Selection and characterization of Bacillus thuringiensis strains
effective against Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). Pesq. Agrop. Braz.,
47(12), 1759–1765.
Macedo-Raygoza, G. M., Valdez-Salas, B., Prado, F. M., Prieto, K. R., Yamaguchi, L. F.,
Kato, M. J., Canto-Canché, B. B., et al., (2019). Enterobacter cloacae, an endophyte that
establishes a nutrient-transfer symbiosis with banana plants and protects against the black
sigatoka pathogen. Front. Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00804.
Maksimov, I. V., Maksimova, T. I., Sarvarova, E. R., & Blagova, D. K., (2018). Endophytic
bacteria as effective agents of new-generation biopesticides. Appl. Biochem., 54, 128–140.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0003683818020072.
Marziye, A. P., Yazdan, M., Roostaei, A., Khani, M., Negahdari, M., & Rahimi, G., (2014).
Evaluation of the antifungal effect of magnesium oxide nanoparticles on Fusarium
Endophytic Microorganisms for Pest, Insect and Disease Management 131

oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, pathogenic agent of tomato. Eur. J. Exp. Biol., 4(3),
151–156.
Melatti, V. M., Praça, L. B., Martins, E. S., Sujii, E., Berry, C., & Monnerat, R. G., (2010).
Selection of Bacillus thuringiensis strains toxic against cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii
glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Bioassay, 5(2), 1–4.
Muthukumar, A., Regunathan, U., & Ramasamy, N., (2017). Role of bacterial endophytes
in plant disease control. In: Endophytes: Crop Productivity and Protection. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-66544-3_7.
Ouda, S. M., (2014). Antifungal activity of silver and copper nanoparticles on two plant
pathogens, Alternaria alternata and Botrytis cinerea. Res. J. Microbiol., 9, 34–42.
Parizi, M. A., Moradpour, Y., Roostaei, A., Khani, M., Negahdari, M., & Rahimi, G., (2014).
Evaluation of the antifungal effect of magnesium oxide nanoparticles on Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, pathogenic agent of tomato. Eur. J. Exp. Biol., 4, 151–156.
Patel, N., Desai, P., Patel, N., Jha, A., & Gautam, H. K., (2014). Agro-nanotechnology
for plant fungal disease management: A review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 3,
71–84.
Peixoto, N. P. A. S., Azevedo, J. L., & Araujo, W. L., (2002). Endophytic microorganisms.
Biotechnol. Sci. Dev., 29, 62–77.
Polanczyk, R. A., Silva, R. F. P., & Fiuza, L. M., (2003). Screening of Bacillus thuringiensis
isolates to Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Arq. Inst. Biol.,
70(1), 69–72.
Porras-Alfaro, A., & Bayman, P., (2011). Hidden fungi, emergent properties: Endophytes and
microbiomes. Phytopathology, 49(1), 291.
Praça, L. B., (2012). Interactions between Bacillus thuringiensis Strains and Hybrids of
Cabbage for the Control of Plutella xylostella and Plant Growth Promotion (p. 141).
Brasília: UNB, 2012. Thesis (Doctoral)-Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine,
University of Brasília, Brasília.
Rabiey, M., Hailey, L. E., Roy, S. R., Mahira, K. G., Al-Zadjali, A. S., Barrett, G. A., & Jackson,
R. W., (2019). Endophytes vs tree pathogens and pests: Can they be used as biological
control agents to improve tree health? Euro. J. Plant Pathol., 1–19.
Ramamoorthy, V., Viswanathan, R., Raguchander, T., Prakasan, V., & Samiyappan, R.,
(2001). Induction of systemic resistance by plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in crop
plants against pests and diseases. Crop Protect., 20(1), 1–11.
Ramy, S. Y., & Ahmed, O. F., (2013). In vitro study of the antifungal efficacy of zinc oxide
nanoparticles against Fusarium oxysporum and Penicillium expansum. Afr. J. Microbiol.
Res., 7, 1917–1923.
Ravishankar, B., & Venkatesha, M., (2010). Effectiveness of SlNPV of Spodoptera litura
(Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants. J. Biopest., 3(1), 168–171.
Rizvi, A., & Khan, M. S., (2017). Biotoxic impact of heavy metals on growth, oxidative stress
and morphological changes in root structure of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and stress
alleviation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain CPSB1. Chemosphere, 185, 942–952.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.07.088.
Rouhani, M., Samih, M. A., & Kalantri, S. (2012). Insecticidal effect of silica and silver
nanoparticles on the cowpea seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Col.: Bruchidae).
J. Entomol. Res., 4, 297–305.
Sabir, S., Arshad, M., & Chaudhari, S. K., (2014). Zinc oxide nanoparticles for revolutionizing
agriculture, synthesis and applications. Sci. World J., 1–8.
132 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Santoyo, G., Moreno-Hagelsieb, G., Orozco-Mosqueda, M. C., & Glick, B. R., (2016). Plant
growth-promoting bacterial endophytes. Microbiol. Res., 183, 92–99. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.micres.2015.11.008.
Schloss, P. D., & Handelsman, J., (2003). Biotechnological prospects from metagenomics.
Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 14(3), 303–310.
Singh, M., Pant, G., Hossain, K., & Bhatia, A. K., (2016). Green remediation. Tool for safe
and sustainable environment: A review. Appl. Water Sci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s13201-016-0461-9.
Sinha, B., (2012). Global biopesticide research trends: A bibliometric assessment. Indian J.
Agricul. Sci., 82(2), 95–101.
Souza, A. Q. L., Astolfi, F. S., Belem, P. M. L., Sarquis, M. I. M., & Pereira, J. O., (2004).
Antimicrobial activity of endophytic fungi isolated from toxic plants in the Amazon:
Palicourea longiflora (Aubl.) Rich and Strychnos cogens Bentham. Acta Amaz., 34(2),
185–195.
Steffens, C., Azambuja, A. O., Pinto, L. M. N., Oliveira, J. V., Menezes, V. G., & Fiuza,
L. M., (2001). Pathogenicity of Bacillus thuringiensis in larvae of Oryzophagus oryzae
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) In: II Brazilian Congress of Irrigated Rice and XXIV Meeting
of the Irrigated Rice Culture. Porto Alegre, Annals. Porto Alegre.
Teodoro, S., Micaela, B., & David, K. W., (2010). Novel use of nano-structured alumina as an
insecticide. Pest Manag. Sci., 66, 577–579.
Thakore, Y., (2006). The biopesticide market for global agricultural use. Industrial
Biotechnology, 2(3), 194–208.
Thuler, R. B., Barros, R., Mariano, R. L. R., & Vendramim, J. D., (2006). Effect of plant
growth-promoting bacteria (BPCP) in developing Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera:
Plutellidae) in cabbage. Sci., 34(2), 217–222.
Umar, S., Kaushik, N., Edrada-Ebel, R., Ebel, R., & Proksch, P., (2008). Endophytic fungi
for pest and disease management. In: Ciancio, A., & Mukerji, K., (eds.), Integrated
Management of Diseases Caused by Fungi, Phytoplasma and Bacteria; Integrated
Management of Plant Pests and Diseases (p. 3). Springer, Dordrecht.
Viana, C. L. T. P., Bortolo, A. S., Thuler, R. T., Goulart, R. M., Lemos, M. V. F., & Ferraudo, A.
S., (2009). Effect of new isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner on Plutella xylostella
(Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). Sci., 37(1), 22–31.
Wani, A. H., & Shah, M. A., (2012). A unique and profound effect of MgO and ZnO
nanoparticles on some plant pathogenic fungi. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci., 2, 40–44.
Waqas, M., Khan, A. L., Hamayun, M., Shahzad, R., Kang, S. M., Kim, J. G., & Lee, I. J.,
(2015). Endophytic fungi promote plant growth and mitigate the adverse effects of stem rot:
An example of Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus terreus. J. Plant Interactions., 510, 1.
White, J. F., Kingsley, K. L., Verma, S. K., & Kowalski, K. P., (2018). Rhizophagy cycle:
An oxidative process in plants for nutrient extraction from symbiotic microbes.
Microorganisms, 6, 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms6030095.
CHAPTER 6

SECONDARY METABOLITES AND

THEIR BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES FROM
CHAETOMIUM
KASEM SOYTONG1 and SOMDEJ KANOKMEDHAKUL2

1
Department of Plant Production Technology, Faculty of Agricultural
Technology, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang,
Bangkok, Thailand
2
Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science,
Khon Khan University, Khon Khan, Thailand

ABSTRACT

Chaetomium spp. has been searched by many researchers for years and has
discovered the secondary metabolites against human, animal, and plant patho­
gens. Our research findings on Chaetomium spp. have been conducted since
1986. There are many species found to produce active metabolites against plant
and human pathogens viz., Ch. brasiliense, Chaetomium cochliodes, Chae­
tomium cupreum, Chaetomium elatum, Chaetomium globosum, Chaetomium
lucknowense, Chaetomium longirostre, and Chaetomium siamense which most
of them have been developed to be biofungicide for disease control as agri­
cultural input for organic agricultural production. Therefore, Chaetomium spp.
viz. Ch. amygdalisporum, Ch. brasiliense, Ch. coarctatum, Ch. cochliodes,
Ch. Cupreum, Ch. elatum, Ch. funicola, Ch. globosum, Ch. gracile, Ch. molli­
cellum, Ch. murorum, Ch. olivaceum, Ch. quadrangulatum, Ch. retardatum,
Ch. seminudum, Ch. siamense, and Ch. trilaterale were reported to produce
natural active metabolites against Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxicity against cancer cells, anti-
Alzheimer, and anti-inflammatory, human tumor cell lines, human breast cancer
134 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

(Bre04), human neuroma (N04) cell lines and human lung (Lu04), cytotoxicity
against cholangiocarcinoma cell lines at IC50 3.41–86.95 μM, the human HL-60
leukemia and murine P388 leukemia cell lines. Those metabolites found from
several species of Chaetomium are reported for antimicrobial activity against
anaerobic bacteria, especially Bacteroides fragillis, Propionibacterium acnes,
Escherichia coli W3110, Staphylococcus aureus 209P, Cladosporium resinae,
Bacillus subtilis, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Candida albicans, Salmonella
typhimurium, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella choler­
aesuis, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Streptococcus aureus, and Aspergillus
fumigatus. Chaetomium species are being discovered as the potential antago­
nistic fungi against phytopathogens, viz. Drechslera oryzae (leaf blight of
maize), Pyricularia oryzae (rice blast disease), Cochliobolus lunatus (perfect
stage) which the imperfect stage is known as Curvularia lunata (leaf spot
disease), Pythium ultimum (damping-off disease of sugarbeet), Botrytis cinerea
(BC) (gray mold disease of grape), Rhizopus stolonifer (postharvest disease)
and Coniella diplodiella (grape white rot disease), Phytophthora infestans (late
blight of potato), Phytophthora spp. and Pythium spp. (root rot of plants). Inter­
estingly some Chaetomium spp. reported to release the metabolite that showed
excellent insecticidal activity against Plutella xylostella. Biofungicides for plant
disease control have developed Chaetomium species and their active metabo­
lites have also investigated to be natural products of nanoparticles used for
plant immunity. Those bioproducts are used to promote the non-agrochemical
production (NAP) and organic agriculture (OA), which has been contributed
for farmers use in many countries, e.g., Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, and China.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Chaetomium species are one of the richest sources of biologically active

compounds. Previous investigation of the authors and other researchers
on secondary metabolites of Chaetomium spp. recorded to isolate various
types of active compounds, e.g., benzoquinone derivatives, tetra-S-methyl
derivatives, azaphilones, chaetochalasins, indol-3-yl-[13]cytochalasans,
depsidones, anthraquinone-chromanone, globosumones, and orsellinic
acid. Some of those secondary metabolites showed their biological activity
against human diseases such as Plasmodium falciparum, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxicity against cancer cells, anti-
Alzheimer, and anti-inflammatory. In addition, some of those compounds
were reported as fungal mycotoxins. The studied species, their structures and
biological activities are discussed in this chapter.
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 135

6.2 BIOACTIVE SECONDARY METABOLITES FROM CHAETOMIUM

Our review literature found that Ch. amygdalisporum extract from the culture
on rice medium of Ch. amygdalisporum strain NHL2874 encountered bis­
(3-indolyl)-dihydroxybenzoquinone, neocochlio-dinol (1) and mollicellin
G (2) (Sekita, 1983). Chaetomium atrobrunneum is found by Okeke et al.
(1993) who reported a mycotoxin, patulin (3) that inhibited the rice disease;
Drechslera oryzae, Pyricularia oryzae, and Gerlachia oryzae. Hwang et al.
(2000) found a novel metabolite, chaetoatrosin A (4) from broth culture of
Ch. atrobrunneum F449. Compound 4 inhibited chitin synthase and antifungal
activities against BC, Cryptococcus neoformans and Trichophyton mentagro­
phytes. Chaetomium aureum is recorded by Li et al. (2010) who found the
compounds named chaetoaurin (5), eugenitol (6), eugenetin (7), chaetoquadrin
A (8), chaetoquadrin B (9), chaetoquadrin G (10), and chaetoquadrin H (11).
The investigation on the ethyl acetate extract of Ch. brasiliense (NRRL
22999) found the new compound, chaetochalasin A (12), along with four known
compounds: chaetoglobosin D (13), chaetoglobosin Fex (14), 19-O-acetyl­
chaetoglobosins A (15) and 19-O-acetylchaetoglobosins D (16) (Oh et al.,
1998). Chaetochalasin A (12) expressed cytotoxicity against the NCI’s panel
of 60 human tumor cell lines and antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis
(ATCC 6051) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923). Later, Li et al. (2008)
reported chromone, 2-(hydroxymethyl)-6-methylmethyleugenin (17), euge­
netin (18), O-methyl-sterigmatocystin (19), sterigmatocystin (20), chaetocin
(21), and depsidones, mollicellin D (22) and mollicellins H-J (23–25). Molli­
cellins H and I (23 and 24) significantly inhibited the growth of human breast
cancer (Bre04), human neuroma (N04) cell lines and human lung (Lu04).
136 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Our research finding revealed that 10 depsidones, five known molli­

cellins B (26), C (27), E (28), F (29), H (23), and J (25), and four new,
mollicellins K-N (30–33) from fungus Ch. brasiliense. It showed that
compounds 25–28 and 30–32 expressed antimalarial activity against Plas­
modium falciparum. Only compound 30 resulted in antimicrobial activities
against Candida albicans and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Moreover, all
compounds (23, 25–33) expressed cytotoxicity to KB, BC1, NCI-H187 and
five cholangiocarcinoma cell lines (Khumkomkhet et al., 2009).
Burrows et al. (1975) studied on Ch. coarctatum and found two metabo­
lites 2-(buta-1,3-dienyl)-3-hydroxy-4-(penta-1,3-dienyl)tetrahydro-furan,
aureonitol (39) and 8-ethylidene-7,8-dihydro-4-methoxy-pyrano[4,3-b]
pyran-2,5-dione, coarctatin (40). Chaetomium cochliodes is reported by
Brewer et al. (1968) who isolated cochliodinol (41) from three strains of
Ch. cochliodes (HLX 374, HLX 577 and HLX 366).
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 137

Thereafter, they further recorded that chetomin (42) from Ch. cochliodes
(HLX 440) actively against several gram-positive bacteria and inhibited the
mycelial growth of some fungi and protein synthesis in culture of HeLa cells
(Brewer et al., 1972). Abraham et al. (1992) investigated the ethyl acetate
extract of Ch. cochliodes DSM 63353 resulting two tetrahydrofurans, 2-(buta­
1,3-dienyl)-3-hydroxy-4-(Penta-1,3-dienyl)tetrahydrofuran, aureonitol (39)
and a new spiroketal (1RS,9RS)-3-hydroxymethyl-8Z-(2′E-pentenylidene)­
2,6-dioxa-spiro[4,4]nonanol-9 (43).

Li et al. (2006a) recorded that the ethyl acetate extract of Ch. cochliodes
cultured in solid-state fermented rice medium found three new epipolythio­
dioxopiperazines, chaetocochins A-C (44–46), and dethio-tetra (methylthio)
chetomin (47), and chetomin (42). It expressed those compounds 42, 44, and
46 showed significantly cytotoxicity against cancer cell lines, Bre-04, Lu-04,
and N-04.
138 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Our research investigation found that the extracts of fungal biomass of

Ch. cochliodes VTh01 and Ch. cochliodes CTh05 yielded chaetochalasin
A (12), two new azaphliones, chaetoviridines E and F (52 and 53), four
new dimeric spiro-azaplilones named cochliodones A–D (48–51), a new
epi-chaetoviridin A (54), chaetoviridin A (55), and five known showed
that compounds 12, 53, and 57 expressed antimalarial activity against
Plasmodium falciparum. Compounds 12, 50, 52, 53, and 57 resulted to
antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Moreover, 52
and 53 recorded to be cytotoxic against the KB, BC1, and NCI-H187 cell
lines (Pholkerd et al., 2008).
Chaetomium cupreum CC3003 is first recorded by our investigation that
discovered three new azaphilones named rotiorinols A-C (59–61), two new
stereoisomers, (–)-rotiorin (62) and epi-isochromophilone II (63), and a
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 139

known compound, rubrorotiorin (64). It resulted those compounds 59, 61,

62, and 64 exhibited antifungal activity against Candida albicans (Kanok­
medhakul et al., 2006).

Moreover, we also recorded that Ch. cupreum RY202 released two new
angular types of azaphilones, sochromophilonol (65), ochrephilonol (66),
and known compounds clearanols A and B (67 and 68), rubrorotiorin (64),
isochromophilone II (63), (-)-rotiorin (62), rotiorinols A–C (59–61). As a
result, compounds 65, 66, and 68 expressed moderately cytotoxicity toward
the KB and NCI-H187 cell lines of IC50 9.63–32.42 μg/mL (Panthama et
al., 2015).
Chaetomium elatum ChE01 is further found by our research group as
the first recorded to discover the cytochalasans type, chaetoglobosin V (69),
prochaetoglobosin III (70), prochaetoglobosin IIIed (71), chaetoglobosins B
(72), C (73), D (13), F (74), G (75), and isochaetoglobosin D (76). These
compounds expressed cytotoxicity against cholangiocarcinoma cell lines at
IC50 3.41–86.95 μM and human breast cancer at IC50 2.54–21.29 μM (Thohi­
nung et al., 2010). Our further investigation also found the crude metabolites
140 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

and nano-particles constructed from Ch. elatum gave the effective disease
control of rice blast pathogen (Magnaporthe oryzae) (Song et al., 2020b).

Payne et al. (2002) found a series of tricyclic natural products, SB236049

(77), SB236050 (78), and SB238569 (79) from Ch. funicola. These compounds
exhibited activity against broad-spectrum of metallo-β-lactamases. Chaeto­
mium globosum has been investigated by many researchers. Brewer et al.
(1968) found that two strains of Ch. globosum (HLX 707 and HLX 819)
produced a purple pigment, named cochliodinol (41). They also further
recorded to discover chetomin (42) from two strains of Ch. globosum (HLX
581 and HLX 707) (Brewer et al., 1972). In 1973, Sekita et al. recorded three
cytotoxic indol-3-yl-[13]cytochalasans, chaetoglobosins A (80), B (72), and
C (73) from Ch. globosum who defined the structures of chaetoglobosins
(73), D (13), E (81), and F (82) G (83) and J (84) (Sekita et al., 1976, 1977).
Itoh et al. (1980) displayed a new sesquiterpene antibiotic, heptelidic acid
(85) from Ch. globosum (SANK 13379). This compound showed antimi­
crobial activity against anaerobic bacteria, especially Bacteroides fragillis
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 141

and Propionibacterium acnes. In 1981, Probst, and Tamm investigated the

dichloromethane extract of Ch. globosum (Lederle H-124) and found five
cytochalasans, chaetoglobosins A (80) and C (73), and 19-O-acetylchaeto­
globosins A (15), D (16), and B (86).

Kikuchi et al. (1981) also isolated and structural elucidated a new metab­
olite, dethio-tetra (methylthio) chetomin (47) and a known chetomin (42)
from the ethyl acetate extract of Ch. globosum. These metabolites expressed
antimicrobial activity toward Escherichia coli W3110 and Staphylococcus
aureus 209P. Moreover, Sekita et al. (1981) recorded that chaetoglobosin
A (80) affected to the structure and functions of mammalian cells causing
the inhibition of cellular movements and cell division motility, secretion,
and phagocytosis, and the cell shape changes. Thereafter, Ch. globosum
var. flavo-viridae (TRTC 66.631a) was reported by Takahashi et al. (1990)
found four new azaphilones of angular type, named chaetoviridin A (55) as
the major compound and chaetoviridins B-D (87–89) as the minor congers.
It resulted that Chaetoviridin A (55) expressed a weak inhibitory activity on
142 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

monoamine oxidase (MAO), and chlamydospore-like cells of Cochliobolus

lunatus (perfect stage) which is a plant pathogen causing humans and
animals disease but the imperfect stage is known as Curvularia lunata (leaf
spot disease of plants) and inhibited the growth of Pyricularia oryzae (rice
blast disease).
Di Pietro et al. (1992) also recorded that Ch. globosum produced
2-(buta-1,3-dienyl)-3-hydroxy-4-(Penta-1,3-dienyl)-tetrahydrofuran (39)
and chetomin (42) which expressed activity against Pythium ultimum
(damping-off disease of sugarbeet). Then, Tanida et al. (1992) reported
TAN-1142 (90) from EtOAc extract of Ch. globosum I-319 (IFO 32395,
FERM BP-3429) inhibited the growth of murine tumor cells. Yasukawa
et al. (1994) penciled that chaetoviridin A (55) showed the inflamma­
tory activity of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in mice, a tumor-
promoting agent to the mouse ear resulted to induce inflammation.
In 1996, Breinholt et al. found a novel compound of prenisatin (91),
5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-indole-2,3-dione (5-prenylisatin) which derived from
Ch. globosum. This compound exhibited antifungal activity in vitro against BC
(gray mold disease of grape). Further investigation on Ch. globosum PF1138
was done by Tabata et al. (2000) found the novel trans-epoxysuccinyl peptides
named PF1138 A (92) and B (93) demonstrated inhibitory effect on cysteine
proteases, e.g., cathepsin B, papain, and ficin, but no effect on serine protease,
e.g., trypsin.
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 143

In 2002, our research finding on Ch. globosum strain KMITL-N0802

resulted to record a novel anthraquinone-chromanone compound named
chaetomanone (94) and seven known compounds, ergosterol (56), ergosterol
palmitate (95), chrysophanol (96), chaetoglobosin C (73), alternariol monoethyl
ether (97), echinulin (98), and isochaetoglobosin D (76). Chaetomanone (94)
and echinulin (98) expressed antibacterial against Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(Kanokmedhakul et al., 2002).

Moreover, Jiao et al. (2004) stated that the metabolites of Ch. globosum
strain CANU N60 can be found three novel compounds, chaetoglobosins
Q (99), R (100), and T (101), six known compounds, chaetoglobosins A
(80), B (72), D (13), and J (84) and prochaetoglobosins I (102) and II (103).
With this, chaetoglobosins A (80), B (72), D (13), J (84), Q (99), and T
(101) and prochaetoglobosins I (102) and II (103) expressed significantly
cytotoxicity toward the P388 murine leukemia cell lines. While, chaetoglo­
bosins A (80), B (72), D (13), and J (84) and prochaetoglobosins I (102)
and II (103) showed antimicrobial activities toward Cladosporium resinae,
Bacillus subtilis, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Bashyal et al. (2005)
recorded that Ch. globosum released three new esters of orsellinic acid,
globosumones A-C (104–106) and three known compounds, orsellinic acid
(107), orcinol (108), and trichodion (109). They stated that globosumones
A and B (104 and 105) were moderately inhibited cell proliferation of four
cancers cell lines; MCF-7, NCI-H460, SF-268 and MIA Pa Ca-2 (pancreatic
carcinoma).
144 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

In 2006, Ding et al. recorded to isolate the metabolites from Ch. globosum
IFB-E019 and discovered a new cytotoxic cytochalasin-based alkaloid
named chaetoglobosin U (110), and four known analogs, chaetoglobosins C
(73), E (81), and F (82) and penochalasin A (111). With this, Chaetochalasin
U (110) showed cytotoxic activity against the human nasopharyngeal epider­
moid tumor KB cell lines, while 73, 81, 82, and 111 showed moderately
against the cell lines. Wijeratne et al. (2006) found dihydroxyxanthenone,
globosuxanthone A (112), tetrahydroxanthenone, globosuxanthone B (113),
two xanthones, globosuxanthones C (114) and D (115), 2-hydroxyvertixan­
thone (116), and two anthraquinones, chrysazin (117) and 1,3,6,8-tetrahy­
doxyanthraquinone (118) from Ch. globosum. It showed that compound 112
expressed strongly cytotoxicity toward the panel of seven human solid tumor
cell lines, induced classic signs of apoptosis and disrupted the cell cycle
resulting to accumulate cells in either G2/M or S phase.
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 145

Lately, Yang et al. (2006) recorded that Ch. globosum which isolated from
fermentation broth yielded two novel chemokine receptor CCR-5 inhibitors,
Sch 210971 (119) Sch 210972 (120) and Sch 213766 (121) and encountered a
major component 120 that showed a potent inhibition of the CCR-5 receptor
binding. However, Wang et al. (2006) stated that the extracts of endophytic
Ch. globosum which isolated from the inner tissue of the marine red alga
Polysiphonia urceolata yielded a new benzaldehyde, chaetopyranin (122), 10
known compounds including 2-(2,’3-epoxy-1,’3’-heptadienyl)-6-hydroxyl­
5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl) benzaldehyde (123) and isotetrahydroauroglaucin
(124), two anthraquinone derivatives, erythroglaucin (125) and parietin
(126), five asperentin derivatives including asperetin (127) which known
as cladosporin), 5’-hydroxy-asperentin-8-methylether (128), asperentin­
8-methylether (129), 4’-hydroxyasperentin (130), and 5’-hydroxyasperentin
(131), and the prenylated diketopiperazine congener neoechinulin (132). It
showed that compound 122 expressed a moderately cytotoxicity towards three
tumor cell lines, including human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC),
hepatocellular carcinoma cells (SMMC-7721), and human lung epithelial
cells (A549).
146 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

In 2007, Wang et al. recorded four benzaldehyde derivatives from Ch.

globosum which isolated from a marine-alga and defined as 2-(1-heptenyl)-
3,6-dihydroxy-5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl) benzaldehyde (133), 2-heptyl-3,6-di­
hydroxy-5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl) benzaldehyde (134), 2-(3,5-heptadienyl)-3,6­
dihydroxy-5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl) benzaldehyde (135), and 2-(1,3,5-hepta­
trienyl)-3,6-dihydroxy-5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl) benzaldehyde (136). More­
over, Yang et al. (2007) discovered that Ch. globosum from fermentation
broth can be isolated a novel secondary metabolite, Sch 213766 (121). It
showed activity in the CCR-5 receptor.
In 2008, Yamada et al. isolated three new azaphilones, chaetomugilins A-C
(137–139), chaetoglobosins A (80), and C (73) from Ch. globosum OUPS­
T106B-6 originated from the marine fish Mugil cephalus. These metabolites
showed significant cytotoxicity against and the human HL-60 leukemia cell line
and murine P388 leukemia cell line. In 2009, Qin et al. recorded the endophytic
Ch. globosum ZY-22 from Ginkgo biloba to produce chaetomugilin A (137),
chaetomugilin D (140) globosterol (139), chaetoglobosin A (80) and C 73).
Further isolation of this fungus yielded globosterol (141), tetrahydroxylated
ergosterol, (22E,24R)-ergosta-7,22-diene-3β,5α,6β,9α-tetraol (142). In addition,
they found more compounds of cerebroside B (143), cerebroside C (144), and
ergosta-4,6,8,22-tetraen-3-one (145). Moreover, Yamada et al. (2009) indicated
that new azaphilones, seco-chaetomugilins A and D were produced by a marine­
fish-derived Ch. globosum and found Seco-chaetomugilins A (146) and D (147).
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 147

In 2010, a marine-derived endophytic fungus, Ch. globosum QEN-14

reported to produce cytoglobosins A-G (148–154), isochaetoglobosin D
(76), chaetoglobosins Fex (14), U (155), and 20-dihydrochaetoglobosin A
(156), chaetomugilins A (137), 11-epi-chaetomugilin A (157), and 4´-epi­
chae-tomugilin A (158) (Cui et al., 2010). In the same year, Zhang et al.
(2010) further recorded that cytotoxic chaetoglobosins V (159), W (160) and
congeners (161–166) from the endophyte Ch. globosum.

In 2011, Yamada et al. discovered chaetomugilins P-R (167–169), and

11-epi-chaetomugilin I (170). While Borges et al. (2011) recorded the
compounds chaetoviridins A-F, 5’-epi-chaetoviridin A (54), 4’-epi-chae­
toviridin A (171), 4’-epi-chaetoviridin F (172), 12β-hydroxy-chaetoviridin
C (173), and chaetoviridins G-I (174–176) that isolated from the Ch.
globosum. However, Ge et al. (2011) reported that four new metabolites
chaetoglocins A-D (177–180) from the endophytic fungus Ch. globosum
were found.
148 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

In 2013, McMullin et al. recorded the new azaphilones nitrogenous,

azaphilones; 4′-epi-N-2-hydroxyethyl-azachaetoviridin A (181), N-2-butyric­
azochaetoviridin E (182), and isochromophilone XIII (183), chaetoglobosins
A (80), C (73), and F (82), chaetomugilin D (140), chaetoviridin A (54) from
Ch. globosum (DAOM 240359). It showed that all compounds were antimi­
crobial activity by using quantitative growth inhibition assays.
In 2016, Chen et al. found two new azaphilone derivatives, chaephilones A
(198) and B (199) and four structurally related analogs chaetomugilin Q (168),
chaetomugilin D (140), 11-epi-chaetomugilin A (157), and chaetomugilin S
(200) which isolated from Ch. globosum. It showed that compounds 198 and
199 expressed the cytotoxic activities against five human cancer cell lines
(HL-60, SMMC-7721, A-549, MCF-7, and SW480) by the MTS method.
Li et al. (2016) also recorded antifungal metabolites from endophytic
Ch. globosum which isolated in Gingko biloba. Their found structures were
elucidated as chaetoglobosin A (80), C (73), D (74), E (81), G (75), R (100)
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 149

and significantly inhibited the growth of Rhizopus stolonifer (postharvest

disease) and Coniella diplodiella (grape white rot disease) at a concentration
of 20 μg/disc.

In 2017, Wang et al. reported to isolate two new cytochalasin derivatives,

isochaetoglobosin Db (201) and cytoglobosin Ab (202) from Ch. globosum
SNSHI-5 which has taken from extreme environment. They found isochaeto­
globosin Db (201), which expressed a potent cytotoxicity with IC50 value of 3.5
μM, while cytoglobosin Ab was inactive (IC50 > 10 μM).
150 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

In 2018, Ch. globosum isolated from the fermented Chinese yam

(Dioscorea opposita) found two new oxidation products-related aureonitol
and cytochalasin and defined as 10,11-dihydroxyl-aureonitol (203) and
yamchaetoglobosin A (204). It showed that compound 204 significant
inhibited the nitric oxide production in LPS-activated macrophages, anti­
acetylcholinesterase activity with inhibition ratio 92.5, 38.2% at concen­
tration of 50 μM, and cytotoxicity to HL-60, A-549, SMMC-7721, MCF-7
and SW480 with the inhibition of 51–96% at concentration 40 μM (Ruan
et al., 2018).
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 151

Recently of our research investigation on Chaetomium species, the

endophytic Ch. globosum 7s-1 isolated from a plant species, Rhapis cochi­
nchinensis yielded a new xanthoquinodin B9 (205), three epipolythiodioxo­
piperazines, chetomin (42), chaetocochin C (46), dethio-tetra(methylthio)
chetomin (47), four other compounds, chrysophanol (96), two known
xanthoquinodins, xanthoquinodin A1 (206) and xanthoquinodin A3
(207), emodin (208), alatinone (209) and ergosterol. It demonstrated that
compounds 205–207, 42, 46, and 47 expressed the antimicrobial activity
toward Gram positive bacteria at concentration of 0.02 pM to 10.81 µM.
Moreover, these metabolites further expressed the cytotoxicity against a
normal cell line (Vero cell) at IC50 values of 0.04−3.86 µM and cytotoxicity
toward KB, MCF-7, NCI-H187 cancer cell lines at IC50 0.04−18.40 µM
(Tantapakul et al., 2019).

Chaetomium gracile is reported by Koyama and Natori (1987) who

found the dichloromethane and bis(naphtho-γ-pyrone) derivatives named
chaetochromins A-D (210–213). Chaetomium indicum is studied by Li et
al. (2006b) who stated that the isoquinolines with novel skeletons named
chaetoindicins A-C (214–216) was isolated from the solid-state fermented
culture.
In 2011, our research group investigation on ethyl acetate extract of Ch.
longirostre found four new azaphilones, longirostrerones A-D (217–220) and
three known sterols. Those compounds of 217–220 expressed strongly cyto­
toxicity toward KB cancer cell lines at IC50 0.23–6.38 µM. Only compound
152 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

217 resulted the effective cytotoxicity against MCF7 and NCI-H187 cell
lines at IC50 0.24 and 3.08 µM, respectively. Moreover, compounds 217–219
expressed the antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum at IC50
0.62–3.73 µM (Panthama et al., 2011).

Our review literature for other species of Chaetomium are also demon­
strated. Chaetomium mollicellum is reported by Stark et al. (1978) who
discovered the eight mollicellins (depsidones) which is the major products
of Ch. mollicellum MIT M-37, mollicellins A (221), B (26), C (27), D (22),
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 153

E (28), F (29), G (2), and H (23). It showed that Mollicellins C (27) and
E (28) were mutagenic and bactericidal to Salmonella typhimurium in the
absence of microsomes, while mollicellins D (22) and F (29) which each
contained a chlorine atom, were bactericidal effect but not mutagenic. Sekita
et al. (1983) reported the structural elucidation of isocochliodinol (222),
a metabolite of Ch. murorum NHL (78-SH-271-4) and NHL 2240. Saito
et al. (1988) reported that ethyl acetate extract from Ch. nigricolor which
cultured in rice medium found a dimeric epipolythiodioxopiperazine named
chetracin A (223) with two tetrasulfide bridges and a known compound
cochliodinol (41).
Smetanina et al. (2001) recorded a pentacyclic triterpenoid,
3-β-methoxyolean-18-ene (miliacin) (224) for the first time from the marine
Ch. olivaceum. Moreover, Fujimoto et al. (2002) found that ethyl acetate
extract of Ch. quadrangulatum strain 71-Ng-22 yielded the five novel chro­
mones (1,4-benzopyran-4-ones), three were tetracyclic and one contained a
sulfonyl group, named chaetoquadrins A (8), B (9), C (225), D (226) and E
(227) chaetoquadrins F (228), G (10), H (11), I (229), J (230) and K (231).
These metabolites actively inhibited mouse liver MAO. One year later, they
recorded six new constituents: chaetoquadrins F-K. It showed that chaeto­
quadrins G (10) and H (11) displayed appreciable MAO inhibitory activity
(Fujimoto et al., 2003). Chaetomium retardatum is recorded in 1988, Saito’s
group that the isolation of chetracin A (223) and 11α,11′α-dihydroxychaetocin
(232) from Ch. retardatum TRTC 66.1778b. Chaetomium seminudum is
further investigated by Fujimoto et al. (2004) who stated that the ethyl acetate
extract of Ch. seminudum found a known epipolythiodioxopiperazine, chet­
omin (42), three new chetomin-related metabolites named chetoseminudins
A-C (233–235). These four natural metabolites, 232 and 233, inhibited the
blastogenesis of mouse splenic lymphocytes which stimulated by mitogens,
concanavalin A (Con A) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
The further of our research investigation is discovered a new species of
Chaetomium in Thailand. In 2011, the soil planted to pineapple was isolated
by baiting technique and identified as a new species, Ch. siamense sp. nov.
We found the secondary metabolites of a new chaetoviridin G (236) and
seven known compounds, ergosterol (56), 24(R)-5α,8α-epidioxyergosta-6-
22-diene-3β-ol, ergosterylplamitate (95), cochliodone D (51), chaetoviridin
A (55), chaetoviridin F (53), chrysophanol (96) (Pornsuriya et al., 2011).
This species is reported to be actively against some phytopathogens, e.g.,
Phytophthora spp. and Pythium spp.
154 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Chaetomiumn subaffine is recorded by Oikawa et al. (1933) who found

two new metabolites of chaetoglobosins, named chaetoglobosin Fex (14) and
20-dihydrochaetoglobosin A (237). Chaetomium subspirale is reported by
Rether et al. (2004) isolated oxaspirodion (238) which was a new inhibitor
of inducible TNF-α expression. Chaetomium thielavioideum is investigated
by Sekita et al. (1980) who found the metabolites of Ch. thielavioideum NHL
2829 and isolated a new phenolic chaetochromin A (210), known compounds
eugenitin (17), O-methyl-sterigmatocystin (19), sterigmatocystin (20), chaetocin
(21), and ergosterol (56). In 1988, Saito’s group also isolated chaetocins B
(239) and C (240) which were strongly inhibited S. aureus FDA 209P from Ch.
thielavioidium NHL 2827. Chaetomium trilaterale is recorded by Cole et al.
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 155

(1974) who isolated a dibenzoquinone, oosporein (3,3′,6,6′-tetrahydroxy-5,5′­

dimethyl-2,2′-bi-benzoquinone) (241). Chaetomium trilaterale (Chivers, 1915)
ATCC 24912. The compound was a moderately oral lethal dose in day-old
cockerels and inhibited the plant growth and phytotoxic effects in some plant
species.

The studies on secondary metabolites of Chaetomium species are

continuously conducted by several researchers. Some literature reviews
have not been stated the specific epithet (species) which recorded only genus
Chaetomium. There were many reports on unidentified Chaetomium species.
Oka et al. (1985) found differanisole A (242) as a new defense inducing
substance against leukemia cells from EtOAc extract from Chaetomium sp.
RB-00. Imamura et al. (1993) reported a novel insecticidal, PF1093 (243),
from Chaetomium sp. PF1093 (FERM P-12541) and the metabolite showed
excellent insecticidal activity against Plutella xylostella. Kobayashi et al.
(2005) found that Chaetomium sp. No. 217 produced a triterpene glucoside,
FR207944 (244) which exhibited activities against Aspergillus fumigatus and
Candida albicans. Moreover, Schlörke and Zeeck (2006) reported that the
antibacterial orsellides A-E (245–249), novel esters consisting of orsellinic
acid (107), and a 6-deoxyhexose (251) from Chaetomium sp. (strain Gö
156 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

100/9) together with the known metabolites globosumones A (104) and B

(105). However, Jiao et al. (2006) recorded chaetominine (251), an alkaloidal
metabolite from Chaetomium sp. IFB-E015, an endophytic fungus on the
healthy leaves of Adenophora axilliflora. It showed that Chaetominine was
more cytotoxic than 5-fluorouracil against the human leukemia K562 and
colon cancer SW1116 cell lines.

Lösgen et al. (2007) discovered three new fungal polyketide metabo­

lites, chaetocyclinones A-C (252–254), two known compounds, SB238569
(79) and anhydrofulvic acid from Chaetomium sp. (strain Gö 100/2) which
was isolated from a marine algae. It showed that chaetocyclinone A (252)
inhibited the growth of selected phytopathogenic fungus, Phytophthora
infestans, causing late blight of potato. Marwah et al. (2007) recorded
a new furano-polyene, (–)-musanahol (255), a known furano-polyene,
3-epi-aureonitol (256), and a fatty acid, linoleic acid (257) from Chaeto­
mium sp. isolated from tomato fruits and grown on YMG medium (yeast
extract, glucose, malt extract and water). The (–)-musanahol (255) and
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 157

3-epi-aureonitol (257) were presented in the culture filtrate. The 3-epi-aure­

onitol (256) completely inhibited the growth of Streptococcus pyogenes,
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella choleraesuis, and
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, whereas (–)-musanahol (255) was no effect
on the antimicrobial activity of compound 256 even if its similarity in their
structures. Moreover, linoleic acid (257) resulted in inhibiting the growth
of S. aureus and Bacillus subtilis.

6.3 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE TRENDS

It is concluded that Chaetomium spp. has been investigated by many

researchers from years to find out the secondary metabolites against human,
animal, and plant diseases. Our research investigation on Chaetomium spp.
has been started from 1986 to find out the antagonistic effect against phyto­
pathogens as well as human pathogens. It is confirmed that further ongoing
research has been developed on the selected active metabolites to formulate
biofungicide for plant disease control to promote non-agrochemicals-based
agriculture and organic agriculture and has been contributed for farmers use
in many countries, e.g., Thailand, China, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Laos. The
ongoing research is developed on the active metabolites from Chaetomium
spp. which considered as natural products and nanoparticles thereof for plant
immunity induction.
158 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

KEYWORDS

• biofungicide
• Chaetomium
• lipopolysaccharide
• monoamine oxidase
• organic agriculture
• plant disease control
• Pyricularia oryzae

REFERENCES

Abraham, W. R., & Arfmann, H. A., (1992). Rearranged tetrahydrofurans from Chaetomium
cochlioides. Phytochemistry, 31, 2405–2408.
Bashyal, B. P., Wijeratne, E. M. K., Faeth, S. H., & Gunatilaka, A. A. L., (2005). Globosumones
A-C, cytotoxic orsellinic acid esters from the Sonoran Desert endophytic fungus
Chaetomium globosum. Journal of Natural Products, 68, 724–728.
Borges, W. S., Mancilla, G., Guimaraes, D. O., Duran-Patron, R., Collado, I. G., & Pupo, M.
T., (2011). Azaphilones from the Chaetomium globosum. Journal of Natural Products,
74, 1182–1187.
Breinholt, J., Demuth, H., Heide, M., Jensen, G., Moller, I., Nielsen, R., et al., (1996).
Prenisatin (5-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)indole-2,3-dione) an antifungal isatin derivative from
Chaetomium globosum. Acta Chemica Scandinavica, 50, 443–445.
Brewer, D., Duncan, J. M., Jerram, W. A., Leach, C. K., Safe, S., Taylor, A., & Christensen, C.
M., (1972). Ovine ill-thrift in Nova Scotia. 5. The production and toxicology of chetomin,
a metabolite of Chaetomium spp. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 18, 1129–1137.
Brewer, D., Jerram, W. A., & Taylor, A., (1968). The production of cochliodinol and a related
metabolite by Chaetomium species. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 14, 861–866.
Burrows, B. F., Turner, W. B., & Walker, E. R. H., (1975). 8-ethylidene-7,8-dihydro-4­
methoxypyrano[4,3-b]pyran-2,5-dione (Coarctatin), a metabolite of Chaetomium
coarctatum. Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions, 1, 999–1000.
Chen, C., Jing, W., Hucheng, Z., Jianping, W., Yongbo, X., Guangzheng, W., et al., (2016).
Chaephilones A and B, two new azaphilone derivatives isolated from Chaetomium
globosum. Chem Biodivers., 13(4), 422–426.
Chivers, A. H., (1915). A Monograph of the Genera Chaetomium and Ascotricha (Vol. 14, pp.
155–240). Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club.
Cole, R. J., Kirksey, J. W., Gutter, H. G., & Davis, E. E., (1974). Toxic effects of oosporein
from Chaetomium trilaterale. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 22, 517–520.
Cui, C. M., Li, X. M., Li, C. S., Proksch, P., & Wang, B. G., (2010). Cytoglobosins A-G,
cytochalasans from a marine-derived endophytic fungus, Chaetomium globosum
QEN-14. Journal of Natural Products, 73, 729–733.
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 159

Di Pietro, A., Gut-Rella, M., Pachlatko, J. P., & Schwinn, F. J., (1992). Role of antibiotics
produced by Chaetomium globosum in biocontrol of Pythium ultimum, a causal agent of
damping-off. Phytopathology, 82, 131–135.
Ding, G., Song, Y. C., Chen, J. R., Xu, C., Ge, H. M., Wang, X. T., et al., (2006). Chaetoglobosin
U, a cytochalasan alkaloid from endophytic Chaetomium globosum IFB-E019. Journal of
Natural Products, 69, 302–304.
Fujimoto, H., Nozawa, M., Okuyama, E., & Ishibashi, M., (2002). Five new chromones
possessing monoamine oxidase inhibitory activity from an ascomycete, Chaetomium
quadrangulatum. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 50, 330–336.
Fujimoto, H., Nozawa, M., Okuyama, E., & Ishibashi, M., (2003). Six new constituents
from an ascomycete, Chaetomium quadrangulatum, found in a screening study focused
on monoamine oxidase inhibitory activity. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 51,
247–251.
Fujimoto, H., Sumino, M., Okuyama, E., & Ishibashi, M., (2004). Immunomodulatory
constituents from an ascomycete, Chaetomium seminudum. Journal of Natural Products,
67, 98–102.
Ge, H. M., Zhang, Q., Xu, S. H., Guo, Z. K., Song, Y. C., Huang, W. Y., et al., (2011).
Chaetoglocins A-D. Four new metabolites from the endophytic fungus Chaetomium
globosum. Planta Medica, 77, 277–280.
Hwang, E. I., Yun, B. S., Kim, Y. K., Kwon, B. M., Kim, H. G., Lee, H. B., et al., (2000).
Chaetoatrosin A, a novel chitin synthase II inhibitor produced by Chaetomium
atrobrunneum F449. The Journal of Antibiotics, 53, 248–255.
Imamura, K., Gomi, S., Yaguchi, T., Moryama, C., & Iwata, M., (1993). Novel insecticidal
PF1093 and its manufacture with Chaetomium. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho, 1–8.
Itoh, Y., Takahashi, S., Haneishi, T., & Arai, M., (1980). Structure of heptelidic acid, a new
sesquiterpene antibiotic from fungi. The Journal of Antibiotics, 33, 525–526.
Jiao, R. H., Xu, S., Liu, J. Y., Ge, H. M., Ding, H., Xu, C., et al., (2006). Chaetominine, a
cytotoxic alkaloid produced by endophytic Chaetomium sp. IFB-E015. Organic Letters,
8, 5709–5712.
Jiao, W., Feng, Y., Blunt, J. W., Cole, A. L. J., & Munro, M. H. G., (2004). Chaetoglobosins Q,
R, and T, three further new metabolites from Chaetomium globosum. Journal of Natural
Products, 67, 1722–1725.
Kanokmedhakul, S. K., Nasomjai, P., Loungsysouphanh, S., Soytong, K., Isobe, M.,
Kongsaeree, K., Prabpai, S., & Suksamran, A., (2006). Antifungal Azaphilones from the
fungus, Chaetomium cupreum CC3003. Journal of Natural Products, 69, 891–895.
Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., Phonkerd, N., Soytong, K., Kongsaeree, P., &
Suksamrarn, A., (2002). Antimycobacterial anthraquinone-chromanone compound and
diketopiperazine alkaloid from the fungus Chaetomium globosum KMITL-N0802.
Planta Medica, 68, 834–836.
Khumkomkhet, P., Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., Hahnvajanawong, C., &
Soytong, K., (2009). Antimalarial and cytotoxic depsidones from the fungus Chaetomium
brasiliense. Journal of Natural Products, 72, 1487–1491.
Kikuchi, T., Kodata, S., Nakamura, K., Nishi, A., Taga, T., & Kaji, T., (1981). Dethio-tetra
(methylthio) chetomin, a new antimicrobial metabolite of Chaetomium globosum KINZE
ex FR: Structure and partial synthesis from chetomin. Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Bulletin, 30, 3846–3848.
160 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Kobayashi, M., Kanasaki, R., Sato, I., Abe, F., Nitta, K., Ezaki, M., et al., (2005). FR207944,
an antifungal antibiotic from Chaetomium sp. No. 217 I. Taxonomy, fermentation, and
biological properties. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 69, 515–521.
Koyama, K., & Natori, S., (1987). Chaetochromins B, C, and D; bis(naphtho-γ-pyrone)
derivatives from Chaetomium gracile. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 35, 578–584.
Li, G. Y., Li, B. G., Yang, T., Liu, G. Y., & Zhang, G. L., (2006b). Chaetoindicins A-C, three
isoquinoline alkaloids from the fungus Chaetomium indicum. Organic Letters, 8, 3613–3615.
Li, G. Y., Li, B. G., Yang, T., Liu, G. Y., & Zhang, G. L., (2008). Secondary metabolites from
the fungus Chaetomium brasiliense. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 91, 124–129.
Li, G. Y., Li, B. G., Yang, T., Yan, J. F., Liu, G. Y., & Zhang, G. L., (2006a). Chaetocochins
A-C, epipolythiodioxopiperazines from Chaetomium cochliodes. Journal of Natural
Products, 69, 1374–1376.
Li, L. M., Zou, Q., & Li, G. Y., (2010). Chromones from an ascomycete, Chaetomium aureus.
Chinese Chemical Letters, 21, 1203–1205.
Li, W., Yang, X., Yang, Y., Duang, R., Chen, G., Li, X., Li, Q., et al., (2016). Anti-phytopathogen,
multi-target acetylcholinesterase inhibitory and antioxidant activities of metabolites from
endophytic Chaetomium globosum. Natural Product Research, 30, 2616–2619.
Lösgen, S., Schlörke, O., Meindl, K., Herbst-Irmer, R., & Zeeck, A., (2007). Structure and
biosynthesis of chaetocyclinones, new polyketides produced by an endosymbiotic
fungus. European Journal of Organic Chemistry, 2191–2196.
Marwah, R. G., Fatope, M. O., Deadman, M. L., Al-Maqbali, Y. M., & Husband, J., (2007).
Musanahol: A new aureonitol-related metabolite from a Chaetomium sp. Tetrahedron,
63, 8174–8180.
McMullin, D. R., Sumarah, M. W., Blackwell, B. A., & Miller, J. D., (2013). New azaphilones
from Chaetomium globosum isolated from the built environment. Tetrahedron Letters,
54, 568–572.
Oh, H., Swenson, D. C., Gloer, J. B., Wicklow, D. T., & Dowd, P. F., (1998). Chaetochalasin
A: A new bioactive metabolite from Chaetomium brasiliense. Tetrahedron Letters, 39,
7633–7636.
Oikawa, H., Murakami, Y., & Ichihara, A., (1933). 20-Ketoreductase activity of chaetoglobosin
A and prochaetoglobosins in a cell-free system of Chaetomium subaffine and the isolation
of new chaetoglobosins. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 57, 628–631.
Oka, H., Asahi, K., Morishima, H., Sanada, M., Shiratori, K., Iimura, Y., et al., (1985).
Differanisole A, a new differentiation inducing substance. The Journal of Antibiotics,
38, 1100–1102.
Okeke, B., Seiglemurandi, F., Steiman, R., Benoitguyod, J., & Kaouaji, M., (1993). Identification
of mycotoxin-producing fungal strains: A step in the isolation of compounds active against
rice fungal disease. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 41, 1731–1735.
Panthama, N., Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., & Soytong, K., (2011). Cytotoxic and
antimalarial azaphilones from Chaetomium longirostre. J. Nat. Prod., 74(11), 2395–2399.
Payne, D. J., Hueso-Rodríguez, J. A., Boyd, H., Concha, N. O., Janson, C. A., Gilpin, M.,
Bateson, J. H., et al., (2002). Identification of a series of tricyclic natural products as potent
broad-spectrum inhibitors of metallo-beta-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 46,
1880–1886.
Pholkerd, N., Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., Soytong, K., Prabpai, S., & Kongsearee,
P., (2008). Bis-spiro-azaphilones and azaphilones from the fungi Chaetomium cochliodes
VTh01 and C. cochliodes CTh05. Tetrahedron, 64, 9636–9645.
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Chaetomium 161

Pornsuriya, C., Soytong, K., Poeaim, S., Kanokmedhakul, S., Khumkomkhet, P., Lin, F. C.,
Wang, H. K., & Hyde, K. D., (2011). Chaetomium siamense sp. nov., a soil isolate from
Thailand, produces a new chaetoviridin, G. Mycotaxon, 115, 19–27.
Probst, A., & Tamm, C., (1981). 19-O-acetylchaetoglobosin B and 19-O-acetylchaetoglobosin
D, two new metabolites of Chaetomium globosum. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 64, 2056–2064.
Qin, J. C., Gao, J. M., Zhang, Y. M., Yang, S. X., Bai, M. S., Ma, Y. T., et al., (2009).
Polyhydroxylated steroids from an endophytic fungus, Chaetomium globosum ZY-22
isolated from Ginkgo biloba. Steroids, 74, 786–790.
Rether, J., Erkel, G., Anke, T., & Sterner, O., (2004). Oxaspirodion, a new inhibitor of
inducible TNF-α expression from the Ascomycete Chaetomium subspirale. Production,
isolation and structure elucidation. The Journal of Antibiotics, 57, 493–495.
Ruan, B. H., Yu, Z. F., Yang, X. Q., Yang, Y. B., Hu, M., Zhang, Z. X., Zhou, Q. Y., et
al., (2018). New bioactive compounds from aquatic endophyte Chaetomium globosum.
Natural Products Research, 32, 1050–1055.
Saito, T., Suzuki, Y., Koyama, K., Natori, S., Iitaka, Y., & Kinoshita, T., (1988). Chetracin A
and chaetocins B and C, three new epipolythiodioxopiperazines from Chaetomium spp.
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 36, 1942–1956.
Schlörke, O., & Zeeck, A., (2006). Orsellides A-E: An example for 6-deoxyhexose derivatives
produced by fungi. European Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1043–1049.
Sekita, S., (1983). Isocochliodinol and neocochliodinol, bis(3-indolyl)-benzoquinones from
Chaetomium spp. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 31, 2998–3001.
Sekita, S., Yoshihira, K., & Natori, S., (1973). Structures of chaetoglobosin A and B, cytotoxic
metabolites of Chaetomium globosum. Tetrahedron Letters, 23, 2109–2112.
Sekita, S., Yoshihira, K., & Natori, S., (1976). Structures of chaetoglobosin C, D, E and
F, cytotoxic indol-3-yl-[13]cytochalasans from Chaetomium globosum. Tetrahedron
Letters, 17, 1351–1354.
Sekita, S., Yoshihira, K., & Natori, S., (1980). Chaetochromin, a bis(naphthodihydropyran-4-one)
mycotoxin from Chaetomium thielavioideum: Application of 13C-1H long-range coupling to
the structure elucidation. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 28, 2428–2435.
Sekita, S., Yoshihira, K., & Natori, S., (1983). Chaetoglobosins, cytotoxic 10-(indol-3-yl)-[13]
cytochalasans from Chaetomium spp. IV. 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectra and their
application to a biosynthetic study. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 31, 490–498.
Sekita, S., Yoshihira, K., Natori, S., & Chaetoglobosins, G. J., (1977). Cytotoxic indol-3­
yl[13]-cytochalasans from Chaetomium globosum. Tetrahedron Letters, 32, 2771–2774.
Sekita, S., Yoshihira, K., Natori, S., Udagawa, S. I., Sakabe, F., Kurata, H., et al., (1981).
Chaetoglobosins, cytotoxic 10-(indol-3-yl)-[13]cytochalasans from Chaetomium spp. I.
production, isolation and some cytological effects of chaetoglobosins A-J. Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 30, 1609–1617.
Smetanina, O. F., Denisenko, V. A., Pivkin, M. V., Khudyakova, Y. V., Gerasimenko, A. V.,
Popov, D. Y., et al., (2001). 3β-methoxyolean-18-ene (miliacin) from the marine fungus
Chaetomium olivaceum. Russian Chemical Bulletin, 50, 2463–2465.
Song, J. J., Soytong, K., Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., & Poeaim, S., (2020b).
Antifungal activity of microbial nanoparticles derived from Chaetomium spp. against
Magnaporthe oryzae causing rice blast. Plant Protection Science, 56, 180–190.
Stark, A. A., Kobbe, B., Matsuo, K., Buchi, G., Wogan, G. N., & Demain, A. L., (1978).
Mollicellins: Mutagenic and antibacterial mycotoxins. Applied and Environmental Micro­
biology, 36, 412–420.
162 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Tabata, Y., Miiko, N., Yaguchi, T., Hatsu, M., Ishii, S., & Imai, S., (2000). PF1138A and B,
novel trans-epoxysuccinate-type cysteine protease inhibitors produced by Chaetomium
globosum. Meiji Seika Kenkyu Nenpo, 39, 55–64.
Takahashi, M., Koyama, K., & Natori, S., (1990). Four new azaphilones from Chaetomium
globosum var. flavo-viridae. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 38, 625–628.
Tantapakul, C., Promgool, T., Kanokmedhakul, K., Soytong, K., Song, J., Hadsadee, S., Jungsut­
tiwon, S., & Kanokmedhakul, S., (2019). Bioactive xanthoquinodins and epipolythiodioxo­
piperazines from Chaetomium globosum 7s-1, an endophytic fungus isolated from Rhapis
cochinchinensis (Lour.) Mart. Natural Product Research, 34, 494–502.
Thohinung, S., Kanokmedhakul, S., Kanokmedhakul, K., Kukongviriyapan, V., Tusskorn, O.,
& Soytong, K., (2010). Cytotoxic 10-(indol-3-yl)-[13] cytochalasans from the fungus
Chaetomium elatum ChE01. Arch Pharm. Res., 33, 1135–1141.
Wang, S., Li, X. M., Teuscher, F., Li, D. L., Diesel, A., Ebel, R., et al., (2006). Chaetopyranin,
a benzaldehyde derivative, and other related metabolites from Chaetomium globosum, an
endophytic fungus derived from the marine red alga Polysiphonia urceolata. Journal of
Natural Products, 69, 1622–1625.
Wang, S., Zhang, Y., Li, X. M., & Wang, B. G., (2007). Benzaldehydes from endophytic
fungus Chaetomium globosum separated from marine red alga Polysiphonia urceolata.
Haiyang Yu Huzhao, 38, 131–135.
Wang, X. Y., Yan, X., Fang, M. J., Wu, Z., Wang, D., & Qiu, Y. K., (2017). Two new
cytochalasan derivatives from Chaetomium globosum SNSHI-5, a fungus derived from
extreme environment. Natural Product Research, 31, 1669–1675.
Wijeratne, E. M. K., Turbyville, T. J., Fritz, A., Whitesell, L., & Gunatilaka, A. A. L., (2006). A
new dihydroxanthenone from a plant-associated strain of the fungus Chaetomium globosum
demonstrates anticancer activity. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 14, 7917–7923.
Yamada, T., Doi, M., Shigeta, H., Muroga, Y., Hosoe, S., Numata, A., et al., (2008). Absolute
stereostructures of cytotoxic metabolites, chaetomugilins A-C, produced by Chaetomium
species separated from a marine fish. Tetrahedron Letters, 49, 4192–4195.
Yamada, T., Muroga, Y., & Tanaka, R., (2009). New azaphilones, seco-chaetomugilins A and
D, produced by a marine-fish-derived Chaetomium globosum. Marine Drugs, 7, 249–257.
Yamada, T., Muroga, Y., Jinno, M., Kajimoto, T., Usami, Y., Numata, A., et al., (2011). New class
azaphilone produced by a marine fish-derived Chaetomium globosum. The stereochemistry
and biological activities. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 19, 4106–4113.
Yang, S. W., Mierzwa, R., Terracciano, J., Patel, M., Gullo, V., Wagner, N., et al., (2007). Sch
213766, a novel chemokine receptor CCR-5 inhibitor from Chaetomium globosum. The
Journal of Antibiotics, 60, 524–528.
Yang, S. W., Mierzwa, R., Terrcciano, J., Patel, M., Gullo, V., Wagner, N., et al., (2006).
Chemokine receptor CCR-5 inhibitors produced by Chaetomium globosum. Journal of
Natural Products, 69, 1025–1028.
Yasukawa, K., Takahashi, M., Natori, S., Kawai, K., Yamazaki, M., Takeushi, M., et al.,
(1994). Azaphilones inhibit tumor promotion by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
in 2-stage carcinogenesis in mice. Oncology, 51, 108–112.
Zhang, J., Ge, H. M., Jiao, R. H., Li, J., Peng, H., Wang, Y. R., et al., (2010). Cytotoxic chae­
toglobosins from the endophyte Chaetomium globosum. Planta Medica, 76, 1910–1914.
 PART II
Organic Amendments and Sustainable
Practices for Plant and Soil Management
CHAPTER 7

GARLIC PRODUCTS FOR

SUSTAINABLE ORGANIC CROP
PROTECTION
ANJORIN TOBA SAMUEL1 and ADENIRAN LATEEF ARIYO2

Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture,

1

University of Abuja, PMB 117, Abuja, Nigeria

2
Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Abuja, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

The crop protection potential and pesticidal efficacy of garlic (Allium sativum
L.) has been attributed to its production of several biologically active defense
compounds. The plant is rich in organo-sulfur content, which has great poten­
tial to prevent and treat many diseases of plants and animals. Garlic phyto­
chemical contains alliinase which is released when it is chopped. Allinase
is involved in catalyzing the formation of S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide (allin)
which is the main active component of garlic. It is possible that constituents
from garlic could be used to develop alternatives to conventional pesticides
for the management of crop pests and disease-causing pathogens. This
chapter describes the biochemical compounds found in garlic bulb, prepara­
tory procedures of garlic pesticidal products from fresh and aged bulbs, and
the discovery process of bioactive phytochemical from garlic bulbs. It further
explains the insecticidal, fungicidal, bactericidal, and nematicidal usage of
garlic products and discusses issues on natural pesticides formulation from
garlic. Usage of garlic herbal preparations by growers can reduce non-target
exposure to hazardous pesticides and curb resistance development in pests,
thus enabling sustainable organic crop protection.
166 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Concerns regarding the potential health and environmental impacts of

synthetic chemical pesticides have led to increased interest in the develop­
ment and use of safer pest control alternatives such as plant-based pesticides.
Botanical pesticides are generally developed from naturally and locally
available plant renewable resources, instead of purchased chemical inputs,
and hence reduce the need for synthetic pesticides (IFOAM, 2019). This
enables food production with minimal or no harm to ecosystems, animals, or
humans (Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 2000; Agama, 2015). Also, the involve­
ment of plant resources in crop protection can increase incomes and genera­
tion of employment for the populace (Auerbach et al., 2013). Allium sativum
L.-family Alliaceae, has been used worldwide for medicinal and culinary
purposes and currently been exploited as an organic pesticide (Petropoulos
et al., 2018). Garlic bulb is made up of several concentric bulblets character­
ized by acid taste, pungent-smelling malicious odor.
Garlic is native to central Asia and was first encountered by the man
about some 7,000 years ago (Ellis and Bradley, 1992). Farmers have
cultivated garlic in farms with other crops as companion crops to prevent
insect and pest attacks like aphids, caterpillars on their farm crops (Lalla
et al., 2013). Garlic products have been effectively used in the treatment
of several plant pathogens and insects at different stages in their life cycle.
The products have successfully been used against downy mildew, fruit rots
and blight (Davidson, 1997; Sallam et al., 2012). The pesticidal efficacy
of garlic has been attributed to its production of several biologically active
defense compounds.
Silva et al. (2001) attributed the biological activity of garlic to the presence
of organosulfur compounds in the plant. The organosulfur compounds eluci­
dated in garlic include S-2-carboxypropylglutathione, S-allyl-L-cysteine­
sulfoxide, S-(trans-1-propenyl)-L-cysteine (Lalla et al., 2013; Lanzotti et al.,
2013; Beni et al., 2018). Synthesis of allicin may be categorized as the first
line of defense against attack by pests and other pathogens (Kodera et al.,
2002). Other minerals and microelements found in garlic like iodine, zinc,
copper, selenium, tocopherols, and metabolites like ascorbic acid, protein
content and polyphenol are the components responsible for its medicinal
properties (Borlinghaus et al., 2014).
Release of allinase occurs when garlic clove is crushed. This enzyme
quickly changes alliin to allicin. Separation of the allinase and alliin occur
in garlic bulb membrane in-situ (Miron et al., 2000). Allicin is an unstable
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 167

organosulfur compound which can be stabilized by adding oil-soluble poly­

sulfide’s like dially (tetrasulfide, trisulfide, disulfide, and sulfide) (Block et
al., 2017).
In light of the significant pesticidal potential of garlic and with the advent
of modern formulation techniques, there is a need for an extensive under­
standing of the plant especially on how best to extract its biologically active
defense compounds. In this chapter, the biochemical components of the
garlic bulb, the procedures for preparing the extracts for pesticidal purposes
by the farmers, and the scientific procedures for isolating and formulating
garlic-based pesticides are described. Update on critical issues on the current
usage of garlic products for pest control are also provided.

7.2 GARLIC PREPARATIONS AND THEIR PESTICIDAL PRODUCTS

There are many pesticidal garlic products that are sold in the market, usually
as raw garlic powder, oil, and homogenate which are the major garlic formu­
lation. The homogenate is made up of S-allylmercaptocysteine (SMAC) and
S-allycysteine (SAC). Alliin is found in heat-treated and powdered garlic
(Figure 7.1). The highly odoriferous oil and powder from garlic is used as
pesticide while the supplement could be made from the odorless aged garlic
product (Plata-Rueda et al., 2017).

7.2.1 GARLIC HOMOGENATE FROM FRESH BULB

Garlic homogenate can be achieved by pulverizing fresh garlic. One gram

of garlic (peeled) is blended by adding 0.01 L of water, and the homogenate
produced is left for between 2 and 5 min at 25°C, then a 0.01 L of methanol
is added to the filtered homogenate to cause precipitation of the carbohydrate
and protein present in the extraction. Allicin is a stable compound at 4°C for
up to 36 h (Bayan et al., 2014).

7.2.2 AGED GARLIC EXTRACT (AGE)

Aged garlic extract (AGE) is usually prominent out of many other garlic
extracts. Safe and stable sulfur compounds are usually extracted using
15–20% ethanol at 25°C. This stable sulfur compound confers garlic the
characteristics flavor and smell. S-allyl-mercaptocysteine and all other stable
168 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

water-soluble, little oil-soluble allyl sulfides and minimal allicin are found in
AGE (Ryu et al., 2017). All these compounds have appreciable antioxidant
activities (Corzo-Martínez et al., 2007; Pérez-Torres et al., 2016).

FIGURE 7.1 Garlic products and their major pesticidal organo-sulfur compounds.

7.2.3 BLACK GARLIC

Black garlic is obtained from fermented garlic. Fermentation of garlic at high

humidity and temperature or (80–90% and 60–90°C) respectively reduces
allicin and thus the offensive odor found in fresh garlic. Black garlic activity
is as a result of the change in the physiological properties and this enhances
its biological activities (Tan et al., 2019).

7.2.4 GARLIC POWDER

Garlic powder is made up of alliin and little oil-soluble sulfides. It is made

from garlic cloves that were dehydrated and grounded. Allinase enzyme will
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 169

be deactivated through the processing heat dehydration of the garlic cloves.

In order to prepare garlic powder, the garlic cloves are first separated, and
then the skin is peeled away with fingers or cracked with a sterile knife. Each
clove is thinly sliced and placed on a sheet lined with parchment paper. For
it to dry, the sheets of garlic are placed into the oven and cooked for about 1
h 30 mins at 65°C. The sheet of garlic is removed from the oven and allowed
to cool before been ground into powder (Rahman et al., 2007).
If a dehydrator is to be used to dry out garlic, set the temperature to
about 51°C and allowed to dehydrate for about 8–12 h, when the garlic bits
should be brittle indicating it has dried well (Iciek et al., 2009). In order to
grind the dried garlic, a grinder, blender, food processor, spice mill or mortar
and pestle could be used. The garlic powder should be stored in an airtight
container somewhere cool, dry, and out of direct sunlight. Mason jars are a
good storage container for locally-made garlic powder. Freezing your garlic
powder is also an option.

7.2.5 GARLIC OIL

Garlic oil is mostly obtained by extracting it with ether followed by steam

distillation, with a yield around 2.5–3.0 g/kg fresh garlic. In garlic oil, diallyl
sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), and dimethyl trisulfide (DATS),
differing in their number of sulfur atoms, and allylmethyl sulfide are the
four most abundant volatile allyl sulfides (Block et al., 2017). However, the
composition of these ingredients may vary slightly based on the extraction
method and garlic cultivar (Pérez-Torres et al., 2016). The types of commer­
cially available garlic products and their major pesticidal organo-sulfur
compounds are shown in Figure 7.1.

7.3 PREPARATION OF PESTICIDE FROM CRUDE GARLIC

EXTRACT

For production of garlic extract, healthy cloves of garlic should be selected.

The garlic bulbs are then stored in a cool, dry shady place. Garlic extract are
obtained by first blending the cloves, followed by filtration of the mixture.
Most of the times, garlic extract is prepared by thoroughly mixing garlic
cloves with water in a blender in a ratio 1:2 w/w. The mixture is then filtered
with the filtrate collected as garlic extract before being mixed with oil or
organic solvents (Kaluwa and Kruger, 2012). Clean utensils should be used
170 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

and washed immediately after use, in order to avoid cross-contamination.

In the preparation and application process, it should be ensured that there
is no direct contact with the crude extract. Care must be taken not to spray
the plant with garlic extract close to harvest time because sprayed garlic
remains long on the plant. A potash-based soap like laundry soap can be
added to the extract as an emulsifier. Appropriate clothing should always
be worn while applying the extract and the hands should always be washed
after handling the plant extract (Tafadzwa et al., 2016). Before going for
large scale spraying of crops, it is advisable to first try the extract formu­
lated on few plants infested with the disease. Two out of various traditional
preparation protocols are as follows:

1. About 80 grams of garlic bulbs are chopped into small pieces by a

clean and sterile sharp knife and ground with a grinder. About 600
ml water and 3–4 drops of liquid soap are added to the mixture,
stirred, and allowed to stand for 24 h and filtered through a fine
cloth. As garlic components are volatile, the extract is to be stored
in a tightly sealed container or vessel like bottle before use (Mikaili,
2013). In order to use it, 1 part of the emulsion is diluted with 9
parts of water and shaken well before spraying. Spraying on the
infested plants should be thorough, preferably applied in early in
the morning.
2. About 85 grams of chopped or crushed garlic are added to 50 ml of
mineral oil (vegetable oil) and allowed to stand for 24 h. The ratio
of garlic extract to essential oil used could range from 0–70% garlic
extract to 90–30% oil. 950 ml of water is then added and stirred in
10 ml of liquid dish soap and filtered through a fine cloth (Tafadzwa
et al., 2016). Such a mixture needed to be stored in a non-transparent
container such as a bottle in a cool place before use in order to check
thermo- and photo-degradation. For its use, 1 part of the emulsion
is diluted with 19 parts of H2O and shaken well prior to spraying.
Spraying early in the morning of the infested plant thoroughly is
advocated (Vijayalakshmi et al., 1999). A synergistic effect is often
observed when garlic extract is combined with essential or mineral
oils. These often result in improved natural insecticidal, bactericidal,
and fungicidal qualities than when garlic extract only is used (Curtis
et al., 2004). The essential volatile oils could be obtained from plants
or seeds of cottonseed oil, soybean oil, castor oil, lemongrass oil,
sesame oil, ginger oil (Edris, 2007).
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 171

7.4 DISCOVERY PROCESS OF PESTICIDAL BIOACTIVE

PHYTOCHEMICAL FROM GARLIC BULBS

7.4.1 EXTRACTION AND PURIFICATION OF MOLECULE FROM

GARLIC

The current use of crude extracts of garlic for pesticide formulation by the
farmers is usually substandard. A standard and scientific stepwise proce­
dure for formulating pesticides from garlic bulb via bioassay evaluation
is as shown in Figure 7.2. Garlic efficacy optimization depends on the
extraction techniques and conditions. The crude extract can be reconsti­
tuted with all the organic solvent while the organic layer can be separated
by drying over sodium sulfate and evaporated at 40°C on a Rota evapo­
rator. The crude extract obtained from this step could then be utilized for
various biological activities (Atanasov et al., 2011). The contents could
be subjected to a defatting process by pouring them into a solution of 10
ml brine, 10 ml methanol and 20 ml hexane. This solution is then stirred
for 15 min following which methanol/water layer is extracted with ethyl
acetate. Extracted content is then subjected to flash chromatography and
each fraction checked for activity (Kamleh et al., 2008).

FIGURE 7.2 Bio-guided discovery process of pesticidal bioactive phytochemical from garlic
bulbs.
Source: Adapted from: Pino et al. (2013); http://scielo.sld.cu/pdf/rpv/v28n2/rpv01213.pdf.

7.4.2 ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION OF GARLIC BIOACTIVE

COMPOUNDS

The purification and subsequent isolation of biologically active compound

can be achieved through the use of column chromatography from garlic
172 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

before obtaining a standardized formulation. Highly valued separation can

be accomplished through increase polarity of the mobile phases. However, a
rapid analysis of the different compound present can be achieved through the
use of thin-layer chromatography (TLC). Accelerating this process can occur
through the use of high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) accelerate
the process of extracting the target structurally-related compound or purifi­
cation of the bioactive molecule. Each compound exhibits a peculiar peak
when subjected to a definite chromatographic condition: the pure compound
obtained from the garlic extract can then be used for structural elucidation
and pesticidal activities (Pino et al., 2013).
Spectroscopic data obtained from one- and two-dimensional nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) mass spectrometry (MS), ultraviolet (UV)
visible light, and infrared spectroscopy can be deployed in identifying
isolated compound. Compounds that have powerful chromophore can be
carried out using UV-visible spectroscopy (Ziegler et al., 2013).
Immunoassays, monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are part of non-
chromatographic technique required to identify pure isolate of garlic
extract. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) offers a rapid
and non-destructive investigation to fingerprint herbal extracts or
powders (Zhang et al., 2018).
The purity and characterization of active fractions that are obtained
from the flash chromatography can be determined by HPLC using C-18
column. The preparative HPLC is carried out using a C-18 column, elution
is performed using acetonitrile/water (90/10) at a flow rate of 3 ml/min and
detection when performed at λ254. These are performed using the procedure
of Adetunji et al. (2019). HPLC system is made up of the solvent reservoir,
or multiple reservoirs, a high-pressure Agilent 1200 series preparative pump,
a column, injector system and the UV diode array detector. In vitro and in
vivo evaluation of the activities of the crude extract is needed before isola­
tion and elucidation is carried out.
The discovery and development of new compounds from garlic is
extremely intensive but necessary. It is imperative to search for new and
potent compound from garlic. This is an important strategy in order to
overcome the challenge of widespread synthetic pesticide resistance. That
is why additional phytochemical or essential oils are often added in the
formulation of garlic-based products. Also, it is increasingly desirable
to substitute some existing pesticides that are highly toxic with safe
compounds that are only toxic to the pest and are environmentally safe
(Clough and Godfrey, 1998).
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 173

7.5 PESTICIDAL USAGE OF GARLIC PRODUCTS

The increasing level of appreciation for the value of garlic as pesticides has
been recorded, especially among organic farmers. The potency of garlic
products has been reported in the management of several crop insect pests
(Badoo, 2016).

7.5.1 GARLIC USAGE AGAINST INSECT PESTS

Garlic has been severally reported to have properties for controlling insect
pests. These include African bollworm, African armyworm, onion thrips,
whiteflies, termites, through their antifeedant properties and repellent prop­
erties (Prowse et al., 2006; Denloye, 2010; Kiani et al., 2012). The level of
insecticidal activity of garlic components depends on the extracting solvent,
concentration, and species susceptibility of target insect pest. Concentra­
tion dependent mortalities on pulse beetle has been recorded for the use of
Sativum oil extract (Chaubey, 2017). The garlic extracted using methanol
as a solvent has shown 76% mortality of maize weevil mortality at higher
dosage treatment and 35.9% mortality at lower concentration (Ibrahim and
Garba, 2011; Lalla et al., 2013). Other studies carried out by Mobki (2014)
documented high fumigant toxicities of garlic extracts against red flour
beetle-T. casteneum and S. zeamais. Use of 7.6 µl/L of garlic extract causes
30% mortalities of Japanese termite (Park and Shin, 2005). D. domestica and
D. radium larva mortality occurs upon exposure to garlic juice (Gareth et al.,
2006). The larvicidal effects of garlic juice were comparable to insecticidal
activities of organophosphate pesticides. Dailly (disulfide and trisulfide) are
the phyto-constituent with insecticidal properties which affect a large range
of insect pest (Ouko et al., 2017). These organosulfur compound causes
pathology in the respiratory organ of the insect (Yang, 2012). Additionally,
products of ethanol extract identified include vinydithiins, allicin, ajoene,
and diallyl methyl trisulfide which may be responsible for the insecticidal
activities of the extract (Nwachuku and Asawalam, 2014).
Low toxicity resulting in 24% mortality of S. zeamais has been associ­
ated with hexane extract of garlic bulb. The low polarity of hexane has been
described to be the reason for the poor activity of the hexane extract since
most of the compound with insecticidal activities has higher polarity. Ouko
et al. (2017) recorded the use of higher polarity solvent for the extraction of
Allium sativum since most of the Alky substance found in the plant is soluble
174 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

in highly polar solvents. This could be attributed to the presence of potent

compounds such as phenolic, flavonoids, and saponins in low concentration.
The use of methanol/hexane in extracting garlic improves its activities
again maize weevils than when the individual solvent is used. The extract
showed 96% mortality while 88% mortality occurs within 24 h. This activity
is comparable to actellic synthetic insecticide used in the treatment of insect
pest. The activities displayed by methanol and hexane extract may be attrib­
uted to increase solubility of more alkyl compound and allicin in the garlic
extract (Hamed et al., 2012).
There were reports of high efficacy of garlic essential oils on rice and
bean bruchid weevils (Lalla et al., 2013). Organosulfur compound from
Alliaceae has an effect on several insect species. These compounds affect the
respiratory cells of the insects (Adedire and Ajayi, 1996). The compounds
induced inflammation through the activation of transient receptor potential
Ankyrin-1 ion channel in the insect neural tube; this may be responsible for
the mortality of insect observed (Nwachukwu and Asawalam, 2014).
The presence of allicin and diallyl sulfide which are majorly organo­
sulfur compounds responsible for the pungent smell of garlic extract. The
odor repels feeding insects (Karavina et al., 2014). The presence of diallyl
trisulfide also deters insect oviposition on stored grains (Nwachukwu and
Asawalam, 2014). The larvicidal and ovicidal activities of these biologically
active constituent of garlic extract on larva and egg of beetles have been
demonstrated (Ali et al., 2014).
Effect of garlic extract on leaf miner disease which infest tomato showed
that spraying the garlic extract thrice at 2-week interval starting from day
40 significantly reduced the population of the leaf miner. Also, it increased
tomato yield (Hussein et al., 2014). Also, the extract from garlic has activi­
ties against blights, downy mildew, rust, and fruit rots (Sallam et al., 2012).

7.5.2 GARLIC USAGE AGAINST PATHOGENIC FUNGI

Chips, extracts, and oil of garlic have been reported to inhibit the growth
of fungi such as Phytophthora spp., Penicillium spp., Saccharomyces spp.,
Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus parasiticus (Singh et al., 2001; Barile
et al., 2007; Bayili et al., 2011; Perello et al., 2013). The antifungal activity
of garlic was tested for controlling tomato early blight caused by Alternaria
solani, in vitro and in vivo (Tagoe et al., 2011). In greenhouse experiments,
the highest reduction of disease severity was achieved by the extracts of
garlic at 5% concentration at this level, the fruit yield was increased by 76.2%
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 175

and 66.7% compared to the infected control. In vitro and in vivo experi­
ments have shown that garlic extract inhibited cyst growth, germination of
sporangia and growth of germ tube of Phytophthora infestation of leaf. Also,
allicin at concentration ranging from 50 μg to 1 g/mL causes appreciable
reduction (50–100%) in cucumber downy mildew, a disease caused by Pseu­
doperonospora cubensis (Davidson, 1997).
Garlic extract containing allicin has shown great activity against Drechslera
tritici-repentis and Bipolaris sorokiniana, which are fungal contaminant of
wheat seeds. Result obtained from the use of garlic extract to correct wheat
seed poor germination is comparable to result from the use of synthetic pesti­
cide. Garlic extract induced structural modification of the conidia and hyphae
of Bipolaris sorokiniana and Drechslera tritici-repentis, thus restricting these
fungal colonies radial growth for up to 10 days. Significant antifungal activities
have been associated with the essential oil extracted from garlic (Onyeagba et
al., 2004).
The essential oils extracted from garlic have been shown to possess
significant antifungal properties. In separate studies by Salim (2011); and
Tagoe (2011) documented broad-spectrum antifungal activities of garlic.
The extract has shown between 60% and 82% growth inhibition of seed
borne fungi of Penicillium and Aspergillus genera. The wide range antifungal
effect may be due to the presence of allicin which can be converted to diallyl
(trisulfide, disulfide, sulfide, and allymethyltrisulfide) ajoene and dithiins
(Naganawa et al., 1996; Cowan, 1999).
Garlic extract was found to completely inhibit the mycelial growth of
Aspergillus ochraceus and OTA biosynthesis by A. ochraceus (Reddy et al.,
2010). Inhibition of Fusarium species found in cucumber by garlic tablet has
been documented (Amin et al., 2009). Also, the allicin from garlic extract
potently inhibited the growth of Botrytis and Alternaria (Perello et al.,
2013). Rice seedling treated with garlic extract show resistance to rice blast
pathogen (M. grisea) attack, and the treated plant showed fever symptoms
(Hubert et al., 2015). Use of garlic extract as the curative measure is less
effective compared to its use as a prophylactic measure.
Plant extracts including garlic reduced the activity of cucumber soil-
borne pathogens. Similarly, spraying of garlic extract has shown appreciable
inhibition of downy mildew and cucumber soil borne disease which encour­
ages more cucumber yield. As well as controlling disease the sprays had
a beneficial effect on cucumber yields (Hajano et al., 2012). The results
indicated that the combination of garlic extracts with either cottonseed oil or
cinnamon oil inhibited the growth of powdery mildew disease more effec­
tively than applications not in combination.
176 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Exposure of Fusarium species, Alternaria species and Colletotrichum

species to garlic extract causes inhibition of their spore germination and halt
their mycelial growth, especially when the extracts were applied after the
spore has germinated (Singh et al., 2001). This may be due to the exchange
reaction of the thiol-disulfide which elicit the antimicrobial action (Fass and
Thorpe, 2018).

7.5.3 GARLIC USAGE AGAINST PATHOGENIC BACTERIA AND

NEMATODES

Rahman et al. (2007) determined the anti-microbial activity of different

garlic products, which include garlic oil, dried garlic powder, commercially
produced garlic products were tested against different selected bacte­
rial pathogen of plant (Rahman et al., 2007; Mikaili, 2013). The result
indicated that the highest growth inhibition occurs in the lactic culture of
Thermophilus, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus.
Moderate growth inhibition was observed in Staphylococcus aureus. While
poor growth inhibition of garlic extract was seen in Bacillus cereus and
Salmonella typhimurium. It was observed that the antimicrobial activities
of the garlic products tested decreases with decreasing concentration of
garlic powder. The temperature of the preparation of garlic products affects
the antimicrobial properties. Increase temperature of mode of preparation
decreases the antimicrobial activities of garlic products.
Garlic extract showed comparable result in control of nematode causing
root-knot in groundnut. Garlic extract showed appreciable effect through
suppression of nematode, thus stimulating the growth of the plant (Fatema,
2005). A 100% mortality was recorded in Heterodera cajanis second stage
juvenile which is the cause of pigeon pea root-knot. This result was observed
after 14 h exposure to garlic extract. Similarly, after exposure of Terranchus
urticae to garlic extract, 100% mortality of the helminth was recorded (Singh
et al., 2001).

7.6 ISSUES CONCERNING NATURAL PESTICIDES FORMULATION

FROM GARLIC BULB

Ordinarily, purified pesticidal natural compounds from garlic can either be

used in pesticide formulation, as such compounds constitute the biologi­
cally active principle in the formulation mixture, sometime the mixture may
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 177

include synthetic material. Alternatively, such pure compounds obtained

may be explored as a leading drug candidate in the design of novel synthetic
drug (Gordon et al., 2013).
The use of plant natural product as pesticide has been filled with a lot
of problems. Many natural products are unstable under sunlight and high
temperature that may be encouraged in the field; thus, they are not able to
exert any toxic effect on plant pathogens. Also, due to lack of selectivity,
many of the natural products exert their toxicity on plants and mammals. The
suggestion of adding synthetic material to the natural products to overcome
this limitation can definitely add to the overall cost of producing the natural
products (Clough and Godfrey, 1998; Atanasov, 2015).
In spite of the arguments above expressed and the difficulties to obtain a
natural substance which can have pesticidal activity and stability at the same
time, the researchers are continually searching new substances naturally
occurring in nature with pesticidal properties so that in the future and after
optimization could be used as commercial proposes.
The use of garlic extracts to improve plant health and increase disease/
pest resistance are currently and largely unregulated. Thus, legislative
control by various governments should be applied to ensure regulatory
compliance of wherever pesticidal claims are made. When growing garlic
for pest control, it has been observed that heavy doses of fertilizer can reduce
the concentration of the effective substances in the garlic (Amagase, 1993).
Apart from avoiding the use of large amounts of fertilizers, other factors that
could influence the efficacy of garlic should be studied.

7.7 CONCLUSION

Research reports support the use of garlic extract as a useful, simple, cost
effective and environmental-safe crop pest and diseases management
strategy with the purpose to minimize the use of synthetic insecticides and
fungicides. The combination of garlic natural ingredients when combined
with other plant essential oils, have superior antifungal and anti-bacterial
qualities, than if applied separately. However, most of the pesticidal studies
of garlic in developing countries mostly involved crude extracts. Further
studies on the isolation of pure compounds of A. sativum and determine the
mode of action to obtain standard formulation is imperative. Also, because
garlic has a broad-spectrum effect and might be non-selective, it should be
used with caution or used as directed so that non-target beneficial organisms
will be safe.
178 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Although new pesticides based on natural plant extracts are continu­

ally developing, more research is necessary for optimizing applications
and become a safe alternative for eliminating the chemical pesticides from
agriculture. Though garlic products are safe pesticide, for the sake of IPM
strategy, it should be applied together with low residual synthetic pesti­
cides. Due to the easy preparation of garlic products, systemic action after
application, biodegradability products, and possible low-cost alternatives
to agrochemicals, it is hoped that garlic-based pesticides would no doubt
play a significant role in achieving sustainable crop protection in modern
agriculture.

KEYWORDS

• bactericidal activity
• bioactive phytochemicals
• formulation procedure
• fungicidal activity
• garlic products
• insecticidal activity
• nematicidal activity
• organic crop protection
• organo-sulfur compounds

REFERENCES

Adedire, C. O., & Ajayi, T. S., (1996). Assessment of insecticidal properties of some plants
as grain protectants against the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch.). Nig. J. Ent.,
13, 93–101.
Adetunji, C. O., Olaniyi, O. O., & Ogunkunle, A. T. J., (2013). Bacterial activity of crude
extracts of Vernonia amygdalina on clinical isolates. Journal of Microbiology and
Antimicrobials, 5(6), 60–64.
Agama, J., (2015). Africa: Latest development in organic agriculture in Africa. In: Willer, H.,
& Lernoud, J., (eds.), The World of Organic Agriculture (p. 15). Statistics and Emerging
Trends FiBL-IFOAM Report. FiBL, Frick, and IFOAM-Organics International, Bonn.
Ali, S., Sagheer, M., Hassan, M., Abbas, M., & Hafeez, F., (2014). Insecticidal activity of
turmeric (Curcuma longa) and garlic (Allium sativum L.) extracts against red flour beetle,
Tribolium castaneum: A safe alternative to insecticides in stored commodities. J. Entomol.
Zool. Stud., 2, 201–205.
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 179

Amagase, H., & Milner, J. A., (1993). Impact of various sources of garlic and their constituents
on 7,12-dimethylbenz[α]anthracene binding to mammary cell DNA. Carcinogenesis,
14(8), 1627–1631.
Amin, R. A. B. M., Rashid M. M., & Meah, M. B., (2009). Efficacy of garlic to control seed-
borne fungal pathogens of cucumber. J. Agric. Rur. Dev., 7(1–2), 135–138.
Atanasov, A. G., Waltenberger, B., & Pferschy-Wenzig, E. M., (2011). Discovery and resupply
of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review. Biotechnology
Advances, 33(8), 1582–1614.
Auerbach, R., Rundgren, G., & Scialabba, N. E., (2013). Organic Agriculture: African
Experiences in Resilience and Sustainability. (p. 219) FAO Natural Resources Manage­
ment and Environment Department.
Baidoo, P. K., & Mochiah, M. B., (2016). Comparing the Effectiveness of garlic (Allium
sativum L.) and hot pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.) in the management of the major
pests of cabbage (Brassica oleracea (L.). Sustainable Agriculture Research, 5(2), 83–91.
Barile, E., Bonanomi, G., Antignani, V., Zolfaghari, B., Sajjadi, S. E., Scala, F., & Lanzotti,
V., (2007). Saponins from Allium minutiflorum with antifungal activity. Phytochemistry,
68, 596.
Bayan, L., Koulivand, P. H., & Gorji, A., (2014). Garlic: A review of potential therapeutic
effects. Avicenna J. Phytomed., 4(1), 1–14.
Bayili, R. G., Abdoul-Latif, F., Kone, O. H., Diao, M., Bassole, I. H. N., & Dicko, M. H.,
(2011). Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities in some fruits and vegetables
from Burkina Faso. African Journal of Biotechnology, 10, 62.
Beni, C., Casorri, L., Masciarelli, E., Ficociello, B., Masetti, O., Rinaldi, S., & Cichelli, A.,
(2018). Characterization of garlic (Allium sativum L.) aqueous extract and its hypothetical
role as biostimulant in crop protection. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment,
16(3, 4), 38–44.
Block, E., Bechand, B., Gundala, S., Vattekkatte, A., Wang, K., Mousa, S., Godugu, K., et al.,
(2017). Fluorinated analogs of organosulfur compounds from garlic (Allium sativum):
Synthesis, chemistry and anti-angiogenesis and antithrombotic studies. Molecules, 22,
2081.
Borlinghaus, J., Albrecht, F., Gruhlke, M. C. H., Nwachukwu, I. D., & Slusarenko, A. J.,
(2014). Allicin: Chemistry and biological properties. Molecules, 19, 12591–12618.
Brooklyn Botanic Garden, (2000). Natural Disease Control: A Commonsense Approach to
Plant First Aid. Handbook No. 164. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Inc., NY.
Chaubey, M. K., (2017). Biological activities of Allium sativum essential oil against pulse
beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Herba Polonica, 60, 41–55.
Clough, J. M., & Godfrey, C. R. A., (1998). The strobilurin fungicides. In: Hutsun, D., &
Miyamoto, J., (eds.), Fungicidal Activity, chemical and Biological Approaches to Plant
Protection (p. 254). John Wiley and Sons Ltd., West Sussex, England.
Corzo, M., Corzo, N., & Villamiel, M., (2007). Biological properties of onions and garlic.
Trends in Food Science and Technology, 18(12), 609–625.
Cowan, M. M., (1999). Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clinical Microbiology Reviews,
12(4), 564–582.
Curtis, H., Noll, U., Störmann, J., & Slusarenko, A. J., (2004). Broad-spectrum activity of
the volatile phytoanticipin allicin in extracts of garlic (Allium sativum L.) against plant
pathogenic bacteria, fungi and oomycetes. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology,
65, 79–89.
180 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Davidson, P. M., (1997). Chemical preservatives and natural antimicrobial compounds. In:
Doyle, M. P., Beuchat, L. R., & Montville, T. J., (eds.), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals
and Frontiers (pp. 520–556). Washington D.C., ASM Press.
Denloye, A. A., (2010). Bioactivity of powder and extracts from garlic, Allium sativum L. (Allia­
ceae) and spring onion, Allium fistulosum L. (Alliaceae) against Callosobruchus maculatus
F. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) on cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (Leguminosae) seeds.
Entomology, 1–5.
Edris, A., (2007). Pharmaceutical and therapeutic potentials of essential oils and their
individual volatile constituents: A review. Phytotherapy Research, 21(4), 308–323.
Ellis, B. W., Bradley, F. M., & Atthowe, H., (1996). The Organic Gardener’s Handbook of
Natural Insect and Disease Control: A Complete Problem-Solving Guide to Keeping Your
Garden and Healthy Without Chemicals. Emmaus: Rodale Press.
Fatema, S., & Ahmad, M. U., (2005). Comparative efficacy of some organic amendments and
a nematicide (Furadan-3G) against root-knot on two local varieties of groundnut. Plant
Pathology Journal, 4, 54–57.
Gareth, M. P., Tamara, S. G., & Andrew, F., (2006). Insecticidal activity of garlic juice in two
dipteran pests. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 8(1), 1–6.
Gordon, M. C., & Newman, D. J., (2013). Natural products: A continuing source of novel
drug leads. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1830(6), 3670–3695.
Gruhlke, M. C. H., & Slusarenko, A. J., (2018). The chemistry of alliums. Molecules, 23(1),143.
Hajano, J. A., Lodhi, A. M., &. Pathan, M. A., & Shah, G. S., (2012). In-vitro evaluation of
fungicides, plant extracts and bio-control agents against rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe
oryzae Couch. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 44(5), 1775–1778.
Hamed, R. K. A., Ahmed, S. M. S., Abotaleb, A. O. B., & El-Sawaf, B. M., (2012). Efficacy
of certain plant oils as grain protectants against the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on wheat. EAJBS, 5, 49–53.
Hubert, J., Mabagala, R. B., & Mamiro, D., (2015). Efficacy of selected plant extracts against
Pyricularia grisea, causal agent of rice blast disease. American Journal of Plant Sciences,
6(5), 602–611.
Hussein, N. M., Hussein, M. I., Gadel-Hak, S. H., & Hammad, M. A., (2014). Effect of two
plant extracts and four aromatic oils on population and productivity of tomato cultivar
gold stone. Nature and Science, 12(7).
Ibrahim, N. D., & Garba, S., (2011). Use of garlic powder in the control of maize weevil.
Proceeding of the 45th Annual Conference of Agricultural Society of Nigeria (pp. 177–181).
Iciek, M., Kwiecien, I., & Wlodek, I., (2009). Biological properties of garlic and garlic-derived
organosulfur compounds. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 50(3), 24765.
IFOAM, (2019). The IFOAM Norms for Organic Production and Processing, Version. The
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements.
Kaluwa, K., & Kruger, E., (2012). Natural Pest and Disease Control Handbook. KwaZulu-
Natal Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Pietermaritzburg.
Kamleh, A., Barrett, M. P., Wildridge, D., Burchmore, R. J., Scheltema, R. A., & Watson, D.
G., (2008). Metabolomic profiling using Orbitrap Fourier transform mass spectrometry
with hydrophilic interaction chromatography: A method with wide applicability to
analysis of biomolecules. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom., 22, 1912–1918.
Karavina, C., Mandumbu, R., Zivenge, E., & Munetsi, T., (2014). Use of garlic (Allium sativum)
as a repellent crop to control diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) in cabbage (Brassica
oleraceae var. capitata). Agric. Res., 52, 615–621.
Garlic Products for Crop Protection 181

Kiani, L., Yazdanian, M., Tafaghodinia, B., & Sarayloo, M. H., (2012). Control of western
flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), by plant
extracts on strawberry in greenhouse conditions. Mun. Ent. Zool., 7(2), 12–22.
Kodera, Y., Ayabe, M., Ogasawara, K., Yoshida, S., Hayashi, N., & Ono, K., (2002). Allicin
accumulation with long-term storage of garlic. Chem. Pharm. Bull., 50, 405–407.
Lalla, F. D., Ahmed, B., Omar, A., & Mohieddine, M., (2013). Chemical composition and
biological activity of Allium sativum essential oils against Callosobruchus maculatus.
IOSR-JESTFT, 3, 30–36.
Lanzotti, V., Bonanomi, G., & Scala, F., (2013). What makes Allium species effective against
pathogenic microbes? Phytochem. Rev., 12, 751–772.
Mikaili, P., Maadirad, S., Moloudizargari, M., Aghajanshakeri, S., & Sarahroodi, S., (2013).
Therapeutic uses and pharmacological properties of garlic, shallot, and their biologically
active compounds. Iran J. Basic Med. Sci., 16(10), 1031–1048.
Miron, T., Rabinkov, A., Mirelman, D., Wilchek, M., & Weiner, L., (2000). The mode of action
of allicin: Its ready permeability through phospholipid membranes may contribute to its
biological activity. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1463, 20–30.
Mobki, M., Safavi, S. A., Safaralizadeh, M. H., & Panahi, O., (2014). Toxicity and repellency
of garlic (Allium sativum L.) extract grown in Iran against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)
larvae and adults. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Protect., 47, 59–68.
Naganawa, R., Iwata, N., Ishikawa, K., Fukuda, H., Fujino, T., & Suzuki, A., (1996). Inhibition
of microbial growth by ajoene, a sulfur-containing compound derived from garlic. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol., 62, 4238–4242.
Nwachukwu, I. D., & Asawalam, E. F., (2014). Evaluation of freshly prepared juice from
garlic (Allium sativum L.) as a biopesticide against the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais
(Motsch.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). JPPR., 54, 132–138.
Onyeagba, R. A., Ugbogu, O. C., Okeke, C. U., & Iroakasi, O., (2004). Studies on the
antimicrobial effects of garlic (Allium sativum Linn.), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)
and lime (Citrus aurantifolia Linn.). African Journal of Biotechnology, 3, 552–554.
Ouko, R. O., Koech, S. C., Arika, W. M., Osano, K. O., & Ogola, P. E., (2017). Bioefficacy
of organic extracts of A. sativum against S. zeamais (Coleoptera; Dryophthoridae). Biol
Syst., 6(1), 174.
Park, I. K., & Shin, S. C., (2005). Fumigant activity of plant essential oils and components
from garlic (Allium sativum) and clove bud (Eugenia caryophyllata) oils against the
Japanese termite (Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe). J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, 4388–4392.
Perelló, A., Gruhlke, N., & Slusarenko, A. J., (2013). In vitro efficacy of garlic extract to
control fungal pathogens of wheat. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 7(24).
Pérez-Torres, I., Torres-Narváez, J., Pedraza-Chaverri, J., Rubio-Ruiz, M., Díaz-Díaz, E.,
Valle-Mondragón, L. D., Martínez-Memije, R., et al., (2016). Effect of the aged garlic
extract on cardiovascular function in metabolic syndrome rats. Molecules, 21, 1425.
Petropoulos, S. A., Fernandes, Â., Ntatsi, G., Petrotos, K., Barros, L., & Ferreira, I. C. F.
R., (2018). Nutritional value, chemical characterization and bulb morphology of Greek
garlic landraces. Molecules, 23(2), 319.
Pino, O., Sánchez, Y., & Rojas, M. M., (2013). Plant secondary metabolites as an alternative in
pest management. I: Background, research approaches and trends. Rev. Protección Veg.,
28(2), 81–94.
Plata-Rueda, A., Martínez, L. C., Dos, S. M. H., Fernandes, F. L., Wilcken, C. F., Soares, M.
A., Serrão, J. E., & Zanuncio, J. C., (2017). Insecticidal activity of garlic essential oil and
182 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

their constituents against the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (Coleoptera:
Tenebrionidae). Sci. Rep., 7, 46406.
Prowse, G. M., Galloway, T. S., & Foggo, A., (2006). Insecticidal activity of garlic juice in
two dipteran pests. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 8, 1–6.
Rahman, M. S., Houd, I. A. S., Al-Riziqi, M. H., Mothershaw, A., Guizani, N., & Bengtsson,
G., (2007). Assessment of the anti-microbial activity of dried garlic powders produced by
different methods of drying. International Journal of Food Properties, 9(1), 503–513.
Reddy, K. R. N., Nurdijati, S. B., & Salleh, B., (2010). An overview of plant-derived products
on control of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. Asian J. Plant Sci., 9(3), 126–133.
Ryu, P., & Kang, D., (2017). Physicochemical properties, biological activity, health benefits,
and general limitations of aged black garlic: A review. Molecules, 22, 919.
Salim, A. B., (2011). Effect of some plant extracts on fungal and aflatoxin production. Int. J.
Acad. Res. 3(4), 116–120.
Sallam, M. A., Nashwa, K., & Abo-Elyousr, K. A. M., (2012). Evaluation of various plant
extracts against the early blight disease of tomato plants under greenhouse and field
conditions. Plant Protect. Sci., 48(2), 74–79.
Singh, U. P., Prithiviraj, B., Sarma, B. K., Mandadavi, S., & Ray, A. B., (2001). Role of garlic
(Allium sativum L.) in human and plant diseases. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology,
39, 310–322.
Tafadzwa, M., Svotwa, E., & Katsaruware, R. D., (2016). Evaluating the efficacy of garlic
(Allium sativum) as a bio-pesticide for controlling cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii). Sci. Agri.,
16(2), 54–60.
Tagoe, D., Baidoo, S., Dadzie, I., Kangah, V., & Nyarko, H. A., (2011). Comparison of the
antimicrobial (antifungal) properties of onion (Allium cepa), Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
and garlic (Allium sativum) on Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium
herbarum using organic and water based extraction methods. Res. J. Med. Plant, 5, 281–287.
Tan, B. G. T., Pham, V., & Nam, T. N., (2019). Studies in Garlic. Intech Open, London.
Vijayalakshmi, K., Subhashini, B., & Koul, S., (1999). Plants in Pest Control: Garlic and
Onion (p. 15). Center for Indian Knowledge Systems. Chennai, India.
Yang, F. L., Zhu, F., & Lei, C. L., (2012). Insecticidal activities of garlic substances against
adults of grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Insect Science, 19,
205–212.
Zhang, L., Dou, X. W., Zhang, C., Logrieco, A. F., & Yang, M. H., (2018). A review of current
methods for analysis of mycotoxins in herbal medicines. Toxins, 10(65), 1–39.
Ziegler, S., Pries, V., Hedberg, C., & Waldmann, H., (2013). Target identification for small
bioactive molecules: Finding the needle in the haystack. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 52,
2744–2792.
CHAPTER 8

EFFICACY OF ORGANIC SUBSTRATES

FOR MANAGEMENT OF SOIL-BORNE
PLANT PATHOGENS
MALAVIKA RAM AMANTHRA KELOTH, MEENAKSHI RANA, and
AJAY TOMER

Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture,

Lovely Professional University, Phagwara–144411, Punjab, India

ABSTRACT

Organic matter is obtained from living organisms which are returned to the
soil, providing a large source of carbon-based compounds. It can improve the
microbial diversity of the soil, nutrient availability to plants, and maintain soil
texture and structure. Organic matters are delivered to the soil in various forms
like cattle manure, swine manure, or poultry manure (PM) in the solid or liquid
phase, S-H mixture, seed cakes, slurry, composts, and many others which help
in disease suppression and reduction in the phytopathogenic population. They
adopt various mechanisms in controlling plant diseases like competition, hyper-
parasitism, ineffective pathogen proliferation, induced resistance, and also
through physicochemical properties of matter. They enable plant protection
through their rich microbial community, regarded as bio-control agents that can
ensure the elimination of the pathogen without harming other living organisms
and the ecosystem. Amendment of soil using organic matter along with other
agricultural practices is also giving good results in plant disease management.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Since a few years back, the farming community has been found to rely
on synthetic pesticides as it proved to give them the most immediate and
184 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

successful results in controlling agricultural pests. But nobody was cautious

regarding the after-effects of the unlimited use of these commercial pesti­
cides that has resulted in polluting soil as well as the natural resources. The
practice of using animal manures and crop rotations were forsaken after
World War II. In replacement to this, farmers practiced monoculturing,
intensive tillage, use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, shortened rota­
tions, etc. (Katan, 1996). Before this scenario, our ancestors believed in
implementing cultural practices and using organic matter, which might not
have given them immediate results and required more labor. Eventually,
they manipulated the soil ecology consciously and unconsciously (Bailey
and Lazarovits, 2003). The realization of the advantages of organic matter
and further studies related to it are advanced in the recent times.
Organic matter is capable of influencing the microbial ecology, nutrient
availability, drainage, water holding capacity, soil aeration, and soil structure
(Davey, 1996). It directly affects the crop productivity and plant health and
provides carbon to the beneficial organisms in the soil as an energy source.
It also helps in minimizing the infections caused by soilborne pathogens
and improves root health. The use of organic matter maintains resident
microbial populations and makes the soil immune to various plant diseases
(Cook, 1990). It can also replace crop rotation in some instances, sanitize the
soil and nourish the farming system by influencing the biological, physical,
and chemical processes (Mathre et al., 1999). According to a recent report
United States generates about 1 billion inorganic and organic agricultural
by-products like crop residue (400 million), cattle manure (50 million),
municipal solid wastes (150 million), pulp, and paper industry by-products
(10 million) and swine and poultry manure (PM) (30 million) every year
(Edwards and Someshwar, 2000). Many research works have also repre­
sented organic matters to be an important entity competent against a broad
category of plant pathogens and pests to reduce its incidence (Cook, 1986;
Abawi and Widmer, 2000; Akhtar and Malik, 2000; Conn and Lazarovits,
2000; Gamliel et al., 2000; Lazarovits et al., 2001).

8.2 MECHANISM OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANIC

AMENDMENTS AND THEIR EFFICIENCY

High nitrogen amendments are one such organic matter used which includes
soymeal, blood meal, bone meal, fishmeal, meat meal, and PM (Figure
8.1). Blood meal and fishmeal in pot trials are meant to have efficiency in
reducing the pathogen causing Verticillium wilt of tomato (Wilhelm, 1951).
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 185

PMs, soymeal, bone meal and meat meal in field conditions at 37 tons/ha,
are capable of reducing the incidence of pathogens like Streptomyces scabies
causing common scab of potato, Verticillium dahliae or Verticillium albo­
atrum causing Verticillium wilt and few nematodes parasitizing plants (Conn
and Lazarovits, 1999; Lazarovits et al., 1999). It also inhibited the germina­
tion of microsclerotia of Verticillium dahliae harboring the sandy soil in lab
conditions (Hawke and Lazarovits, 1994) and field conditions of potato crop
(Conn and Lazarovits, 1999). Few reports indicated that the harm caused
to the phytopathogens was due to the accumulation of ammonia after the
application of high nitrogen-based amendments which has a low C:N ratio
that is less than 10 (Gilpatrick, 1969; Huber and Watson, 1970; Mian and
Rodriquez-Kabana, 1982; Stirling, 1991; Shiau et al., 1999). Thus, micro­
sclerotia of Verticillium dahliae was killed due to the liberation of ammonia
(Tenuta, 2001). The amount of application of organic amendments differs
according to the type of soil. The amount of meat and bone meal required
for loamy soil is twice the amount required for sandy loam soil to generate
equal amounts of ammonia which shows that sandy loam soil can readily
accumulate ammonia. It was observed that the various amendments used to
mitigate pathogens or pathogen inoculum like microsclerotia in sandy soils,
has urea as a major component which reacts with urease enzyme in soil to
liberate ammonia (Rodriguez-Kabana et al., 1989; Stirling, 1991; Tenuta
and Lazarovits, 2002). The efficacy of these amendments was confirmed by
removing urea from them and observing that the latter mixture did not give
supporting results (Huang and Huang, 1993). Soymeal and PM along with
heated soil ensured an effective control over the plant diseases, even the
heat-tolerant pathogens, as increasing temperatures declines the equilibrium
point of ammonia or ammonium (Gamliel et al., 2000). Studies reported
that nitrification products like nitrate and nitrite can also be the cause for
the death of microsclerotia in Verticillium wilt disease. The fact is that the
amendments applied at low rates became effective only after 2 weeks, along
with the change in the soil pH to acidic (Tenuta and Lazarovits, 2002). At
this pH ammonia cannot be present but the formation of nitrous acid (HNO2)
from nitrite can result in the depletion of the pathogen (Tsao and Oster, 1981;
Loffler et al., 1986; Michel and Mew, 1998). Mineral soils comprising of
less than 0.5% bone and meat meal, rapid nitrification rate and acidic soil
tends to be the ideal condition for the presence of nitrous acid (Bailey and
Lazarovits, 2003).
Organic amendments like crab shell, soybean stalk, PM, peanut cake,
wheat straw, rice chaff, and alfalfa were applied under pot and field conditions
in order to examine their efficacy in inhibiting the incidence of Verticillium
186 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

dahliae Kleb. causing Verticillium wilt in cotton crops (Huang et al., 2006).
The application of the amendments under both pot conditions in which
pathogen was inoculated and field condition in which pathogen-infected
naturally, positive results of disease suppression were observed. The most
efficient treatment out of these were that of crab shell (72%), followed by
soybean stalk (60%) and alfalfa (56%) in inhibiting the growth of the fungi
in vascular tissues. The moderate effect was observed for the treatment with
rice chaff while less efficiency was depicted by peanut cake, PM, and wheat
straw treatment with 28%, 21% and 11% growth inhibition of the pathogen,
respectively in vascular tissues. The organic amendment also contributed in
increasing the population of beneficial microorganisms like actinomycetes,
fungi, and bacteria in the rhizosphere of the cotton crops. The microbial popu­
lation size varied according to the age of the crop. The crab shell treatments
stimulated the maximum proliferation of antagonists, while the contribution
of wheat straw, peanut cake, and PM in increasing the percentage of antago­
nists were comparatively less. The latter made only minute changes in the
population of soil microbiota. Thus, the addition of organic amendment to the
soil can cause an increase in the total amount of beneficial microbes and in
inhibiting various soilborne phytopathogens.

FIGURE 8.1 Different types of organic matter.

8.2.1 PLANT SEED-BASED CAKES

Efficacy of several plant seed-based cakes alone and in combination with

biocontrol agents were observed in controlling many plant pathogens. Inhi­
bition of growth of phytopathogens of sunflower crop by the application or
amendment of soil using neem seed cake, cottonseed cake, Datura fastuosa
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 187

and Steochospermum marginatum and each of them in combination with

Pseudomonas aeruginosa were examined (Syed et al., 1998). All four of
the above plant-based treatments successfully suppressed the population
of Fusarium solani, cottonseed cake, and neem seed cake suppressed the
growth of Rhizoctonia solani and Macrophomina phaseolina while Datura
fastuosa and Steochospermum marginatum suppressed the population of
Rhizoctonia solani. The beneficial microbe, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was
capable of reducing the incidence of Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani
and Macrophomina phaseolina. Also, its combination with the plant-based
treatments gave significant results in which, increased plant height and fresh
weight of shoot was observed in treatment combining Pseudomonas aerugi­
nosa with neem seed cake and Steochospermum marginatum.

8.2.2 SLURRY

Anaerobically digested slurry (ADS) when applied to the soil delivered

a significant reduction in the mycelial growth of Phytophthora capsici,
causing Phytophthora root rot disease in chili pepper (Cao et al., 2014). It
also restricted zoospore germination of the pathogen. The decrease in disease
incidence and zoospore germination was observed more with anaerobically
digested pig slurry (ADP) treatment than with anaerobically digested dairy
(ADD) slurry treatment. Isolation of humic substances (HS) and exogenously
applied ammonium from ADS was performed, in which a higher percentage
of inhibition of hyphal growth and zoospore germination was observed for
HS derived from ADP than that from ADD. High ammonium content and
specific structure of HS extracted from ADP was the root cause for its ability
to carry out better control of the disease. Further, the efficiency of pig slurry
in eliminating Ralstonia solanacearum biovar 2 strain 1609 infecting potato
crops was studied, which showed a decrease in the population of infected
and diseased crops according to the soil suppressiveness tests (Gorissen et
al., 2004).

8.2.3 LIQUID SWINE MANURE (LSM)

Liquid swine manure (LSM) amendment reduced the common scab, wilt
diseases, and plant-parasitic nematodes in potato field for 3 years after
its first application at 55 hLha−1 concentrations apart from the increasing
occurrence of common scab disease due to application of animal manures
188 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

(Conn and Lazarovits, 1999). The LSM, which is incorporated into the
soil, destroyed the microsclerotia of the Verticillium wilt causing pathogen,
Verticillium dahliae directly at 5 pH whereas at a higher pH of 6.5 their
activity was not appreciated. From this we can incur that the effectiveness
of amendment is depended upon the soil pH. Similarly, soil temperature,
soil moisture and volatile fatty acid (VFA) mixtures are also responsible
for the activity of the organic amendment against phytopathogens such as
enhancement in toxicity against common scab disease due to rise in soil
temperature, reduction in toxicity due to increase in soil moisture causing
dilution of the active component and immediate fatality of the microscle­
rotia due to VFA mixtures. The functioning of microsclerotia was ceased
in the presence of all the VFA compounds like acetic acid, valeric acid,
butyric acid, isobutyric acid, and propionic acid, whereas it failed with one
or few of the VFA compounds (Tenuta et al., 2002). VFAs produced by
LSM are of no use at a higher pH above 8 while ammonia takes place the
role of causing detrimental effects to the pathogen at this pH. VFA (pKa
4.75) and nitrous acid play the essential role for the antifungal activity at
low pH, showing the necessity of acidification of the organic amendments
before applying in the soil (Tenuta et al., 2002). There was an increase
in the amount of beneficial soil microbiota like Trichoderma when LSM
acting as a stimulating agent for the microflora, was added to kill Verticil­
lium dahliae (Conn and Lazarovits, 1999).

8.2.4 S-H MIXTURE

Positive results were obtained using S-H mixture, a formulated soil amend­
ment, which included many industrial and agricultural wastes. The S-H
mixture under greenhouse conditions was capable of controlling Pseudo­
monas solanacearum, which caused bacterial wilt disease in tomato, when
applied at 0.5–1.0% (w/w) with the soil, one week prior to transplanting
(Chang and Hsu, 1988). Further efficacy of the mixture by removing bagasse,
rice husk powder, calcium superphosphate, potassium nitrate and oyster shell
powder was evaluated, which depicted no reduction in the efficiency of S-H
mixture in the soil, whereas the mixture devoid of urea or mineral ash gave
less efficiency. And by applying the components of the mixture individually
to the soil at the rate equivalent to the amount of each component present in
0.75% (w/w) of S-H mixture, urea alone was found to cause a reduction in
the disease severity but was less efficient than the mixture comprising all of
them. Moreover, disease suppression was par equivalent with the efficiency
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 189

of S-H mixture, when urea was combined with mineral ash to amend the soil
but not with each of any other constituents of the S-H mixture. The efficacy
of urea amended soil was enhanced by increasing the period of treatment
before planting the tomato seedlings, giving best results by planting after 2
weeks of amendment of the soil with urea.
Another bacteria infecting tomato crop was also inhibited by the S-H
mixture in combination with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR).
Ralstonia solanacearum (race 1, biovar 1) causing bacterial wilt disease in
tomatoes were suppressed using soil amended with S-H mixture, acibenzolar­
S-methyl (Actigard) and PGPR; Bacillus pumilus SE 34, Pseudomonas
putida 89B61, BioYield, and Equity (Anith et al., 2004). The S-H mixture
constituted of those components discussed before, i.e., urea, mineral ash,
bagasse, potassium nitrate, rice husk, calcium superphosphate and oyster
shell powder. Bio-Yield (Gustafson, LLC, Dallas, TX) and Equity (Naturize
Inc., Jacksonville, FL) are the formulations in which Bio-Yield includes 2
strains of Bacillus spp.; B. amyloliquefaciens IN937a and B. subtilis GB03
and Equity includes 40 different microbial strains. S-H mixture alone was
capable to lessen the disease incidence when applied 14 days before the
transplantation of the tomato seedlings in the bacteria-infested soil. On
application of Pseudomonas putida 89B61, the PGPR to the transplants at the
seeding time and one week before the inoculation of the bacteria, prevented
the disease incidence. The formulated PGPRs viz. Equity was not capable
of inhibiting the bacteria and BioYield was efficient in reducing the disease
incidence in three experiments. Actigard treatment did not exhibit much
result in inhibiting the bacteria at inoculum densities of 1 × 105 and 1 × 106
CFU/ml. The amendment of soil with Actigard and S-H mixture efficiently
inhibited the incidence of Ralstonia solanacearum in the tomato crops. The
combination of PGPR; P. putida 89B61 or BioYield with Actigard signifi­
cantly reduced the disease incidence compared to the control.
Mediterranean countries are leading in olive oil production. But the
olive oil mill wastewater (Kotsou et al., 2004) and dry olive residues (DOR)
(Sampedro et al., 2004) have caused a threat to the environment due to its
high organic load, phytotoxic, and antimicrobial properties. Studies show
that these waste particles render huge amount of fertilizers when applied
to the soil and can play the role of organic amendment with high nutrients
and organic matter (Paredes et al., 1999). Despite of its agronomic value,
DOR is also harboring antimicrobial properties (Capasso et al., 1995). The
effects of DOR were experimented on the growth of four crop species, on the
saprophytic growth of four fungi causing plant disease and the impact of soil
amendment with the DOR on five systems of plant and pathogen, in which
190 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

three systems were plant with soil enduring pathogen while two were plant
with foliar pathogen (Bonanomi et al., 2006). The four crop species on which
the DOR effect tested were Triticum aestivum, Lepidium sativum, Lactuca
sativa and Lycopersicon esculentum. The four fungi whose saprophytic
growth was examined were Botrytis cinerea (BC), Fusarium culmorum (FC),
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (FOL) and Sclerotinia minor (SM),
the plant-soil borne pathogen systems were T. aestivum-FC, L. esculentum-
FOL and L. sativa-SM and plant-foliar pathogen systems were L. sativa-BC
and L. esculentum-BC. Phytotoxic effects were shown by the residues on
all plant species tested both under laboratory and greenhouse conditions in
which the most sensitive ones were L. sativum and L. sativa which were
followed by L. esculentum and T. aestivum. Favorable results were received
in the tests against phytopathogenic fungi. Radial growth and hyphae density
of the fungi were affected positively by the residues. In the plant pathogen
systems under greenhouse conditions, no affirmative effects were observed
for DOR amended soil. Thus, the report concludes that undecomposed DOR
under controlled conditions cause phytotoxic effect on crop species, antimi­
crobial effect on plant pathogenic fungi and increased disease incidence with
plant-fungus interaction systems.

8.2.5 COMPOSTS

The application of composts in the greenhouse has resulted in diminishing

the soilborne diseases occurring in the plants (Hadar et al., 1992; Hoitink et
al., 1993; Hoitink and Boehm, 1999). In the field conditions, these composts
are also equipped with biocontrol agents that have a vital role in eliminating
phytopathogens through parasitism (Keener et al., 2000). The population
density of certain soilborne pathogens like Pythium and Rhizoctonia causing
damping of disease and SM causing rotting in lettuce crops were declined by
the application of composts due to elevated soil microbial activity (Lumsden
et al., 1983, 1986). Due to the variability in the results of the composted
products, the recommendation of these to the farmers remains as a major
challenge. The outcome varies on the basis of different factors like season of
application and the number of times they are applied. According to a report
out of the 17 organic compounds derived from the household wastes, only 9
were mildly effective while the others had no role in decreasing the Pythium
infection (Erhart et al., 1999). The efficacy of bark composts in suppressing
disease-causing pathogens was apprehensive, but its activity was unable to
relate to the presence of phenol in its extracts and the total biological activity.
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 191

Application of composts derived from municipal biosolids, sugar mill filter

press cake, cottonwood mixed with pine bark or hardwood and cotton gin
trash were found to reduce Pythium arrhenomanes causing stubble decline
in sugarcane (Dissanayake and Hoy, 1999). Fresh compost was equipped
with a high concentration of chemical components of VFA like propionic
acid, isovaleric acid, acetic acid, butyric acid and isobutyric acid, which can
contribute to reduce disease incidence (DeVleeschauwer and Assche, 1981).
Few of these components like butyric and propionic acid was found inhibi­
tory to seed germination and growth of the plant. The production of acetic
acid was a major cause of phytotoxicity following anaerobic decomposition
in wheat straw (Lynch, 1977, 1978). Such anaerobic conditions paved the
way in reducing the inoculum of fungal pathogens like Rhizoctonia solani,
Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. asparagi (Blok et al.,
2000). Some of the effectiveness of the composts as fungicides is due to
the biological control agents harboring them. Pseudomonas fluorescens a
biocontrol agent produces antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG)
that can reduce the incidence of take-all disease of wheat (Raaijamakers and
Weller, 1988). Application of organic amendment cannot be definitely linked
with the biological control agent in soil. Application of organic amendments
due to which the hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate resulting high microbial
activity has caused a decrease in fungal pathogen Pythium causing damping
of diseases (Keener et al., 2000). This relation between organic matter and
soil microbial activity has managed to reduce the incidence of Corky root
rot disease, Phytophthora parasitica causing root infections and Verticillium
wilt disease (van Bruggen, 1995; Davis et al., 1996, 2001). Cellulolytic and
hemicellulolytic actinomycetes are the other contributors in developing anti-
fungal activity in the organically amended soils (van Bruggen, 1995).
A study has been carried out by taking into consideration the efficacy
of 101 microorganisms from compost prepared from urban organic and
yard wastes, from which 28 microbes appeared to be antagonists against
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici causing tomato wilt (Pugliese
et al., 2008). The test was carried out under laboratory conditions in petri
plates constituting perlite medium where tomato seedlings were grown.
Further under greenhouse, the compost was tested against three pathogens
infecting three different crops, viz. Phytophthora nicotianae on tomato,
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. basilici on basil and Rhizoctonia solani on
bean. A Fusarium strain K5 was capable of controlling the fungi infecting
basil, with 69% inhibition and 32% increase in the biomass production
of the crop compared to the control. A bacterial strain B17 controlled the
192 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

fungi Phytophthora nicotianae infecting tomato crop by 82% with 216%

biomass production. Rhizoctonia solani causing stem rot and root rot in bean
crop was controlled by E19 and P11 antagonists with 163% increase in the
biomass production. Moreover, among these 28 microbes, best control at
various dosages was imparted by two Trichoderma isolates; E28 and E36
and three Fusarium isolates; K7, K9 and K11, from which two isolates of
Fusarium, i.e., K7 and K9 were regarded as commercial bio-control agents
with its antagonistic activity against F. oxysporum f. sp. basilica. And no
microbe could control all the soilborne phytopathogens. Composted grape
marc and composted separated cattle manure can be regarded as a biological
control against Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium aphanidermatum and were
tested under laboratory conditions by amending the media with composts
(Hadar and Mandelbaum, 1992). Microbial activity during the process of
composting is responsible for the action of disease suppression. A unique
experiment was conducted using heavily infested crop residues which were
incorporated into 2.5–4.6 m3 area of static compost heaps subjected to
various temperature ranges (Bollen et al., 1989). On the basis of the type
of crop residues, its location in the heap as well as the temperature to which
it is subjected to, is changed. The temperature was brought up to 50–70°C
in 6 days, which remained so for 2–3 weeks and later reduced below 40°C
for 5 months using a.c. at maturation phase. Almost all the pathogens were
eliminated after the test, while Olpidium brassicae and one formae speciales
out of the four Fusarium oxysporum pathogen survived but were also less
in inoculum. According to the study conducted, the elimination of phyto­
pathogens from the crop residues was due to the evolution of heat during
the process of composting. A short heat phase, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
melonis, Plasmodiophora brassicae and Olpidium brassicae were success­
fully eliminated, while during the long-lasting maturation phase, they
survived without losing their viability.
In order to eliminate the soil enduring pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum
causing wilt in tomato, two residues from industrial and agricultural wastes
were composted and evaluated (Borrero et al., 2004). Cork compost (CC)
from cork (Quercus suber L.) production and grape marc compost (GMC)
from alcohol producing industry (grape skins, seed, and stems) were
compared with Sphagnum light peat (P) (Klasmann, Valinex, Palleter, Spain)
and expanded vermiculite (V) (Vermiculitay derivadas, Gijón) and CC and
GMC were used in its heated (60°C) form as CC-60 and GMC-60. Precisely
6.26 to 7.97 were the pH range maintained in the growth media. All the treat­
ments were carried out in the growth media, and their effects were tabulated
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 193

under AUDPC (area under disease progress curve) and RLSBX (relative
length of stem with brown xylem). On the basis of AUDPC and RLSBX,
the most effective treatment was of GMC, which showed 92% reduction
compared to vermiculate (V) or peat (P) treatments. P and V were the most
conducive ones while CC, CC-60 and GMC-60 gave intermediate results.
CC and GMC had increased β-glucosidase activity and with this variation in
the disease severity.
Beneficial microorganisms like Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strains QL-5
and QL-18 were combined with organic fertilizers to inhibit the growth
of bacterial wilt pathogen, Ralstonia solanacearum in tomato crops under
greenhouse conditions and field (Wei et al., 2011). The two strains of Bacillus
sp. were isolated from the rhizosphere soil of the tomato crop. The most
effective results were obtained when both the strains QL-5 and QL-18 were
mixed with the fertilizer to obtain fortified bio-organic fertilizer (BOF). The
field results however relied on season and climatic conditions. Less effect
of the BOF was noticed in autumn crop season in 2008 and 2009 while the
disease incidence was successfully reduced in the spring crop season in 2009
and 2010 significantly. The pathogen population in soil before transplantation
of the tomato seedlings were found to be three times lower in the spring than
autumn season. Significant and favorable results were obtained under field
conditions when air temperature was correlated with the treatment while no
correlations were observed with the relative humidity.
Green wastes are used as composts in order to cause mycelial inhibi­
tion (100%) of FC causing foot rot, Gaeumannomyces graminis f. sp. tritici
causing take-all disease and Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides causing
eyespot in winter wheat, inhibition (100%) of germination of pycniospores
of Phoma medicaginis f. sp. pinodella causing black stem of garden pea,
inhibition (100%) of spores of Plasmodiophora brassicae causing clubroot
of Chinese cabbage (Tilston et al., 2002). Also, green wastes are meant
to protect agricultural crops by inducing mycelial suppression (20%) of
Rhizoctonia solani causing damping-off in radish and sugarbeet, Pythium
ultimum causing damping-off in cucumber (Ryckeboer, 2001), Phytophthora
cinnamomi causing root rot in lupin (Tuitert and Bollen, 1996), inhibiting
mycelium by 33% of Pythium ultimum causing damping-off in cress (Fuchs,
2002), inhibiting conidia by 10% of FOL causing wilt of tomato (Cotxarrera
et al., 2002), inhibiting spore production by 30% of Mycosphaerella pinodes
causing foot rot of pea (Schuler et al., 1993) and inhibiting zoospore produc­
tion by 100% of Phytophthora fragariae f. sp. fragariae causing red core in
strawberry (Pitt et al., 1997).
194 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

8.3 MODE OF ACTION OF COMPOSTS ON PHYTOPATHOGENS

Composts comprising of various bio-control agents as discussed before

conquer the pathogenic community through various mechanisms (Figure 8.2).
Competition, physicochemical properties of the composts, antibiosis, inef­
fective pathogen proliferation, systemic acquired resistance (SAR), induced
systemic resistance (ISR) and hyper-parasitism are the major factors to be
considered (Mehta et al., 2014). These mechanisms are discovered, studied,
and described by different researchers in order to control plant diseases and
to maintain balance in the diversity of soil microbiota.

FIGURE 8.2 Mode of action of the organic matter.

8.3.1 COMPETITION OF THE PATHOGEN WITH THE BIO­

CONTROL AGENT

The beneficial microbes become a competitor for the pathogens for

nutrients (Chen et al., 1988) and space (Serra-Wittling et al., 1996). Lack
of nutrients, infection sites, and efficiency in colonizing roots can lead
to disease suppression, especially in the case of pathogens like Pythium
and Phytophthora, which are nutrient-dependent (Diánez et al., 2004). As
mentioned previously, many pathogens infecting tomato crops like Rhizoc­
tonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici, Pythium
ultimum, Pyrenochaeta lycopersici were eliminated in the soil amended by
composts. The fact that composts are able to control these pathogens is due
to the percentage increase in the siderophore production by the bio-control
agents (de Brito-Alvarez et al., 1995). Siderophore are iron-chelating agents
whose presence depletes the amount of iron required for the germination of
the pathogen as well as its penetration in the host. Pseudomonas fluorescens
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 195

is one such bacteria which is capable of producing siderophore inhibit the

germination of chlamydospore, the resting structure of Fusarium spp.
(Elad and Baker, 1985). According to a recent report, Pseudomonas spp.
also help in the growth of the plant without causing any direct effects and
remain as a competitor for the phytopathogens (Kyselková and Moënne-
Loccoz, 2012).

8.3.2 PROPERTIES OF COMPOSTS

Physicochemical properties of the compost are also contributors to carry out

protection of the crops from various disease-causing pathogens. Composts
are rich in nutrients and organic compounds like phenolic, humic, or bioac­
tive compounds (Hoitink et al., 1997; Siddiqui et al., 2008; Spatafora and
Tringali, 2012) which are responsible for providing ISR, toxicity to patho­
gens and advanced nutritional status for self-defense. Mass spectrometry
(MS) helps in determining the presence of antioxidant and antimicrobial
compounds along with their chemical composition (Shahat et al., 2011), and
the presence of volatile organic compounds (Font et al., 2011).

8.3.3 ANTIBIOSIS TO INHIBIT PATHOGEN GROWTH

Antibiosis is a process of production of specific or non-specific metabo­

lites, volatile compounds, lytic agents, toxic substances, and enzymes by
the bio-control agent to inhibit the development of pathogenic microbes
(Jackson, 1965; Fravel, 1988). Pseudomonas and Bacillus are the two
important microbe genus that carry out antibiosis by producing antibi­
otics to destroy the phytopathogens. Pseudomonas spp. cause disease
control of potato scab, take-all disease in wheat, apple replant disease,
Fusarium wilts (Weller et al., 2002) and also many pathogens infecting
roots (Haas and Défago, 2005), while Bacillus cereus UW85 control
diseases caused by oomycetes fungi like Phytophthora, Pythium, etc.,
by producing zwittermicin A and kanosamine (Silo-Suh et al., 1994;
Milner et al., 1996). Two other bio-control agents from the composts
are Trichoderma and Gliocladium (Howell et al., 1993) and another
recently reported Zygosporium masonii which suppressed the anthrac­
nose disease-causing Colletotrichum capsici in bell pepper (Ajith and
Lakshmidevi, 2012).
196 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

8.3.4 COMPOSTS USED TO MIMIC TARGET HOST

At some instances, pathogens are deceived to proliferate prior to the appear­

ance of the target host by the chemicals signals developed from the shoot
or root exudates (Chen et al., 1988) of the composts. Usually, most of the
pathogens are not capable of multiplication without any host other than the
saprophytes, which even requires a dead medium to survive (Lockwood,
1990). Composts applied as seed cover or plug substitutes in tomato crops
gave positive results in suppressing the Fusarium root rot and crown rot
pathogens (Cheuk et al., 2005). Thus, compost act as a stimulator that trigger
the pathogen to germinate and proliferate before the growth of the host crop
due to which crops can escape from the soilborne diseases (Cheuk et al.,
2005) and cause inactivation of the pathogens (Yogev et al., 2006).

8.3.5 INDUCED RESISTANCE BY BIO-AGENTS

Induced resistance is of many forms in which SAR and ISR are already devel­
oped in the plants before the infection of the pathogen (Vallad and Goodman,
2004). The plants having this induced resistance are stated to possess improved
defensive capacity on stimulation by the presence of a pathogen or PGPR or
any other bio-control agent (Bakker et al., 2003). Generally, SAR takes place
in the presence of beneficial microbe, pathogens, or chemicals (Maurhofer
et al., 1994; Pieterse et al., 1996; De Meyer and Höfte, 1997). Substrates
amended by the composts possess an immense variety of bioagents that can
induce systemic resistance in crops (Wei et al., 1991; Liu et al., 1995). Many
plants growth-promoting bacterial (PGPB) and fungal isolates are found
capable to induce ISR in crops (van Loon et al., 1998).

8.3.6 HYPER-PARASITISM CAUSING MYCELIAL LYSIS

Hyper-parasitism is a process through which a bio-control agent directly

parasitizes on the pathogen and suffocates them to death (Heydari and Pessa­
rakli, 2010). Generally, the agents imparting pathogenic control through
hyper-parasitism are mainly classified into four categories, i.e., predators,
obligate bacterial pathogens, facultative parasites and hypoviruses (Mehta
et al., 2014). Trichoderma spp. are one of the most important microbes
using this mechanism to kill pathogens in which, Trichoderma harzianum
is commonly used to control the mycelial growth of Rhizoctonia solani
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 197

(Chet and Baker, 1980). Favorably, this bio-control agent often occurs in
composts, as reported by the experiments conducted to suppress R. solani
(Kuter et al., 1983). Many soilborne pathogens like Verticillium, Pythium,
Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Phytophthora, and Sclerotinia are hyper parasitized
by the bio-control agents through parasitization of their hyphae, mycelium,
sclerotia or oospores (Diánez et al., 2005). In some cases, multiple hyper-
parasitism also takes place to give a complete control of the pathogens. One
such example is the control of powdery mildew pathogen by Ampelomyces
quisqualis, Acremonium alternatum, Cladosporium oxysporum, Gliocladium
virens and Acrodontium crateriform (Kiss, 2003). Few actinomycetes and
fungi like Verticillium chlamydosporium, Acremonium spp. and Humicola
fuscoatra are found capable of parasitizing oospores of Phytophthora apsici
which infects crops of Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Fabaceae families
(Sutherland and Papavizas, 2008).

8.4 ENHANCED EFFECT OF ORGANIC AMENDMENTS IN

COMBINATION WITH OTHER AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

The organic amendments have shown their efficacy in preventing disease

incidence through various physical, chemical, and biological activities, but
their outcome is slower compared to that of biofumigants and fungicides.
Apart from this, these organic matters have a very advantageous factor that
they give cumulative effects and are long-lasting. Merging of organic amend­
ments with various agricultural practices like soil solarization, soil flooding,
etc., is also being significantly used in the existing farming community.
Organic matter along with tarping is another treatment conducted to check
the increase or decrease in the anti-fungal activity of them (Blok et al.,
2000). There was a significant inactivation in the inoculums of Rhizoctonia
solani, Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. asparagi in the
plots amended with organic matter and covered with plastic sheets (Blok
et al., 2000). Here the amended materials were broccoli and grass, which
contributed in inactivating the survival structures of the pathogen along with
the rise in soil temperature due to the plastic sheet covering. The covered
plots also facilitated anaerobic conditions for the soil microflora to activate
their efficiency in parasitizing phytopathogens.
However, the temperature increases in the soil in covered plots treatment
amended with plant material, have well contributed to pathogen inactivation
by devitalizing the structures of pathogen meant for perpetuation. It was also
noticed that the pathogen propagules were devitalized when many of the
198 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

phytopathogens were exposed to sub-lethal temperatures (DeVay and Katan,

1991). The covered plots developed anaerobic conditions readily, regardless
of incorporation of organic amendment. Diffusion of oxygen from adjacent
no covered soil, several oxidative processes and consumption of these by soil
microbiota contributed in increasing the concentration of the latter in soil
atmosphere. The glucosinolates present in the cruciferous crops are the volatile
product that is responsible for the inactivation of the survival structures of the
fungus (Lewis and Papavizas, 1971; Muehlchen et al., 1990; Kirkegaard et
al., 1996; Smolinska et al., 1997; Subbarao et al., 1999). These volatiles can
be trapped by the plastic sheets under the covered plots, thus contributing
to the anti-fungal activity (Blok et al., 2000). The role of fermentation
products has also reported in inactivating the pathogen propagules. There
was a reduction in the concentration of propagules of Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. conglutinans (Mitchell and Alexander, 1962), Pyrenochaet aterrestris
(Watson, 1964), Verticillium dahliae (Menzies, 1962; Watson, 1964) and
Fusarium spp. (Watson, 1964) when easily metabolizable organic materials
were incorporated into flooded soil. The accumulation of several compounds
like carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen, ethylene, alcohol, aldehydes, and
organic acids temporarily was examined in reducing soil conditions and found
that these products are having fungi toxic effect which helps to inactivate the
phytopathogens (Ponnamperuma, 1972). Few antibiotic and toxin producers
like Bacillus spp. and Clostridium spp. are the anaerobic microorganisms
which can also contribute in pathogen inactivation.
For controlling soil enduring pathogens, researchers have adopted many
other methods keeping in consideration, anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD)
as their basic strategy. This approach has been carried out in different soil
types, regions, and crop species along with various inputs considering the
target pathogen (Rosskopf et al., 2015). It includes agricultural practices like
application of carbon source, irrigating the field according to its optimum
level and providing plastic tarp covering for the soil (Strauss and Kluepfel,
2015). These practices can bring about changes in the total number of
beneficial organisms residing in the soil and their composition, cause avail­
ability of volatile organic compounds and create anaerobic conditions that
can bring in lethal effect. It causes disease suppression through biological
control and oxygen depletion, suffocating the phytopathogenic microbes
(Rosskopf et al., 2015). The carbon sources, plastic tarps, increased soil
temperature and anaerobic conditions can create a favorable environment
for controlling diseases and suppressing phytopathogens. Soil solarization,
though not essential, is found to enhance the efficiency of ASD. With effect
to environmental conditions, carbon sources like rice bran (dry formulation)
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 199

and ethanol (liquid formulation) are found extensively used. Application of

ASD with rice bran, gave successful results in controlling the incidence of
Macrophomina phaseolina causing charcoal rot in California strawberry
(Muramoto et al., 2016). The experiment was also carried out with mustard
seed meal (MSM) alone and with MSM along with ASD-rice bran, in which
the latter gave intermediate effect while MSM failed in suppressing the
pathogen. Further, Brassica seed meal amended soil has also shown suppres­
sion of Macrophomina phaseolina in the orchard and also prevented the
recurrence of soilborne pathogens (Mazzola et al., 2016). It also resisted
the re-infestation of Pratylenchus penetrans, a plant-parasitic nematode. It
is more convincing to use these ASD strategies in areas where soil solariza­
tion is not possible and fumigant buffer zones, facilitating the enrichment of
organic matter in soil (Rosskopf et al., 2015). Despite of providing enriched
soil microbial community and disease suppression, the ASD technique shows
its effect even after the first cropping system, preventing the recurrence of
soilborne pathogens and nematodes (Rosskopf et al., 2015).
The outcome of applying solarization process and pig slurry to the soil
microorganisms and field plots of potato crop was examined to control
the amount of inoculums of Ralstonia solanacearum biovar 2 strain 1609
(Gorissen et al., 2004). Initially, the untreated soil was analyzed based on the
suppressiveness assays, which depicted a slow reduction in the inoculum of
the pathogen in about 9 weeks duration from 106–107 to 103–104 CFU (g dry
soil)–1. According to immunofluorescence colony staining and polymerase
chain reaction (PCR), wilting, and sign of the pathogen was recognized in
the lower part of the stem of most of the potato crops grown in untreated
soil. The application of pig slurry and solarization of the soil were carried out
separately in which both the techniques brought about sufficient reduction
in the amount of the pathogen inoculum, but solarization alone appeared
to be incapable of improving the soil suppressiveness. But by combining
both methods, enhanced results were obtained. The latent existence of the
pathogen in the lower parts of the stem was confirmed in the healthy-looking
crops which were subjected to pig slurry and solarization treatments. More­
over, pig slurry is efficient in changing the bacterial community structure in
the treated soil ensuring disease suppressiveness.

8.5 CONCLUSION

In viewing the various environmental issues and consequences which are

facing in this era, we must realize that the unlimited and unconditional
200 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

utilization of the synthetic products can only contribute to the immediate

results. As discussed in this chapter as well as in many previous reports, the
organic matters and other eco-friendly agricultural practices have the effi­
cacy in reducing diseases and pest incidence and maintaining soil health and
growth of the plant for long term results though they show a slower rate of
action. With further research and innovations, the exceptional ability of these
organic materials will be revealed, and their use for management of soilborne
diseases will expand. Thus, it is the responsibility of every living being that,
they ensure the protection and conservation of nature and its products and
make sustainable utilization with respect to the future generation.

KEYWORDS

• bio-control
• composts
• hyper parasitism
• induced resistance
• manure
• organic matter
• phytopathogenic
• proliferation
• seed cakes
• s-h mixture
• slurry
• suppression

REFERENCES

Abawi, G. S., & Widmer, T. L., (2000). Impact of soil health management practices on soilborne
pathogens, nematodes and root diseases of vegetable crops. Applied Soil Ecology, 15(1),
37–47.
Ajith, P. S., & Lakshmidevi, N., (2012). Zygosporium masonii: A new fungal antagonist against
Colletotrichum capsici incitant of anthracnose on bellpeppers. Journal of Agricultural
Technology, 8(3), 931–939.
Akhtar, M., & Malik, A., (2000). Roles of organic soil amendments and soil organisms in the
biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes: A review. Bioresource Technology, 74(1),
35–47.
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 201

Anith, K. N., Momol, M. T., Kloepper, J. W., Marois, J. J., Olson, S. M., & Jones, J. B.,
(2004). Efficacy of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, acibenzolar-S-methyl, and soil
amendment for integrated management of bacterial wilt on tomato. Plant Disease, 88(6),
669–673.
Bailey, K. L., & Lazarovits, G., (2003). Suppressing soilborne diseases with residue
management and organic amendments. Soil and Tillage Research, 72(2), 169–180.
Bakker, P. A. H. M., Ran, L. X., Pieterse, C. M. J., & Van, L. L. C., (2003). Understanding the
involvement of rhizobacteria-mediated induction of systemic resistance in biocontrol of
plant diseases. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 25(1), 5–9.
Blok, W. J., Lamers, J. G., Termorshuizen, A. J., & Bollen, G. J., (2000). Control of soilborne
plant pathogens by incorporating fresh organic amendments followed by tarping.
Phytopathology, 90(3), 253–259.
Bollen, G. J., Volker, D., & Wijnen, A. P., (1989). Inactivation of soilborne plant pathogens
during small-scale composting of crop residues. Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology,
95(1), 19–30.
Bonanomi, G., Giorgi, V., Neri, D., & Scala, F., (2006). Olive mill residues affect saprophytic
growth and disease incidence of foliar and soilborne plant fungal pathogens. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment, 115(1–4), 194–200.
Borrero, C., Trillas, M. I., Ordovás, J., Tello, J. C., & Avilés, M., (2004). Predictive factors
for the suppression of Fusarium wilt of tomato in plant growth media. Phytopathology,
94(10), 1094–1101.
Cao, Y., Chang, Z., Wang, J., Ma, Y., Yang, H., & Fu, G., (2014). Potential use of anaerobically
digested manure slurry to suppress Phytophthora root rot of chilli pepper. Scientia
Horticulturae, 168, 124–131.
Capasso, R., Evidente, A., Schivo, L., Orru, G. E. R. M. A. N. O., Marcialis, M. A., &
Cristinzio, G., (1995). Antibacterial polyphenols from olive oil mill wastewaters. Journal
of Applied Bacteriology, 79(4), 393–398.
Chang, M. L., & Hsu, S. T., (1988). Suppression of bacterial wilt of tomato by soil amendments.
Plant Prot. Bull. 30, 349–359.
Chen, W., Hoitink, H. A. J., & Madden, L. V., (1988). Microbial activity and biomass in
container media for predicting suppressiveness to damping-off caused by Pythium
ultimum. Phytopathology, 78(11), 1447–1450.
Chet, I., & Baker, R., (1980). Induction of suppressiveness to Rhizoctonia solani in soil.
Phytopathology, 70(10), 994–998.
Cheuk, W., Lo, K. V., Copeman, R., Joliffe, P., & Fraser, B. S., (2005). Disease suppression on
greenhouse tomatoes using plant waste compost. Journal of Environmental Science and
Health, Part B, 40(3), 449–461.
Conn, K. L., & Lazarovits, G., (1999). Impact of animal manures on verticillium wilt, potato
scab, and soil microbial populations. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 21(1), 81–92.
Conn, K. L., & Lazarovits, G., (2000). Soil factors influencing the efficacy of liquid swine
manure added to soil to kill Verticillium dahliae. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology,
22(4), 400–406.
Cook, R. J., (1986). Plant health and the sustainability of agriculture, with special reference to
disease control by beneficial microorganisms. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture,
3(2, 3), 211–232.
Cook, R. J., (1990). Twenty-five years of progress towards biological control. Biological
Control of Soilborne Plant Pathogens, 1–14.
202 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Cotxarrera, L., Trillas-Gay, M. I., Steinberg, C., & Alabouvette, C., (2002). Use of sewage
sludge compost and Trichoderma asperellum isolates to suppress Fusarium wilt of
tomato. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 34(4), 467–476.
Davey, C. B., (1997). Nursery Soil Management-Organic Amendments (pp. 6–18). United
States Department of Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report, PNW.
Davis, J. R., Huisman, O. C., Everson, D. O., & Schneider, A. T., (2001). Verticillium wilt of
potato: A model of key factors related to disease severity and tuber yield in southeastern
Idaho. American Journal of Potato Research, 78(4), 291.
Davis, J. R., Huisman, O. C., Westermann, D. T., Hafez, S. L., Everson, D. O., Sorensen, L.
H., & Schneider, A. T., (1996). Effects of green manures on Verticillium wilt of potato.
Phytopathology, 86(5), 444–453.
De Brito, A. M., Gagne, S., & Antoun, H., (1995). Effect of compost on rhizosphere microflora
of the tomato and on the incidence of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology, 61(1), 194–199.
De Meyer, G., & Höfte, M., (1997). Salicylic acid produced by the rhizobacterium Pseudo­
monas aeruginosa 7NSK2 induces resistance to leaf infection by Botrytis cinerea on
bean. Phytopathology, 87(6), 588–593.
DeVay, J. E., & Katan, J., (1991). Mechanisms of pathogen control in solarized soils. Soil
Solarization, 87–102.
DeVleeschauwer, D., Verdonck, O., & Van Assche, P., (1981) Phytotoxicity of refuse compost.
Biocycle, 22, 44.
Diánez, F., Santos, M., & Tello, J. C., (2004). Suppression of soilborne pathogens by
compost: Suppressive effects of grape marc compost on phytopathogenic oomycetes. In:
International Symposium on Soilless Culture and Hydroponics (Vol. 697, pp. 441–460).
Dissanayake, N., & Hoy, J. W., (1999). Organic material soil amendment effects on root
rot and sugarcane growth and characterization of the materials. Plant Disease, 83(11),
1039–1046.
Edwards, J. H., & Someshwar, A. V., (2000). Chemical, physical, and biological characteristics
of agricultural and forest by-products for land application. Land Application of
Agricultural, Industrial and Municipal By-products, 6, 1–62.
Erhart, E., Burian, K., Hartl, W., & Stich, K., (1999). Suppression of Pythium ultimum by
biowaste composts in relation to compost microbial biomass, activity and content of
phenolic compounds. Journal of Phytopathology, 147(5), 299–305.
Font, X., Artola, A., & Sánchez, A., (2011). Detection, composition and treatment of volatile
organic compounds from waste treatment plants. Sensors, 11(4), 4043–4059.
Fravel, D. R., (1988). Role of antibiosis in the biocontrol of plant diseases. Annual Review of
Phytopathology, 26(1), 75–91.
Fuchs, J. G., (2002). Practical use of quality compost for plant health and vitality improvement.
In: Microbiology of Composting (pp. 435–444). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Gamliel, A., Austerweil, M., & Kritzman, G., (2000). Non-chemical approach to soilborne
pest management-organic amendments. Crop Protection, 19(8–10), 847–853.
Gilpatrick, J. D., (1969). Role of ammonia in the control of avocado root rot with alfalfa meal
soil amendment. Phytopathology, 59, 973–978.
Gorissen, A., Van, O. L. S., & Van, E. J. D., (2004). Pig slurry reduces the survival of Ralstonia
solanacearum biovar 2 in soil. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 50(8), 587–593.
Haas, D., & Défago, G., (2005). Biological control of soilborne pathogens by fluorescent
Pseudomonas. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 3(4), 307–319.
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 203

Hadar, Y., & Mandelbaum, R., (1992). Suppressive compost for biocontrol of soilborne plant
pathogens. Phytoparasitica, 20(1), S113–S116.
Hadar, Y., Mandelbaum, R., & Gorodecki, B., (1992). Biological control of soilborne plant
pathogens by suppressive compost. In: Biological Control of Plant Diseases (pp. 79–83).
Springer, Boston, MA.
Hawke, M. A., & Lazarovits, G., (1994). Production and manipulation of individual
microsclerotia of Verticillium dahliae for use in studies of survival. Phytopathology.
Heydari, A., & Pessarakli, M., (2010). A review on biological control of fungal plant pathogens
using microbial antagonists. Journal of Biological Sciences, 10(4), 273–290.
Hoitink, H. A. J., & Boehm, M. J., (1999). Biocontrol within the context of soil microbial
communities: A substrate-dependent phenomenon. Annual Review of Phytopathology,
37(1), 427–446.
Hoitink, H. A. J., (1993). Mechanisms of suppression of soilborne plant pathogens in compost
amended substrates. Science and Engineering of Composting: Design, Environmental,
Microbiological and Utilization Aspects, pp. 601–621.
Hoitink, H. A. J., Stone, A. G., & Han, D. Y., (1997). Suppression of plant diseases by composts.
HortScience, 32(2), 184–187.
Howell, C. R., Stipanovic, R. D., & Lumsden, R. D., (1993). Antibiotic production by strains
of Gliocladium virens and its relation to the biocontrol of cotton seedling diseases.
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 3(4), 435–441.
Huang, H. C., & Huang, J. W., (1993). Prospects for control of soilborne plant pathogens by
soil amendment. Current Topics in Botanical Research, 1, 223–235.
Huber, D. M., & Watson, R. D., (1970). Effect of organic amendment on soilborne plant
pathogens. Phytopathology, 60(1), 22–26.
Jackson, R. M., (1965). Antibiosis and fungi stasis of soil microorganisms. In: Baker, K. F., &
Snyder, W. C., (eds.), Ecology of Soilborne Plant Pathogens.
Keener, H. M., Dick, W. A., & Hoitink, H. A., (2000). Composting and beneficial utilization
of composted by-product materials. Land Application of Agricultural, Industrial and
Municipal By-products, 6, 315–341.
Kirkegaard, J. A., Wong, P. T. W., & Desmarchelier, J. M., (1996). In vitro suppression of
fungal root pathogens of cereals by Brassica tissues. Plant Pathology, 45(3), 593–603.
Kiss, L., (2003). A review of fungal antagonists of powdery mildews and their potential
as biocontrol agents. Pest Management Science: Formerly Pesticide Science, 59(4),
475–483.
Kuter, G. A., Nelson, E. B., Hoitink, H. A. J., & Madden, L. V., (1983). Fungal populations in
container media amended with composted hardwood bark suppressive and conducive to
Rhizoctonia damping-off. Phytopathology, 73(10), 1450–1456.
Kyselková, M., & Moënne-Loccoz, Y., (2012). Pseudomonas and other microbes in disease-
suppressive soils. In: Organic Fertilisation, Soil Quality and Human Health (pp. 93–140).
Springer, Dordrecht.
Lazarovits, G., Conn, K. L., & Potter, J., (1999). Reduction of potato scab, Verticillium
wilt, and nematodes by soymeal and meat and bone meal in two Ontario potato fields.
Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 21(4), 345–353.
Lazarovits, G., Conn, K. L., Abbasi, P. A., & Tenuta, M., (2005). Understanding the mode
of action of organic soil amendments provides the way for improved management of
soilborne plant pathogens. Acta Horticulturae, 698, 215.
204 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Lazarovits, G., Tenuta, M., & Conn, K. L., (2001). Organic amendments as a disease control
strategy for soilborne diseases of high-value agricultural crops. Australasian Plant
Pathology, 30(2), 111–117.
Lewis, J. A., & Papavizas, G. C., (1971). Effect of sulfur-containing volatile compounds and
vapors from cabbage decomposition on Aphanomyces euteiches. Phytopathology, 61,
208–214.
Liu, L., Kloepper, J. W., & Tuzun, S., (1995). Induction of systemic resistance in cucumber by
plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria: Duration of protection and effect of host resistance
on protection and root colonization. Phytopathology, 85(10), 1064–1068.
Lockwood, J. L., (1990). Relation of energy stress to behavior of soilborne plant pathogens
and to disease development. Biological Control of Soilborne Plant Pathogens, 197–214.
Löffler, H. J. M., Cohen, E. B., Oolbekkink, G. T., & Schippers, B., (1986). Nitrite as a factor
in the decline of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. dianthi in soil supplemented with urea or
ammonium chloride. Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology, 92(4), 153–162.
Lumsden, R. D., Lewis, J. A., & Millner, P. D., (1983). Effect of composted sewage sludge on
several soilborne pathogens and diseases. Phytopathology, 73(11), 1543–1548.
Lumsden, R. D., Millner, P. D., & Lewis, J. A., (1986). Suppression of lettuce drop caused by
Sclerotinia minor with composted sewage sludge. Plant Disease, 70(3), 197–201.
Lynch, J. M., (1977). Phytotoxicity of acetic acid produced in the anaerobic decomposition of
wheat straw. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 42(1), 81–87.
Lynch, J. M., (1978). Production and phytotoxicity of acetic acid in anaerobic soils containing
plant residues. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 10(2), 131–135.
Mathre, D. E., Cook, R. J., & Callan, N. W., (1999). From discovery to use: Traversing the world of
commercializing biocontrol agents for plant disease control. Plant Disease, 83(11), 972–983.
Maurhofer, M., Hase, C., Meuwly, P., Metraux, J. P., & Defago, G., (1994). Induction of systemic
resistance of tobacco-to-tobacco necrosis virus by the root-colonizing Pseudomonas fluo­
rescens strain CHA0: Influence of the gacA gene and of pyoverdine production. Phytopa­
thology, 84, 139–146.
Mazzola, M., Hewavitharana, S. S., Strauss, S. L., Shennan, C., & Muramoto, J., (2016).
Anaerobic soil disinfestation and Brassica seed meal amendment alter soil microbiology
and system resistance. International Journal of Fruit Science, 16(S1), 47–58.
Menzies, J. D., (1962). Effect of anaerobic fermentation in soil on survival of sclerotia of
Verticillium dahliae. Phytopathology, 52(8), 743.
Mian, I. H., & Rodriguez-Kabana, R., (1982). Survey of the nematicidal properties of some
organic materials available in Alabama as amendments to soil for control of Meloidogyne
arenaria. Nematropica, 235–246.
Michel, V. V., & Mew, T. W., (1998). Effect of a soil amendment on the survival of Ralstonia
solanacearum in different soils. Phytopathology, 88(4), 300–305.
Milner, J. L., Silo-Suh, L., Lee, J. C., He, H., Clardy, J., & Handelsman, J. O., (1996).
Production of kanosamine by Bacillus cereus UW85. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology, 62(8), 3061–3065.
Mitchell, R., & Alexander, M., (1962). Microbiological changes in flooded soils. Soil Science,
93(6), 413–419.
Muehlchen, A. M., Rand, R. E., & Parke, J. L., (1990). Evaluation of crucifer green manures
for controlling Aphanomyces root rot of peas. Plant Disease, 74(9), 651–654.
Muramoto, J., Shennan, C., Zavatta, M., Baird, G., Toyama, L., & Mazzola, M., (2016).
Effect of anaerobic soil disinfestation and mustard seed meal for control of charcoal rot
in California strawberries. International Journal of Fruit Science, 16(S1), 59–70.
Organic Substrates for Managing Soil Borne Plant Pathogens 205

Paredes, C., Cegarra, J., Roig, A., Sánchez-Monedero, M. A., & Bernal, M. P., (1999).
Characterization of olive mill wastewater (alpechin) and its sludge for agricultural
purposes. Bioresource Technology, 67(2), 111–115.
Pieterse, C. M., Van, W. S. C., Hoffland, E., Van, P. J. A., & Van, L. L. C., (1996). Systemic
resistance in Arabidopsis induced by biocontrol bacteria is independent of salicylic acid
accumulation and pathogenesis-related gene expression. The Plant Cell, 8(8), 1225–1237.
Pitt, D., Tilston, E. L., & Groenhof, A. C., (1997). Recycled organic materials (ROM) in the
control of plant disease. International Symposium on Composting and Use of Composted
Material in Horticulture, 469, 391–404.
Ponnamperuma, F. N., (1972). The chemistry of submerged soils. Advances in Agronomy, 24,
29–96.
Pugliese, M., Liu, B. P., Gullino, M. L., & Garibaldi, A., (2008). Selection of antagonists
from compost to control soilborne pathogens. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection,
115(5), 220–228.
Raaijmakers, J. M., & Weller, D. M., (1998). Natural plant protection by 2,4-diacetylphloro­
glucinol-producing Pseudomonas spp. in take-all decline soils. Molecular Plant-Microbe
Interactions, 11(2), 144–152.
Rodriguez-Kabana, R., Boube, D., & Young, R. W., (1989). Chitinous materials from blue crab
for control of root-knot nematode. I. Effect of urea and enzymatic studies. Nematropica,
53–74.
Rosskopf, E. N., Serrano-Pérez, P., Hong, J., Shrestha, U., Rodríguez-Molina, M. D. C., Martin,
K., & Butler, D., (2015). Anaerobic soil disinfestation and soilborne pest management.
In: Organic Amendments and Soil Suppressiveness in Plant Disease Management (pp.
277–305). Springer, Cham.
Ryckeboer, J., (2001). Biowaste and Yard Waste Composts: Microbiological and Hygienic
Aspects-Suppressiveness to Plant Diseases (p. 278). Leuven, Belgium: Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven (Doctoral Dissertation).
Schüler, C., Pikny, J., Nasir, M., & Vogtmann, H., (1993). Effects of composted organic
kitchen and garden waste on Mycosphaerella pinodes (Berk, et Blox) vestergr., causal
organism of footrot on peas (Pisum sativum L.). Biological Agriculture and Horticulture,
9(4), 353–360.
Serra-Wittling, C., Houot, S., & Alabouvette, C., (1996). Increased soil suppressiveness to
Fusarium wilt of flax after addition of municipal solid waste compost. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry, 28(9), 1207–1214.
Shahat, A. A., Ibrahim, A. Y., Hendawy, S. F., Omer, E. A., Hammouda, F. M., Abdel-Rahman,
F. H., & Saleh, M. A., (2011). Chemical composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant
activities of essential oils from organically cultivated fennel cultivars. Molecules, 16(2),
1366–1377.
Shiau, F. L., Chung, W. C., Huang, J. W., & Huang, H. C., (1999). Organic amendment of
commercial culture media for improving control of Rhizoctonia damping-off of cabbage.
Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 21(4), 368–374.
Siddiqui, Y., Meon, S., Ismail, M. R., & Ali, A., (2008). Trichoderma-fortified compost
extracts for the control of Choanephora wet rot in okra production. Crop Protection,
27(3–5), 385–390.
Silo-Suh, L. A., Lethbridge, B. J., Raffel, S. J., He, H., Clardy, J., & Handelsman, J., (1994).
Biological activities of two fungistatic antibiotics produced by Bacillus cereus UW85.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 60(6), 2023–2030.
206 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Smolinska, U., Morra, M. J., Knudsen, G. R., & Brown, P. D., (1997). Toxicity of glucosinolate
degradation products from Brassica napus seed meal toward Aphanomyces euteiches f.
sp. pisi. Phytopathology, 87(1), 77–82.
Spatafora, C., & Tringali, C., (2012). Valorization of vegetable waste: Identification of bioactive
compounds and their chemo-enzymatic optimization. The Open Agriculture Journal, 6(1).
Strauss, S. L., & Kluepfel, D. A., (2015). Anaerobic soil disinfestation: A chemical-
independent approach to pre-plant control of plant pathogens. Journal of Integrative
Agriculture, 14(11), 2309–2318.
Subbarao, K. V., Hubbard, J. C., & Koike, S. T., (1999). Evaluation of broccoli residue incorpora­
tion into field soil for Verticillium wilt control in cauliflower. Plant Disease, 83(2), 124–129.
Sutherland, E. D., & Papavizas, G. C., (1991). Evaluation of oospore hyperparasites for the
control of Phytophthora crown rot of pepper. Journal of Phytopathology, 131(1), 33–39.
Tenuta, M., & Lazarovits, G., (2002). Ammonia and nitrous acid from nitrogenous amendments
kill the microsclerotia of Verticillium dahliae. Phytopathology, 92(3), 255–264.
Tenuta, M., Conn, K. L., & Lazarovits, G., (2002). Volatile fatty acids in liquid swine manure
can kill microsclerotia of Verticillium dahliae. Phytopathology, 92(5), 548–552.
Tilston, E. L., Pitt, D., & Groenhof, A. C., (2002). Composted recycled organic matter
suppresses soilborne diseases of field crops. New Phytologist, 154(3), 731–740.
Tsao, P. H., & Oster, J. J., (1981). Relation of ammonia and nitrous acid to suppression of Phytoph­
thora in soils amended with nitrogenous organic substances. Phytopathology, 71(1), 53–59.
Tuitert, G., & Bollen, G. J., (1996). The effect of composted vegetable, fruit and garden
waste on the incidence of soilborne plant diseases. In: The Science of Composting (pp.
1365–1369). Springer, Dordrecht.
Vallad, G. E., & Goodman, R. M., (2004). Systemic acquired resistance and induced systemic
resistance in conventional agriculture. Crop Science, 44(6), 1920–1934.
Van, B. A. H., (1995). Plant disease severity in high-input compared to reduced-input and
organic farming systems. Plant Disease, 79(10), 976–984.
Van, L. L. C., Bakker, P. A. H. M., & Pieterse, C. M. J., (1998). Systemic resistance induced
by rhizosphere bacteria. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 36(1), 453–483.
Watson, R. D., (1964). Eradication of soil fungi by a combination of crop residue flooding and
anaerobic fermentation. Phytopathology, 54(12), 1437.
Wei, G., Kloepper, J. W., & Tuzun, S., (1991). Induction of systemic resistance of cucumber
to Colletotrichum orbiculare by select strains of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria.
Phytopathology, 81(11), 1508–1512.
Wei, Z., Yang, X., Yin, S., Shen, Q., Ran, W., & Xu, Y., (2011). Efficacy of Bacillus-fortified
organic fertilizer in controlling bacterial wilt of tomato in the field. Applied Soil Ecology,
48(2), 152–159.
Weller, D. M., Raaijmakers, J. M., Gardener, B. B. M., & Thomashow, L. S., (2002). Microbial
populations responsible for specific soil suppressiveness to plant pathogens. Annual
Review of Phytopathology, 40(1), 309–348.
Wilhelm, S., (1951). Effect of various soil amendments on the inoculum potential of the
Verticillium wilt fungus. Phytopathology, 41(8), 684–690.
Yogev, A., Raviv, M., Hadar, Y., Cohen, R., & Katan, J., (2006). Plant waste-based composts
suppressive to diseases caused by pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum. European Journal of
Plant Pathology, 116(4), 267–278.
CHAPTER 9

ORGANIC FARMING IMPROVES SOIL

HEALTH SUSTAINABILITY AND CROP
PRODUCTIVITY
ABDEL RAHMAN M. AL-TAWAHA,1 ELIF GÜNAL,2 İSMAIL ÇELIK,3
HIKMET GÜNAL,2 ABDULKADIR SÜRÜCÜ,4
ABDEL RAZZAQ M. AL-TAWAHA,5 ALLA ALEKSANYAN,6
DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,7 and JEYABALAN SANGEETHA8

1
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
P.O. Box 20, Maan, Jordan
Gaziosmanpaşa University, Faculty of Agriculture,
2

Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Tokat, Turkey

Çukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture,
3

Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Adana, Turkey

Harran University, Faculty of Agriculture,
4

Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Şanliurfa, Turkey

Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
5

University Putra Malaysia, Serdang–43400, Selangor, Malaysia

Institute of Botany aft. A.L. Takhtajyan NAS RA/Department of
6

Geobotany and Plant Eco-Physiology, Yerevan, Armenia

7
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad–580003,
Karnataka, India
8
Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala,
Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India
208 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

ABSTRACT

Organic farming increases soil sustainability and crop production. Demands

for healthy food and a sustainable environment have increased interest in
alternative conservative production systems and led to the introduction of
the concept of organic farming. Plants are continually dealing with increas­
ingly evolving and potentially harmful external environmental factors.
Organic farming is very important to protect the environment, minimize soil
degradation and erosion, reduce pollution, optimize biological productivity,
and promote a healthy state of health. Soil quality and fertility are a concern
today to boost the sustainability of our agricultural system. Soil fertility is
more important than the supply of macro and micronutrients to plants in
organic farming systems (OFSs). Effective management of fertility takes
into account plant, soil organic matter (SOM), and soil biology. This chapter
focuses on: (i) impact of organic farming on physical properties of soils; (ii)
status of organic farming; (iii) impact of organic farming on plant growth
and yield.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The growth of many plants is affected by many environmental factors that

affect in more than one way the physiological and morphological changes of
the plant (Hayyawi et al., 2018; Amanullah et al., 2019; Hani et al., 2019;
Aludatt et al., 2019). Organic farming is a plant and animal production process
that requires far more than opting not to use pesticides, fertilizers, GMOs,
antibiotics, and growth hormones. In organic farming systems (OFSs), soil
fertility means more than providing macro and micronutrients to plants. In
organic farming, providing mineral nutrients are considered very key factor
that limits plant biomass and productivity in many ecosystems (Turk et al.,
2003a–c; Nikus et al., 2004a, b; Tawaha and Turk, 2004; Turk and Tawaha,
2004). Also, the effective fertility management considers plant, soil organic
matter (SOM) and soil biology. Organic production is a comprehensive
method designed to maximize the efficiency and health within the agroeco­
system of different populations, including soil species, plants, livestock, and
humans. The key aim of organic production is the creation of sustainable
enterprises in accordance with the climate. Many researchers (Al-Kiyyam
et al., 2008; Al-Ajlouni et al., 2009; Al-Tawaha et al., 2010) reported about
general principles for organic production:
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 209

• Environmental protection, reduces soil degradation, reduces pollution,

improves biological productivity, and promotes good health of the soil;
• Maintaining long term soil fertility by enhancing soil biological activity;
• Preserving the system’s biodiversity;
• Provide care that promotes health and meets livestock behavioral
needs; and
• Preparation of organic products, stressing preparation procedures and
thorough handling to protect the biological integrity and essential
characteristics of products at all stages of production.

9.2 STATUS OF ORGANIC FARMING

Soil health and fertility is a matter of concern these days to make our agricultural
system more sustainable (Al-Tawaha et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005; Sulpanjan et
al., 2005). On the other hand, adequate plant nutrition is essential for commer­
cial crop production (Amanullah et al., 2019a, b; Hani et al., 2019; Rajendran
et al., 2019). For OFSs, soil fertility requires more than supplying macro and
micronutrients to plants. Good fertility management takes plant, SOM, and soil
biology into consideration. Ideally OFSs are planned to increase soil fertility so
as to achieve multiple goals such as preserving and, if necessary, enhancing the
soil’s physical condition such that the soil maintains healthy plants and living
organisms in the soil and has the capacity to withstand and recover from stress
such as flooding or violent tillage; maintaining the soil’s buffering capacity to
reduce the deterioration of the environment caused by soil loss or the inability
of the OFSs are designed to keep nutrients in organic reservoirs or bioavailable
forms of minerals, rather than simply supplying nutrients through frequent
fertilizer additions. This is accomplished as nutrients flow through organic
reservoirs. Soil fertility is increased by organic matter control and not by input
substitution (Tawaha et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2005; Assaf et al., 2006; Turk
et al., 2006). Regardless of the most human food requirement the agriculture
plays a vital role in human life. Traditional agriculture’s main objective was
to achieve maximum productivity from a unit of agricultural land, and these
farming methods are distinguished by a high degree of crop specialization and
intensive land, labor-work, and capital contributions per unit of soil. Extensive
use of natural resources in traditional agriculture has caused problems such
as soil, water, and air contamination, food residues of agricultural chemicals,
increased depletion of natural resources and, consequently, increased social
cost of production. The transition to organic farming is described as one of the
best strategies for achieving sustainable management of the agri-environment
210 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

at national and international level. Organic agriculture is getting more and

more relevant for agriculture and agro-industry in many developed and devel­
oping countries, due to public knowledge of the environment and health, and
the negative effects of conventional agriculture (Rehber and Turhan, 2002).
Organic farming is a modern method of processing in which agricultural pesti­
cides, concentrated feed and additives are avoided or eliminated from the farm
completely. Organic activities rely on crop rotation, crop residues, compost,
legumes, green manures (GMs), organic off-farm waste, mechanical agricul­
ture, mineral rocks, and techniques for pest control (Lampkin and Padel, 1994;
Hameed et al., 2008; Al-Tawaha et al., 2010, 2017; Ananthi et al., 2017; Abu
Obaid et al., 2018).
Organic farming has the potential to provide advantages in terms of
protecting the environment, preserving non-renewable resources, improving
nutritional quality, reducing the production of surplus products and reori­
enting agriculture toward evolving market demand (Lampkin and Padel,
1994). Demand for organic food, and hence trade in organic food and organic
farming, is increasingly important worldwide, particularly in developed
countries. Also reinforcing the development of organic farming is the new
conservation of rural concepts, improving understanding of environmental
issues and encouraging sustainable agricultural development.

9.3 IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING ON SOIL HEALTH

Demands on healthy food and sustainable environment increased the interest

in alternative conservative production systems and gave rise to the introduc­
tion of organic agriculture concept (Sudjatmiko et al., 2018). The sustain-
ability of agricultural ecosystems to produce health food can be obtained by
improving and maintaining soil health (Tully and McAskill, 2019). Higher
amounts of antioxidants and less or negligible quantity of pesticides in organic
foods attract the attention of consumers (Barański et al., 2014). Utilization
of carbon-based soil amendments, diversifying the crop rotations, including
cover crops during the fallow period, absence of synthetic agrochemicals,
using organic mulches, weed control without herbicides, and integrating
crop and livestock production are the main strategies of organic farming to
improve the functioning potential of soils (Schonbeck et al., 2017). Therefore,
organic cropping systems are expected to have an accumulation of organic
C compared to conventionally agricultural production systems. Soil nutrient
sources in organic farming are met by organic sources, including solid or
liquid animal manure, GMs, crop residues, yard debris, and waste from food
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 211

processing industries (Tully and McAskill, 2019). OFS plainly deals with the
management of SOM, which in turn has a strong influence on the physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil (Stockdale et al., 2001).
Despite the concerns on the low yield in organic agriculture (Wittwer et al.,
2017), organic production land is continuously increasing due to the detrimental
impacts, such as erosion, degradation of soil structure, soil compaction, losses
of SOMs, and nutrient depletion, of conventional farming systems (Abebe et
al., 2005; Abera et al., 2005; Al-Tawaha et al., 2005, 2010; Elser et al., 2007;
Al-Kiyyam et al., 2008; Bünemann et al., 2018). The area under organic
farming was estimated at 57.8 million hectares worldwide in 2016, including
in conversion areas. Total area of organic farming corresponds to 1.2% of the
agricultural land in the world (Willer et al., 2018). The decrease in crop yield
is the most common disappointment of the producers when converted from
conventional to organic agriculture. The meta-analysis conducted by Niggly
(2015) revealed that average crop yield in organic agriculture is lower between
0.75 and 0.80 of conventional agriculture. However, most studies reported
a gradual increase in crop yield overtime along with improved soil quality
(Reeve and Drost, 2012; Suja and Sreekumar, 2014) associated mainly with
increased soil biological activity (Knapp and van der Heijden, 2018).
Organic farming enhances the delivery of several ecosystem services
by improving the soil health, quality of surface and ground waters. Some
of the important ecosystem services are increasing the efficiency nutrients
use, preventing nutrient, buffering nutrients according to their removal,
reducing the erosion by increasing the stability of aggregates and increasing
the water holding capacity (Peigné et al., 2014; Abbott and Manning, 2015)
(Figure 9.1). Organic amendments in organic farming significantly improve
soil moisture retention, total organic carbon and nitrogen contents, popula­
tion, and diversity of microorganisms, and enzyme activities, which indicates
significant enhancement on soil health (Nautiyal et al., 2010).
Conventional tillage using plows are frequently used by organic farmers
to prepare seedbed and control weeds prior to planting, bury intermediate
crops, and incorporate organic fertilizers and amendments (Peigne et
al., 2018). However, continuous, and intensive soil tillage by plows may
neutralize positive effects to soil aggregates and functions due to loss of
organic carbon, compaction, and crust formation (Crittenden et al., 2015),
negative impact on infiltration, water retention capacity and nutrient cycling
(Williams and Hedlund, 2013). Therefore, some studies indicated the positive
effect of combining conservation tillage and organic farming on functioning
potential soils. Introduction of reduced tillage without plowing in OFSs
212 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

improves soil physical health and helps to preserve long-term soil fertility
compared to intensive tillage in organic farming (Cooper et al., 2016; Seitz
et al., 2019) by decreasing erosion rate (Seitz et al., 2019) and promoting
aggregation of microaggregates into macroaggregates (Puerta et al., 2018).
In contrast, higher losses of microaggregates have been reported in tilled
organic fields by Green et al. (2005). Peigne et al. (2018) indicated that 10
years of very superficial tillage at 5 to 7 cm and superficial tillage at 15 cm
increased organic carbon, total nitrogen, Olsen P in the 0 to 15 cm of soil
surface compared to moldboard plowing treatments.

FIGURE 9.1 Soil aggregates under organically managed field and conventionally managed
adjacent field from central Anatolia, Turkey.

Sustainable production in OFS relies on organic matter management to

improve soil health and provide nutrients for growing plants (Turk and Tawaha,
2001, 2002a, b; Tawaha and Turk, 2002a, b; Tawaha et al., 2003). The farmers
in organic agriculture simulate the natural cycle to add essential nutrients
to maintain and improve the soil health (Biswas et al., 2014). Productivity
function of soils in organic farming is preserved or improved by the addition of
GMs and organic amendments such as animal manure, compost, biochar, etc.
More than 70 years of a conventional and an organic farming and permanent
pasture without tillage resulted in 15, 24, and 46 g kg–1 organic matter content
at 0–20 cm depth, respectively (Pulleman et al., 2003).
Soil health is defined as the functioning ability or capacity of soils as an
essential component of the living ecosystem that is vital to sustaining the lives
of plants, animals, and humans (Moebius-Clune et al., 2016). Therefore, soil
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 213

health management is a crucial issue to sustain the agricultural productivity

and environmental quality (Reeves, 1997).
The performance of soils for all its functions cannot be assessed by deter­
mining only crop yield, water quality, or any single soil property (USDA,
2020). The application of organic amendments increases the concentration
of essential nutrients in soils. Organic material in soil improves aggregation
of mineral particles, increases the stability against destructive forces, thus;
reduces soil compaction and erosion, increases porosity and consequently
the water holding capacity (Kaje et al., 2018).

9.3.1 IMPACT ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Physical quality of soil is closely related to the maintenance of the stable

aggregates and an improved storing and transmitting potential of water, air,
and nutrients to support crops and to reduce degradation (Reynolds et al.,
2007). The results conducted to assess the impacts of organic farming on the
sustainability of agricultural production have shown the positive effects of
animal manure and diversified crop rotations on soil quality (Schjonning et
al., 2002). However, contrasting reports on the impacts of organic farming
have been published for different soil physical properties. In general, soil
physical environment in terms of soil pore volume and stability of aggregates
favors sustainable use of organically managed arable lands (Papadopoulos et
al., 2014). The incorporation of organic matter to soil activates biological
processes that help to supply plant nutrients along with an increase in the
strength and stability of soil structure for better plant growth environment
(Abbott and Manning, 2015). Long-term conservative practices in organic
farming are reported to result in lower bulk density and higher available
water retention capacity compared to conventional farms. Improved soil
physical health by the introduction of organic farming indicates a highly
resistant soil environment to wind and water erosion, to the crusting and
creating compaction, in addition, reduces plant stress related to the long-
term drought (Liebig and Doran, 1999).

9.3.1.1 AGGREGATE STABILITY

Soil organic C is the most important agent in the formation and stability of
soil aggregates (Franzleubbers et al., 2000). Addition of greater amount of
plant and animal biomass in OFSs result in a stable soil surface cover and
214 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

increase proportion of water-stable macro aggregation (Pulleman et al., 2003;

Mikha and Rice, 2004; Zhang et al., 2014), and aeration (Shukla et al., 2006)
by stabilizing soil aggregates (Erhart and Hartl, 2009) and changing soil pore
characteristics (Papadopoulos et al., 2014). However, the positive effects of
organic farming on aggregate stability and soil porosity may not be constant
over time. Aggregate formation is primarily related to the stabilization of
organic matter and stability of long-term soil mass (Williams and Petticrew,
2009), therefore, aggregate stability is positively correlated with the increase
in soil organic C content (Green et al., 2005). Papadopoulos et al. (2014)
reported significantly higher aggregate stability for short term (5 years)
organically managed sandy loam soils (mean weight diameter, 1.24 mm)
compared to conventionally managed soils (mean weight diameter, 0.64
mm), while mean weight diameter in longer-term (>10 years) organically
and conventionally managed silty clay soils was similar to each other (Table
9.1). In addition to the commonly stated effects of organic carbon on the
stability of aggregates, Lori et al. (2017) indicated the importance of bacteria
and fungi on the improvement and stability of soil aggregates.

9.3.1.2 SOIL WATER RETENTION

Soil structure, pore-size distributions, SOM content, and soil texture that
is influential on retention at higher matric potential, are the major determi­
nants of water holding capacity and water infiltration rate of a soil (Hillel,
1998). Increasing the organic C content of soils under OFSs has a beneficial
effect on soil hydraulic properties by improving the important soil physical
properties. Soils under organic farming are reported to have higher soil
water retention capacity, therefore, higher potential water-limited crop
yields compared to soils under conventional farming (Crittenden et al.,
2015; Crittenden and Goede, 2016). Similarly, Nautiyel et al. (2010) also
indicated that the addition of organic manure and crop residues in organic
farming increased the moisture retention of sandy loam soils. Reducing soil
surface evaporation by organic mulching increases the moisture content of
soils (Bayer et al., 2006).
Mechanical weed control in organic farming and intensive tractor
passes in the field may cause a compaction, which decreases the volume
of macropores, increases the volume of smaller pores. The average amount
of macropores under organic farming (0.65%) was significantly lower than
the macropores (0.82%) under conventional farming. The differences in
pore size distribution between organic and conventional farming systems
TABLE 9.1 Mean Weight Diameter (MWD), Aggregate Stability (AS) and Bulk Density Values for Organic (O) versus Conventional (C)

Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity

Farming Systems
Duration Organic Practice Soil Type Depth MWD (mm) AS (g g–1) BD (g cm–3) References
Year (cm) O C O C O C
37-year Green manure Silt Loam 0–10 – – – – 0.98 0.95 Reganold et al. (1987)
46-year Forage crop, animal manure Sandy loam 6–13 – – 0.51 0.36 1.54 1.44 Schjonning et al. (2002)
47-year 0.87 0.68 1.35 1.35
40-year 0.64 0.87 1.36 1.49
>70-year 5.1 and 1.8 tDMha±1 yr±1 Loam 0–10 5.3 &
0.6 – – – – Pulleman et al. (2003)
crop residue and animal 10–20 3.7 0.5
manure
7-year Vetch cover – 0–5 0.40 0.40 0.31* 0.35* 1.53 1.53 Green et al. (2005)
5.1 Mg/ha poultry litter
– – Silty 0–20 1.24 0.64 – – 1.06 0.93 Papdopoulos et al.
Silty Clay 0.44 0.33 1.27 1.45 (2014)

Sandy Loam 2.41 3.09 1.05 1.03

7-year 20–40 Mg/ha/yr (fresh Clay Loam 0–10 0.64 0.42 – – 1.42 – Crittenden et al. (2015)
weight) slurry and/or solid 10–20 0.50 0.45 1.42
cow manure
8-year 0–10 0.57 – – 1.34 –
10–20 0.56 1.42
6-year Potato Silt Loam 0–40 – – – – 1.52 1.50 Glab et al. (2016)
Wheat 1.59 1.57
Oats/vetch 1.57 1.57

215
Spelt 1.53 1.49
TABLE 9.1 (Continued)

216
Duration Organic Practice Soil Type Depth MWD (mm) AS (g g–1) BD (g cm–3) References
Year (cm) O C O C O C
20-year Chipped pruned branches, Sandy Loam 0–10 – – – – 0.99 1.12 Hondebrink et al. (2017)
10-year weeds, composted sheep Sandy loam 0–10 – – – – 1.67 1.67
manure (10 Mg ha−1)
15-year – Sandy loam – – – – – 1.22 1.32 Sihi et al. (2017)
3-year Horse manure, green cover Silt 0–15 1.46 0.97 82.0% 76.9% 1.39 1.29 Morwan et al. (2018)
crop (mustard)
*
Macro aggregates (g/g); &: Wet sieving.

Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 217

were more evident for micropores (50–100 μm). The decrease in volume of
macropores and increase in micropores have significant impacts on water
retention characteristics of soils, especially at high matric potential resulting
in a higher amount of plant-available water content (Glab et al., 2016).

9.3.1.3 SOIL COMPACTION

Pleasing positive effects of organic management on bulk density and

hydraulic conductivity have been reported (Oquist et al., 2006). The
increase in organic matter content of a silty clay soil under more than 10
years of organic farming led to a significantly lower bulk density (1.27 g
cm–3) compared to companion conventionally managed soils (1.45 g cm–3).
However, the use of heavy machinery and conventional tillage methods may
cause severe subsoil below plowing depth, even under OFSs (Schjonning et
al., 2002).
Intensive tractor traffic for mechanical weed protection under OFS resulted
in higher bulk density value (1.54 g cm–3) compared to the conventional
farming system (1.51 g cm–3) (Glab et al., 2016). Moreover, Pulleman et
al. (2003) raised their concerns on a higher risk of soil compaction under
organic farming applied with reduced or no-till practices, if not properly
managed. Crittenden et al. (2015) also reported significantly higher mean
weight diameter at 0–10 cm depth in conventional farming system compared
to organic farming. Therefore, shallow mechanical disturbance was
recommended in the organically managed fields to break up the aggregates
in the very surface layer.
Penetration resistance is a commonly used indicator of soil physical
health and considered a representation of roots penetration through soil. The
penetration resistance of a soil mainly depends on texture, water content, and
dry bulk density of a soil (Crittenden et al., 2015). Reganold (1995) reported
greater soil porosity and lower penetration resistance under organic compared
to conventional management system. Compaction in organic farming has
been reported to be a major constrain for plant growth, and cause of the
yield losses. Around 10 years of shallow and very shallow tillage in organic
agriculture increased the soil compaction, especially between 15 and 30 cm
depth (Peigne et al., 2018). In contrast, positive effects of short-term organic
farming (5 years) on microporosity have been reported by Papadopoulos et
al. (2014), however, microporosity of silty clay soil was reduced in the longer
term (more than 10 years) organically managed land (18.4%) in comparison
to the conventionally managed land (25.0%).
218 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

9.3.1.4 SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is an important agent of land degradation and causes severe

environmental problems with detrimental impacts on the provisioning of
ecosystem services (Smith et al., 2016). Sediment losses in organic farming
including cover crop is significantly lower compared to conventional
farming (Green et al., 2005). The greater amount of improved water-stable
macroaggregates due to the increased organic matter content in organic
farming has been correlated with the decrease in soil erosion (Lado et
al., 2004). Therefore, Morwan et al. (2018) explained the runoff and soil
loss differences by lower stability of soil aggregates under conventional
farming compared to organic farming. Seitz et al. (2019) reported 30%
less sediment loss (0.54 t ha−1 h−1) in organic farming than the conven­
tional farming. Repeated losses of sediments from surface layers decrease
the thickness of the surface horizon. Despite the great sediment losses
every year, farmers may not realize the severity of the problem in the
short term due to the mixing with subsurface horizon by plowing. But
in the long term (37 years), the thickness of the most productive layer
(topsoil) has been substantially decreased by water and tillage erosion
(Reganold et al., 1987). Average soil loss from organically managed fields
was reported to be 8.3 tons ha–1 year–1, while it was fourfold higher (32.4
tons ha–1 year–1) on conventionally managed fields (Table 9.2). Reganold
et al. (1987) related the difference in erosion rates between organically
and conventionally managed fields to the differences in crop rotations and
tillage intensities of the production systems.
Crop residues or other organic amendments applied to soil surface are
incorporated and buried with conventional tillage practices, which accel­
erate the decomposition of biomass. Therefore, sediment loss in organic
farming can be further decreased by the introduction of reduced tillage
due to increased soil surface cover. Otherwise, conventional tillage using
moldboard plow may nullify some of the benefits on physical proper­
ties expected from the addition of animal manure and plant residues in
organic farming. Soil loss under conventional tillage and organic farming,
in which moldboard plow and disk used before planting, and rotary
hoeing for weed control, was estimated 7.5 and 5 times greater relative
to no-tillage (Green et al., 2005). Therefore, unless conservational tillage
practices are applied, the risk for nutrient loss through sediment transport
in soils under organic farming are much higher than the non-organic
reduced or no-till soils.
 Macro Porosity (MP), Runoff, and Soil Loss Values for Organic (O) versus Conventional (C) Farming Systems

Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity

TABLE 9.2
Duration Organic Practice Soil Type Depth MP (%) Runoff (mm/year) Soil Loss (Mg/ha/yr) References
O C O C O C
46 Forage crop, animal Sandy loam 6–13 cm 11.2 15.9 – – – – Schjonning
47 manure 14.1 14.9 et al. (2002)

40 15.9 11.0
7-year Vetch cover 5.1 Mg/ha – 0–5 – – 108 116 43 64 Green et al.
poultry litter (2005)
– – Silty 0–20 23.0* 16.7* – – – – Papdopoulos
Silty clay 20.6 15.7 et al. (2014)

Sandy loam 21.1 12.2

6-year Potato Silt Loam 0–20 0.428& 0.435 – – – – Glab et al.
Wheat 0.402 0.408 (2016)

Oats/vetch 0.406 0.408

Spelt 0.423 0.436
37-year Green manure Silt Loam 0–10 – – – – 8.3 32.4 Reganold et
al. (1987)
13-year Bean 25 different 0–30 – – – – 32.5 32.8 Arnhold et
Potato fields, 38.2 30.6 al. (2014)
predominantly
Radish sandy loam, 45.0 54.8
Cabbage loamy sand 34.7 34.7

: Total porosity (cm3 cm–3).

&

219
220 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Soil loss under OFSs is closely related to the agricultural practices

needed to grow crops. In general, OFSs have been reported to decrease the
sediment loss in production of row crops due to the development of weeds
in the furrows. Similarly, soil loss in radish growth was also decreased due
to higher weed coverage. Conversely, potato cultivation has been reported to
increase the sediment loss (Arnhold et al., 2014).

9.3.2 IMPACT ON CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Long-term manure, compost or crop residue amendments in organic farming

significantly influence the soil physical and chemical environments (Abbott
and Manning, 2015). The extend of changes in the chemical properties of
the soils are closely related to the nature of organic amendments (Mäder
et al., 2002) and agricultural practices such as tillage (Peigne et al., 2018).
Conservation tillage treatments are reported to have favorable effects on soil
chemical components in the surface layer and contributed to the improve­
ment of the productivity function of soils (Peigne et al., 2018).

9.3.2.1 SOIL PH

Organic farming generally leads soil pH closer to neutral, higher macro

and micronutrients, higher microbial biomass C and N as compared with
conventional farms (Liebig and Doran, 1999) (Table 9.3). Di Prima et al.
(2018) compared the impacts of organic and conventional management
practices on soil characteristics of citrus orchards in eastern Spain. Although
an increase in soil pH with long-term organic fertilization was found in
several studies, addition of chipped pruned branches, weeds, and manure
from sheep and goats (annually at 8 Mg ha−1) caused a lower soil pH over
a decade and developed a 5 mm litter layer and a 3 mm organic layer. In
contrast to lower soil pH with the incorporation of manure reported by Di
Prima et al. (2018), higher soil pH was found for an organically managed
sandy loam soil (Nautiyal et al., 2010). Similar to the findings of Nautiyal
et al. (2010); and Nobile et al. (2020) also determined an increase in soil pH
with 10 years of compost and slurry at high dose compared to the control
soil by up to 0.7 and 1.2 units on average, respectively. The increase in pH
under OFSs is mainly attributed to the alkaline nature of the applied organic
amendments (von Arb et al., 2020).
 Soil pH and Total Phosphorus (TP) Values for Organic (O) versus Conventional (C) Farming Systems

Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity

TABLE 9.3
Duration Organic Practice Soil Type Depth pH TP (mg/kg) References
O C O C
>70-year 5.1 and 1.8 Loam 0–10 8.2 8.4 1.06 kg/m3 1.07 kg/m3 Pulleman et al.
tDMha±1 yr±1 crop 10–20 8.3 8.3 (2003)
residue and animal
manure
6-year Cultivation of Silty clay loam 0–10 7.50 7.99 – – Monokrousos et
5-year Asparagus officinalis L. 7.83 al. (2006)

3-year 7.89
2-year 7.94
9.4-year Animal manure and Silt Loam 0–20 7.32 7.39 899.8 868.6 van Diepeningen
10.3-year cover crop Loamy fine sand 5.38 5.46 781.3 784.7 et al. (2006)
5-year 25–35 tons/ha in Silty clay loam 0–10 7.8 7.9 – – Garcia-Ruiz et al.
4-year 2 years, mixture of Clay loam 7.6 7.6 (2009)
sheep and hen manure
5-year silt loam 7.8 7.8
14-year 20 ton of composted Sandy loam 0–15 7.9 6.5* 85.5 kg/ha 94.5 kg/ha* Nautiyal et al.
Cow manure per (2010)
hectare each year
20-year Chipped pruned Sandy loam 0–10 7.48 7.65 – – Hondebrink et al.
10-year Branches, weeds, Sandy loam 0–10 7.75 7.52 – – (2017)
composted sheep
manure (10 Mg ha−1)
3-year Horse manure, green Silt 0–15 7.0 7.2 – – Morwan et al.
cover crop (mustard) (2018)

221
*
Fallow grassland.
TABLE 9.4 Soil Organic Matter (SOM), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), and Total Organic Nitrogen (TON) Values for Organic (O) versus

222
Conventional (C) Farming Systems
Duration Organic Practice Soil Type Depth SOM (g/kg) TOC (mg/kg) TON (mg/kg) References
O C O C O C
>70-year 5.1 and 1.8 Loam 0–10 24.9 16.2 – – – – Pulleman et
tDMha±1 yr±1 crop 10–20 23.2 14.6 al. (2003)
residue and animal
manure
6-year Grass clover, cereal Sandy loam 0–15 – – 12.26 11.47 0.99 0.79 Bending et
crops al. (2004)
7-year Vetch cover 5.1 Mg/ – 0–5 – – 25.2 kg/m3 25.6 kg/m3 2.3 kg/m3 2.3 kg/m3 Green et al.

Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

ha poultry litter (2005)
1993-09/2000 Poultry composted Sandy Clay 5–20 – – 0.90% 0.87% 0.20% 0.17% Marinari et
04/2001 manure (8 t/ha), Loam 0.93% 0.95% 0.21% 0.13% al. (2006)
green manuring of
11/2001 cover crops residues 0.99% 0.93% 0.12% 0.08%
20–35 – – 0.95% 0.88% 0.18% 0.08%
0.81% 0.80% 0.22% 0.13%
0.83% 0.81% 0.12% 0.07%
5-year 25–35 tons/ha in Silty clay loam 0–10 – – 8.2% 7.9% 0.33% 0.26% Garcia-Ruiz
4-year 2 years, mixture Clay loam 5.6% 4.6% 0.22% 0.15% et al. (2009)
of sheep and hen
5-year manure Silt Loam 8.9% 7.8% 0.21% 0.13%
14-year 20 ton of composted Sandy loam 0–15 – – 10.20% 0.81% 2.55% 0.08% Nautiyal et
cow manure per al. (2010)
hectare each year
TABLE 9.4 (Continued)

Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity

Duration Organic Practice Soil Type Depth SOM (g/kg) TOC (mg/kg) TON (mg/kg) References
O C O C O C
– – Silty 0–20 5.0% 3.5% – – – – Papdopoulos
Silty clay 2.5% 1.7% et al. (2014)

Sandy loam 8.2% 7.9%

7-year 20–40 Mg/ha/yr Clay loam 0–10 37.07* 32.33 – – – – Crittenden et
(fresh weight) slurry 10–20 33.95 31.00 al. (2015)
and/or solid cow
8-year manure 0–10 41.11 *
– – – –
10–20 35.94
20-year Chipped pruned Sandy loam 0–10 10.57% 3.50% – – – – Hondebrink
10-year branches, weeds, Sandy loam 0–10 3.05% 2.03% – – – – et al. (2017)
composted sheep
manure (10 Mg
ha−1)
15-year Manure (5 t/ha), Sandy loam 0–15 1.37% 0.88% 0.80% 0.51% – – Sihi et al.
decorticated neem (2017)
cake (125 kg/ha),
green manure
3-year Horse manure, Silt 0–15 – – 13.3 g/kg 10.2 g/kg – – Morwan et
cover crop al. (2018)
(mustard)
*
Tillage systems were moldboard plowing.

223
224 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

9.3.2.2 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON AND NITROGEN

Soil organic C (SOC) increases under steady high doses of animal manure
or plant residue additions. The changes in SOC content of a soil at a given
site rely on the duration of addition, soil texture, mineralogy, and structural
stability, among other factors (Frossard et al., 2016). In contrast to some
of the research findings which stated that organic farms significantly
accumulated organic matter in the soil, Marinari et al. (2006) indicated
that 7 years of consistent poultry manure (PM) (8 t ha–1) and cover crops
residues additions were not sufficient to increase the SOC content under
organic farming relative to the conventional farming (Table 9.4). The results
of van Diepeningen et al. (2006) also found no significant increase in SOC
content under organic farming, despite the repeated application of animal
and GMs. Non-significant difference in SOC content between organic and
conventional farming was attributed to the priming effect due to the high
ratio of labile C species in manure and mechanical weed control, which
accelerates the decomposition of organic matter. In addition, enzymatic
activities as the reliable indicators of microbial activity are significantly
higher in organically managed soil compared to conventional. Therefore,
mineralization of organic matter is boosted with the increased enzymatic
activities in the organically managed soil (Marinari et al., 2006).
Low doses of organic matter amendments may not be sufficient to
compensate the losses of SOM due to the tillage and mechanical weeding
during the crop growth period (von Arb et al., 2020). Addition of manure,
compost, and other organic amendments and using cover crops supply
essential macro- and micronutrients to meet crop needs (Reeve et al.,
2016), though the carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio of organic amendments
is the main determinant on the extent of impact on soil health. Expected
benefit may not be obtained by the addition of organic materials with very
low or very high C/N (Cates et al., 2015), organic amendments with C/N
less than 20 decompose rapidly and become available to crops in a short
time (Hadas et al., 2004). Total organic carbon and nitrogen contents,
microbial biomass and enzymatic activities under 14-year of organically
cultivated field were higher compared to adjacent fallow grassland soil.
Total organic C content in organically managed field with additions of
composted cow manure, crop residues and no-tillage for the 14 years was
about 12.5 times compared to the fallow grassland soil, thus C/N ratio
of organically managed soils was higher than the fallow grassland soils
(Nautiyal et al., 2010).
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 225

9.3.2.3 MICRO AND MACRO PLANT NUTRIENTS

SOM enhances the availability of micronutrients for crops (Li et al., 2007).
The concentrations of nutrients in soils that were under long term OFSs in
different parts of the world are not similar to each other (Maltais-Landry et
al., 2015). Differences in soil nutrient concentrations between the studies can
be associated with different rates of nutrient load of organic amendments,
the extents of nutrient uptake by crops and losses such as leaching (Nobile et
al., 2020), biomass removal, burning, etc. Long term repeated application of
organic amendments, especially in high input system, progressively increases
the levels of nutrients in organically managed farms. Therefore, nutrients
concentrations usually exceed crop requirements, which cause a decrease in
nutrient-use efficiency and potentially contribute to non-point source pollution
through losses to the environment. In contrast, anaerobic N concentration in
organic farms is reported higher than crop N requirement during the growing
season. Therefore, the potential for nonpoint source pollution due to the low
level of NO3-N on organic farms is lower than the conventional farms (Liebig
and Doran, 1999). Continues cow manure and crop residue incorporation in
organic farming resulted in significantly higher Zn, Mn, and S, while lower P,
K, Fe, and Cu concentrations as compared with fallow grassland (Nautiyal et
al., 2010). Contrarily, application of organic fertilizers in organic farming led
to a significant increase in total P concentration of soils. Nobile et al. (2020)
reported that total P concentration was 4.3 g kg–1 in soil receiving 10 years of
compost, likewise 10-year slurry addition caused P accumulation (4.2 g kg–1).
Long-term compost and slurry applications decreased the soil inorganic P
sorption capacity of Andolsols, principally due to the increasing soil pH level
(Nobile et al., 2020). The decrease in inorganic P sorption was ascribed by
the relationship between electric potential and pH level of soils (Antelo et al.,
2005). The electric potential of colloidal surfaces is lower at high pH levels,
which causes an electrostatic repulsion between the charged surface and
inorganic P and thus decrease in inorganic P sorption (Antelo et al., 2005).

9.3.3 ORGANIC FARMING AND BIODIVERSITY

Usually any agricultural activity as negative factor effects on biodiversity.

First of all, agricultural activity leads exclusion of natural ecosystems and
their transformation into semi-natural or full agroecosystems. The result is
a change in the composition of biodiversity, extension of plant and animal
species and the emergence of new ones:
226 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

• Agriculture has reduced habitat for wild species due to a 500% expan­
sion in the extent of cropland and pasture worldwide in the last 300
years;
• Agriculture has expanded into sensitive ecosystems and had far-
reaching effects on biodiversity, carbon storage and important envi­
ronmental services;
• Clearing tropical forests for agriculture results in the loss of about
5–10 million hectares of forest annually;
• Habitat loss is now identified as the main threat to 85–90% of all
species described by IUCN as threatened or endangered and is the
most commonly recorded reason for species extinction during the last
20 years.

In the last 30 years, there has been a big change in use of agricultural
lands and the same time an active development of alternative types of agri­
culture due to the deterioration of soil resources, decrease in the quality of
food, the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of natural ecosystems as
a result of their intensive use in agricultural production. The intensification
and expansion of modern agriculture is amongst the greatest current threats
to worldwide biodiversity. Over the last quarter of the 20th century, dramatic
declines in both range and abundance of many species associated with
farmland have been reported in Europe, leading to growing concern over the
sustainability of current intensive farming practices (Hole et al., 2005).
In Europe, loss of biodiversity is primarily reflected in the decline
of many species of plants and in the disappearing of local and old plant
varieties. In 2011, the European Parliament adopted the European Union
(EU) Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 with the aim to preventing biodiversity
loss and degradation of ecosystems (Bavec and Bavec, 2015). One of the
options to reduce the negative impact of agriculture on biodiversity while
maintaining productivity and product quality and the most common type of
agriculture is organic agriculture.
Organic agriculture is a complete system of production, reduced
subsistence and viability of agro-ecosystems, maintaining, and restoring
soil fertility; conservation of water resources, high biodiversity, production
of quality products using technologies that do not harm the environment
and human health. Organic agriculture must rely on all vital processes in
ecosystems (EU Council Regulation No. 834/2007). At the same time,
biodiversity, and soil fertility are the basis of the sustainable functionality of
organic agriculture. In the process of formation of organic agroecosystem,
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 227

it is necessary to use different agricultural techniques, contributing to

conservation and increase of biodiversity of different living organisms,
which will feed capacity and enhanced biodegradation of living organism
and SOM. According to the results of investigations of last years, organic
agriculture increased species richness by about 30% and had a greater effect
on biodiversity, as the percentage of the landscape consisting of arable fields
increased. It was found that organic fields had up to five times higher plant
species richness compared to conventional fields, the same impact was
recorded for different animal groups (Bavec and Bavec, 2015). However,
very often, the increase in biodiversity both in the agricultural fields and on
pastures occurs due to the increase of a number of weeds, and for insects due
to the increase of agricultural pests. But on the other hand, the abundance of
weeds and the absence of the use of chemical pesticides improve the condi­
tions for pollinating insects, which can increase the yield of entomophilous
agricultural plants. Biodiversity is one of the most important ecosystem
services of organic agriculture is connected to biocontrol and pollination
services. Organic farming might decrease the biomass of the crop by 25%,
but increases the diversity of most functional species groups. The abundance
of cereal aphids was five-times lower in organic fields, while predator abun­
dances were 20 times higher in organic fields, indicating significantly higher
potential for biological pest control in organic fields. Organic fields had 20
times higher pollinator species richness compared to conventional fields.
Pollinators and predator abundance was higher at field edges compared
to field centers, highlighting the importance of field edges for ecosystem
services. Edges provide important nesting, feeding, and sheltering sites for
birds in agricultural areas (Krauss et al., 2011).
The importance of organic agriculture in the maintenance and conserva­
tion of biodiversity, natural resources is reflected in the international agree­
ments and conventions, as well as the national laws and regulations. For
example Convention on Biological diversity encourages the development
of agricultural technologies and methods that not only increase the produc­
tivity, but also prevent degradation, as well as contribute to the restoration,
rehabilitation, and enhancement of biological diversity, including organic
agriculture (UN Convention on Biological Diversity). In addition, the CBD
includes the global strategy for plant conservation (GSPC) (2010–2020),
which considers organic agriculture as one of the sustainable uses of plant
diversity.
Organic fields usually accommodate a greater variety of plants, animals,
and microorganisms. The organic agroecosystem is thus more resistant
228 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

to stress and disturbance. The structure and species composition of plant

communities in organic agricultural lands are very close to the natural ecosys­
tems, in contrast to traditional farms, which helps to preserve the natural
appearance of the landscape and genetic diversity. In the surroundings of
organic farms can occur localities of rare and endangered species. In total
biodiversity of organic farms is 6 times higher than in traditional farms. With
Organic agriculture is possible to create suitable conditions for beneficial
insects, birds, other animals, soil mycoflora, micro, and macrofauna, which
promotes the increase of plant biodiversity.
According to different investigations for ecological balance of ecosystem,
the optimal percentage ratio between the natural and transformed (agro)
ecosystems in the same area should be 60:40 (Chernikov et al., 2000).
Organic agriculture has a smaller negative impact on natural biodiversity,
and has many advantages in this respect compared to modern intensive
agriculture, including big potential for conservation of current biodiversity
of agricultural landscapes and areas.
As conclusion we should mention that in rural areas the transition from
traditional to organic agriculture should not only help to reduce the negative
impacts on natural biodiversity, but also to contribute the increase biodi­
versity. On the other hand, still there are not enough comparative scientific
studies, which can prove that: organic agriculture approach provides 100%
greater benefits to biodiversity than carefully targeted prescriptions applied
to relatively small conventional agriculture habitats (agri-environmental
schemes). This issue is especially important for mountainous countries,
where a significant part of agriculture is built on the basis of small-sized
fields and pastures. With organic agriculture there are:

• Limitations of quantitative studies and analysis depends on method­

ological limitations
• Big knowledge gap on long term impacts of organic agriculture in
specific habitats and climatic conditions, sustainability under the
climate change, etc.
• Limitations and gaps in national and international regulations and strate­
gies on organic agriculture and relations with biodiversity conservation

9.3.4 ORGANIC FARMING PLANT GROWTH AND YIELD

Organic manure can help improve soil conditions such as pH rises in acid
soils, soil water retaining efficiency, hydraulic conductivity and infiltration
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 229

levels and the reduction in soil bulk density. Mahmoodabadi et al. (2010)
reported that manure also offers sufficient plant nutrients and improves soil
structure. Applying cow manure may enhance SOM. SOM enhances soil
quality, thus increasing the supply of nutrient sources. Organic matter also
contributes to crop growth and yields directly by providing nutrients and
indirectly by modifying soil physical properties such as aggregate stability
and porosity to increase root growth, rhizosphere, and stimulate plant growth.
In addition, manure application also affects the accumulation of macro-
protected carbon. Silvester and Sujalu (2013) reported that the spread of cow
manure may provide nutrients for the formation of leaves. On the other hand,
organic fertilizer nutrients support the rapid root development (Baldi et al.,
2010), which may have increased the growth of the leaves towards the end
of plant life. Ghosh et al. (2004) reported that the total content of chlorophyll
was increased by an increase in the inorganic fertilizer dose complemented
by organic fertilizer.
When applied correctly, organic manure supports plants such as maize and
increases in general size, height, and leaf count (Asiegbu and Uzo, 1984). If
well supplied with organic materials, maize can tolerate sandy soil. On the
heavier soil, the output is generally large and longer than the lighter soil.
The use of organic manure (poultry dropping) improves the soil’s chemical
and physical properties, thus increasing the growth and yield of maize,
according to Okoroafor et al. (2013). Organic manure increases plant height,
number of maize leaves, stem circumference, cob numbers and weight of fresh
maize during harvest. Jeptoo et al. (2013) reported that the use of Tithonia
diversifolia manure led to a higher fresh weight, dry root, and biomass and
volume of the root compared to the control system. In season 1 and 2, the total
yield of carrots subjected to 3.0 t/ha increased by 33% and 18%, respectively,
compared with the control (Jeptoo et al., 2013). At the highest tithonia level
the sweetness of carrot was influenced (Jeptoo et al., 2013).

9.4 CONCLUSION

Many environmental factors affect the growth of many plants, which

influence the physiological and morphological changes of the plant in
more than one way. Organic farming is a method of growing plants and
animals that needs far more than deciding not to use pesticide, fertilizers,
GMOs, antibiotics, and growth hormones. Soil fertility means more than
supplying macro and micronutrients to plants in OFSs. In organic farming
that supplies mineral nutrients, plant biomass and productivity are limited in
230 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

many ecosystems. On the other hand, organic farming has been planned to
optimize the productivity and health of various communities, including soil,
plants, livestock, and people, within the agroecosystem.

KEYWORDS

• agroecosystem
• environment
• farming systems
• global strategy for plant conservation
• micronutrients
• mineral nutrients
• organic farming

REFERENCES

Abbott, L. K., & Manning, D. A., (2015). Soil health and related ecosystem services in organic
agriculture. Sustain Agriculture Res., 4(3), 116–125.
Abebe, G., Hattar, B., & Al-Tawah, A. M., (2005). Nutrient availability as affected by manure
application to cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) on calcareous soils. Journal of
Agriculture and Social Sciences, 1(1), 1–6.
Abera, T., Feyisa, D., Yusuf, H., Nikus, O., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2005). Grain yield of maize
as affected by biogas slurry and NP fertilizer rate at Bako, Western Oromiya, Ethiopia.
Bioscience Research, 2, 31–38.
Abu, O. A. M., Melnyk, A. V., Onychko, V. I., Usmael, F. M., Abdullah, M. J., Rifaee, M. K.,
& Tawaha, A. M., (2018). Evaluation of six sunflower cultivars for forage productivity
under salinity conditions. Advances in Environmental Biology, 12(7), 13–15.
Al Zoubi, O. M., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2019). Allelopathic effect of beetroot (Beta vulgaris
L.) on germination and growth Zea mays and Vigna umbellata. International Journal of
Botany Studies, 4(4), 47–51.
Al-Ajlouni, M. M., Al-Ghzawi, A. L. A., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2010). Crop rotation and
fertilization effect on barley yield grown in arid conditions. Journal of Food, Agriculture
and Environment, 88(3), 869–872.
Al-Juthery, H. W., Habeeb, K. H., Jawad, F., & Altaee, K., AL-Taey, D. K. A., & Al-Tawaha,
A. R. M., (2018). Effect of foliar application of different sources of nano-fertilizers on
growth and yield of wheat. Bioscıence Research, 15(4), 3988–3997.
Al-Kiyyam, M. A., Turk, M., Al-Mahmoud, M., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2008). Effect of plant
density and nitrogen rate on herbage yields of marjoram under Mediterranean conditions.
American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science, 3, 153–158.
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 231

Al-Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2002a). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.) productivity as
influenced by rate and method of phosphate placement in a Mediterranean environment.
Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 50(2), 197–201.
Al-Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2004). Field pea seeding management for semi-arid
Mediterranean conditions. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 190, 86–92.
Al-Tawaha, A. M., Singh, V. P., & Turk, M. A., (2003). A review on growth, yield components
and yield of barley as influenced by genotypes, herbicides, and fertilizer application.
Research on Crop, 4(1), 1–9.
Al-Tawaha, A. M., Turk, M., Hameed, K., Assaf, T., Tahhan, R., & Al-Jamali, A. F., (2010).
Effects of application of olive mill by-products on lentil yield and their symbiosis with
mycorrhizal fungi under arid conditions. Crop Research, 40(3), 66–75.
AL-Tawaha, A. R. M., & Nidal, O. D. A. T., (2010). Use of sorghum and maize allelopathic
properties to inhibit germination and growth of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum).
Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 38(3), 124–127.
Al-Tawaha, A. R. M., Turk, M. A., Lee, K. D., Zheng, W. J., Ababneh, M., Abebe, G., &
Musallam, I. W., (2005). Impact of fertilizer and herbicide application on performance
of ten barley genotypes grown in northeastern part of Jordan. International Journal of
Agriculture and Biology, 7(2), 162–166.
Al-Tawaha, A. R., Al-Karaki, G., Al-Tawaha, A. R., Sirajuddin, S. N., Makhadmeh, I.,
Wahab, P. E. M., Youssef, R. A., et al., (2018a). Effect of water flow rate on quantity and
quality of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) in nutrient film technique (NFT) under hydroponics
conditions. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 245, 791–798.
Al-Tawaha, A. R., Al-Tawaha, A. R., Alu’datt, M., Al-Ghzawi, A. L., Wedyan, M., Al-Obaidy,
S. D. A., & Al-Ramamneh, E. A. D., (2018b). Effects of soil type and rainwater harvesting
treatments in the growth, productivity, and morphological trains of barley plants cultivated
in semi-arid environment. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 12(6), 975–979.
Al-Tawaha, A. R., McNeil, D. L., Yadav, S. S., Turk, M., Ajlouni, M., Abu-Darwish, M. S.,
Al-Ghzawi, A. L. A., et al., (2010). Integrated legume crops production and management
technology. In: Climate Change and Management of Cool Season Grain Legume Crops
(pp. 325–349). Springer, Dordrecht.
Al-Tawaha, A. R., Turk, M. A., Abu-Zaitoon, Y. M., Aladaileh, S. H., Al-Rawashdeh,
I. M., Alnaimat, S., Al-Tawaha, A. R. M., et al., (2017). Plants adaptation to drought
environment. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 23(3), 381–388.
Aludatt, M. H., Rababah, T., Alhamad, M. N., Al-Tawaha, A., Al-Tawaha, A. R., Gammoh,
S., Ereifej, K. I., et al., (2019). Herbal yield, nutritive composition, phenolic contents and
antioxidant activity of purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) grown in different soilless media
in a closed system. Industrial Crops and Products, 141, 111746.
Ananthi, T., Amanullah, M. M., & Al-Tawaha, A. R. M. S., (2017). A review on maize-legume
intercropping for enhancing the productivity and soil fertility for sustainable agriculture
in India. Advances in Environmental Biology, 11(5), 49–63.
Antelo, J., Avena, M., Fiol, S., López, R., & Arce, F., (2005). Effects of pH and ionic strength
on the adsorption of phosphate and arsenate at the goethite-water interface. J Colloid
Interface Sci., 285(2), 476–486.
Arnhold, S., Lindner, S., Lee, B., Martin, E., Kettering, J., Nguyen, T. T., & Hume, B., (2014).
Conventional and organic farming: Soil erosion and conservation potential for row crop
cultivation. Geoderma, 219, 89–105.
232 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Assaf, T. A., Hameed, K. M., Turk, M. A., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2006a). Effect of soil
amendment with olive mill by-products under soil solarization on growth and productivity
of faba bean and their symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. World Journal of Agricultural
Sciences, 2(1), 21.
Assaf, T. A., Hameed, K. M., Turk, M. A., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2006b). Effect of soil
amendment with olive mill by-products under soil solarization on growth and productivity
of faba bean and their symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. International Journal of Plant
Production, 2(4), 341–352.
Baldi, E., & Toselli, M., (2013). Root growth and survivorship in cow manure and compost
amended soils. Plant Soil Environ., 59, 221–226.
Barański, M., Średnicka-Tober, D., Volakakis, N., Sanderson, R., Stewart, G. B., Benbrook,
C., Biavati, B., et al., (2014). Higher antioxidant and lower cadmium concentrations and
lower incidence of pesticide residues in organically grown crops: A systematic literature
review and meta-analyses. British J. Nutr., 112, 794–811.
Bavec, M., & Bavec, F., (2015). Impact of organic farming on biodiversity. In: Lo, Y. H.,
& Blanco, J. A., (eds.), Biodiversity in Ecosystems-Linking Structure and Function (pp.
1–18). doi: 10.5772/58974.
Bayer, C., Martin-Neto, L., Mielniczuk, J., Pavinato, A., & Dieckow, J., (2006). Carbon
sequestration in two Brazilian cerrado soils under no-till. Soil Till. Res., 86, 237–245.
Bending, G. D., Turner, M. K., Rayns, F., Marx, M. C., & Wood, M., (2004). Microbial
and biochemical soil quality indicators and the potential for differentiating areas under
contrasting agricultural management regimes. Soil Biol. Biochem., 36(11), 1785–1792.
Biswas, M. S., Ali, N., Goswami, R., & Chakraborty, S., (2014). Soil health sustainability and
organic farming: A review. J. Food Agric. Environ., 12(3, 4), 237–243.
Bünemann, E. K., Bongiorno, G., Bai, Z., Creamer, R. E., De Deyn, G., De Goede, R.,
& Pullman, M., (2018). Soil quality: A critical review. Soil Biol. Biochem., 120,
105–125.
Cates, A. M., Ruark, M. D., Hedtke, J. L., & Posner, J. L., (2015). Long term tillage, rotation
and perennialization effects on particulate and aggregate organic matter. Soil and Till
Research, 371–380.
Chernikov, V., Aleksakhin, R., & Golubyev, A., (2000). Agroecology, Textbook for HEIs (p.
536). Moskow.
Cooper, J., Baranski, M., Stewart, G., Nobel-de, L. M., Bàrberi, P., Fließbach, A., & Crowly,
O., (2016). Shallow non-inversion tillage in organic farming maintains crop yields and
increases soil C stocks: A meta-analysis. Agron. Sustain. Dev., 36(1), 22.
Crittenden, S. J., & De Geode, R. G. M., (2016). Integrating soil physical and biological
properties in contrasting tillage systems in organic and conventional farming. Euro J. Soil
Biol., 77, 26–33.
Crittenden, S. J., Poot, N., Heinen, M., Van, B. D. J. M., & Pulleman, M. M., (2015). Soil
physical quality in contrasting tillage systems in organic and conventional farming. Soil
Till. Res., 154, 136–144.
Di Prima, S., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Novara, A., Iovina, M., Pirastru, M., Keessta, S., & Cerda,
A., (2018). Soil physical quality of citrus orchards under tillage, herbicide and organic
managements. Pedosphere, 28(3), 463–477.
Erhart, E., & Hartl, W., (2009). Soil protection through organic farming: A review. In: Organic
Farming, Pest Control and Remediation of Soil Pollutants (pp. 203–226). Springer,
Dordrecht.
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 233

European Union Council, (2007). Regulation No. 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic
production and labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation No. 2092/91.
Official Journal of the European Union, L189, 1–23.
Franzleubbers, A. J., Wright, S. F., & Stuedemann, J. A., (2000). Soil aggregation and glomalin
under pastures in the southern piedmont, USA. Soil Sci Soc Am J., 64, 1018–1026.
Frick, (2000). Organic Farming Enhances Soil Fertility and Biodiversity: Results from a 21
Year old Field Trial (pp. 1–96). Research Institute of Organic Framing, Switzerland.
Frossard, E., Buchman, N., Bünemann, E. K., Kiba, D. I., Lompo, F., Oberson, A., & Traore,
O. Y., (2016). Soil properties and not inputs control carbon: Nitrogen: Phosphorous ratios
in cropped soils in the long term. Soil, 2(1), 83–99.
García-Ruiz, R., Ochoa, V., Vingela, B., Hinojosa, M. B., Pena-Santiago, R., Liébanas, G., &
Carreira, J. A., (2009). Soil enzymes, nematode community and selected physic-chemical
properties as soil quality indicators in organic and conventional Olive oil farming:
Influence of seasonality and site features. Appl. Soil Ecol., 41(3), 305–314.
Ghosh, P. K., Ajay, B. K. K., Manna, M. C., Mandal, K. G., Misra, A. K., Hati, K. M., et al.,
(1984). Evaluation Principle in Fertilizer, 50.
Ghosh, P. K., Ajay, B. K. K., Manna, M. C., Mandal, K. G., Misra, A. K., & Hati, K. M.,
(2004). Comparative effectiveness of cattle manure, poultry manure, phosphocompost
and fertilizer-NPK on three cropping systems in vertisols of semi-arid tropics. II.
Dry matter yield, nodulation, chlorophyll content and enzyme activity. Bioresource
Technology, 95(1), 85–93.
Głąb, T., Pużyńska, K., Pużyński, S., Palmowska, J., & Kowalik, K., (2016). Effect of organic
farming on a Stagnic Luvisol soil physical quality. Geoderma, 282, 16–25.
Green, V. S., Cavigelli, M. A., Dao, T. H., & Flanagan, D. C., (2005). Soil physical properties
and aggregate-associated C, N and P distributions in organic and conventional cropping
systems. Soil Sci., 170(10), 822–831.
Hadas, A., Kautsky, L., Goek, M., & Erman, K. E., (2004). Rates of decomposition of plant
residues and available nitrogen in soil, related to residue composition through the
stimulation of carbon and nitrogen turnover. Soil Biol. Biochem., 36, 255–266.
Hani, N. B., Al-Ramamneh, E. A. D., Haddad, M., Al-Tawaha, A. R., & Al-Satari, Y., (2019).
The impact of cattle manure on the content of major minerals and nitrogen uptake from
15
N isotope-labeled ammonium sulphate fertilizer in maize (Zea mays L.) plants. Pakistan
Journal of Botany, 51(1), 185–189.
Hillel, D., (1998). Irrigation and water-use efficiency. In: Environmental Soil Physics (pp.
617–646). Academic Press, London.
Hole, D., Perkins, A., Wilson, J., Alexander, I., Grice, P., & Evans, A., (2005). Does organic
farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation, 122(1), 113–130.
Hondebrink, M. A., Cammeraat, L. H., & Cedra, A., (2017). The impact of agricultural
management on selected soil properties in citrus orchards in Eastern Spain: A comparison
between conventional and organic citrus orchards with drip and flood irrigation. Sci Total
Environ., 581, 153–160.
Jeptoo, A., Aguyoh, J. N., & Saidi, M., (2013). Tithonia manure improves carrot yield and
quality. GJBAHS, 2(4), 136–142.
Kaje, V. V., Sharma, D. K., Shivay, Y. S., Jat, S. L., Bhatia, A., Purakayastha, T. J., &
Bhattacharyya, A. N., (2018). Long-term impact of organic and conventional farming on
soil physical properties under rice (Oryza sativa) – wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping
system in northwestern Indo-Gangetic plains. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 88(1), 107–113.
234 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Khan, N., Khan, M. I., Khalid, S., Iqbal, A., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2019). Wheat biomass and
harvest index increases with integrated use of phosphorus, zinc, and beneficial microbes
under semiarid climates. Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Food Sciences,
242–247.
Knapp, V. V., & Van, D. H. M. G., (2018). A global meta-analysis of yield stability in organic
and conservation agriculture. Nat Commun., 9(1), 3632.
Krauss, J., Gallenberger, I., & Steffan-Dewenter, I., (2011). Decreased functional diversity
and biological pest control in conventional compared to organic crop fields. PLoS One,
6(5), 1–9.
Lado, M., Paz, A., & Ben-Hur, M., (2004). Organic matter and aggregate size interactions in
infiltration, seal formation and soil loss. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 68, 935–942.
Lampkin, N., & Padel, S., (1994). The Economics of Organic Agriculture: An International
Perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Leibig, M. A., & Doran, J. W., (1999). Impact of organic production practices on soil quality
indicators. J. Environ. Qual., 28(5), 1601–1609.
Li, B. Y., Zhou, D. M., Cang, L., Zhand, H. L., Fan, X. H., & Qin, S. W., (2007). Soil
micronutrient availability to crops as affected by long-term inorganic and organic
fertilizer applications. Soil Till. Res., 96, 166–173.
Lori, M., Symnaczik, S., Mäder, P., De Deyn, G., & Gattinger, A., (2017). Organic farming
enhances soil microbial abundance and activity: A meta-analysis and meta-regression.
PLoS One, 12(7), 1–25, e0180442.
Mäder, P., Fliessbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P., & Niggli, U., (2002). Soil fertility
and biodiversity in organic farming. Science, 296(5573), 1694–1697.
Mahmoodabadi, M., Amini, R. S., & Khazaeepour, K., (2010). Using animal manure for
improving soil chemical properties under different leaching conditions. Middle-East J.
Sci. Res., 5 (4), 214–217.
Maltais-Landry, G., Scow, K., Brennan, E., & Vitousek, P., (2015). Long-term effect of
compost and cover crops on soil phosphorous in two California agroecosystems. Soi Sci
Soc Am J., 79(2), 688–697.
Marinari, M. M., Marinari, R., Campiglia, E., & Grego, S., (2006). Chemical and biological
indicators of soil quality in organic and conventional farming systems in Central Italy.
Ecolog. Indic., 6(4), 701–711.
Mikha, M. M., & Rice, C. W., (2004). Tillage and manure effects on soil and aggregate-
associated carbon and nitrogen. Soil Sci. Am. J., 68, 809–816.
Moebius-Clune, B. N., Moebius-Clune, D. J., Gugino, B. K., Idowu, O. J., Schindelbeck, R.
R., Ristow, A. J., Van, E. H. M., et al., (2016). Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health.
The Cornell Framework, Edition 3.1. (p. 123). Cornell University, NY.
Monokrousos, N., Papatheodorou, E. M., Diamantopoulos, J. D., & Stamou, G. P., (2006).
Soil quality variables in organically and conventionally cultivated field sites. Soil Biol.
Biochem., 38(6), 1282–1289.
Moravan, X., Verbeke, L., Laratte, S., & Schneider, A. R., (2018). Impact of recent conversion
to organic farming on physical properties and their consequences on runoff, erosion and
crusting in a silty soil. Cetena, 165, 398–407.
Nautiyal, C. S., Chauhan, P. S., & Bhatia, C. R., (2010). Changes in soil physicochemical
properties and microbial functional diversity due to 14 years of conversion of
grassland to organic agriculture in semi-arid agroecosystem. Soil Till. Res., 109(2),
55–60.
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 235

Niggli, U., (2015). Sustainability of organic food production: Challenges and innovations. Proc.
Nutr. Soc., 74(1), 83–88.
Nikus, O., Al-Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2004a). Effect of manure supplemented with
phosphate fertilizer on the fodder yield and quality of two sorghum cultivars (Sorghum
bicolor L.). Bioscience Research, 1, 1–7.
Nikus, O., Al-Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2004b). Yield response of Sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor L.) to manufacture supplemented with phosphate fertilizer under
semi-arid Mediterranean conditions. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology,
6, 889–893.
Nobile, C. M., Bravin, M. N., Becquer, T., & Paillat, J. M., (2020). Phosphorous sorption
and availability in an andosol after a decade of organic or mineral fertilizer application:
Importance of pH and organic carbon modifications in soil as compared to phosphorous
accumulation. Chemosphere, 239, 124709.
Okoroafor, I. B., Okelola, E. O., Edeh, O., Nemehute, V. C., Onu, C. N., Nwaneri, T. C., &
Chinaka, G. I., (2013). Effect of organic manure on the growth and yield performance
of maize in Ishiagu, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary
Science, 5(4), 28–31.
Oquist, K. A., Strock, J. S., & Mulla, D. J., (2006). Influence of alternative and conventional
management practices on soil physical and hydraulic properties. Vadose Zone, 5,
356–364.
Papadopoulos, A., Bird, N. R. A., Whitmore, A. P., & Mooney, S. J., (2014). Does organic
management leads to enhanced soil physical quantity. Geoderma, 213, 435–443.
Peigné, J., Vian, J. F., Payet, V., & Saby, N. P., (2018). Soil fertility after 10 years of
conservation tillage in organic farming, Soil Till. Res., 175, 194–204.
Puerta, V. L., Pereira, E. I. P., Wittwer, R., Van, D. H. M., & Six, J., (2018). Improvement of
soil structure through organic crop management, conservation tillage and grass-clover
ley. Soil Till. Res., 180, 1–9.
Pulleman, M., Jongmans, A., Marinissen, J., & Bouma, J., (2003). Effect of organic versus
conventional arable farming on soil structure and organic matter dynamics in a marine
loam in Netherlands. Soil Use Manag., 19(2), 157–165.
Reeves, J. R., & Drost, D., (2012). Yields and soil quality under transitional organic high
tunnel tomatoes. HortScience, 47(1), 38–44.
Reeves, J. R., Hoagland, L. A., Villalba, J. J., Carr, P. M., Atucha, A., Cambardella, C., Davis,
D. R., & Delate, K., (2016). Organic farming, soil health, and food quality: Considering
possible links. In: Advances in Agronomy (pp. 319–367). Academic Press, London.
Reeves, W. D., (1997). The role of soil organic matter in maintaining soil quality in continuous
cropping systems. Soil Till. Res., 43, 131–167.
Reganold, J. P., (1995). Soil quality and profitability of biodynamic and conventional farming
systems: A review. Am. J. Alter. Agric., 10(1), 36–45.
Reganold, J. P., Elliott, L. F., & Unger, Y. L., (1987). Long-term effects of organic and
conventional farming on soil erosion. Nature, 330(6146), 370.
Rehber, E., & Turhan, S., (2002). Prospects and challenges for developing countries in trade
and production of organic food and fibers-The case of Turkey. British Food Journal, 104,
371–390.
Reynolds, W. D., Drury, C. F., Yang, X. M., Fox, C. A., Tan, C. S., & Zhang, T. Q., (2007).
Land management effects on the near-surface physical quality of a clay loam soil. Soil
Till. Res., 96, 316–330.
236 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Schjønning, P., Elmholt, S., Munkholm, L. J., & Debosz, K., (2002). Soil quality aspects of
humid sandy loams as influenced by organic and conventional long-term management.
Agric. Ecosys. Environ., 88(3), 195–214.
Schonbeck, B. M., Jerkins, D., & Ory, J., (2017). Soil Health and Organic Farming (pp. 1–44).
Santa Cruz, USA.
Seitz, S., Goebes, P., Puerta, V. L., Pereira, E. I. P., Wittwer, R., Six, J., & Scholten, T., (2019).
Conservation tillage and organic farming reduce soil erosion. Agron Sustain Dev., 39(1), 4.
Shukla, M. K., Lal, R., & Ebinger, M., (2006). Determination of soil quality indicators by
factor analysis. Soil Till. Res., 87, 194–204.
Sihi, D., Dari, B., Sharma, D. K., Pathak, H., Nain, L., & Sharma, O. P., (2017). Evaluation
of soil health in organic vs. conventional farming of basmati rice in North India. J. Plant
Nutr. Soil. Sci., 180(3), 389–406.
Silvester, M. N., & Sujalu, A. P., (2013). Effects of organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth,
activity of nitrate reductase and chlorophyll contents of peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). J.
Agrofor., 7, 206–211.
Smith, P., House, J. I., Bustamante, M., Sobocká, J., Harper, R., Pan, G., West, P. C., et al.,
(2016). Global change pressures on soils from land use and management. Glob. Chang.
Biol., 22, 1008–1028.
Stockdale, E. A., Lampkin, N. H., Hovi, M., Keatinge, R., Lennartsson, E. K. M., MacDonald,
D. W., Padel, S., et al., (2001). Agronomic and environmental implications of organic
farming systems. Adv. Agron., 70, 261–327.
Sudjatmiko, S., Muktamar, Z., Chozin, M., Setyowati, N., & Fahrurrozi, F., (2018). Changes
in chemical properties of soil in an organic agriculture system. In: IOP Conference Series:
Earth and Environmental Science, 215(1), 012016.
Suja, G., & Sreekumar, J., (2014). Implications of organic management on yield, tuber quality
and soil health in yams in humid tropics. International Journal of Plant Production, 8(3),
291–310.
Tully, K. L., & Mc Askill, C., (2019). Promoting soil health in organically managed systems:
A review. Org. Agr., 1–20.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2001). Common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) productivity as
influenced by rate and method of phosphate fertilization in a Mediterranean environment.
Agricultura Mediterranea, 131, 108–111.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002a). Onion (Allium cepa L.) as influenced by rate and
method of phosphorus placement. Crop Research, 23(1), 105–107.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002b). Impact of seeding rate, seeding date and method of
phosphorous application in faba bean (Vicia faba L. Minor) in the absence of moisture
stress. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 6(3), 171–178.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003a). Allelopathic effect of black mustard (Brassica nigra
L.) on germination and growth of wild oat (Avena fatua L.). Crop Protection, 22(4), 673.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003b). Allelopathic effect of black mustard (Brassica
nigra L.) on germination and growth of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum). Journal of
Agronomy and Crop Science, 189(5), 298–303.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2004). Effect of variable sowing ratios and sowing rates of
bitter vetch on the herbage yield of oat-bitter vetch mixed cropping. In: Peltonen-Sainio,
P., & Topi-Hulmi, M., (eds.), Proceedings 7th International Oat Conference. MTT.
Turk, M. A., Hmaeed, K. M., Aqeel, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003c). Nutritional status
of durum wheat grown in soil supplemented with olive mill by-products. Agrochimica,
47(5, 6), 209–219.‫‏‬
Organic Farming for Soil Health and Crop Productivity 237

Turk, M. A., Lee, K. D., & Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts of
black mustard on germination and growth of radish. Research Journal of Agriculture and
Biological Sciences, 1(3), 227–231.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., & Samara, N., (2003b). Effects of seedling rate and date, and
phosphorous application on growth and yield of carbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis).
Agronomie, 23, 1–4.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., & Shatnawi, M., (2003a). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) response
to plant density, sowing date, phosporous fertilization and Ethephon application in the
absence of moisture stress. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 189(1), 1–6.
UN Convention on Biological Diversity, (1996). Conference of Parties Decision III/11 on
Conservation and Sustainable Use of Agricultural Biological Diversity. Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
USDA, (2020) Natural Resources Conservation Service. Soil health assessment. https://www.
nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/health/assessment/ (accessed on 12 July 2021).
Van, D. A. D., De Vos, O. J., Korthals, G. W., & Van, B. A. H., (2006). Effects of organic
versus conventional management on chemical and biological parameters in agricultural
soils. App. Soil Ecol., 31(1, 2), 120–135.
Von, A. C., Bünemann, E. K., Schmalz, H., Portmann, M., Adamtey, N., Musyoka, M. W., &
Fliessbach, A., (2020). Soil quality and phosphorus status after nine years of organic and
conventional farming at two input levels in the central highlands of Kenya. Geoderma,
362, 114112.
Willer, H., Lernoud, J., & Kemper, L., (2018). The world of organic culture 2018: Summary.
In: The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends (pp. 22–31).
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, FiBL and IFOAM-Organics International.
Williams, A., & Hedlund, K., (2013). Indicators of soil ecosystem service in conventional and
organic arable fields along a gradient of landscape heterogeneity in southern Sweden.
Appl. Soil Ecol., 65, 1–7.
Williams, N. D., & Petticrew, E. L., (2009). Aggregate stability in organically and conventionally
farmed soils. Soil Use Manag., 25(3), 284–292.
Wittwer, R. A., Dorn, B., Jossi, W., & Van, D. H. M. G., (2017). Cover crops support ecological
intensification of arable cropping systems. Scientific Reports, 7, 41911.
Zhang, X., Wu, X., Zhang, S., Xing, Y., Wang, R., & Liang, W., (2014). Organic amendment
effects on aggregate-associated organic C, microbial biomass C and glomalin in agricultural
soils. Catena, 123, 188–194.
CHAPTER 10

USE OF BIOCHAR IN AGRICULTURE:

AN INSPIRING WAY IN EXISTING
SCENARIO
IMRAN,1 AMANULLAH,1 ABDEL RAHMAN M. AL-TAWAHA,2
ABDEL RAZZAQ M. AL-TAWAHA,3 SAMIA KHANUM,4
DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,5 JEYABALAN SANGEETHA,6
HIBA ALATRASH,7 PALANI SARANRAJ,8 NIDAL ODAT,9
MAZEN A. ATEYYA,10 MUNIR TURK,11 ARUN KARNWAL,12
SAMEENA LONE,13 and KHURSHEED HUSSAIN13

1
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar,
Pakistan
2
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
P.O. Box 20, Maan, Jordan
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
3

University Putra Malaysia, Serdang–43400, Selangor, Malaysia

4
Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
5
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad–580003,
Karnataka, India
6
Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala,
Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India
7
General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
8
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous),
Tirupattur–635601, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Medical Laboratories, Al-Balqa Applied University,
9

Al-Salt–19117, Jordan
240 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Al Balqa Applied University,

10

Al-Salt–19117, Jordan
11
Department of Plant Production,
Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
Department of Microbiology, School of Bioengineering and
12

Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

13
Division of Vegetable Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir,
India

ABSTRACT

Numerous factors restrain food crop production in semi-arid and Medi­

terranean regions. Soil fertility and plant nutrition have had a significant
effect on crop production in the 20th century. Biochar has been utilized in
agriculture to increase soil health, improve soil fertility, and increase crop
productivity. Disturbed edaphic properties like high levels of rocks and a
low pH level, high radiation levels, rapid drainage during the germination
process, compaction of the soil, contamination, and other adverse effects,
can be improved with biochar deposits. There is little understanding of the
specific mechanisms that underlie biochar’s contribution to plant response.
This chapter focuses on: (i) biochar application and phosphate starvation
in plants; (ii) soil microbiota and biochar as a symbiosis for plant life;
(iii) biochar act as a drought-resistant tool; (iv) reclamation of soil salinity
through biochar amendments; (v) biochar and soil fertility; and (vi) biochar
amendments and plant growth.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Biochar application in agriculture is getting much attention in changing

climatic scenario. A large number of environmental and agricultural factors
limit the production of major food crops in semi-arid and Mediterranean
regions (Turk and Tawaha, 2002b; Abebe et al., 2005a, b; Lee et al., 2005d;
Nikus et al., 2005a). Biochar application paly an important role in soil
organic carbon building and soil fertility status (Turk and Tawaha, 2001,
Biochar in Agriculture 241

2002a; Tawaha and Turk, 2002). Biochar is utilized in agriculture for the last
decades, to enhance soil health, soil fertility, and crop production (Bos et al.,
2005; Chimenti et al., 2006; Brussaard et al., 2007; Ping et al., 2007; Zhan et
al., 2011; Akhtar et al., 2015b; Khan et al., 2016). It is stated that soil biochar
and nutrients stress is most harmful in combinations with other abiotic
stress and could be treated with biochar application. These findings were
concerning those of Roelofs et al. (2008) who revealed that abiotic stress
reduce the grain yield of cereal crops. The production of major food crops
is restricted by many environmental and agricultural factors. The integration
of biochar and especially of biochar is an antique farming practice aimed at
enhancing soil carbon, nutrient, soil porosity, soil quality, soil fertility, and
water infiltration and water retention (Palta et al., 2006; Ping et al., 2007;
Peng et al., 2008; Palm and Volkenburgh, 2012; Paz et al., 2014; Pant et al.,
2015). Biochar treatment with chemical and biological fertilizers may help
in improved crop production and soil quality through successful manage­
ment. Integrated nutrients management is essential to improve crop growth,
seed yield, nodulation, and crop quality (Tawaha et al., 2005a, b; Yang et al.,
2005; Zheng et al., 2005; Assaf et al., 2006). In this chapter, we have focused
on biochar and it can be the right way to soil sustainability. Biochar applica­
tion plays a key role in providing nutrients, improving soil functions, and
reducing soil degradation (Turk and Tawaha, 2002b; Turk et al., 2003a–c).
Biochar application improves soil fertility and increases crop yield. When
chemical fertilizer without organic amendments is continually applied to the
soil, it decreases soil bulk density and increases the porosity and buffering
capacity of the soil (Nikus et al., 2005b; Mesfine et al., 2005; Sulpanjani
et al., 2005a). Adding organic carbon and biochar have agricultural and
economical importance due to enhancing soil fertility, improving soil health
and properties by providing important macro and micronutrients, as well as
sustaining soil productivity such as, mobilization of nutrients and sorption
capacity which, resulting in increasing crop growth and production. (Abebe
et al., 2005c, d; Abera et al., 2005; Assefa et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005a, b).
The use of organic sources along with the application of chemical fertilizers
has the potential to extend the assembly of soybean and maize. Frequent
use of biochar with chemical fertilizers enhances crop production. Biochar
amendments may help in improving soil properties by obtaining a high yield
as compared to inorganic fertilizers. Adequate agricultural practices with
the recycling of organic sources (plant biomass) and the addition of biochar
into the soil help decrease soil fertility degradation, improve soil quality
(chemical, physical, and biological characters), nutrients supply, and crop
242 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

production, as well as enhance farmer’s income. Low soil quality and poor
supply of nutrients are a major cause of low crop production. (Sulpanjani et
al., 2005b, c; Tawaha et al., 2005a, b; Yang et al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2005;
Assaf et al., 2006). Low soil quality and poor supply of nutrients are a major
cause of low crop production. Regardless of soil types and crop seasons,
organic applications are usually more effective to increase soil C and biochar
status as compared to mineral fertilizers (Sulpanjani et al., 2005b, c; Tawaha
et al., 2005a, b; Yang et al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2005; Assaf et al., 2006).

10.2 BIOCHAR APPLICATION AND PHOSPHATE STARVATION IN

PLANTS

World soil is lacking frequent availability of important plant nutrients of

phosphorus plant (Prado et al., 2000; Palta et al., 2006; Ping et al., 2007;
Peng et al., 2008; Paz et al., 2014; Pant et al., 2015). Manure, poultry manure
(PM) and different sources of organic carbon and biochar provide organic
material to the soil. Maize production is improved by adding PM which will
provide essential nutrients to the soil which improves soil fertility. After
the application of PM, the crop yield and yield component of maize were
significantly increased. Some scientists have shown that growth attributes
of rice were significantly increased after the application of biochar at 12.5 t
ha–1 combined with Azospirillum (2 kg ha–1). On the other hand, biofertilizer
application resulted in 6.5% in 1st year and 8.16% in 2nd year in rice due to
biofertilizer application (Bos et al., 2005; Chimenti et al., 2006; Brussaard et
al., 2007). Soil having maximum biochar and carbon is considered healthy
and biologically diverse, resulting in more chances of the survival of the
plant (Duan et al., 2007; Farahbakhsh, 2012; Imran and Khan, 2015, 2017;
Imran, 2018). Biochar act synergistically to improve crop performance under
harmful condition (Gonçalves-Alvim et al., 2001; Flowers, 2004; Gasco et
al., 2012; González-Villagra et al., 2018). Several local conditions including
climate, soil chemistry, and soil condition all influence biochar agronomic
benefits (Lehmann et al., 2011; Imran et al., 2015–2018). Microbial biomass
increased in biochar amended soils act as a biocontrol agent and mitigate
abiotic stress induce damages (Heans, 1984; Imran and Khan, 2015; Imran
et al., 2020). It has been shown that biochar application is a master regulator
of P-starvation response in plants (González-Villagra et al., 2018). Biochar
amended soil has been shown to regulate extensive secondary metabolites
during phosphorus limitation stress (Bos et al., 2005; Brussaard et al., 2007).
Biochar in Agriculture 243

10.3 SOIL MICROBIOTA AND BIOCHAR A SYMBIOSIS FOR

PLANT LIFE

Biochar has positive impacts on soil microbes. Lehmann et al. (2011) stated
microbial biomass increased in biochar-amended soils (Palta et al., 2006;
Ping et al., 2007; Peng et al., 2008; Palm and Volkenburgh, 2012; Paz et al.,
2014; Pant et al., 2015). Also, biochar application causes significant changes
in microbial community composition and enzyme activities in both bulk soil
and the rhizosphere (Lu and Vonshak, 2002; Lehmann et al., 2011; Lei et al.,
2011; Imran et al., 2020).

10.4 BIOCHAR ACT AS A DROUGHT RESISTANT TOOL

Water is needed in so many essential processes in plant growth (Figure 10.1)

and its scarcity can cause tremendous loss of economic yield (Van et al., 2001;
Wang and Jin, 2007; Wolfe, 2007; Sidari et al., 2008; Tiwari et al., 2011;
Zargar et al., 2017; Tombesi et al., 2018; Karim and Imran, 2019). Plants
have come up with many strategies to deal with drought stress (Figure 10.2).
One of the theses strategies is to increase the rate of water infiltration and
soil porosity (Yeo et al., 1990; Xu et al., 2008; Zakaria et al., 2012; Younis et
al., 2015; Zargar et al., 2017). Biochar application can enhance soil porosity
and increasing water infiltration in various types of soil. It has been reported
that biochar application regulating hormone secretion that maintains stomatal
opening and closing. The hormone which is regulating by biochar application
is abscisic acid (ABA). Current studies showed that levels of ABA increased
in drought-stressed plants (Van et al., 2001; Wang and Jin, 2007; Wang and
Xu, 2013). They reported that exposing plants to drought stress increases the
levels of ABA in order to save whatever water they had in their leaves (Rubio
et al., 2001; Shamsi and Kobraee, 2013; Savvides et al., 2015; Imran et al.,
2020). Additionally, biochar application can regulate another important factor
that improves drought tolerance and water uptake aquaporins (AQPs).

10.5 RECLAMATION OF SOIL SALINITY THROUGH BIOCHAR

AMENDMENTS

Soil salinity which is one of the most serious abiotic stress that can be affect
not only on the plants growth but also on the on the plant’s production
244 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

(Martinez-Beltran and Manzur, 2005; Lehmann and Joseph, 2009; Khan et

al., 2010; Kammann et al., 2011; Lashari et al., 2013; Imran et al., 2015,
2019; Imran and Amanullah, 2018), this problem is most significant in both
dry and semi-arid area where there is a dearth of water resources (Martinez-
Beltran and Manzur, 2005; Maestre et al., 2007; Lei et al., 2011; Imran et al.,
2015, 2017; Imran, 2017, 2018).

FIGURE 10.1 Biochar could mitigate drought stress and enhance the growth and productivity
of soybean.

FIGURE 10.2 Comparison of soybean crop under drought stress with and without biochar
application.
Biochar in Agriculture 245

All stages of plants can be negatively affected because of the salinity of

soil from the germination of seeds through to the vegetative growth stage
and reproductive development. All these harmful effects lead to decrease in
the plant production soil. Soil salinity causes ion poisoning, osmotic, and
oxidative stresses, and nutrient deficiency (Bano and Fatima, 2009). This
reduces the plant’s absorption of soil water which leads to inhibition of
photosynthesis (Rubio et al., 2001; Lu and Vonshak, 2002; Lehmann et al.,
2011; Lei et al., 2011). One of the most important biochar applications to
improve plant tolerance to salt stress is the disruption of the Na+/K+ ratio
in the cytoplasm of the plant cell (Joseph and Jini, 2011; Jagatheeswari and
Ranganathan, 2012; Kamara et al., 2014).
Increasing concentrations of Na+ in the soil can cause a decrease in the
plant’s ability to utilize soil water; here application of organic carbon and
biochar improved the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil.
Many studied showed the benefit of using biochar as fertilizers to improve
the fertility of soil which can be resulted in the increase in production
of plants (Bos et al., 2005; Chimenti et al., 2006; Brussaard et al., 2007)
mentioned that using biochar increased the yield for the rice and in the same
way increase in nutrient use efficiency.

10.6 BIOCHAR AND SOIL FERTILITY

Biochar application use is still very limited in the present agriculture scenario
because of poor understanding of the mechanisms by which it improves soil
fertility (Bruinsma, 1963; Capell and Doerffling, 1993; Bohnert and Jensen,
1996; Bos et al., 2005; Chimenti et al., 2006; Brussaard et al., 2007). Addi­
tion of Biochar in the soil results in change of the microbial populations
in the rhizosphere leading to the beneficial microorganism populations
ultimately promoting plant growth and resistance to biotic stresses. Although
the mechanism, resulting in the alteration of the microbial populations in the
rhizosphere is still unknown.
The development of systemic resistance towards several foliar patho­
gens in three crop systems has been shown earlier for biochar-induced
plant protection against soil-borne diseases (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009;
Khan et al., 2010; Lashari et al., 2013; Imran et al., 2015, 2019; Imran and
Amanullah, 2018). Some studies pointed that biochar induces responses
along with both systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic
resistance (ISR) pathways leading to a major controlling system (Lu and
Vonshak, 2002; Lei et al., 2011). The result of biochar soil amendment on the
246 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

different soil-plant-microbe interactions leading to a significant role in plant

health is being studied in this review.
Attainment of resistance to different diseases by the plant can be one of
the benefits gained from applying biochar to soil (Raghothama, 1999; Prado
et al., 2000; Rengasamy, 2002; Rashid et al., 2003; Ping et al., 2007; Peng
et al., 2008; Roelofs et al., 2008; Raza, 2012; Paz et al., 2014; Imran, 2015,
2018; Rajalakshmi et al., 2015; Iqbal et al., 2017). Application of biochar at
12.5 t ha–1 significantly increased the growth and yield attributes and yield of
rice as reported earlier by several researchers.
Biochar is utilized in agriculture for the last decades, in improving soil
quality, soil fertility, and crop productivity (Bos et al., 2005; Chimenti et al.,
2006; Brussaard et al., 2007; Ping et al., 2007; Zhan et al., 2011; Akhtar et
al., 2015b; Khan et al., 2016). Mittler (2006) stated that nutrients stress is
most harmful in combinations with other abiotic stress and could be treated
with biochar application. These findings were about those of Roelofs et al.
(2008) who revealed that salinity and drought stress combined limits the
grain yield of maize. The production of major food crops is restricted by
many environmental and agricultural factors. The integration of biochar is
an antique farming practice aimed at enhancing soil air, nutrient provision,
soil porosity, soil quality, soil fertility, and water infiltration and water
retention.

10.7 BIOCHAR AND PLANT PRODUCTION

Biochar application has been applied to improve tolerance to abiotic stresses

in crop plants. Biochar application enhances enzyme activation and may
increase a stress-inducing chemical in the plant; hence, it stimulates the
plant’s defense mechanism (Raghothama, 1999; Prado et al., 2000; Ping et
al., 2007; Peng et al., 2008; Paz et al., 2014). So, when abiotic stress happens,
the plant has already prepared defenses strategies that can be activated faster
and improve tolerance (Lu and Vonshak, 2002). Over generations, many
plants have mutated and built various strategies to reduce salinity effects
(Rashid et al., 2003; Imran, 2015, 2018; Rajalakshmi et al., 2015; Iqbal
et al., 2017). Biochar application has positive effects on regulating plant
growth and development under stress conditions (Palta et al., 2006; Palm
and Volkenburgh, 2012; Pant et al., 2015). With biochar application under
stress conditions, plants respond very differently from one another, even
from a plant living in the same area (Neto et al., 2004; Shamsi and Kobraee,
Biochar in Agriculture 247

2013; Savvides et al., 2015). Several studies have stated that adding charcoal
to the soil increases the yield of moong, soybean, and pea (Raghothama,
1999; Prado et al., 2000; Rengasamy, 2002; Rashid et al., 2003; Ping et
al., 2007; Peng et al., 2008; Roelofs et al., 2008; Raza, 2012; Paz et al.,
2014; Imran, 2015, 2018; Rajalakshmi et al., 2015; Iqbal et al., 2017), also
applying charcoal to the soil increase the shoot and root biomass of birch and
pine (Rashid et al., 2003; Imran, 2015, 2018; Iqbal et al., 2017). Likewise,
Sugi trees (Cryptomeria japonica) biomass production increased due to the
soil application of charcoal (Sidari et al., 2008; Karim and Imran, 2019).
Several studies reported that applying biochar to Colombian savannah soils
increased the maize yield by 28 to 140% compared to the unamended control
(Prado et al., 2000; Ping et al., 2007; Peng et al., 2008).

10.8 BIOCHAR AMENDMENTS AND PLANT GROWTH

The capacity of biochar to increase crop production, crop response can be

attributed to direct effects via biochar-supplied nutrients (Munns, 2002;
Munns et al., 2006; Munns and Tester, 2008), or to many other indirect
effects, including: increasing the retention of nutrient and water in soil
(Rengasamy, 2002; Rashid et al., 2003; Roelofs et al., 2008; Raza, 2012;
Imran, 2015, 2018; Rajalakshmi et al., 2015; Iqbal et al., 2017). Biochar
resulted in higher crop production with low P availability and enhanced the
response to N and NP chemical fertilizer treatments (Munns, 2002; Neto et
al., 2004; Munns et al., 2006; Munns and Tester, 2008; Nazarli et al., 2011).
Utilizing biochar (30 and 60 t ha–1) in the Mediterranean basin improved the
biomass and grain yield by up to 30% in durum wheat, and the effect lasted
for two consecutive seasons (Neto et al., 2004; Nazarli et al., 2011).
Generally, several results confirm the efficiency of biochar applications in
improving crops production, which could be either through the direct effects
via biochar-supplied nutrients (Munns, 2002; Munns et al., 2006; Munns and
Tester, 2008), or through many other indirect effects, such as: (i) increasing
the retention of nutrients and water in soil; (ii) increasing the cation exchange
capacity in soil; (iii) improving the physical properties of the soil; (iv)
improving the transformations and turnover of P and S (Rengasamy, 2002;
Rashid et al., 2003; Roelofs et al., 2008; Raza, 2012; Imran, 2015, 2018;
Rajalakshmi et al., 2015; Iqbal et al., 2017); (v) promoting the mycorrhizal
fungi (Rajalakshmi et al., 2015); (vi) neutralizing the phytotoxic compounds
in the soil (Rengasamy, 2002; Roelofs et al., 2008; Raza, 2012; Rajalakshmi
248 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

et al., 2015); (vii) making changes in soil microbial populations and func­
tions (Rubio et al., 2001; Shamsi and Kobraee, 2013; Savvides et al., 2015).
These effects are associated with each other and may act synergistically to
enhance crop production (Rubio et al., 2001; Shamsi and Kobraee, 2013).
There are many factors that influence on the physical and chemical prop­
erties of biochar and its agronomical benefits, such as, climate, chemical
properties of the soil, conditions of the soil, and variation of biomass
feedstocks and pyrolysis conditions (Savvides et al., 2015). The production
of major food crops is restricted by many environmental and agricultural
factors. The integration of biochar is an antique farming practice aimed at
enhancing soil air, nutrient provision, soil porosity, soil quality, soil fertility,
and water infiltration and water retention. The combination of organic
and mineral fertilizers with inoculation of beneficial microbes enhances
mutual output. Organic, chemical, and biological interactions not only help
plant production and soil quality through successful management but also
optimize the use of chemical fertilizers in various crop systems. Integrated
management of P is crucial to enhance crop growth, seed yield, nodulation,
and human health. This chapter discusses how organic amendments can be
the right way to soil sustainability.
Biochar application contains an essential role in providing nutrients,
improving soil functions, and reducing soil degradation. The addition of
organic carbon and biochar enhances soil fertility and increases crop produc­
tivity. Frequent use of fertilizers increases the soil porosity and decreases
soil bulk density. Biochar is generally utilized in different forms. The use
of organic sources along with the application of chemical fertilizers has the
potential to extend the assembly of soybean and maize. Frequently use of
biochar with chemical fertilizers enhances crop production. Biochar amend­
ments may help in improving soil properties by obtaining high yield as
compared with inorganic fertilizers.

10.9 CONCLUSION

Biochar is an activated carbon soil conditioner that can alleviate the negative
impacts of salinity, drought, heat, and cold, and heavy metal stresses. Soil
fertility is harshly effected by drought and salt stress which ultimately reduce
crop growth and development. It could be concluded that biochar application
may be helpful for plant growth, biomass, and yield under either drought or
salt stress.
Biochar in Agriculture 249

KEYWORDS

• amendments
• biochar
• drought
• induced systemic resistance
• plant production
• soil fertility

REFERENCES

Abebe, G., Assefa, T., Harrun, H., Mesfine, T., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005d). Participatory
selection of drought-tolerant maize varieties using mother and baby methodology: A
case study in the semi-arid zones of the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(1), 22–27.
Abebe, G., Hattar, B., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005c). Nutrient availability as affected by
manure application in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] on calcareous soils.
Journal of Agriculture and Social Science, 1(1), 1–6.
Abebe, G., Sahile, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005a). Evaluation of potential trap crops on
Orobanche soil seed bank and tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 148–151.
Abebe, G., Sahile, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005b). Effect of soil solarization on Orobanche
soil seed bank and tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 143–147.
Abera, T., Feyisa, D., Yusuf, H., Nikus, O., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Grain yield of maize
as affected by biogas slurry and N-P fertilizer rate at Bako, Western Oromiya, Ethiopia.
Bioscience Research, 2(1), 31–38.
Akhtar, S. S., Andersen, M. N., & Liu, F., (2015a). Biochar mitigates salinity stress in potato.
Journal of Agronomy and Crop Sciences, 201, 321–400.
Akhtar, S. S., Andersen, M. N., & Liu, F., (2015b). Residual effects of biochar on improving
growth, physiology, and yield of wheat under salt stress. Agricultural Water Management,
158, 61–68.
Akhtar, S. S., Andersen, M. N., Naveed, M., Zahir, Z. A., & Liu, F., (2015). Interactive effect
of biochar and plant growth-promoting bacterial endophytes on ameliorating salinity
stress in maize. Functional Plant Biology, 42, 770–781.
Ali, I., Khan, A. A., Imran, Ullah, I., Khan, A., Asim, M., Ali, I., et al., (2019). Humic acids
and nitrogen levels optimizing productivity of green gram (Vigna radiata L.). Russian
Agriculture Sciences, 45(1), 43–47.
Al-Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2001). Effects of dates and rates of sowing on yield
and yield components of carbon vetch under semi-arid conditions. Acta Agronomica
Hungarica, 49(1), 103–105.
250 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Al-Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2002). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.) productivity as
influenced by rate and method of phosphate placement in a Mediterranean environment.
Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 50(2), 197–201.
Al-Tawaha, A. M., Turk, M. A., Lee, K. D., Supanjani, Nikus, O., Al-Rifaee, M., & Sen, R.,
(2005a). Awnless barley response to crop management under Jordanian environment.
Bioscience Research, 2(3), 125–129.
Al-Tawaha, A. R. M., Turk, M. A., & Lee, K. D., (2005b). Adaptation of chickpea to cultural
practices in a Mediterranean type environment. Research Journal of Agriculture and
Biological Science, 1(2), 152–157.
Amonette, J. E., & Joseph, S., (2009). Characteristics of biochar: Microchemical properties.
In: Lehmann, J., & Joseph, S., (eds.), Biochar for Environmental Management: Science
and Technology (pp. 33–52). Earthscan, London.
Anwar, S., Israeel, Iqbal, B., Khan, A. A., Imran, Shah, W. A., Islam, M., et al., (2016).
Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization of improved varieties for enhancing phenological
traits of wheat. Pure and Applied Biology, 5(3), 511–519.
Armor, N. B., Hamed, K. B., Debez, A., & Grignonand, C. C., (2005). Physiological and
antioxidant responses of perennial halophyte Crithmum maritimum to salinity. Plant
Science, 168(4), 889–899.
Arshad, M., Shaharoona, B., & Mahmood, T., (2008). Inoculation with Pseudomonas spp.
containing ACC-deaminase partially eliminates the effects of drought stress on growth,
yield, and ripening of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Pedosphere, 18, 611–620.
Assaf, T. A., Hameed, K. M., Turk, M. A., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2006). Effect of soil
amendment with olive mill by-products under soil solarization on growth and productivity
of faba bean and their symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. World Journal of Agricultural
Sciences, 2(1), 21–28.
Assefa, T., Abebe, G., Fininsa, C., Tesso, B., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Participatory bean
breeding with women and smallholder farmers in eastern Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(1), 28–35.
Ayaz, F. A., Kadioglu, A., & Turgut, T. R., (2000). Water stress effects on the content of
low molecular weight carbohydrates and phenolic acids in Cienanthe setosa. Candian
Journal of Plant Sciences, 80, 373–378.
Badridze, G., Weidner, A., Asch, F., & Borner, A., (2009). Variation in salt tolerance within Georgian
wheat germplasm collection. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 56, 1125–1130.
Bano, A., & Fatima, M., (2009). Salt tolerance in Zea mays (L.) following inoculation with
Rhizobium and Pseudomonas. Biol. Fertility Soils., 45, 405–413.
Baqa, S., Khan, A. Z., Inamullah, Imran, Khan, A. A., Anwar, S., Iqbal, B., Khan, S., & Usman,
A., (2015). Influence of biochar and phosphorus application on yield and yield components
of wheat. J. Pure Appl. Biol., 4(4), 458–464.
Bates, L. S., Waldren, R. P., & Teare, I. D., (1973). Rapid determination of free proline for
water-stress studies. Plant and Soil, 39, 205–207.
Bohnert, H. J., & Jensen. R. G., (1996). Strategies for engineering water-stress tolerance in
plants. Trends in Biotechnology, 14, 89–97.
Bos, C., Juillet, B., Fouillet, H., Turlan, L., Dare, S., Luengo, C., Ntounda, R., et al., (2005).
Postprandial metabolic utilization of wheat protein in humans. The American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition, 81, 87–94.
Bruinsma, J., (1963). The quantitative analysis of chlorophyll a and b in plant extract.
Photochemistry and Photobiology, 2, 241–249.
Biochar in Agriculture 251

Brussaard, L., De Ruiter, P. C., & Brown, G. G., (2007). Soil biodiversity for agricultural
sustainability. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 121(3), 233–244.
Capell, B., & Doerffling, K., (1993). Genotype specific difference in chilling tolerance of
maize in relation to chilling induce changes in water status and abscisic acid accumulation.
Physiologia Plantarum, 88, 638–646.
Chimenti, C. A., Marcantonio, M., & Hall, J. A., (2006). Divergent selection for osmotic
adjustment results in improved drought tolerance in maize (Zea mays L.) in both early
growth and flowering phases. Field Crops Research, 95, 305–315.
Conde, A., Chaves, M. M., & Gero´s, H., (2011). membrane transport, sensing and signaling
in plant adaptation to environmental stress. Plant and Cell Physiology, 52(9), 1583–1602.
Cramer, G. R., Urano, K., Delrot, S., Pezzotti, M., & Shinozaki, K., (2011). Effects of abiotic
stress on plants: A systems biology perspective. BMC Plant Biology, 11, 163.
Duan, D. Y., Li, W. Q., Liu, X. J., Ouyang, H. P., & An, P., (2007). Seed germination and
seedling growth of Suaeda salsa under salt stress. Annales Botanici Fennici, 44, 161–169.
Dubois, M., Gilles, K., Hammiltron, J. K., Robers, P. A., & Smith, F., (1951). A colorimetric
method for the determination of sugars. Nature, 168, 167–168.
Farahbakhsh, H., (2012). Germination and seedling growth in un-primed and primed seeds of
fennel as affected by reduced water potential induced by NaCl. International Research
Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences, 3, 737–744.
Flowers, T. J., (2004). Improving crop salt tolerance. Journal of Experimental Botany, 55,
307–319.
Gasco, G., Paz-Ferreiro, J., & Mendez, A., (2012). Thermal analysis of soil amended with
sewage sludge and biochar from sewage sludge pyrolysis. Journal of Thermal Analysis
and Calorimetry, 108, 769–775.
Giannopolitis, C. N., & Ries, S. K., (1977). Superoxide dismutase occurrence in higher plants.
Plant Physiology, 59, 304–314.
Gonçalves-Alvim, S. J., & Fernandes, G. W., (2001). Biodiversity of galling insects: historical,
community and habitat effects in four neotropical savannas. Biodiversity and Conservation,
10, 79–98.
González-Villagra, J., Rodrigues-Salvador, A., Nunes-Nesi, A., Cohen, J. D., & Reyes-Díaz,
M. M., (2018). Age-related mechanism and its relationship with secondary metabolism
and abscisic acid in Aristotelia chilensis plants subjected to drought stress. Plant
Physiology and Biochemistry, 124, 136–145.
Heans, D. L., (1984). Determination of total organic carbon in soils by an improved chromic
acid digestion and spectrophotometric procedure. Communications in Soil Science and
Plant Analysis, 15, 1191–1213.
Imran, & Amanullah, (2018). Global impact of climate change on water, soil resources and threat
towards food security: Evidence from Pakistan. Adv. Plants Agric. Res., 8(5), 350‒355.
Imran, & Khan, A. A., (2015). Effect of transplanting dates on yield and yield components
of various rice genotypes in hilly area cold climatic region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-
Pakistan. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 5(7), 1–9.
Imran, & Khan, A. A., (2017). Canola yield and quality enhanced with Sulphur fertilization.
Russian Agricultural Sciences, 43(2), 113–119.
Imran, (2015). Effect of germination on proximate composition of two maize cultivars.
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 3(5), 123–128.
Imran, (2017). Climate change is a real fact confronting to agricultural productivity. Int. J.
Environ. Sci. Nat. Res., 3(3), 555613.
252 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Imran, (2018). Biochar amendments improve soil health, productivity, and profitability of
maize and soybean. Ann. Rev. Res., 1(3), 555–564.
Imran, (2018). Phosphorous fertilization influenced weeds attributes and phenological
characteristics of mung bean cultivars (Vigna radiata L.). Russian Agricultural Sciences,
44(3), 229–234.
Imran, Amanullah, Arif, M., Shah, Z., & Bari, A., (2020). Soil application of Trichoderma and
Peach (Prunus persica L.) residues possesses biocontrol potential for weeds and enhances
growth and profitability of Soybean (Glycine max). Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 36(1),
10–20.
Imran, Amanullah, Bari, A., &Ali, R., (2018). Peach sources, phosphorous and beneficial
microbes enhance productivity of soybean. Soy. Res., 16(2), 39–48.
Imran, Amanullah, Khan, A. A., Bari, A., Ud Din, R., Ali, R., Naveed, S., Ullah, I., Zada, H.,
& Khan, G. R., (2019). Production statistics and modern technology of maize cultivation
in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. Plant Sci., 2(2) 1–12.
Imran, Bari, A., Ali, R., Ahmad, N., Ahmad, Z., Khattak, M. I., Ali, A., et al., (2017).
Traditional rice farming accelerate CH4 and N2O emissions functioning as a stronger
contributors of climate change. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Nat. Res., 9(3), 89–92.
Imran, Hussain, I., Khattak, I., Rehman, A., Ahmad, F., & Shah, S. T., (2015). Roots
nodulation, yield and yield contributing parameters of mung bean cultivars as influenced
by different phosphorous levels in Swat-Pakistan. J. Pure Appl. Biol., 4(4), 557–567.
Imran, Hussain, I., Naveed, S., Shah, S., Rehman, A., Zada, H., Ullah, I., et al., (2016). Growth
and yield of maize hybrids as effected by different sowing dates in Swat Pakistan. J. Pure
App. Biol., 5(1), 114–120.
Imran, Jamal, N., Alam, A., & Khan, A. A., (2017). Grain yield, yield attributes of wheat
and soil physicochemical characteristics influenced by biochar, compost and inorganic
fertilizer application. Agri. Res. Tech., 10(4), 555795.
Imran, Khan, A. A., Irfanullah, & Ahmad, F., (2014). Production potential of rapeseed (Brassica
napus L.) as influenced by different nitrogen levels and decapitation stress under the rainfed
agro-climatic condition of swat Pakistan, J. Glob. Innov. Agric. Soc. Sci., 2(3), 112–115.
Iqbal, A., Amanullah, Ali, A., Iqbal, M., Ikramullah, & Imran, (2017). Integrated use of
phosphorus and biochar improve fodder yield of moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia Jacq.)
under irrigated and dryland conditions of Pakistan. Journal of AgriSearch, 4(1), 10–15.
Iqbal, B., Ahmad, B., Ullah, I., Imran, Khan, A. A., Anwar, S., Ali, A., Shahzad, K., & Khan,
S., (2016). Effect of phosphorus, Sulphur and different irrigation levels on phenological
traits of triticale. Pure and Applied Biology, 5(2), 303–310.
Iqbal, B., Jan, M. T., Imran, Zar, M., Khan, A. A., Anwar, S., & Shahzad, K., (2015). Growth
and phenology of maize as affected by integrated management of compost and fertilizers
nitrogen. Journal of Pure and Applied Biology, 4.
Iqbal, B., Jan, M. T., Inamullah, Imran, Khan, A. A., Muhammad, Z., Anwar, S., et al., (2015).
Integrated management of compost type and fertilizer in Maize. J. Pure Appl Biol., 4(4),
453–457.
Iqbal, B., Jan, M. T., Muhammad, Z., Khan, A. A., Anwar, S., Imran, & Shahzad, K., (2016).
Phenological traits of maize influenced by integrated management of compost and
fertilizer nitrogen. J. Pure Appl Biol., 5(1), 58–63.
Islam, M., Anwar, S., Bashir, S., Khattak, W. A., Imran, Ali, M., & Khan, N., (2015). Growth
and yield components of wheat varieties as affected by dual-purpose practices. Journal
of Pure and Applied Biology, 4(4), 491–496.
Biochar in Agriculture 253

ISTA, (2005). International Rules for Seed Testing. Zurich, Switzerland: International Seed
Testing Association.
Jackson, M., (1962). Soil Chemical Analysis (p. 496). Constable and Company Ltd, London.
Jagatheeswari, D., & Ranganathan, P., (2012). Influence of mercuric chloride on seeds
germination, seedling growth and biochemical analysis of green gram (Vigna radiata
(L.) Wilczek. var. Vamban-3). International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological
Archives, 3, 291–295.
Joseph, B., & Jini, D., (2011). Development of salt stress-tolerant plants by gene manipulation
of antioxidant enzymes. Asian Journal of Agricultural Research, 5, 17–27.
Kamara, A., Kamara, A., Mansaray, M. M., & Sawyerr, P. A., (2014). Effects of biochar
derived from maize stover and rice straw on the germination of their seeds. American
Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 2, 246–249.
Kammann, C. I., Linsel, S., Gobling, J. W., & Koyro, H., (2011). Influence of biochar on
drought tolerance of Chenopodium quinoa Willd and on soil-plant relation. Plant and
Soil, 345, 195–210.
Karim, S. A., & Imran, (2019). Reduction in substrate moisture content reduce the final yield
of wheat. Biomed J. Sci. Tec. Res., 1–5.
Khan, A. A., Imran, Ali, F., Inamullah, S., Laiq, Z., Muhammad, N., Muhammad, N., &
Khan, K., (2015). Phenological traits of rice as influenced by seedling age and number of
seedlings per hill under temperate region. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare,
5(3), 145–149.
Khan, A. A., Khan, M. N., Inamuallah, Shah, S., Arshad, I. R., Muhammad, I., Zeb, A., &
Imran, (2015). Effect of potash application on growth, yield and yield components of
spring maize hybrids. Pure and Applied Biology, 4(2), 195–203.
Khan, A. Z., Imran, Muhammad, A., Khalil, A., Gul, H., Akbar, H., & Wahab, S., (2016).
Impact of fertilizer priming on seed germination behavior and vigor of maize. Pure and
Applied Biology, 5(4), 744–751. http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2016.50093.
Khan, I., (2018). Climate change is a threat toward agronomy (base of food, fiber system), and
food security. Food Nutr. J., 3(10), 1–8.
Khan, M. A., Islam, E., Shirazi, M. U., Mumtaz, S., Mujtaba, S. M., Khan, M. A., Shereen, A.,
et al., (2010). Physiological responses of various wheat genotypes to salinity. Pakistan
Journal of Botany, 42, 3497–505.
Lashari, M. S., Liu, Y., Li, W., Pan, J., Pan, G., Zheng, J., et al., (2013). Effect of amendment
of biochar manure compost in conjunction with pyroligneous solution on soil quality
and wheat yield of a salt-stressed cropland from central China great plain. Food Crop
Research, 144, 113–118.
Lee, K. D., Tawaha A. R. M., & Supanjani, (2005d). Antioxidant status, stomatal resistance
and mineral composition of hot pepper under salinity and boron stress. Bioscience
Research, 2(3), 148–154.
Lee, K. D., Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2005b). Nitrogen fixation in rice based farming
system. Bioscience Research, 2(3), 130–138.
Lee, K., Sulpanjani, D., Tawaha, A. M., & Min, Y. S., (2005a). Effect of Phosphorus application
on yield, mineral contents and active components of Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Bioscience Research, 2(3), 118–124.
Lehmann, J., & Joseph, S., (2009). Biochar for environmental management: An introduction.
In: Lehmann, J., & Joseph, S., (eds.), Biochar for Environmental Management: Science
and Technology (pp. 1–12). London: Earthscan.
254 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Lehmann, J., Rillig, M. C., Thies, J., Masiello, C. A., Hockaday, W. C., & Crowley, D., (2011).
Biochar effects on soil biota. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43, 1812–1836.
Lei, G., Shen, M., Li, Z., Zhang, B., Duan, K., Wang, N., Cao, Y., Zhang, W., & Ma, B.,
(2011). EIN2 regulates salt stress response and interacts with a MA3 domain-containing
protein ECIP1 in Arabidopsis. Plant, Cell and Environment, 34(10).
Lu, C., & Vonshak, A., (2002). Effects of salinity stress on photosystem II function in
cyanobacterial Spirulina platensis cells. Physiol. Plant, 114, 405–413.
Maestre, F. T., Cortina, J., & Bautista, S., (2007). Mechanisms underlying the interaction
between Pinus halepensis and the native late-successional shrub Pistacia lentiscus in a
semi-arid plantation. Ecography, 27(6), 776–786.
Martinez-Beltran, J., & Manzur, C. L., (2005). Overview of salinity problems in the world and
FAO strategies to address the problem. Proceedings of the International Salinity Forum
(pp. 311–313). Riverside, California.
Mazhar, R., Ilyas, N., Saeed, M., Bibi, F., & Batool, N., (2016). Biocontrol and salinity
tolerance potential of Azospirillum lipoferum and its inoculation effect in wheat crop.
International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 3, 494–500.
Mesfine, T., Abebe, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Effect of reduced tillage and crop
residue ground cover on yield and water use efficiency of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench) under semi-arid conditions of Ethiopia. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
1(2), 152–160.
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, (2007). Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan.
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.
Miri, Y., & Mirjalili, S. A., (2013). Effect of salinity stress on seed germination and some
physiological traits in primary stages of growth in purple coneflower (Echinacea
purpurea). International Journal of Agronomy and Plant Production, 4, 142–146.
Mittler, R., (2006). Abiotic stress, the field environment and stress combination. Trends in
Plant Science, 11(1), 15–19.
Munns, R. R., James, A., & Lauchli, A., (2006). Approaches to increasing the salt tolerance of
wheat and other cereals. Journal of Experimental Botany, 57, 1025–1043.
Munns, R., & Tester, M., (2008). Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Annual Review of Plant
Biology, 59, 651–681.
Munns, R., (2002). Comparative physiology of salt and water stress. Plant, Cell and
Environment, 25, 239–250.
Naveed, S., Ibrar, M., Khattak, I., Khan, I., Imran, Khan, M. I., & Khan, H., (2016). Anthelmintic,
antilice, insecticidal, cytotoxic and phytotoxic potential of ethanolic extracts of two wild
medicinal plants Iphiona grantioides and Pluchea arguta. J. Woulfenia, 23(11), 13–25.
Nazarli, H., Faraji, F., & Zardashti, M. R., (2011). Effect of drought stress and polymer on
osmotic adjustment and photosynthetic pigments of sunflower. Carcetriari Agronomica
in Maldova, 1, 45.
Neto, A. D. A., Prisco, J. T., Enéas-Filho, J., De Lacerda, C. F., Silva, J. V., De Costa, P. H. A.,
& Gomes-Filho, E., (2004). Effects of salt stress on plant growth, stomatal response and
solute accumulation of different maize genotypes. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology,
16(1), 31–38.
Nikus, O., Abebe, G., Takele, A., Harrun, H., Chanyalew, S., Al Tawaha, A. M., & Mesfin,
T., (2005b). Yield response of tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) to NP fertilization in
the semi-arid zones of the central rift valley in Ethiopia. European Journal of Scientific
Research, 4(4), 49–60.
Biochar in Agriculture 255

Nikus, O., Nigussie, M., & Al Tawaha, A. M., (2005a). Agronomic performance of Maize
varieties under irrigation in Awash Valley, Ethiopia. Bioscience Research, 2(1), 26–30.
Olsen, S. R., & Sommers, L. E., (1982). Phosphorous. In: Bunton, D., (ed.), Methods of Soil
Analysis: Chemical and Microbiological Properties (pp. 403–427). Madison, WI: Soil
science society of America.
Palm, E., Brady, K., & Van, V. E., (2012). Serpentine tolerance in Mimulus guttatus does not
rely on exclusion of magnesium. Functional Plant Biology, 39(8), 679.
Palta, J. P. & Farag, K., (2006). Methods for Enhancing Plant Health, Protecting Plants from
Biotic and Abiotic Stress-Related Injuries and Enhancing the Recovery of Plants Injured
as a Result of Such Stresses. United States Patent, 7101828.
Pant, B. D., Burgos, A., Pant, P., Cuadros-Inostroza, A., Willmitzer, L., & Scheible, W., (2015).
The transcription factor PHR1 regulates lipid remodeling and triacylglycerol accumulation
in Arabidopsis thaliana during phosphorus starvation. Journal of Experimental Botany,
66(7), 1907–1918.
Pant, B. D., Pant, P., Erban, A., Huhman, D., Kopka, J., & Scheible, W., (2015). Identification
of primary and secondary metabolites with phosphorus status-dependent abundance in
Arabidopsis, and of the transcription factor PHR1 as a major regulator of metabolic
changes during phosphorus limitation. Plant, Cell and Environment, 38(1), 172–187.
Paz-Ferreiro, J., Fu, S., Mendez, A., & Gasco, G., (2014). Interactive effects of biochar and
the earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus on plant productivity and soil enzymes activities.
Journal of Soils Sediments, 14, 483–494.
Peng, Y., Gao, Z., Gao, Y., Liu, G., Sheng, L., & Wang, D., (2008). Eco-physiological
characteristics of alfalfa seedlings in response to various mixed salt-alkaline stresses.
Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, 50, 29–39.
Ping, J., Geo, K., & Ron, M., (2007). Understanding abiotic stress tolerance mechanisms: Recent
studies on stress response in rice. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, 49 (6), 742–750.
Prado, F. E., Boero, C., Gallarodo, M., & Gonzalez, A. J., (2000). Effect of NaCl on
germination, growth and soluble sugar content in Chenopodium quinoa Wil seeds.
Botanical Bulletin-Academia Sinica Taipei, 14, 27–34.
Raghothama, K. G., (1999). Phosphate acquisition. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and
Plant Molecular Biology, 50(1), 665–693.
Rajalakshmi, A. G., Kumar, S. K., Bharathi, C. D., Karthika, R., Visalakshi, K. D., Meera,
R., & Mohanapriya, S., (2015). Effect of biochar in seed germination: In-vitro study.
International Journal of Biosciences and Nanosciences, 2, 132–136.
Rashid, A., Saleem, Q., Nazir, A., & Kazım, H. S., (2003). Yield potential and stability of nine
wheat varieties under water stress conditions. International Journal of Agriculture and
Biology, 5, 7–9.
Raza, A., (2012). Grain and Field Annual 2012 Gain Report (pp. 1–3). Global Agricultural
Information Network, USDA Foreign Agricultural Services.
Rengasamy, P., (2002). Transient salinity and subsoil constraints to dryland farming in
Australian sodic soils: An overview. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 42,
351–361.
Roelofs, D., Jiwan, P., & Kwangy, I., (2008). Functional ecological genomics to demonstrate
general and specific responses to abiotic stress. Functional Ecology, 22, 8–18.
Rubio, V., Linhares, F., Solano, R., Martín, A. C., Iglesias, J., Leyva, A., & Paz-Ares, J., (2001).
A conserved MYB transcription factor involved in phosphate starvation signaling both
in vascular plants and in unicellular algae. Genes and Development, 15(16), 2122–2133.
256 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Samreen, U., Ibrar, M., Lalbadshah, Naveed, S., Imran, & Khatak, I., (2016). Ethnobotanical
study of subtropical hills of Darazinda, Takht-e-Suleman range F.R D.I. Khan, Pakistan.
Journal of Pure and Applied Biology, 5(1), 149–164.
Savvides, A., Ali, S., Tester, M., & Fotopoulos, V., (2015). chemical priming of plants against
multiple abiotic stresses: Mission possible?. Trends in Plant Science, 21(4), 329–340.
Scholander, P. F., Hammel, H. T., Bradstreet, E. D., & Hemminogsen, E. A., (1965). Sap
pressure in vascular plants: Negative hydrostatic pressure can be measured in plants.
Plant Sciences, 148, 339–346.
Shamsi, K., & Kobraee, S., (2013). Biochemical and physiological responses of three wheat
cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.) to salinity stress. Annals of Biological Research, 4, 180–185.
Sidari, M., Mallamaci, C., & Muscolo, A., (2008). Drought, salinity and heat differently affect
seed germination of Pinus pinea. Journal of Forest Research, 13, 326–330.
Sulpanjani, A., Yang, M. S., Tawaha, A. R. M., & Lee, K. D., (2005a). Effect of magnesium
application on yield, mineral contents and active components of Chrysanthemum
coronarium L. under hydroponics conditions. Bioscience Research, 2(2), 73–79.
Supanjani, Tawaha, A. M., Min, Y. M. S., & Lee, K. D., (2005b). Role of calcium in yield and
medicinal quality of Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Journal of Agronomy, 4 (3), 188–192.
Supanjani, Tawaha, A. M., Yang, M. S., & Lee, Y. D., (2005c). Calcium effects on yield,
mineral uptake and terpene components of hydroponic Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, 1(1), 146–151.
Tiwari, S., Singh, P., Tiwari, R., Meena, K. K., Yandigeri, M., Singh, D. P., & Arora, D.
K., (2011). Salt-tolerant rhizobacteria-mediated induced tolerance in wheat (Triticum
aestivum) and chemical diversity in rhizosphere enhance plant growth. Biology and
Fertility of Soils, 47, 907–916.
Tombesi, S., Frioni, T., Poni, S., & Palliotti, A., (2018). Effect of water stress “memory”
on plant behavior during subsequent drought stress. Environmental and Experimental
Botany, 150, 106–114.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002a). Impact of seeding rate, seeding date, rate and method
of phosphorus application in faba (Vicia faba L. Minor) in the absence of moisture stress.
Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 6(3), 171–178.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002b). Response of winter wheat to applied with or without
ethrel spray under irrigation planted in semi-arid Environments. Asian Journal of Plant
Sciences, 1(4), 464–466.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2001). Influence of rate and method of phosphorus placement
to garlic (Allium sativum L.) in a Mediterranean environment. Journal of Applied
Horticulture, 3(2), 115–116.
Turk, M. A., Hameed, K. M., Aqeel, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003c). Nutritional status of
durum wheat grown in soil supplemented with olive mills by-products. Agrochimica,
5(6), 209–219.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., Samara, N., & Latifa, N., (2003b). The response of six-row
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to nitrogen fertilizer application and weed control methods
in the absence of moisture stress. Pakistan Journal of Agronomy, 2(2), 101–108.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., Taifor, H., Al-Ghzawi, A., Musallam, I. W., Maghaireh, G. A.,
& Al-Omari, Y. I., (2003a). Two row barley response to plant density, date of seeding
and rate and method of phosphorus application in the absence of moisture stress. Asian
Journal of Plant Science, 2(2), 180–183.
Biochar in Agriculture 257

Van, H. J. W., Nader, K., Hamdy, A., & Mastrorilli, M., (2001). Effect of salinity on yield and
nitrogen uptake of four grain legumes and on biological nitrogen contribution from the
soil. Agriculture Water Management, 51, 87–98.
Vinebrooke, R. D., Cottingham, K. L., Norberg, J., Scheffer, M., Dodson, S. I., Maberly, S.
C., & Sommer, U., (2004). Impacts of multiple stressors on biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning: The role of species co-tolerance. Oikos, 104(3), 451–457.
Wang, G., & Xu, Z., (2013). The effects of biochar on germination and growth of wheat in
different saline-alkali soil. Asian Agricultural Research, 5, 116–119.
Wang, H., & Jin, J., (2007). Effects of zinc deficiency and drought on plant growth and
metabolism of reactive oxygen species in maize (Zea mays L.). Agricultural Sciences in
China, 6, 988–995.
Wang, W., Vinocur, B., & Altman, A., (2003). Plant responses to drought, salinity and extreme
temperatures: Towards genetic engineering for stress tolerance. Planta, 218(1), 1–14.
Wolfe, A., (2007). Patterns of Biodiversity. Ohio State University. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2006.12.013.
Xu, D., Huang, J., Guo, S., Yang, X., Bao, Y., Tang, H., & Zhang, H., (2008). Over-expression
of a TFIII-type zinc finger protein gene ZFP252 enhances drought and salt tolerance in rice
(Oryza sativa L.). Federation of European Biochemical Societies Letters, 582, 1037–1043.
Yang, M. S., Tawaha, A. M., & Lee, Y. D., (2005). Effects of ammonium concentration on the
yield, mineral content and active terpene components of Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
in a hydroponic system. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, 1(2),
170–175.
Yeo, A. R., Yeo, M. E., Flowers, S. A., & Flowers, T. J., (1990). Screening of rice (Oryza
sativa L.) genotypes for physiological characters contributing to salinity resistance, and
their relationship to overall performance. Theoretical Applied Genetics, 79, 377–384.
Younis, U., Athar, M., Malik, S. A., RazaShah, M. H., & Mahmood, S., (2015). Biochar
impact on physiological and biochemical attributes of spinach Spinacia oleracea (L.) in
nickel contaminated soil. Global Journal Environment Science Management, 1, 245–254.
Zakaria, M., Daniel, S., Murphy, V., & Abbott, L. K., (2012). Biochars influence seed
germination and early growth of seedlings. Plant Soil, 353, 273–87.
Zargar, M. S., Nagar, P., Deshmukh, R., Nazir, M., Wani, A. A., Masoodi, K. Z., Agrawal, G.
K., & Rakwal, R., (2017). Aquaporins as potential drought tolerance inducing proteins:
Towards instigating stress tolerance. Journal of Proteomics, 169, 233–238.
Zhan, H. X., Chang, Z. J., Wei, A. L., Zhang, X. J., & Li, X., (2011). Impact of drought to
wheat physiological index. Journal of Shanxi Agriculture Sciences, 39, 1049–1051.
Zheng, W. J., Tawaha, A. M., & Lee, K. D., (2005). In situ hybridization analysis of mcMT1
gene expression and physiological mechanisms of Cu-tolerant in Festuca rubra cv
Merlin. Bioscience Research, 1(1), 21–26.
CHAPTER 11

THE ROLE OF ORGANIC MULCHING

AND TILLAGE IN ORGANIC FARMING
SHAH KHALID,1 AMANULLAH,1 ABDEL RAHMAN M. AL-TAWAHA,2
NADIA,1 DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,3 JEYABALAN SANGEETHA,4
SAMIA KHANUM,5 MUNIR TURK,6 HIBA ALATRASH,7
SAMEENA LONE,8 KHURSHEED HUSSAIN,8
PALANI SARANRAJ,9 NIDAL ODAT,10 and ARUN KARNWAL11

1
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar,
Pakistan
2
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
Maan, Jordan
3
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad–580003,
Karnataka, India
4
Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala,
Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India
5
Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
6
Department of Plant Production, Jordan University of Science and
Technology, Irbid, Jordan
7
General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
8
Division of Vegetable Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
9
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous),
Tirupattur–635601, Tamil Nadu, India
10
Department of Medical Laboratories, Al-Balqa Applied University,
Al-Salt–19117, Jordan
11
Department of Microbiology, School of Bioengineering and
BioSciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India
260 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

ABSTRACT

The mulches are mainly used for increasing water infiltration, evaporation,
soil temperature change, weed control, evaporation prevention, and crop
yields increase. Increased biological activities in the soil, changed nutrient
levels and contributed to the maintenance and/or increase of soil organic
matter (SOM). There would also possibly be a favorable impact in the
physical conditions in the soil under conditions of no-tillage or minimal
tillage of fine-textured soils. Weeds can be monitored by Mulches in various
ways: as physical barrier and related micro-climate transition, pH, C:N soil
ratio, nutrient immobilization, allelopathic compounds inhibition, lower
visible light reaching the surface of the ground. A large number of works is
intended to loosen and homogenize the macroporousness of the soil and the
structural uniformity of the tillage region, but some of the work is intended
to shape or shape the soil. Some of the tillage effects are deliberate, whereas
other effects, such as plow shape, increased vulnerability to compaction and
erosion, are unintentional. On the positive hand, tillage has been part of most
farm systems in the past since tillage can be used to achieve many agronomic
goals.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

This section offers details on the use of organic farming systems (OFSs) of
tillage and mulching. It provides a summary of how laboring and paving
blends into organic farming standards and structures. It describes forms
of tillage, implements tillage equipment, and refers, as used here, to any
normal, uninterrupted covering of the soil. It refers to any additional material
used as a covering of the ground. Consequently, this term is wide enough
to generally include both organic and inorganic materials that are used as
soil cover. The key focus in this context is, however, on traditional mulches
of organic materials, where plant materials from external sources typically
fully cover the soil to different depths. Often referred to are stubble or trash-
mulches, where the surface of the soil is normally filled in part only. The
results generated are often quite similar but vary in degree, whether the soil
is completely or only partially covered. In recent years, much research has
shown that a very successful way of using crop residues in many ways is like
mulches for growing crops, although sometimes the financial factors are not
favorable. The mulch method ensures that the cultivation and soil retain as
much time as possible to protect the soil surface. Through the decomposition
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 261

of crop residues, they eventually move through the activity of organic matter
and then through to resistant humus. When soil is kept untouched, much
of organic matter, as under virgin or forest conditions, tends to collect on
the surface. Where every year’s crops are grown, the mulch is disturbed by
dirt, and a large part of the mulch is mixed with 2–6 inches of ground every
year. In any case, plant residues have the numerous physical, chemical, and
biological effects so beneficial for plant development, i.e., the growth rate of
good highly valued topsoil is accelerated. The fundamental ways of diversity
are the rotation of organic crops. Crop rotation consists of the cultivation of
various crops on the same soil in natural succession. Crop rotation offers
many benefits to improve the quality of the soil, break disease and cycle of
pests and ensure soil and water effects (Altieri et al., 2012). Farmers picked
promising plant animals in organic agriculture and saved their offspring
year after year to preserve genetic biodiversity. Time and space diversity
increases crop resilience in many respects (Zehnder et al., 2007). Careful use
of soil nutrients, avoid a chance of plant failure, improve genetic make-up of
landraces (Bengtsson et al., 2005; Hole et al., 2005).

11.2 THE ROLE OF TILLAGE AND ORGANIC FARMING

The weakness in organic systems was highly dependent on tillage in order

to manage the weeds. However, organic matter and soil structure are also
shown to perform as well or better than traditional herbicidal systems with
less soil disruption. organic systems generally perform better or better. This
is due to imports of organic inputs including manures and compost, organic
material recycling in farms and well-designed crop rotations (including
decking plants and perennial drilling), which help to compensate for the
negative impact of soil structure and organic matter layering. This can
include lack of organic matter, increased soil strength, decreased penetra­
tion, compaction, and increased erosion. These are negative effects. Expe­
rienced organic farmers reduce the negative effects of tillage by taking
careful account of the timing of tillage processes, machinery activity, soil
conditions and crop rotation. Some crops, such as root vegetables, with
intense soil perturbation during harvest and returning low crop residues
can be rotated by crops with lower soil perturbations and more crop resi­
dues. Starting farmers have a lot to know about the art and science behind
productive labor. In terms of the intensity of labor, often greater than tradi­
tional systems, policymakers need to understand where and where organic
farmers can provide desired ecological services like carbon sequestration.
262 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Increased cooperation among agroecologists, agricultural engineers, and

experienced farmers will lead to better tillage systems that enable strategic
laying in the context of planned crop systems to more consistently gain and
minimize negative side effects.

11.2.1 ORGANIC MANURES AND TILLAGE

Final Regulation of the national organic program (NOP) (United States

Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2000) Certified organic farmers are to
register their organic system plan tillage activities and procedures. The weed
control measures permitted include hand weeding as well as mechanical
cultivation. The frequency of application tillage must be recorded in the farm
records. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways; the manufacturer
should follow, along with other details required by the NOP standard, an
organization, easy-to-use system for recording tillage, rotations, and amend­
ment history for each area. The inspector examines the farming plan of a
producer to determine if the tillage practices are used, so that the physical,
chemical, and biological condition of the soil is maintained or improved and
so that soil erosion is minimized.

11.2.2 IMPORTANCE OF TILLAGE

Mechanical soil structure alteration is tillage. Tillage tools change the soil
structure through a wide range of interactions between soil and instrument
including cutting, milling, crushing, beating, and rebounding. Tillage
tools expose the soil structure to compression, shear, and strain. When the
stresses exceed the strength of the soil, the soil structure fails to collapse,
if the ground is cold, or if the ground is deformed in a plastic condition.
The result of interactions between soil and tools differs both with regard
to the characteristics of the tillage activity such as depth, distance, speed,
and the type of the tilling of the soil, such as texture, structure, humidity, or
plasticity. If soil is too damp, it spreads out and produces clods that can last
for the duration of the growing season. Clods are usually broken by winter
freezing and thawing. A large number of works is intended to loosen and
homogenize the macroporousness of the soil and the structural uniformity of
the tillage region, but some of the work is intended to shape or shape the soil.
Some of the tillage effects are deliberate, whereas other effects, such as plow
shape, increased vulnerability to compaction and erosion, are unintentional.
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 263

On the positive hand, laying has been part of most agricultural processes
over the years, as laying can be used to achieve many agricultural objectives
(Amanullah et al., 2016, 2019a). Tillage’s value includes:

1. Residue Management: The transfer, orientation, or sizing of residues

such that harms or crop residues can be minimized and beneficial
effects promoted.
2. Incorporation and Combination: Placement or distribute, often from
a less favorable position to a more favorable geographical distribution,
substances such as fertilizers, manures, seeds, and residues.
3. Soil Conditioning: Soil-structure changes to promote agricultural
processes such as interaction with soils, root proliferation, soil
heating, and water penetration.
4. Crop and Pesticide Control: Direct end or disturbance of the cycles
of weed and pests.
5. Splitting: Rock consolidation, root clumps, soil crumb sizes, etc.
6. Land Formation: Modifying the soil surface shape; perhaps the
simplest variant is leveling; crest, roughing, and furrowing are also
examples.
7. Nutrient Release Stimulation: Accomplished by aeration and
mixture; note that it can be a disadvantage if not targeted with crop
uptake.

More basic objectives of tillage include creating seedbeds, stalky

seedbeds, minimizing the compression of crops by breaking of soil crusts,
cutting, and/or drying of weeds, macerating biofumigant plant cover crops,
soil biology stimulation and root crop harvesting. Organic farmers generally
use a variety of tools for tillage similar employment, as changes in growth
rates of weather, crops, and/or weeds will quickly force them to adjust strate­
gies. Owning or accessing a number of easy to attach and unlock tractors will
save time for farmers (Table 11.1).

11.2.3 EFFECTS OF MULCHES

The mulches are mainly used for increasing water infiltration, evaporation,
soil temperature change, weed control, evaporation prevention and crop
yields increase. There is also a likelihood of a beneficial impact on the
physical conditions in the ground under conditions of non-treeing or low
tillage of fine-textured soils.
 264
TABLE 11.1 Tillage Implement and Their Purpose
Type of Tillage Implements Purpose
Primary tillage Aggressive equipment including chisel plows, ripers, and Create a soil state, from which a seedbed with secondary
subsoilers tillage devices can be prepared. The disruption of the soil
is usually >6 inches deep. Primary laying is required if
Aggressive tools like spaders and rotary tillers
current soil conditions hinder the efficiency of secondary
Moldboard and disk plows instruments.
Secondary tillage Powered harrows, such as rotavators, rod weeders, and The preparation of the seedbed can include the sizing,
reciprocating harrows leveling, and/or burial of residues. Typically, soil
Most harrows are draft implements with gangs of tines, preparation is full field but can be concentrated in row

Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

disks, rolling baskets, or combinations. zones. Used for seedbed preparation and can do more than
draft tools in one pass.
Sweeps are used to push residues aside for conservation
planting.
Cultivation Guided (row) farmers are used to deduct or dislodge It is often used pre-emergent or shortly after large crops
weeds between crops that are planted on broad lines grow, but is sometimes also used on small or transmitted
(usually >2 feet). crops.
Listers/cridge makers and blind farmers come in a
wide range of forms and sizes and make beds 6 to 10
inches high, 30 to 40 inches apart, divided by a furrow
(interrow).
Chain harrows may be used to disperse residues and
compost, seeds, and soil surface level.
Tools to manage Mowers and flail choppers are used to manage standing Mechanical herb and residue management. A variety of
surface residue biomass, cutting them into smaller parts to be distributed methods are used to handle residues, mulch, slaughter
as a blade or incorporated into primary tillage. plants, and distribute soil materials.
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 265

11.2.4 MULCH AS A WEED’S CONTROLLER

The synergistic impact of all control methods to the farmer to track the weed
populations at the level of a given lot is focused on the integrated weed
management. This show will show the benefits of various weed control
techniques, including plowing, flooding, nursery transplantation and crop
rotation (Al-Tawaha et al., 2010).
Increasingly, mulchery is used as a weed control measure, which is of
special importance to organic cropping systems in the cultivation of high
quality and safe food production plant raw materials (Bilalis et al., 2003;
Petersen and Rover, 2005; Ramakrishna et al., 2006; Jordán et al., 2010;
Imranuddin et al., 2017; Khalid et al. 2017; Amanullah et al., 2019a;
Al-Tawaha et al., 2020; Amanullah and Khalid, 2020). Agricultural crop
processing is used as a plant residue mix and has a multi-sectoral impact
on the agroecosystem (Bajorienė et al., 2013). The weed control of mulches
(straw, grass, and other) was calculated by Radics and Szné Bognár (2004);
Petersen and Rover (2005); and Ramakrishna et al. (2006). Weeds can be
monitored by Mulches in various ways. Their suppression of weeds is one
of the most significant benefits, preventing cultivation in this way. Now that
herbicides provide an alternative way of weed control, this advantage is
slightly lower than before. However, in vegetable and flower gardens where
herbicides are often dangerous, mulches are more commonly used in order to
control weeds. After packing of at least two inches, ideally four inches, most
natural mulches must be added to the depth to be successful in the control of
weeds. As plant residues on permanent weeds and on many grasses normally
do not work, they need to be removed prior to application. Although they can
germinate, almost every year weed seedlings cannot develop through a thick
mulch (Petersen and Rover, 2005; Ramakrishna et al., 2006). The energy
supply of the seeds is too limited to allow significant growth without light. In
weed control, some natural mulching materials are not very satisfactory either
for tightly packaging and serving as good germination and growth medium
or because weed seeds are contaminated by the painting material itself. The
majority of artificial materials such as black or plastic paper and aluminum
foil for the weed control is satisfactory if the ground is completely protected
(Petersen and Rover, 2005; Ramakrishna et al., 2006). Typically, some annual
weeds are used in the hollows or cracks as perforated sheets or in strips.
Organic mulch keeps the temperature and humidity in the soil more
stable, which leads to a better environment for living organisms in the soil
(Ramakrishna et al., 2006). Soil biological properties primarily affect organic
farming productivity (Amanullah et al., 2015, 2019a–d, 2020). Mulching is
266 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

also used to affect the physical properties of the soil. Mulching is necessary
for the growth and yield of crops, which helps to lower moisture evaporation,
to decrease and sustain a more steady earth temperature (Ji and Unger, 2001).
Eventually the natural organic mulch breaks up and returns the organic mate­
rial to the soil. The slow-releasing of nutrients is more synchronized with the
plant needs during the decomposition process (Cherr et al., 2006). The soil
appeared to increase the phosphorus and potassium content available in paint
and in grass. It was noticed. The rapid decomposition of organic mulch is a
significant source of plant nutrients. In grass-mulched plants, significantly
greater crop yields were achieved not only because of smothering weeds,
but because of increased soil plant nutrients and improved soil physical
properties. Better plants are able to kill weeds in greater numbers. Some
research indicates that mulching decreases annual weeds, but it does not
influence perennial weeds. Plant residues (straws and other) used as a mulch
were found in the breakup process to suppress the emergence and growth
of weeds. A decrease in the amount of crop residues used for soil mulching
in annual weeds has been noticed by many authors (Petersen and Rover,
2005; Ramakrishna et al., 2006; Shah et al., 2019). As the soil cover levels
increased, a decrease in weed density was created. Mulching decreases the
volume of soil and shears, and increases porosity filled with air. Certain
perennial weeds are grown on the ground. Some organic mulches are suit­
able for vast farms-overgrown wheat, turkeys, sawdust, stroke, and other
agricultural residues. We may also use various bio-residues in small farms
and gardens for the planting of mulching: grass, sunflower hulls, nuts, coffee
beans, and others, regularly cut out from grassplots.

11.2.5 ORGANIC MULCH AND SOIL MICRO FAUNA

The nature of the soil provides the right amount of nutrients for the production
of defined plants and the right balance for the development of soil fertility
(Turk and Tawaha, 2001, 2002a, b; Tawaha and Turk, 2002; Turk et al.,
2003a–c). More research, on the other hand, has shown that low productivity
mainly concerns dryland farming activities (Tawaha and Turk, 2001; Turk
and Tawaha, 2002b; Abebe et al., 2005, 2005a–d; Assefa et al., 2005; Lee
et al., 2005a–d; Nikus et al., 2005a, b; Mesfine et al., 2005; Sulpanjani et
al., 2005a–c; Tawaha et al., 2005a, b; Yang et al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2005;
Assaf et al., 2006). Bio-mulches boost activity of soil enzymes (Jordán et
al., 2010), the biota soil quantity and diversity (Brévault et al., 2007). Earth­
worms are likely to be provided with soils which are naturally mulched with
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 267

tree blankets, grass sod, and different forms of plant residue, provided the
soil is not too acidic or too dry. The same applies to gardens with residues of
plants. One of the key reasons for their satisfactory living conditions is that
mulches also provide them with plenty of food. In addition, worms, like most
plants find their physical conditions in the soil. The plants in the area have a
continuous supply even if the mulch itself is not a satisfactory food source.
The lack of soil disturbance also promotes the population of high earthworm,
which may stay intact throughout one or more seasons. The channels they
produce through the soil. The mulches often keep the soil at a temperature
that is more uniform and prevent the soil from freezing. Briefly, the many
benefits from earthworms’ behaviors in soils which are matched with plant
residues appear to reach a near limit. A grass sod is a perfect location for a
population of high worms. Many plant materials often encourage the growth
of other types of animal living, some of which are beneficial and some of
which are harmful. However, harmful insects and some diseases are likely to
encounter natural mulches, but this is typically a comparatively small factor
in crop production. Multiples of plant materials also have a positive impact
on the activities of soil microorganisms. This is partly because of the higher
humidity and temperature throughout the whole year, but more particularly
because of the ample supply of energy that is always available. In each rain,
some energy-generating material is leached into the ground, and the insolvent
materials collect on or in the surface layer of the soil as the mulch disinte­
grates. In addition, earthworms bring uncomposed plant materials continually
into the soil. This naturally promotes a significant increase in the amount of
soil microorganisms, but also speeds up the loss of the mulch itself.

11.2.6 ORGANIC MULCH AND NUTRIENTS AVAILABILITY

The effect of natural mulches on the amount of nutrients available to

plants growing on the ground is mainly determined by the composition of
the mulches (Table 11.2) and secondly by the rate of decomposition of the
mulches (Amanullah et al., 2019d). This is clear because the floor finally
reaches the ground, or the decomposition products that do not escape to the
air. The final results are determined by what substance and how much of it
is affected and how quickly it enters the ground. The most important factor
involved is nitrogen, which is often unpredictable (Imranuddin et al., 2017;
Shah, 2017; Khalid et al., 2018). It depends on the carbohydrate’s ratio of
the mattress material and its ease of decomposition-in particular its lignin
content-that the mulch can increase or decrease the available nitrogen under
268 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

the surface. The vital ratio is typically around 30 for most crop residues (N
content 1.4–1.7). The larger the ratio, the closer the rotting residues are to
nitrogen. Nitrogen-deficient crop waste used as mulches generally decreases
the amount of nitrogen available in the soil, and therefore, unless additional
nitrogen is added, the growth of plants growing in the mulched area can
degrade. It can be less inhibited than when the mulching materials have been
added into the soil.

TABLE 11.2 Various Organic Mulches and Their Chemical Properties

Material C/N Ash (%) Nitrogen (%) Carbon (%)
Corn cobs 108 1.58 0.45 46.87
Alfalfa hay 18 8.79 2.34 43.15
Pea vines, mature (less pods) 29 8.5 1.5 44.02
Moss peat 58 3.12 0.83 48.29
Ponderosa pine sawdust 1064 0.33 0.05 53.18
Douglas fir sawdust, fresh 996 0.17 0.05 49.8
Wheat straw 373 8.54 0.12 44.7
Rye straw 144 3.51 0.33 47.39
Douglas fir sapwood 548 0.27 0.09 49.36
Cannery waste, beans 10 – 3.17 31.47
Rice hulls 72 19.83 0.55 39.8
Douglas fir needles 58 7.02 0.96 55.75
Red alder sawdust 134 1.21 0.37 49.63
Cannery waste, beets 18 – 2.32 42.85
Douglas fir cones 133 1.51 0.37 49.17
Sewage sludge, digested 10 53.65 2.15 22
Walnut leaves, weathered 26 43.42 1.12 29.48
Pea vines, in bloom 17 10.71 2.69 45.3
Meadow hay (rush and sedge) 43 8.46 1.07 45.6
Douglas fir bark 491 0.45 0.11 53.97
Oak leaves, weathered 26 32.33 1.36 35.11
Bentgrass clippings 13 17.98 3.23 43.22
Western red cedar sawdust 129 0.29 0.07 51.05
Fiber flax, deseeded 373 3.73 0.12 44.7

Vicente-Chandler (1953) notes that the correct type of mat, treated

correctly, will provide plants with a cost-effective and permanent supply of
nitrogen under heavy rainfalls. This is especially the case when the mulch
is annually replaced. In addition to the essential ratio even mulches with
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 269

carbon-nitrogen ratios will have some existing nitrogen, where the materials
would rot very quickly as under humid tropical conditions. The mat of rising
roots usually found under such a pail would consume a large part of the
nitrogen and other nutrients available before torrential rain can be extracted.
Under such conditions, soluble fertilizer nitrogen will not stay in the root
area for long. The majority of nitrogen-deficient mulches are also deficient
in phosphorus and can need minor uses for both phosphate and nitrogen
fertilizers. However, mulches are less likely to deplete phosphates than
nitrogen. There is no risk of a natural muzzle becoming defective because of
the needs of the microorganisms that decompose mulches for the other major
and small components. Once a multitude of plant materials are added, and
even before much decomposition occurs, they will be slowed by rain. More
and more of these elements are likely to descend into the root zone as the
decomposition continues. If the mulch is not discarded, the remaining matter
eventually becomes a part of the soil, and the crop assimilates all major and
minor elements originally in the mulch.

11.2.7 ORGANIC MULCH AND SOIL ORGANIC MATTER (SOM)

Their organic content is much greater than that of grown soil covered with
mulches, which are dept enough to discourage weeds from growing and are
not planted for long periods. This is partially due to the absence of cultivation,
but if the temperature of the soil is lower in the summer, this is also a factor.
Less wetting and drying cycles are also beneficial for the maintenance of
organic matter. The major influence of organic mulches on the preservation
of humus is the incorporation of organic matter, provided that the mulch is
not extracted at intervals. The beneficial impact is very powerful in systems
where the soil is maintained mulched and the mulch is filled annually. It is
also marked if each spring or fall the old mulch is incorporated in the soil,
with fresh mulching materials being changed each year. In the first instance,
the upper one or two inches of soil can in organic matter become very high;
in the second instance, the whole stuffed or discharged layer benefits from
the addition of carbonate substances.

11.2.8 SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Soils of medium or fine texture, cut, and stored with plant-residue mulches
and scrubbed unusually or hot, typically have excellent physical quality or
270 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

develop excellent quality. The structure or aggregation of these soils does

not suffer from compaction due to tillage and weighting or drying of heavy
equipment or aggregate interference. A small proportion of the products of
disintegration and the synthetic products of micro-organisms are released
into the ground as the organic mulch decomposes. Earthworms are also
a bigger factor. These channels help to reduce bulk density and improve
ventilation and drainage. The longer organic mat is on the ground, the more
it appears to assume the characteristics of a virgin soil, which is the most
physically good for many. Such paved soils have a high rate of infiltration
and appear to retain the water to the end of the Zhe profile. Good physical
characteristics also favor retention of water in the profile before the crop can
use it. Factors of a physical nature like rising roots, wetting, and drying, and
freezing and thawing appear to be the first in the formation of aggregates;
microbe action products are of minor concern, as aggregate forms, and they
are helping to keep the clay particles in close proximity.

11.2.9 ORGANIC MULCH AND SOIL EROSION

A large number of plant materials which are not easily transported by

running water are extremely successful in erosion prevention. This state­
ment is obvious because poles absorb the energy of the dropping raindrop,
increase runoff, allow less water to wash off and improve the soil’s quality.
This statement is obvious from what is said. Often heavy rain can lead to
mulching material and gullies, but this typically does not happen if there is a
crop in the soil covering most of the region. Light-weight materials, such as
sawdust and peat, can often be floating as gullies, but fibrous materials will
not move. Obviously, the straw mulch improved surface sealing and reduced
precipitation and runoff. In particular, erosion control is useful for natural
mulches as they occur in forests, lands of waste and grassland. Multiples
of artificial materials are typically often successful when they are attached
enough and allow humidity to easily penetrate the soil.

11.2.10 STUBBLE MULCHES

Stubble-mulch or trash-mulch agriculture was started in semi-arid and

wheat-growing areas in the US and Canada between 1930 and 1940. The
system was built as a result of the extreme wind erosion at the time and
was a major try to reduce as much as possible this harm. The damage
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 271

caused to the wind in the 1930s was exceptionally bad as a result of the
extreme drought shortly after the planting of much land which was long in
the native grasses. Stubble-mulch agriculture is generally described as an
all-year route to manage residues in croplands in which the residues of the
previous crop are selected, grown, seeded-prepared, and planted to leave on
or close to the earth’s surface. The residues on the surface of the soil decay
slower than when buried, and substantial residues can remain from season to
season under some conditions. In a stubble-mulch farming method, this of
course is quite attractive. The type of residue, temperature, moisture ratios
and soil disturbance during laying operations depend on such decline resis­
tance. Working with the stubble-mulch method is usually maintained to the
minimum required for the preparation of a proper seedbed and the control
of weeds. The sweep or blade is usually used to raise the soil and kill the
weeds first. It works at depths up to 6 inches with subsequent tillage at lower
depths with different devices. The sweeping cultivator normally has around
70 to 80% more specifications than the moldboard plow at the same depth.
The stubble mulch system is particularly suitable for maintaining summer
barrier trees and growing small grain crops. In any case, not only should the
machinery used leave all crop residues on the soil, it should also be spread
consistently. This farming method is also suitable for the cultivation of row
crops such as maize or sorghum. The seed is put in the clean furrow of the
residues between the ranks. To encourage seeding, a lister operated with a
low depth can be used or a planter fitted with a furrow opener. Sweeps or
other equipment which undercut residues can be used for cultivation. Weed
control is often difficult, particularly of grass, and more crops than would
otherwise be considered desirable may be required. When it comes to sodes,
the moldboard plow is often used to cause inversion, and then a spring-tooth
harrow is applied to get some residues over to the surface. In some ways
now, but not for extensive scientific and economic purposes, herbicides are
being used.

11.2.11 ORGANIC MULCHING AND SOIL WATER

Mulching affects soil and surface water greatly. Mulching reduces runoff
by improving infiltration rate and by improving retention, improves water
storage capacity. Low evaporation rates also help increase the time for soil
moisture. Mulching dramatically improves the characteristics of the soil
water, although various findings were published. Organic mulches on the
surface of the soil induce optimum soil conditions for plant growth, retaining,
272 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

and providing soil water and increasing macroporosity (Martens and Fran­
kenberger, 1907). Many studies have shown that mulch use can increase
infiltration and decrease evaporation, leading to more water stowage and less
rush (Smika and Unger, 1986). The best way to improve the preservation of
water in the soil and to reduce soil evaporation is the wheat straw mulch.
High usable water capacities at high mulching rates have been identified, and
activities have been reduced or not. The fact that even low mulch concentra­
tions have a major effect on water content available found Mulumba and
Lal (2008); and Jordan et al. (2010). Głąb and Kulig (2008), who found no
impact on existing water content after applying mulch and various tillage
systems, published comparative results. Results can differ from the top to the
bottom layers of the soil profile as well.

11.3 CONCLUSION

Mulches are increasing soil biodiversity, increasing penetration by water,

reducing evaporation, altering soil temperatures, controlling weeds,
preventing evaporation, and increasing crop yield. Mulches can regulate
weeds by different means, including a physical barrier and related micro-
climate changes. On the positive hand, tillage has been part of most farm
systems in the past since tillage can be used to achieve many agronomic goals.

KEYWORDS

• herbicidal systems
• mechanical cultivation
• organic farming
• organic manures
• organic mulch
• soil erosion
• tillage

REFERENCES

Abebe, G., Assefa, T., Harrun, H., Mesfine, T., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005d). Participatory
selection of drought-tolerant maize varieties using mother and baby methodology: A
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 273

case study in the semiarid zones of the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(1), 22–27.
Abebe, G., Hattar, B., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005c). Nutrient availability as affected by
manure application in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] on calcareous soils.
Journal of Agriculture and Social Science, 1(1), 1–6.
Abebe, G., Sahile, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005a). Evaluation of potential trap crops on
Orobanche soil seed bank and tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 148–151.
Abebe, G., Sahile, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005b). Effect of soil solarization on Orobanche
soil seed bank and tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 143–147.
Abera, T., Feyisa, D., Yusuf, H., Nikus, O., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Grain yield of maize
as affected by biogas slurry and N-P fertilizer rate at Bako, Western Oromiya, Ethiopia.
Bioscience Research, 2(1), 31–38.
Al-Tawaha, A. R. M., & Odat, N., (2010). Use of sorghum and maize allelopathic properties
to inhibit germination and growth of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum). Notulae
Botanicae Horti. Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 38(3), 124–127.
Al-Tawaha, A. R. M., Al-Tawaha, A., Sirajuddin, S. N., McNeil, D., Othman, Y. A.,
Al-Rawashdeh, I., Amanullah, M., et al., (2020). Ecology and adaptation of legumes
crops: A review. IOP Conference Series: Earth Environ. Sci., 012085.
Altieri, M. A., Ponti, L., & Nicholls, C. I., (2012). Biodiversity and Insect Pests (pp. 72–84).
John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Amanullah, & Khalid, S., (2020). Agronomy-food security-climate change and the sustainable
development goals. Agronomy-Climate Change and Food Security. IntechOpen, London.
Amanullah, Iqbal, A., Khan, A., Khalid, S., Shah, A., Parmar, B., Khalid, S., & Muhammad,
A., (2019a). Integrated management of phosphorus, organic sources, and beneficial
microbes improve dry matter partitioning of maize. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.,
50(20), 2544–2569.
Amanullah, Khalid, S., Imran, Khan, H. A., Arif, M., Al-Tawaha, A. R., Adnan, M., Fahad,
Sh., & Parmar, B., (2019). Organic matter management in cereals-based system:
Symbiosis for improving crop productivity and soil health. In: Lal, R., & Francaviglia,
R., (eds.), Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 29: Sustainable Soil Management: Preventive
and Ameliorative Strategies (pp. 67–92). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Amanullah, Khalid, S., Khalil, F., & Imranuddin, (2020). Influence of irrigation regimes on
competition indexes of winter and summer intercropping system under semi-arid regions
of Pakistan. Sci. Rep., 10(1), 1–21.
Amanullah, Khan, I., Jan, A., Jan, M. T., Khalil, S. K., Shah, Z., & Afzal, M., (2015). Compost
and nitrogen management influence productivity of spring maize (Zea mays L.) under
deep and conventional tillage systems in semi-arid regions. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant
Anal., 46(12), 1566–1578.
Amanullah, Khan, N., Khan, M. I., Khalid, Sh., Iqbal, A., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2019).
Wheat biomass and harvest index increases with integrated use of phosphorus, zinc, and
beneficial microbes under semiarid climates. J. Microbiol. Biotech. Food Sci., 242–247.
Amanullah, Zahid, A., Iqbal, A., & Ikramullah, (2016). Phosphorus and tillage management
for maize under irrigated and dryland conditions. Ann. Plant Sci., 5(3), 1304–1311.
Assaf, T. A., Hameed, K. M., Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2006). Effect of soil amendment
with olive mill by-products under soil solarization on growth and productivity of faba
274 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

bean and their symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
2(1), 21–28.
Assefa, T., Abebe, G., Fininsa, C., Tesso, B., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Participatory bean
breeding with women and smallholder farmers in eastern Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(1), 28–35.
Bajorienė, K., Jodaugienė, D., Pupalienė, R., & Sinkevičienė, A., (2013). Effect of organic
mulches on the content of organic carbon in the soil. Est. J. Ecol., 62(2), 100.
Bengtsson, J., Ahnström, J., & Weibull, A. C., (2005). The effects of organic agriculture on
biodiversity and abundance: A meta-analysis. J Appl Ecol., 42(2), 261–269.
Bilalis, D., Sidiras, N., Economou, G., & Vakali, C., (2003). Effect of different levels of wheat
straw soil surface coverage on weed flora in Vicia faba crops. J. Agron. Crop Sci., 189(4),
233–241.
Brévault, T., Bikay, S., Maldès, J. M., & Naudin, K., (2007). Impact of a no-till with mulch
soil management strategy on soil macrofauna communities in a cotton cropping system.
Soil Till. Res., 97(2), 140–149.
Cherr, C. M., Scholberg, J. M. S., & McSorley, R., (2006). Green manure approaches to crop
production: A synthesis. Agron. J., 98(2), 302–319.
Głąb, T., & Kulig, B., (2008). Effect of mulch and tillage system on soil porosity under wheat
(Triticum aestivum). Soil Til. Res., 99(2), 169–178.
Hole, D. G., Perkins, A. J., Wilson, J. D., Alexander, I. H., Grice, P. V., & Evans, A. D., (2005).
Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biol. Conserv., 122(1), 113–130.
Imranuddin, Arif, M., Khalid, S., Nadia, Saddamullah, Idrees, M., & Amir, M., (2017). Effect
of seed priming, nitrogen levels, and moisture regimes on yield and yield components of
wheat. Pure Appl. Biol., 6(1), 369–377.
Ji, S., & Unger, P. W., (2001). Soil water accumulation under different precipitation, potential
evaporation, and straw mulch conditions. Soil Sci Soc Am J., 65(2), 442–448.
Jordán, A., Zavala, L. M., & Gil, J., (2010). Effects of mulching on soil physical properties
and runoff under semi-arid conditions in southern Spain. Catena, 81(1), 77–85.
Khalid, S., Imranuddin, N., Nadeem, F., Saddamullah, A. M., & Ghani, F., (2017). Allelopathic
effect of parthenium liquid extract on mung bean germination ability and early growth.
Inter. J. Agron. Agri. Res., 11(4), 31–36.
Khalid, S., Imranuddin, Nadeem, F., Azam, S., Ali, S., Nadia, Ikramullah, M., et al., (2019).
Influence of source limitation on yield and yield components of wheat. Inter. J. Biol., 14(2),
1–12.
Khalid, S., Mhammad, Z. A., Imranuddin, Nadia, Faisal N., Muhammad, A., & Saddamullah,
(2017). Effect of sulfur foliar fertilization on reproductive growth and development of
canola. Inter. J. Agron. Agri. Res., 11(3), 61–67.
Khalid, S., Munsif, F., Imranuddin, Nadia, Nadeem, F., Ali, S., Ghani, F., & Idrees, M., (2018).
Influence of source limitation on physiological traits of wheat. Pure Appl. Biol., 7(1),
85–92.
Lee, K. D., & Tawaha, A. R. M., & Supanjani, (2005c). Antioxidant status, stomatal resistance
and mineral composition of hot pepper under salinity and boron stress. Bioscience
Research, 2(3), 148–154.
Lee, K. D., Sulpanjani, Tawaha, A. M., & Yang, S. M., (2005a). Effect of Phosphorus application
on yield, mineral contents and active components of Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Bioscience Research, 2(3), 118–124.
Organic Mulching and Tillage in Organic Farming 275

Lee, K. D., Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2005b). Nitrogen fixation in rice-based farming
system. Bioscience Research, 2(3), 130–138.
Martens, D. A., & Frankenberger, W. T., (1907). Modification of infiltration rates in an organic-
amended irrigated. Agron. J., 84(4), 707–717.
Mesfine, T., Abebe, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Effect of reduced tillage and crop
residue ground cover on yield and water use efficiency of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench) under semi-arid conditions of Ethiopia. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
1(2), 152–160.
Mulumba, L. N., & Lal, R., (2008). Mulching effects on selected soil physical properties. Soil
and Tillage Research, 98(1), 106–111.
Nikus, O., Abebe, G., Takele, A., Harrun, H., Chanyalew, S., Al Tawaha, A. M., & Mesfin,
T., (2005b). Yield response of tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) to NP fertilization in
the semi arid zones of the central rift valley in Ethiopia. European Journal of Scientific
Research, 4(4), 49–60.
Nikus, O., Nigussie, M., & Al Tawaha, A. M., (2005a). Agronomic performance of maize
varieties under irrigation in Awash valley, Ethiopia. Bioscience Research, 2(1), 26–30.
Petersen, J., & Rover, A., (2005). Comparison of sugar beet cropping systems with dead and
living mulch using a glyphosate-resistant hybrid. J. Agron. Crop Sci., 191(1), 55–63.
Radics, L., & Szné, B. E., (2004). Comparison of different mulching methods for weed
control in organic green bean and tomato. Acta Hortic., 638, 189–196.
Ramakrishna, A., Tam, H. M., Wani, S. P., & Long, T. D., (2006). Effect of mulch on soil
temperature, moisture, weed infestation and yield of groundnut in northern Vietnam.
Field Crops Res., 95(2–3), 115–125.
Smika, D. E., & Unger, P. W., (1986). Effect of surface residues on soil water storage. In:
Advances in Soil Science (pp. 111–138). Springer, New York.
Sulpanjani, A., Yang, M. S., Tawaha, A. R. M., & Lee, K. D., (2005a). Effect of magnesium
application on yield, mineral contents and active components of Chrysanthemum
coronarium L. under hydroponics conditions. Bioscience Research, 2(2), 73–79.
Supanjani, Tawaha, A. M., Yang, M. S., & Lee, K. D., (2005b). Role of calcium in yield
and medicinal quality of Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Journal of Agronomy, 4(3),
188–192.
Supanjani, Tawaha, A. M., Yang, M. S., & Lee, Y. D., (2005c). Calcium effects on yield,
mineral uptake and terpene components of hydroponic Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, 1(1), 146–151.
Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2001). Effects of dates and rates of sowing on yield and yield
components of carbon vetch under semi-arid conditions. Acta Agronomica Hungarica,
49(1), 103–105.
Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2002). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.) productivity as
influenced by rate and method of phosphate placement in a Mediterranean environment.
Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 50(2), 197–201.
Tawaha, A. M., Turk, M. A., Lee, K. D., Supanjani, Nikus, O., Al-Rifaee, M., & Sen, R.,
(2005a). Awnless barley response to crop management under Jordanian environment.
Bioscience Research, 2(3), 125–129.
Tawaha, A. R. M., Turk, M. A., & Lee, K. D., (2005b). Adaptation of chickpea to cultural
practices in a Mediterranean type environment. Research Journal of Agriculture and
Biological Science, 1(2), 152–157.
276 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002a). Impact of seeding rate, seeding date, rate and method
of phosphorus application in faba (Vicia faba L. Minor) in the absence of moisture stress.
Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 6(3), 171–178.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002b). Response of winter wheat to applied N with or
without ethrel spray under irrigation planted in semi-arid environments. Asian Journal of
Plant Sciences, 1(4), 464–466.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2001). Influence of rate and method of phosphorus placement
to garlic (Allium sativum L.) in a Mediterranean environment. Journal of Applied
Horticulture, 3(2), 115–116.
Turk, M. A., Hameed, K. M., Aqeel, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003c). Nutritional status of
durum wheat grown in soil supplemented with olive mills by-products. Agrochimica, 5,
209–219.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., Samara, N., & Latifa, N., (2003b). The response of six-row
barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to nitrogen fertilizer application and weed control methods
in the absence of moisture stress. Pakistan Journal of Agronomy, 2(2), 101–108.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., Taifor, H., Al-Ghzawi, A., Musallam, I. W., Maghaireh, G. A.,
& Al-Omari, Y. I., (2003a). Two-row barley response to plant density, date of seeding
and rate and method of phosphorus application in the absence of moisture stress. Asian
Journal of Plant Science, 2(2), 180–183.
Yang, M. S., Tawaha, A. M., & Lee, Y. D., (2005). Effects of ammonium concentration on the
yield, mineral content and active terpene components of Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
in a hydroponic system. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, 1(2),
170–175.
Zehnder, G., Gurr, G. M., Kühne, S., Wade, M. R., Wratten, S. D., & Wyss, E., (2007).
Arthropod pest management in organic crops. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 52(1), 57–80.
Zheng, W. J., Tawaha, A. M., & Lee, K. D., (2005). In situ hybridization analysis of mcMT1
gene expression and physiological mechanisms of Cu-tolerant in Festuca rubra cv
Merlin. Bioscience Research, 1(1), 21–26.
CHAPTER 12

WEED MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC

CROPPING SYSTEMS
ABDEL RAHMAN M. AL-TAWAHA,1 ZAHRA FARROKHI,2
NANDHINI YOGA,3 POONAM ROSHAN,4 IMRAN,5 AMANULLAH,5
ABDEL RAZZAQ M. AL-TAWAHA,6 ALLA ALEKSANYAN,7
SAMIA KHANUM,8 DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,9
JEYABALAN SANGEETHA,10 ABDUR RAUF,11 SHAH KHALID,5
PALANI SARANRAJ,12 ABDUL BASIT,13 AYŞE YEŞILAYER,14
HIBA ALATRASH,15 MAZEN A. ATEYYA,16 MUNIR TURK,17 ARUN
KARNWAL,18 SAMEENA LONE,19 and KHURSHEED HUSSAIN19

1
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
P.O. Box 20, Maan, Jordan
2
College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Iran
Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
3

Coimbatore–641003, Tamil Nadu, India

4
Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar,
Punjab–143005, India
5
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar,
Pakistan
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
6

University Putra Malaysia, Serdang–43400, Selangor, Malaysia

Institute of Botany aft. A.L. Takhtajyan NAS RA/Department of
7

Geobotany and Plant Eco-Physiology, Yerevan, Armenia

8
Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
9
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad–580003,
Karnataka, India
278 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala,

10

Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India

Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Anbar,
11

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

12
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous),
Tirupattur–635601, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Plant Pathology, Agriculture College,
13

Guizhou University, Guiyang–550025, P.R. China

Faculty of Agriculture, Tokat Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey
14

General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria

15

Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Al Balqa Applied University,

16

Al-Salt–19117, Jordan
17
Department of Plant Production,
Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
Department of Microbiology, School of Bioengineering and
18

BioSciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

19
Division of Vegetable Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir,
India

ABSTRACT

Global climate changes such as increasing CO2 levels, temperature increases,

drought, etc., have been shown to adversely affect agricultural products.
Weeds can be seen as a major problem because they seem to fight at the
expense of the crop for resources such as light, water, and nutrients. Weed
species are commonly favored in crops that are more closely associated with
them. The association between weeds and crops is due to their similar growth
habits. The basic strategy should be considered as the core of the organic
weed control strategy: crop stand, crop rotation, crop cover, variety selec­
tion, clean seeds, soil health, soil structure, spring tillage, delayed planting,
post-emergence tillage, hand weeding, mulches, and organic herbicides.
This chapter focuses on: (i) classification of weed species; and (ii) weed
management strategies under climate change.
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 279

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Organic farming is a natural way of producing food while respecting the land and
animals, and avoiding methods that are potentially harmful to the environment
and human health. It is an integrated agricultural production system, based on
ecological principles, which seeks to respect life and natural cycles. The use
of synthetic pesticides, genetically modified organisms, synthetic fertilizers,
and animal growth hormones is prohibited in organic farming. Weeds can be
considered a significant problem because they tend to compete for resources
such as light, water, and nutrients, at the expense of the crop (Tawaha et al.,
2001; Tawaha and Turk, 2001, 2001c, 2002; Turk and Tawaha, 2001a, b,
2002a, b). Weeds are often documented as the most severe threat to organic
crop production (Penfold et al., 1995; Stonehouse et al., 1996; Clark et al.,
1998). The foundation of an organic weed control strategy should take into
consideration the following basic strategy: crop stand, crop rotation, cover
crops, variety selection, clean seed, soil health, soil structure, spring tillage,
delayed planting, pre-emerge tillage, post-emerge tillage, hand weeding,
mulches, organic-based herbicides. This chapter discusses: (i) classification of
weed species; (ii) strategies for weed management in organic farming system
(OFS); and (iii) weed management strategies under climate change.

12.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WEED SPECIES

There are about 250 true weed species around the world that are classified
by using several classification methods. These methods are based on habitat,
physiology, morphology, origin, soil pH, and life cycle (Zimdahl, 2012). The
lifecycle-based classification method has been widely exploited by many weed
management strategies. This method classifies weeds into three classes of annual,
biennial, and perennial, taking into account weed’s life span, growing season, the
timing of growth and reproduction, and the reproductive form (Zimdahl, 2012).
Such information may determine which weed species are favored in which
crops (Ziska and Dukes, 2011), being a prerequisite for making the appropriate
selection for the most effective control method (Monaco et al., 2002).

12.2.1 ANNUAL SPECIES

Weeds can be considered a major problem because they appear to fight for
resources like light, water, and nutrients at the cost of the crop (Turk and
280 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Tawaha, 2002c–e, 2003a, b; Turk et al., 2003). Annuals are weeds that all
their growth stages, including both vegetative and reproductive growth, occur
within one growing season (less than one year) (Ziska and Dukes, 2011).
They do not have any vegetative structures for reproduction and spread, and
reproduce only by their seeds. High persistence of these species is due to
their quick growth, short life span, and production of a significant number of
dormant seeds (Ziska and Dukes, 2011). Annual weeds may find in different
crop fields; however, they tend to be more abundant in annually tilled fields.
Usually, eradication, prevention, and controlling of annual weeds are easier
than perennial ones. The most appropriate time to control these weeds is
during their seedling stage by clipping or pulling up (Zimdahl, 2012).
Annual weeds are usually categorized into summer and winter annuals.
Summer annuals tend to start growing in the spring (April to May), go to
flower and produce seeds through the summer, then they die in the autumn.
The weeds foxtails, goosegrass, common cocklebur, purse lane, water hemp,
morning glories, pigweeds, common lambsquarters, crabgrass, common
ragweed, and wild buckwheat are summer annual weeds. The seeds remain
dormant in the soil during the winter months. Summer annual weeds are
often problematic in summer-growing crops such as soybeans, corn, cotton,
peanuts, sorghum, and many vegetables (Monaco et al., 2002). In contrast,
winter annual weeds begin to grow in the autumn, form rosette (a form of
plant with no central stem and of leaf-like structures) in the beginning of
the cold period, then bloom and produce seeds in the spring, and die in the
middle of the summer. Soil temperatures of 125°F or higher cause dormancy
in the seeds of these weed species, preventing seed germination (Monaco et
al., 2002). Some examples of winter annual weeds are downy brome, chick­
weed, pinnate tansy mustard, shepherd’s-purse, flixweed, hairy cress, cheat,
field pennycress, corn cockle, cornflower, and henbit. They are troublesome
mostly in winter crops such as winter cereal, early spring grains, fall-seeded
crops, pastures, no-till fields, and in alfalfa, a perennial (Zimdahl, 2012).

12.2.2 BIENNIAL SPECIES

Biennials complete all their growth stages (vegetative and reproductive

growth) in around 2 years. Their biological life cycle has two phases. During
the first phase of growth, seeds germinate, and seedlings grow and form
rosette at the beginning of the cold period. In the second phase, it elongates a
flowering stalk, sets seed, and then it dies (Monaco et al., 2002). Because of
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 281

having a lifespan of about two calendar years, they are sometimes confused
by winter annual weeds. However, biennial weeds live for more than 1 year
(12 months) and less than 2 years. In addition, they are usually longer and
larger than annuals at maturity and have fleshy and thick roots (Radosevich
et al., 2007). Like annuals, biennial weeds reproduce only sexually, and
hence preventing seed production is the most effective way to control this
class of weed species (Zimdahl, 2012). Biennial weed species are relatively
few compared to the other weed species. Some examples include musk
thistle, wild lettuce, bull thistle, common mullein, common burdock, and
wild carrot. These weeds are typically inhabiting undisturbed fields for at
least 2 years (min- or no-till fields or in perennial crops), and in pastures and
non-crop areas like along roadsides, and fencerows (Monaco et al., 2002).

12.2.3 PERENNIAL SPECIES

Perennials are weeds that live for several years through regrown from the
underground perennating structures (Radosevich et al., 2007). Unlike annuals
and biennials, the life cycle of these species does not finish after flowering
and can reproduce by vegetative organs, as well as by seeds. The perennials
mainly find in no-till fields, pastures, roadsides, and sometimes in tilled fields.
Based on the method of reproduction, these species are classified into two
classes: stationary and creeping perennials. In the following, characteristics
of the two mentioned classes are explained.

12.2.3.1 STATIONARY PERENNIALS

This group of perennials normally reproduces by seeds, and they have no

normal means for vegetative reproduction. However, if their roots are cut
or damaged, new plants can be regenerated from these damaged pieces
(Zimdahl, 2012). Since the first infestation of stationary perennials relies on
seed (as a major reproduction strategy), and therefore, many of these species
can be removed by preventing seed production (Monaco et al., 2002). They
have usually fleshy and deep taproots that grow vertically downward into
soil. The root systems are separate and there is no underground joining among
these plants (https://ag.umass.edu/sites/ag.umass.edu/files/fact-sheets/pdf/
weed_life_cycles). Some examples of simple perennials include broadleaf
plantain, common pokeweed, broadleaf/curly dock, and dandelion.
282 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

12.2.3.2 CREEPING PERENNIALS

These perennial weeds establish by seeds and by vegetative reproduction.

These weeds store carbohydrates in their underground overwintering struc­
tures allowing them to regrow without seed in the spring. Some examples of
these vegetative organs include: above-ground (stolon) and below-ground
(rhizomes) creeping stems, bulbs, corms, budding roots, and tubers. Regard­
less of management strategies, controlling creeping perennials is most
difficult because they reproduce by vegetative structures as well as seeds.
These structures are spread by tillage equipment from one field to another.
In order to adequate control of these perennial weeds, management practices
such as cultivation, mowing, and herbicides must be repeated or combined
(Monaco et al., 2002). Most aquatic weeds (except algae), field bindweed,
Johnson grass, leafy spurge, quack grass, purple, and yellow nutsedge,
Canada thistle, Russian knapweed are some examples of creeping perennial
weeds (Radosevich et al., 2007).
It is to be noted that the lifecycle-based classification sometimes may be
affected by local climate conditions. For example, in temperate climates,
some biennial weeds may behave more like simple perennials, and under
particular conditions, some annual weeds may act like more biennial weed
(Radosevich et al., 2007).

12.2.4 WHICH WEED SPECIES ARE FAVORED IN WHICH CROPS?

Weed species are commonly favored in crops that have more association with
them. The association between weed and crop are because of their similarity
in growth habit (such as growth form, height), life cycle, etc., (Zimdahl,
2012). For example, summer annual weeds prefer summer annual crops, and/
or perennial weeds are favored in perennial crops. This similarity in growth
habits makes weed management very difficult, provides an opportunity for
weeds to disperse their seeds, and makes difficult separation of weed and
crop seeds due to the similar seed morphology (for example, nightshades in
potatoes, tomatoes, and beans, Kochia, and lambs quarters in sugar beets,
barnyard grass in rice, wild oat in wheat, or little seed canary grass in wheat)
(Gbèhounou, 2013).
Sometimes the tendency of a weed to a certain crop can be induced
by different selection pressures including cultural practices (e.g., tillage,
mowing, time of planting, irrigation, rotation, and soil preparation practices,
and even post-harvest selection pressures such as winnowing and threshing),
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 283

cropping system (mixed or monoculture), resistance or adaptation to

imposed weed control tactics, and altering weed control methods over time
(Tominaga and Yamasue, 2004). Weeds are evolving in order to adapt to the
control measures or environment conditions (vegetative and seed mimicry
or evade) under different selection pressures. Implementation of any cultural
practice as selection pressure not only may favor the growth conditions of
crop, but also can favor the growth conditions of specific weeds (Harlan,
1982). Accordingly, some types of the relevant weeds are able to persist on
a particular field, whereas they are rarely able to grow under another field
conditions (crop-specific weeds) (Tominaga and Yamasue, 2004).
A common example of selection pressure is applying herbicides. Because
of more application of graminicides by farmers, broad-leaved weeds
succession occurs in broad-leaved crops. Thus, these weeds become dominant
over time and maybe more associated with that certain crop (https://www.
researchgate.net/post/Why_weeds_are_crop_specific). Another example of
exerted changes in weed communities related to selection pressure is tillage.
A periodic soil disturbance in conventional tillage systems is prevailed in
the annuals because they can reproduce earlier and produce a high number
of seeds. In contrast, no-tillage farming dominates the perennial weeds
(Carr et al., 2013a; Melander et al., 2013) because of reduction in physically
damaging of underground organs and in exposing them to unfavorable
weather conditions. The more example is a post-harvest selection pressure
such ash and weeding that is evolved seed and vegetative mimicry of Lolium
temulentum to barley and wheat, and the vegetative mimicry and physiological
traits of Echinochloao ryzicola in rice (Tominaga and Yamasue, 2004).

12.3 STRATEGIES FOR WEED MANAGEMENT

12.3.1 CULTURAL METHODS

In cultural methods of weed control, the cultural practices generally followed

in a crop is employed, such as tillage, fertilizer application, crop rotation,
allelopathy, etc. Some of them are discussed in subsections (Table 12.1).

12.3.1.1 WEED-CROP COMPETITION

Weeds compete with crops mainly for the water, light, space, and nutrients
which affect the growth of the plants (Tables 12.2 and 12.3).
 284
TABLE 12.1 Potential Allelopathy Crops with Their Allelochemicals and Their Usage in the Cropping System
Name of the Crop Allelochemicals Present Ways to Use in Cropping Systems
Rye ß-phenyllactic acid, protocatechuic acid, DIBOA Used in a cropping system as a rotational crop,
(Tabaglio et al., 2013) (glucoside), vanillic acid, apigenin-glycosides, syringic acid, cover crop, or mulch
luteolinglucuronides, ρ-hydroxybenzoic acid, ρ-coumaric
acid, benzoxazolinones BOA, cyanidin glycosides,
ß-hydroxybutyric acid, isovitexinglucosides, DIMBOA

Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

(glucoside), gallic acid, and ferulic acid/conjugates
Sorghum Hydrophobic ρ-benzoquinone (sorgoleone), phenolics, and Used by planting allelopathic cultivars, applying
(Weston et al., 2013) acyanogenic glycoside (dhurrin) sorghum residues as mulch, using sorghum as
cover crop and intercrop, or including sorghum
cultivars in a crop rotation
Brassicas Glucosinate As cover crops, intercropping brassica crops with
(Fahey et al., 2001) the main crop, crop rotation, or the use of brassica
litter as mulch
Sunflower 16 allelochemicals (phenolic acids) Used either by growing allelopathic sunflower
(Alsaadawi et al., 2012) cultivars in a mixture with weeds, or applying the
residues of sunflower cultivars to the wheat crop
and its weeds
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 285

TABLE 12.2 Insects Selected for the Control of Specific Weeds

Weeds Insects Selected for the Control
Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia inermis), Cactoblastis cactorum
Spiny prickly pear (Opuntia stricta)
Hypericum perforatum Chrysolina quadrigemina
Parthenium hysterophorous Zygogramma bicolorata
Eichhornia crassipes Weevils (Neochetina eichhorniae, N. bruchi)
Salvinia molesta Paulina acuminata

TABLE 12.3 Using Fungi on Specific Weed Control

Pathogen Weed Controlled
Alternaria sp. Crissum avenae
A. helianthi Xanthium strumarium
A. crassa Datura stramonium
Bipolaris halopense Sorghum halepense
Colletotrichum furariodes Asclepias sericea
Phomopsis convolvulus Convolvulus arvensis

12.3.1.1.1 Competition for Light

Light is an important factor for the rapid growth of crop plants as well as
weeds. Photosynthesis of the plants is dependent upon the light. Broadleaved
weeds establish prior to the crop plants and restrict light to the crop plants
through shading effect, thereby hindering the crop growth. It is estimated
that weed competition reduces light intensity up to 85% in onions and beets,
thus reducing yield by 60%. If there is adequate moisture and fertility levels,
the competition will be more for light. Plants with higher leaf density are
benefitted as it has higher leaf area index. The presence of higher leaf density
affects the quality and quantity of light obtained to weeds.

12.3.1.1.2 Competition for Water

Weeds generally absorb and transpire more water than the crop plants (four
times higher transpiration rate). Hence many weeds are considered as “water
wasters.” During water stress conditions, weeds cause severe moisture
depletion and transpire the moisture rapidly, up to 50% yield loss occurs
286 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

through moisture competition alone. Rather than the above ground biomass,
the below-ground biomass contributes more for the water extraction from
soil through the root zone. Most of the perennial weeds have deeper rooting
system, which is less affected by drought as it can acquire water from the
deeper zones of soil. On the other hand, annual weeds are prone to drought,
as it has a shallow root system. Some of the weeds like ragweed (Parthe­
nium hysterophorus), and common ragweed (Ambrosia sp.) require water to
the extent of about three times than that of millets. Among the problematic
weeds around the world, 14 weeds are C4 plants and 76% of C3 crops are the
cultivated crop area. So under elevated CO2 on drought conditions, C4 crops
has an advantage over the C3 crops.

12.3.1.1.3 Competition for Nutrients

Weeds remove mineral nutrients from soil like nitrogen, phosphorous,

and potassium (NPK) more rapidly and in large quantities than the crop
plants and reduces the availability of these nutrients, especially nitrogen
and potassium to the crops. Certain weeds have very deep and prolific root
system than the crops and absorb nutrients causing a reduction in the crop
yield. Some parasitic weeds like dodder (Cuscuta sp.), Loranthus sp., etc.,
absorb mineral nutrients directly from the host crops and destroy them.
Amaranthus virdis, Chenopodium album, Portulaca quadrifida and Celosia
argentea can remove 3.5 to 4.5% K2O and 2.4 to 3.1% N from the soil during
the crop period and become a potential competitor for nutrients.

12.3.1.2 CROP ROTATIONS

Crop rotation is the yearly sequence and arrangement of crops. The crop
sequences will suppress and remove the weeds from the field. Also, the
problematic weeds associated with crops have been reduced to some extent,
but the overall weed diversity was increased. By growing the same crop year
after year will increase the weed intensity, changing the crops grown year
after year will reduce the weed intensity. Adeux et al. (2019) reported that
changing the crop sequence reduced the usage of herbicides and increased
the productivity. Different crops have different requirements, so it will
disrupt the weed phase in a crop rotation.
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 287

12.3.1.3 ALLELOPATHY

Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon by which an organism produces

one or more biochemicals that influence the germination, growth,
survival, and reproduction of other organisms from the same community.
Allelochemicals are derived either from root exudates or leaching effect
or through volatilization. The effect of the biochemicals may be direct
or indirect on the plant species, affecting the germination, plant growth,
survival, and reproduction of other organisms. The allelopathic plants can
be used to control the weed by raising potential allelopathic cultivars, by
intercropping them in the cropping system, as cover crops, and as well as
plant residues.

12.3.1.4 WEED ON WEED

Cogon grass inhibits the emergence and growth of buttonweed by exudation

of allelochemicals through rhizomes; Johnson grass showed an effect on
giant foxtail and large crabgrass by inhibiting the growth through release of
chemicals from living and decaying rhizomes and leaves.

12.3.1.5 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

This method is one of the important and practically feasible ones on

controlling weeds. Biological control means, “the utilization of any living
organism for the control of insect pests, diseases, and weeds.” It means
controlling the pest or weed population using the biotic agents either
directly or indirectly. In a direct control, the biocontrol agent bores into
the plant, weakens the plant structure causing it to collapse. The collapsed
plants are destroyed by consuming the vital parts of the plant. On the other
hand, indirect control reserves the competitive weed ability of weed over
other plants and paves the way for favorable conditions for plant growth.
There are natural enemies in the crop environment which will work against
the crop pests that suppress the growth of the plant, while aiming on
increasing these natural enemies both quantitatively and qualitatively is
termed as biological control.
288 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

12.3.1.5.1 Insects

On selecting insects for biocontrol of weeds, the selected insect should target
specifically the weed and should not feed on the crop plants for its survival.

12.3.1.5.2 Plant Pathogens

Using of plant pathogens to control weeds, especially fungi, is now

becoming an important aspect of biological weed control. The pathogens
are formulated as mycoherbicides on controlling the weed population. From
these mycoherbicides, toxic compounds are released on targeted plants and
it will degrade the cell wall. Also, it has the ability to reproduce on its own
and can thrive in soil for years (Table 12.4).

TABLE 12.4 Mycoherbicides, Their Formulations to Control Weeds

Mycoherbicide Formulation of Fungus Weed Controlled
Devine Phytophthora palmivora Morrania odorata
Collego Colletotrichum gleosporioides f. Aeschynomene verginicia
sp. aeschynomene
Biomal C. gleosporioides f. sp. malvae Malvae pusilla
Luboa 2 C. gleosporioides f. sp. cuscutae Cuscuta sp.
Velgo C. coccodes Velvetleaf
Caset Alternaria cassia Cassia obtusifolia
ABG-5003 Cercospora rodmanii Eichornia crassipes (Water
hyacinth)

12.3.2 PHYSICAL WEED CONTROL METHODS

Physical or mechanical control of weeds is the removal of weeds by

implements. Some of the physical weed control methods are discussed in
subsections.

12.3.2.1 STUBBLE CULTIVATION

After harvest of the grain crops, the stubbles are left in the field for a few days.
Then the tillage operation is carried out to reduce the soil weed seed bank and
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 289

perennial weeds by causing mechanical damage (Pekrun and Claupein, 2006).

Stubble tillage additionally helps in controlling unnecessary evaporation and
incorporation of crop residues for a quicker decomposition. Chikowo et al.
(2009) reported that stubble cultivation along with crop diversification and
delayed sowing reduced the use of chemical herbicides up to 77%. Melander
et al. (2013) suggested that cover crops and stubble management practices
strengthen the crop growth and reduced the weed growth.

12.3.2.2 PLOUGHING

Ploughing is generally practiced to control weeds in the summer season. It

will uproot the weeds that are in the sub soil layer, exposed roots and stems
are desiccated, and the plant will eventually die. The commonly used plow
for controlling the weeds is moldboard plow. While seeds in the surface layer
are buried deep down in the soil by moldboard plow. Usually plowing is
used to break seed dormancy and initiate seed germination due to exposure
of sunlight. This mechanism is taken into favor to control weeds by stale
seedbed method. The weed seeds are made to germinate earlier before culti­
vating the crop and the weeds are eliminated by subsequent plowing opera­
tions. The number of weeds in a cropped area and the reduction of weed
seeds in the soil seed bank is reduced through the stale seedbed technique
(Lampkin, 2002).

12.3.2.3 HARROWING AND SEED BED PREPARATION

Harrowing is a tillage operation, where the implement consists of tines drill

into the soil creating favorable conditions for crop growth. Generally, a shallow
harrowing will reduce weed intensity. In seedbed preparation, stale seedbed
or false seedbed reduces the weed intensity during the cropping period. The
seedbed is prepared few days before the original planting, due to optimum
moisture condition in the field, weeds will germinate and emerge. Then the
emerged weeds are removed either by harrowing, flaming, or drilling.

12.3.2.4 WEED HARROWING

Weed harrowing is mechanical control of weeds applied to weed plants.

Here harrows are being used as a weeder which will work both in intra-row
290 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

and inter-row. But it cannot be used in the earlier stages of crop growth.
The non-hydraulic drag harrow is used in vegetable crops, whereas the
modern spring tine harrows are used in dicot and monocot crops. However,
careful harrowing should be done in dicot crops in all the stages of the crop
growth. Two types of harrowing such as pre-emergence and post-emergence
harrowing are practiced. The pre-emergence harrowing is used for deep
rooted crops, and the post-emergence harrowing is used after raising of crops
to control small weeds in the early stages of crop growth. In the study of
reducing quinoa weed density, harrowing, and hoeing showed lesser quinoa
weed density. Also, it is suggested that harrowing can be used as a supple­
ment in inter-row hoeing (Jacobsen et al., 2010).

12.3.2.5 INTER-ROW CULTIVATORS

Inter-row cultivators are selective mechanical weed control methods. In

harrowing, ineffective weed control and injuries to crop paved the way for
specific technology like inter-row cultivators. In this, only the weeds are
damaged without any impact on the crop. This is achieved by increasing the
inter-row spacing of the crop to allow the hoe blade, which will effectively
control the weeds by addition of cutting action with uprooting. The inter-row
weeds are completely killed while the intra-row weeds are partially affected.
For minimizing the intra-row weeds, increasing the population density will
cause crop competition against weeds and suppress the intra-row weeds
(Melander and Rasmussen, 2001).

12.3.2.6 MOWING

Mowing is cutting of grass and crops with a hand implement or a machine.

It is mainly used in pastures, along roadside and also in waste places. It is
primarily used to reduce weed seed production and to restrict weed growth.
Mowing alone will not control the weeds effectively, but along the combina­
tion with other management methods it shows effectiveness. An even soil
surface without any rocks is required for mowing the field. Mowers can
be connected to a tractor with three-point hitches and used for cutting the
weeds. With a high-speed velocity, rotary or disc mower will cut the plant
tissue. The importance of mowing in the cropping system is maintaining the
pastures, rangeland, cover crops, grassed waterways, field margins, orchards,
tree plantations, vineyards, horticultural ornamentals, woody perennial, and
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 291

lawns. Mowing is highly practiced in areas where there are no further soil
disturbances.

12.3.2.7 BRUSH WEEDING

A mechanical instrument called a brush weeder is used for controlling the

weeds through cutting action. It consists of rotating brushes placed in a
vertical axis that revolves in higher speed velocity (Melander, 1998). Mostly,
brush weeders are used to control weeds in the inter-rows between the plants.
Horticultural crops use vertical brush weeders use rotating nylon bristles to
pull weeds and aerate soil about 1 inch deep.

12.3.2.8 RIDGING (POTATOES AND OTHER ROW CROPS)

Ridging or earthing up is mounding the soil around the crop taken from
between the rows of crop. By ridging, the plant will be in an upright posi­
tion, and it also helps to control the weeds. It can be followed in all row
crops to prevent the growth of weeds, even though the main aim of ridging
is to loosen the soil for aerating the root. Maize, pearl millet, groundnut,
sugarcane, potato, ginger, and turmeric are some examples of crops which
are following earthing up. In sugarcane, ridging is practiced three times at
45, 120, and 180 days after planting. In potato crop, an early ridging is done
and also further once or twice it can be done.

12.3.2.9 FLAMING

Using fire to control weeds is one of the physical measures to reduce the weed
intensity. A directed flame from liquid propane increases the temperature
of the weeds and causes to rupture the cell walls. In organic weed control
practice, flaming, and rotary hoeing offered the same yield in corn crop. Also
flaming is less invasive and preserves the soil structure (Mutch, 2008).

12.4 WEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is represented as shifting of weather events (IPCC, 2014)

due to fluctuations in essential climate variables (ECV). Bojinski et al.
292 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

(2014) described ECVs as physical, chemical, or biological parameters that

are critical for the characterization of climate or climate related changes.
Some key parameters such as temperature, greenhouse gases (GHGs)
(carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane), rainfall, wind, precipitation, drought,
water availability and light impart a pronounced role in the growth of plant
species. Elevated levels of CO2 and extreme weather events have emerged as
serious threats to agricultural production, thereby posing a negative impact
on the food security (IPCC, 2019). The changing climatic conditions also
found to affect the growth and distribution pattern of weed species. Weeds
are recognized as one of the key biological constraints that scuffle with crops
for physical resources like water, sunlight, nutrients, aeration, etc., hence,
reducing global crop productivity (Varanasi et al., 2016; Ray et al., 2019).
Moreover, they act as reservoir hosts for various destructive pathogens such
as bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc., and their insect vectors (Agrios, 2005; Roshan
et al., 2019). As a consequence, researchers, and scientists are concerned to
develop ingenious, cost-effective, and sustainable weed management system
to tackle the weed related challenges in agriculture.

12.4.1 CROSSTALK BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND CROP­

WEED COMPETITION

Global changes in the climatic factors such as increased CO2 concentration,

elevated temperature, drought, solar radiation pattern, etc., found to nega­
tively influence the agriculture productivity. Furthermore, these factors alter
the competitiveness of weeds, leading to a reduction in the crop yields (Ziska
et al., 2011).
It is evident that agriculture based activities contribute (10–12%) for the
emission of GHGs such as CO2, nitrous oxide (NO2), and methane (CH4)
(Smith et al., 2014). In context to plant species, elevated CO2 (e[CO2]) can have
adverse consequences in determining the invasiveness of C3 weeds species
over C4 crops (Ziska, 2004). The most probable reason for this change is
different modes of CO2 enrichment by ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBisCO)
enzyme, and C3 plants have been reported to efficiently fix the higher
concentrations of CO2 (600–800 ppm) during photosynthesis. However, C4
plants have a lesser tendency to tolerate an increased amount of atmospheric
CO2 because their innate machinery itself can accumulate 2000 ppm of CO2,
which is sufficient to saturate RuBisCO enzyme (Ziska et al., 2011; Korres
et al., 2016). Additionally, e[CO2] levels lead to enhancement of leaf area
and biomass that are unequivocally correlated with the reproductive capacity
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 293

of C3 weed species (Chandrasena, 2009). For instance, a C3 weed common

cocklebur outcompetes C4 crop, sorghum in terms of biomass and leaf area
under e[CO2] concentrations (Ziska, 2001). Ziska (2003) has also reported
that e[CO2] concentrations enhanced 70% growth of a North American weed
in comparison to native species. The effect of e[CO2] on weed competitive­
ness is also strengthened by some reports in the Asian subcontinent, where
a C3 weed species, Phalaris minor Retz. affect the growth of wheat crop
(Ramesh et al., 2017). Contrarily, in a field of C3 crop and C4 weed, the
former is being benefitted by the increased CO2 rates (Ziska, 2013).
Together with e[CO2], atmospheric temperature is considered as an
important attribute in determining competitiveness and distribution of weed
species in a geographical area. Under temperature stress, both C3 and C4
species experience variations in the photosynthetic stimulation and growth.
Beyond 25°C, C3 species undergo increased photorespiration accompa­
nied with inhibition of CO2 assimilation, whereas C4 species sustain low
photorespiration rates in response to temperature change. This mechanism
favors the growth of C4 species at different atmospheric temperatures in
comparison to C3 species (Sage and Kubein, 2007). Moreover, C4 weeds
tend to expand their geographical territories (range shift) because higher
latitudes are convenient for plant growth at elevated temperatures (Clements
and Ditommaso, 2011). In a maize field, germination of a C4 weed, Setaria
viridis occurs in the latter stage, under warmer temperatures. Recently, due
to climate change events and elevated temperature, the germination of this
weed species is synchronized with maize, thus becoming as a competitor to
maize (Peters and Gerowitt, 2014).
Elevated CO2 and temperature events are correlated with the increased
aridity and global alteration in the rainfall pattern. As a consequence,
the monsoon fed geographical area would dried up, leading to increased
drought spells and favor growth of C4 over C3 weed species (Valerio et al.,
2011). Weed species, such as Striga hermonthica and Lantana sp. adapt to
thrive under drought conditions (trait shift) by shortening their life cycle.
On the other hand, weeds like Ramphicarpa fistulosa are benefitted by
moisture abundance (Rodenburg et al., 2010; Taylor et al., 2012). In south
Asia, direct-seeded rice (DSR) technology was implemented to achieve
higher water productivity, but the major limitation of this approach was
serious weed infestation and competition that resulted in 30–80% yield
loss (Matloob et al., 2015). Karkanis et al. (2018) postulated that moisture
fed weeds species could shift to northern Europe due to decreased rainfall
content in the southern part, and under such circumstances; drought can
increase weed derived crop losses throughout Europe.
294 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

12.4.2 EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES OF WEED MANAGEMENT UNDER

CLIMATE CHANGE

It is quite evident from our previous discussion that changing ECVs can
potentially affect weed invasiveness and distribution of a geographical
region. Hence, at a realistic level, systemic, and comprehensive research
of weed biology and ecology accompanied with higher crop yield goals
is a prerequisite for the development of sustainable weed management
programs.
There is a pressing need to identify geographical ranges vulnerable
to weed invasion and expansion under changing climatic conditions. The
development of high throughput bioclimatic prediction models integrated
with understanding of weed biology and ecology would be helpful in making
weed management decisions and precise application of control measures
(Chauhan et al., 2017). These simulation models are based on combinatorial
approaches such as niche-based species distribution, spatial distribution,
geographic information system (GIS) and successfully utilized to study
distribution of weed species, (Avena sterilis L. and Ambrosia artemisi­
ifolia L.) and assessment of crop/weed competition (Richter et al., 2013;
Castellanos-Frías et al., 2014; Andrew and Storkey, 2017).
Weed species retain their seeds in soil and serve as inoculums for next
season weed emergence. These seeds can remain dormant and viable for
longer periods, thus escaping the effect of changing climatic conditions
and germinate on arrival of favorable climate. The most effective way to
prevent the addition of weed seeds into soil is by implementation of harvest
weed seed control methods (HWSC). As a spinoff of this concept, several
weed control methods like chaff carts, narrow window burning, bale direct
system and recently, a weed management device called ‘Harrington seed
destructor’ is coupled with grain harvesters to destroy weed seeds (Walsh et
al., 2012, 2017). Seeds of some weeds display greater extent of dormancy
while remaining in the soil, causing hindrance in weed control practices.
In such a case, an application of smoke derived stimulant, namely Karrikin
(KAR1) is helpful in the synchronized germination of Avena fatua seeds
(Kępczyński, 2018).
The application of herbicides has been considered as most economical
way for weed management in agriculture. However, continuous use of
concentrated herbicide formulations on crops under elevated temperature,
rendered the evolution of herbicide resistant weeds species (Heap, 2014).
Taking into account of abovementioned limitations of chemical herbicides,
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 295

the need of the hour is to implement the usage of natural phytotoxins as

non-chemical herbicides for controlling the weed population in a sustainable
manner (Dayan and Duke, 2014).
Some crop cultivars possess complex traits which are responsible for
suppression/allelopathy of weed growth, therefore, identification of such
traits is a crucial step in organic plant breeding (OPB) program. Location
and mapping of genes controlling high yield, early vigor, height, and alle­
lopathy in crop cultivars would be important in weed management. So far,
several breeding studies have been conducted between high yielding and
weed suppressive cultivars to develop superior and competitive cultivars
in rice, wheat, and canola (Worthington et al., 2015; Dimaano et al., 2017;
Mwendwa et al., 2018).
In the 21st century, initiatives must be taken to educate farmers about the
weed risk assessment amid climate change, and the association of farmers
with weed scientists will encourage them to adopt the latest technology to
control weeds.

12.5 CONCLUSION

Weeds can be considered a major problem because at the cost of crops they
appear to fight for resources including light, water, and nutrients. The corner­
stone of an organic weed control strategy should consider the following basic
strategy: crop stand, crop rotation, crop cover, variety selection, clean seed,
soil health, soil structure, spring tillage, delayed planting, post-emergence
tillage, hand weeding, mulches, organic herbicides.

KEYWORDS

• delayed planting
• hand weeding
• mulches
• organic herbicides
• post-emergence tillage
• spring tillage
• weed
296 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

REFERENCES

Adeux, G., Munier-Jolain, N., Meunier, D., Farcy, P., Carlesi, S., Barberi, P., & Cordeau,
S., (2019). Diversified grain-based cropping systems provide long-term weed control
while limiting herbicide use and yield losses. Agronomy for Sustainable Development,
39(4), 42.
Alsaadawi, I. S., Sarbout, A. K., & Al-Shamma, L. M., (2012). Differential allelopathic
potential of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) genotypes on weeds and wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) crop. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 58(10), 1139–1148.
Al-Tawaha, A. R. M., & Nidal, O., (2010). Use of sorghum and maize allelopathic properties
to inhibit germination and growth of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum). Notulae
Botanicae Horti. Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 38(3), 124–127.
Andrew, I. K., & Storkey, J., (2017). Using simulation models to investigate the cumulative
effects of sowing rate, sowing date and cultivar choice on weed competition. Crop
Protection, 95, 109–15.
Bojinski, S., Verstraete, M., Peterson, T. C., Richter, C., Simmons, A., & Zemp, M., (2014).
The concept of essential climate variables in support of climate research, applications,
and policy. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95(9), 1431–43.
Carr, P. M., Gramig, G. G., & Liebig, M. A., (2013). Impacts of organic zero tillage systems
on crops, weeds, and soil quality. Sustainability, 5(7), 3172–3201.
Castellanos-Frías, E., García De, L. D., Pujadas-Salva, A., Dorado, J., & Gonzalez-Andujar,
J. L., (2014). Potential distribution of Avena sterilis L. in Europe under climate change.
Annals of Applied Biology, 165(1), 53–61.
Chandrasena, N., (2009). How will weed management change under climate change? Some
perspectives. Journal of Crop and Weed, 5(2), 95–105.
Chauhan, B. S., Matloob, A., Mahajan, G., Aslam, F., Florentine, S. K., & Jha, P., (2017).
Emerging challenges and opportunities for education and research in weed science.
Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 1537.
Clements, D. R., & Ditommaso, A., (2011). Climate change and weed adaptation: Can evolution
of invasive plants lead to greater range expansion than forecasted? Weed Research, 51(3),
227–240.
Climate Change, (2014). Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability-Contribution of Working
Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Environmental Migration Portal. https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/climate-change­
2014-impacts-adaptation-and-vulnerability-contribution-working-group-ii-fifth (accessed
on 12 July 2021).
Dayan, F. E., & Duke, S. O., (2014). Natural compounds as next-generation herbicides. Plant
Physiology, 166(3), 1090–1105.
Derksen, D. A., Anderson, R. L., Blackshaw, R. E., & Maxwell, B., (2002). Weed dynamics
and management strategies for cropping systems in the northern great plains. Agronomy
Journal, 94(2), 174–185.
Dimaano, N. G. B., Ali, J., Cruz, P. C. S., Baltazar, A. M., Diaz, M. G. Q., Acero, B. L., &
Li, Z., (2017). Performance of newly developed weed-competitive rice cultivars under
lowland and upland weedy conditions. Weed Science, 65(6), 798–817.
Fahey, J. W., Zalcmann, A. T., & Talalay, P., (2001). The chemical diversity and distribution of
glucosinolates and isothiocyanates among plants. Phytochemistry, 56(1), 5–51.
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 297

Gbèhounou, G., (2013). Guidance on Weed Issues and Assessment of Noxious Weeds in a
Context of Harmonized Legislation for Production of Certified Seeds. Plant Production
and Protection Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Harlan, J. R., (1982). Relationships between weeds and crops. In: Biology and ecology of weeds
(pp. 91–96). Springer, Dordrecht.
Heap, I., (2014). Global perspective of herbicide-resistant weeds. Pest Management Science,
70(9), 1306–1315.
Jabran, K., Mahajan, G., Sardana, V., & Chauhan, B. S., (2015). Allelopathy for weed control
in agricultural systems. Crop Protection, 72, 57–65.
Jacobsen, S. E., Christiansen, J. L., & Rasmussen, J., (2010). Weed harrowing and inter-row
hoeing in organic grown quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Outlook on Agriculture,
39(3), 223–227.
Karkanis, A., Ntatsi, G., Alemardan, A., Petropoulos, S., & Bilalis, D., (2018). Interference
of weeds in vegetable crop cultivation, in the changing climate of Southern Europe with
emphasis on drought and elevated temperatures: A review. The Journal of Agricultural
Science, 156(10), 1175–1185.
Kępczyński, J., (2018). Induction of agricultural weed seed germination by smoke and smoke-
derived karrikin (KAR 1), with a particular reference to Avena fatua L. Acta Physiologiae
Plantarum, 40(5), 87.
Korres, N. E., Norsworthy, J. K., Tehranchian, P., Gitsopoulos, T. K., Loka, D. A., Oosterhuis,
D. M., Gealy, D. R., et al., (2016). Cultivars to face climate change effects on crops and
weeds: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36(1), 1–22.
Lampkin, P., (2002). Organic Farming (p. 701). Old Pond Publishing, Ipswich, UK.
Matloob, A., Khaliq, A., & Chauhan, B. S., (2015). Weeds of direct-seeded rice in Asia:
Problems and opportunities. Advances in Agronomy, 130, 291–336.
Melander, B., & Rasmussen, G., (2001). Effects of cultural methods and physical weed
control on intrarow weed numbers, manual weeding and marketable yield in direct-sown
leek and bulb onion. Weed Research, 41(6), 491–508.
Melander, B., (1998). Interactions between soil cultivation in darkness, flaming and brush
weeding when used for in-row weed control in vegetables. Biological Agriculture and
Horticulture, 16(1), 1–14.
Melander, B., Munier-Jolain, N., Charles, R., Wirth, J., Schwarz, J., Van, D. W. R., Bonin, L.,
et al., (2013). European perspectives on the adoption of nonchemical weed management
in reduced-tillage systems for arable crops. Weed Technology, 27, 231–240.
Monaco, T. J., Weller, S. C., & Ashton, F. M., (2002). Weed Science: Principles and Practices
(p. 671). John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, USA.
Mutch, D. R., (2008). Flaming as a Method of Weed Control in Organic Farming Systems (pp.
1–4). Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-3038.
Mwendwa, J. M., Brown, W. B., Wu, H., Weston, P. A., Weidenhamer, J. D., Quinn, J. C., &
Weston, L., (2018). A. The weed suppressive ability of selected Australian grain crops;
case studies from the Riverina region in New South Wales. Crop Protection, 103, 9–19.
Pekrun, C., & Claupein, W., (2006). The implication of stubble tillage for weed population
dynamics in organic farming. Weed Research, 46(5), 414–423.
Peters, K., & Gerowitt, B., (2014). Important maize weeds profit in growth and reproduction
from climate change conditions represented by higher temperatures and reduced humidity.
Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality, 87, 234–42.
298 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Radosevich, S. R., Holt, J. S., & Ghersa, C. M., (2007). Ecology of Weeds and Invasive Plants:
Relationship to Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (p. 471). John Wiley and
Sons, New York.
Ramesh, K., Matloob, A., Aslam, F., Florentine, S. K., & Chauhan, B. S., (2017). Weeds
in a changing climate: Vulnerabilities, consequences, and implications for future weed
management. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 1–12.
Ray, D. K., West, P. C., Clark, M., Gerber, J. S., Prishchepov, A. V., & Chatterjee, S., (2019).
Climate change has likely already affected global food production. PLoS One, 14(5),
e0217148.
Richter, R., Berger, U. E., Dullinger, S., Essl, F., Leitner, M., Smith, M., & Vogl, G., (2013).
Spread of invasive ragweed: Climate change, management and how to reduce allergy
costs. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(6), 1422–1430.
Roshan, P., Kulshreshtha, A., & Hallan, V., (2019). Global weed-infecting Gemini viruses. In:
Gemini Viruses (103–121). Springer, Cham.
Sage, R. F., & Kubien, D. S., (2007). The temperature response of C3 and C4 photosynthesis.
Plant, Cell and Environment, 30(9), 1086–1106.
Smith, P., Clark, H., Dong, H., Elsiddig, E. A., Haberl, H., Harper, R., House, J., et al. (2014).
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use. Cambridge University Press, pp. 811–922.
Tabaglio, V., Marocco, A., & Schulz, M., (2013). Allelopathic cover crop of rye for integrated
weed control in sustainable agroecosystems. Italian Journal of Agronomy, 8(5), 10.
Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2001). Crop-weed competition studies in faba bean (Vicia
faba L.) under rainfed conditions. Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 49(3), 299–303.
Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2002). Response of Tetragonolobus palaestinus Boiss to
several frequencies of hand weeding. Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 50(1), 91–93.
Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2003). Allelopathic effects of black mustard (Brassica nigra)
on germination and growth of wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum). Journal of Agronomy
and Crop Science, 189(5), 298–303.
Tawaha, A. R., Turk, M. A., & Maghaereh, G. A., (2001). Field pea response to several
frequencies of hand weeding under Mediterranean environment. Crop Research, 22(2),
161–163.
Taylor, S., Kumar, L., Reid, N., & Kriticos, D. J., (2012). Climate change and the potential
distribution of an invasive shrub, Lantana camara L. PLoS One, 7(4), e35565.
Tominaga, T., & Yamasue, Y., (2004). Crop-associated weeds. In: Weed Biology and
Management (pp. 47–63). Springer, Dordrecht.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2001a). Wheat response to 2,4-D application at two growth
stages under semi-arid conditions. Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 49(4), 387–391.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2001b). Effect of time and frequency of weeding on growth,
yield and economics of chickpea and lentil. Research on Crop, 2(2), 103–107.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002). Inhibitory effects of aqueous extract Black mustard on
germination and growth of lentil. Pakistan Journal of Agronomy, 1, 28–30.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002a). Response of sorghum genotypes to weed management
under Mediterranean conditions. Pakistan Journal of Agronomy, 1(1), 31–33.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002b). Awnless barley (Hordeum vulagre L.) response
to hand weeding and 2,4-D application at two growth stages under Mediterranean
environment. Weed Biology and Management, 2, 163–168.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002c). Crop-weed competition studies in garlic (Allium
sativum L.) under irrigated condition. Crop Research, 23(2), 321–323.
Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems 299

Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002d). Lentil response to several frequency of hand weeding.
Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 36(2), 137–140.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003). The response of wild oats (Avena fatua L.) to sowing
rate and herbicide application. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 20(3),
239–242.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. R. M., (2002e). Inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts of black
mustard on germination and growth of lentil. Pakistan Journal of Agronomy, 1(1), 28–30.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A., (2003). Allelopathic effect of black mustard (Brassica nigra L.)
on germination and growth of wild oat (Avena fatua L.). Crop Protection, 22(4), 673–677.
Turk, M. A., Shatnawi, M. K., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003). Inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts
of black mustard on germination and growth of alfalfa. Weed Biology and Management,
3(1), 37–40.‫‏‬
Valerio, M., Tomecek, M. B., Lovelli, S., & Ziska, L. H., (2011). Quantifying the effect of
drought on carbon dioxide-induced changes in competition between a C3 crop (tomato)
and a C4 weed (Amaranthus retroflexus). Weed Research, 51(6), 591–600.
Varanasi, A., Prasad, P. V., & Jugulam, M., (2016). Impact of climate change factors on weeds
and herbicide efficacy. In: Advances in Agronomy (Vol. 135, pp. 107–146).
Walsh, M. J., Harrington, R. B., & Powles, S. B., (2012). Harrington seed destructor: A new
nonchemical weed control tool for global grain crops. Crop Science, 52(3), 1343–47.
Walsh, M., Ouzman, J., Newman, P., Powles, S., & Llewellyn, R., (2017). High levels of
adoption indicate that harvest weed seed control is now an established weed control
practice in Australian cropping. Weed Technology, 31(3), 341–47.
Weston, L. A., Alsaadawi, I. S., & Baerson, S. R., (2013). Sorghum allelopathy-from
ecosystem to molecule. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 39(2), 142–153.
Worthington, M., Reberg-Horton, S. C., Brown-Guedira, G., Jordan, D., Weisz, R., & Murphy,
J. P., (2015). Relative contributions of allelopathy and competitive traits to the weed
suppressive ability of winter wheat lines against Italian ryegrass. Crop Science, 55(1), 57.
Zimdahl, R. L., (2012). Fundamentals of Weed Science (p. 661). Academic Press.
Ziska, L. H., & Dukes, J. S., (2011). Weed Biology and Climate Change (p. 235). Wiley.
Ziska, L. H., (2001). Changes in competitive ability between a C4 crop and a C3 weed with
elevated carbon dioxide. Weed Science, 49(5), 622–27.
Ziska, L. H., (2003). Evaluation of the growth response of six invasive species to past, present
and future atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of Experimental Botany, 54(381), 395–404.
Ziska, L. H., (2004). Rising carbon dioxide and weed ecology. In: Weed biology and
Management (pp. 159–176). Springer, Dordrecht.
Ziska, L. H., Blumenthal, D. M., Runion, G. B., Hunt, E. R., & Diaz-Soltero, H., (2011). Invasive
species and climate change: An agronomic perspective. Climatic Change, 105(1), 13–42.
Ziska, L., (2013). Observed changes in soybean growth and seed yield from Abutilon
theophrasti competition as a function of carbon dioxide concentration. Weed Research,
53(2), 140–145.
 PART III
Organic Agriculture for Food Safety
CHAPTER 13

ORGANIC PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY OF RICE
SHAH KHALID,1 AMANULLAH,1 NADIA,1 IMRANUDDIN,2
MUJEEB UR RAHMAN,2 ABDEL RAHMAN M. AL-TAWAHA,3
DEVARAJAN THANGADURAI,4 JEYABALAN SANGEETHA,5
SAMIA KHANUM,6 MUNIR TURK,7 HIBA ALATRASH,8
SAMEENA LONE,9 KHURSHEED HUSSAIN,9 PALANI SARANRAJ,10
and ARUN KARNWAL11

1
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture,
Peshawar, Pakistan
2
Department of Horticulture, The University of Agriculture,
Peshawar, Pakistan
3
Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University,
Maan, Jordan
4
Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad–580003,
Karnataka, India
5
Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala,
Kasaragod–671316, Kerala, India
6
Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
7
Department of Plant Production, Jordan University of Science and
Technology, Irbid, Jordan
8
General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
9
Division of Vegetable Science, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar,
Jammu and Kashmir, India
10
Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous),
Tirupattur–635601, Tamil Nadu, India
11
Department of Microbiology, School of Bioengineering and
BioSciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
304 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

ABSTRACT

Bio-based modifications such as compost, farms manure, slurry biogas,

vermicompost, green manures (GMs), biofertilizer, crop residues and crop
cover are a valuable nutrient source to boost the attributes of growing and
yielding, yield, nutrient absorption, rice quality, and soil fertility. Organic
farming improves soil organic carbon, phosphorus content available,
and enzymatic/microbial population behavior of the soil to make organic
farming sustainable. The organic system becomes sustainable in the long
term by preserving the soil and improving its fertility by guaranteeing
future generations production potential. The use of farmyard manure (FYM)
will increase the soil’s microbial activity. This microbial soil behavior is
dependent on the soil’s ability to release, store, and supply plant nutrients.
Product consistency is also deteriorated as a result of chemical contaminants
entering the plant body and the food chain. The emerging scenario requires
the adoption of practices that preserve soil health, maintain a sustainable
production system, and provide quality food to meet people’s nutritional
needs. Organic agriculture is a method to improve the sustainability of
the rice-white cultivation system without detrimental impacts on natural
resources and the environment.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The cultivation method for rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum
L.) covers some 28.8 million hectares, spread primarily over five Asian coun­
tries, namely India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and China (Prasad, 2005;
Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016). The rice-wheat production mechanism
accounts for around one-fourth of Southeast Asia’s total food grain produc­
tion. This means that the rice-wheat cultivation system contributes to meeting
the food requirements of the country. The rice-wheat crop system, which
is considered the cornerstone of food autosufficiency, faces a sustainability
issue as a result of modern production methods using chemical fertilizers and
pesticides indiscriminately (Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016; Amanullah et
al., 2019a, c; Amanullah and Khalid, 2020). Many studies have concluded
that low productivity mainly concerns dryland farming management practices
(Tawaha and Turk, 2001; Turk and Tawaha, 2002b; Abebe et al., 2005a–d;
Abera et al., 2005; Assefa et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005a–d; Nikus et al., 2005a,
b; Mesfine et al., 2005; Sulpanjani et al., 2005a–c; Tawaha et al., 2005a,
b; Yang et al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2005; Assaf et al., 2006). The effects of
Organic Production Technology of Rice 305

modern rice-wheat manufacturing systems involving unequaled and harmful

use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are the decrease in productivity,
depletion of soil organic carbon and mineral-nutrient contents (Shah Khalid,
2017: Imranuddin et al., 2017; Amanullah et al., 2019d). The adverse effects
of these chemicals on the soil structure, microflora, water quality, food, and
fodder are clearly evident. Organic farming is one of the practices for making
the rice-wheat cultivation method viable without adverse environmental and
natural resources consequences (Hidayatullah et al., 2013; Hidaytullah, 2015;
Khalid et al., 2018a). According to a global survey conducted by Ockologie
and Landbau (SOUL), organic food was only grown for 5% of the world’s
cultivated area in 2003. Austria’s organic farming sector was the highest
percentage, followed by Switzerland, Italy, Finland, Denmark, Sweden, and
the Czech Republic. In recent years, awareness of improved quality of food
goods, health risks and environmental concerns both globally and nationally
has increased. There is a strong demand on the international market for high
quality products and organically grown products and can capitalize on its
ability to be widely used in organic farming. Farmers need to be educated on
the scientific methods of organic farming to eventually increase their profits.
Bio-farming is also favored due to increased demand from consumers for
natural, high-quality, ethical organic foods. Organically, it also produces
strong yields.

13.2 COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING

13.2.1 NUTRIENT SOURCES

Soil fertility is defined as the soil quality which provides the right amount
of nutrients for the production and balance of specified plants or plants
(Turk and Tawaha, 2001, 2002a, b; Tawaha and Turk, 2002; Turk et al.,
2003a–c). The objective of organic nutrient management is to maximize the
use of on-farm capital and to minimize losses. Organic materials such as
field manure, compost, vermicompost, biogas fog, green manures (GMs),
crop residues, biofertilizers, and cover crops constitute a valuable source
of nutrients to enhance qualities of growth and yield, yield, absorption of
nutrients and grain and soil fertility. The values of these nutrient sources are
examined for rice and wheat separately. Farmyard manure (FYM) is volumi­
nous organic manure arising from the decomposed dung and urine mixture
and litter (bedding material). Average, well-rotted FYM contains 0.5–1.0%
N, 0.15–2.0% P2O5 and 0.5–0.6% K20. The desired FYM C:N ratio should
306 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

not be higher than 15 to 20 (Bhattacharyya et al., 1986; Mäder et al., 2002;

Ghimire et al., 2017). The use of FYM is more important for sustainability
because it has great potential not only to provide nutrients, but to improve
the physical properties of soil. Each of these physical properties has a great
practical impact on the maintenance of soils as a production medium and a
major role in stopping environmental degradation. It is important to main­
tain them and improve them in the long term for the sustainability of the
environment.
Farmyard microbial manure includes large numbers of microbial popula­
tions. Microbial activity on the soil can be increased by using agricultural
manure both to improve microbial activity and to enable microbials to
multiply. In compliance with the biological request of soil, the application of
agricultural manure contributes to the sustainable production of the soil. The
soil has the capacity to release, store, and provide nutrients of plants for this
microbial activity.
Many studies show the improved microbial behavior by the use of farms
manure are available in the literature. Application of FYM has shown that
the increased number of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi is increased in
organic carbon. Like many other organic dung, agricultural dung leaves
some positive residual impacts on the next crop behind. The total nutrients
which become labile in the beneficial residual effects of the following
year are derived by: A) part of the total nutrient intake of labile type in
the following years is obtained by: b) Improved physical properties aid in
the enrichment of the soil and enhanced physical properties of the soil that
eventually contribute to crop production in various ways. In experiments
involving crop rotation, improved yield of the successive crop by FYM for
preceding crop was recorded at Pusa in 1932. Many other jobs have recently
identified beneficial FYM application residual effects.

13.2.2 EFFECT OF FARMYARD MANURE (FYM) ON RICE

Shanmugam and Veeraputhran (2000) revealed that application of FYM at

12.5 t ha–1 significantly increased the growth and yield attributes and yield of
rice. Bridgit and Potty (2006) found that increasing the FYM level increased
the number of roots per plant and average root length. Maximum correlation
was observed between root number per plant and grain yield, straw yield,
and total biomass, followed by the difference in total dry weight between
flowering and panicle initiation stages. Bhattacharya (2003) recorded the
Organic Production Technology of Rice 307

highest plant height at 45 and 90 days after transplanting with 9.0 t FYM
ha–1. The application of 7.0 t FYM ha–1 resulted in the highest dry matter
accumulation at 45 (327.1 and 319.8 g m–2) and 90 days after transplanting
(648.4 and 651.1 g m–2) and the dry weight at tillering and flowering growth
stages. The beneficial effects of organic manure on grain and straw yield
have been reported by many workers (Badgley et al. 2007; Leifeld et al.
2013; Lori et al. 2017; Amanullah et al., 2019a–d). Summarizing the work
done in China, where FYM is widely used, FAO (1978) reported that appli­
cation of 30–40 tons FYM ha–1 increased the yield ranging from 24 to 89%
as compared to control. It was shown by Meelu and Morris (1984) that
applying 12 tons FYM ha–1 on the rice method leads to a 40 kg/ha saving on
rice and 20 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O ha–1 in the successor wheat. 10 t FYM
ha–1 was significantly increased in N, P, and K absorption in the rice-wheat
system by 4.0, 7.8, and 7.6% compared to controls (Singh et al., 2018). The
impact on sustainability of rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum aestivum)
cropping system from the nutrient management studied by Hidayatullah et
al. (2013) showed that the grain yield of rice-wheat system was increased
by the FYM @ 10 t ha–1. FYM’s positive role in improving the physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics of soil (Amanullah et al., 2019a, b;
Amanullah and Khalid, 2020). Application of FYM significantly increased
organic carbon available N and available P and K (Hobson, 2005). Appli­
cation of FYM and fertilizer-N increased alkaline permanganate oxidiz­
able N. FYM application has been documented to increase plant growth
through the provision of plant nutrients including micronutrients and soil
enhancement of physical, chemical, and biological properties. The rise was
between 19.3% and 27.4% compared to NPK alone. They also saw FYM’s
application as the highest in the WHC, i.e., 46.4%, followed by mushroom
expended, rice straw compost, and coir pith. By improving the soil structure,
FYM provides a better environment for root growth. Ibrahim et al. (2010)
recorded significant increases in the length and volume of the rice root with
the FYM application that would enable the plant to exploit more water
under water stress conditions by improving root growth. Other advantages
of FYM soil modifications are the faster rate of water penetration due to
increased soil aggregation. Thus, water is available for rice plants for a
longer period of time. Plants supplied with FYM would take a longer time
to wilt in conditions of drought than plants not supplied with organic fertil­
izer. Prasad and Misra (2001) reported that application of FYM increased
the available NPK of organic carbon in comparison to regulation. This may
be because organic matter is decomposed and mineralized.
308 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

13.2.3 GREEN MANURING

Organic farming is based on soil health and the use of natural processes
through soil cycling of nutrients. GMs fulfil, in addition to the addition of
animal manures, the essential role of fertilization. The use of GM has been
found to be very promising for improving crop yield and saving fertilizer.
GM means that any GM plants are plowed under or soil when they are green,
or soon after they have flowered. GMs are forages or legumes grown for
their leafy substances necessary to preserve the soil. It has been found that
about 18 species of grain legumes are essential to GM in various rice farms
in Asia. In organic farming systems (OFSs) the following two types of GMs
can be used:

1. Green Manuring In Situ: GM plants in this method are cultivated

and buried in the same GM area. Sesbania (Sesbania aculeata) is a
common leguminous green-manure crop called dhaincha or sawri.
The branches and leaf stalks are armed with thin, weak prickles, and
grows to a height of several feet per year. The pinnate leaves have 40
to 81 narrow leaflets, and 3 to 6 loose racemes have a light-yellow
dotted flower. The pods are long and very tight. Sesbania is ideally
suited to wetlands and flourishes at higher altitudes, suffers from
significant drought and salinity in the soil, and is grown on very low
lands. It is not useful for drilling and is therefore produced only as
GM. Sesbania aculeata has a solid, deep system of rooting and this
was described as an advantage if a subsoil is to be opened.
2. Green Leaf Manuring: The green leaf manure refers to turning
green leaves in the soil and tender green branches gathered from
shrubs and trees cultivated on rivers, wastelands, and surrounding
forest areas. Leucaena leucocephala is a thornless tree or shrub that
can grow up to 7–20 m in altitude. Bipinnate leaves are 6–8 pairs
with 11–23 pairs of leaflets 8–16 mm long. The inflorescence is a
globular cream that produces a cluster of 13–18 mm, flat brown pods
that contain 15–30 seeds.

13.2.4 EFFECT OF GREEN MANURING ON RICE

Manguiat et al. (1997) confirmed that immediate rice sowing after incorpo­
rating GM had no negative impact on upland rice growth and development.
Chandra and Pareek (1998) noted that the introduction of different Sesbanian
Organic Production Technology of Rice 309

GM species increased the dry weight of the plants at different intervals from
7.1 to 25.2%. All Sesbania species except 45 day-old S. rostrata produced
significantly more plant dry matter than control at 51 DAT, however, different
species did not differ significantly. Sesbania rostrata (60 day-old), however,
recorded the highest plant dry matter at all growth stages. Total and effective
tillers recorded at maturity showed the similar trend. Hemalatha et al. (2000)
observed that the best plant height (97.61 cm), hill numbers of tillers (19.55),
index of leaf sized (6.85 t), development of the dry matter (13848 kg/ha)
and days to 50% flowering were registered in situ with the incorporation of
dhaincha at 12.0 t ha–1 (101 days).
Singh et al. (2000) have recorded a substantial increase in root length
density over control of FYM and GM. Mukherjee and Singh (2001) revealed
a significant effect of Sesbania green manuring on plant height at 50 and 70
days after transplanting and at harvest. Summer green manuring of Sesbania
before rice transplanting recorded significantly more number of tillers at 30
and 50 days after transplanting over residue incorporated, residue burnt and
residue removed treatments. Ram et al. (2011) revealed that incorporation of
12.5 t ha–1 of Sesbania aculeate recorded the highest plant height (87.3 cm),
number of tillers hill–1 (15.4) and LAI (7.9). Green manuring of Sesbania
equivalents to 45 kg N/ha which gave 20% more yield than the control and the
response was 8.8 kg grain per kg N. Rice cv. Gayatri, rice Cuttack (Sesbania
aculeata) and dhaincha were either transplanted to plots of pure dhaincha
following the accumulation of water in various arrangements (parallel lines
and mixed broadcasting) in dry soil, or rice seedlings. With dhaincha GMs
compared with control the yield of both direct-seeded and transplanted crops
has increased (without green manuring). They commented that the increase
in yields under GM was the result of higher panicle weight, likely due to
the combined supply of N after organic matter was decomposed through
the dhaincha. Grain yield obtained with Sesbania aculeata was equivalent
to 90 kg ha–1 in non-scented rice. The results of IARI experiments showed
that GM in Sesbania increased the grain yield of rice by 0.4 t ha during the
summer months (May-June). In a field experiment for 4 years with irrigated
rice-wheat rotations, Aulakh et al. (2000) conducted a sandy loam soil to test
the effects of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) or Sesbania (Sesbania aculeata)
on the cultivation productivity of GM. The pre-transplant rice grain yields
ranged from 5.18 to 5.81 t ha–1 of GM ha–1 from 20 and 40 t.
There has been a rise of 3 Q ha–1 compared to beushening (beushening
is crossing under lowland rice habitats in standing water when rice plants
are planted). Green manuring of dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) before
310 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

transplanting rice gave higher the grain yield of rice than other treatments.
Hemalatha et al. (2000) observed that in situ incorporation of dhaincha at
12 t ha–1 increased the grain yield by 18% and straw yield by 16% over no
organic manure, owing to increase in growth and yield-attributing characters
of rice. Mehla et al. (2000) reported mean grain yield of 6.89, 6.74, 6.16, and
5.43 t ha–1 with GM, FYM, ash, and control treatments, respectively. Ram et
al. (2011) observed that Sesbania aculeata GM resulted in higher N, P, and
K uptake (mg plot–1) by rice grain and straw as compared GM with Sebania
speciosa, Crotalaria juncea, Azolla microphylla, cowpea, FYM, composted
coir pith and paddy straw. Tiwari et al. (1980) observed that Sesbania green
manure increased the N, P, and K contents in plants and their availability in
soil. Saha et al. (2000) observed that green manuring registered significantly
higher P uptake, which was 8.4 higher over fallow. Sesbania GM resulted in
N and P uptake similar to 120 kg N + 13 kg P + 17 kg K ha–1 and 120 kg N
+ 26 kg P + 34 kg K ha–1, respectively. Ram et al. (2011) studied the effect
of Sesbania aculeata, S. speciosa, Crotalaria juncea, paddy straw, powdered
FYM or composted raw coir pith, 28-day-old rice cv. IR 60 seedlings on
nutrient uptake. The highest values for uptake of N (399.4 mg pot–1), P
(49.82 mg pot–1), K (403.2 mg pot–1), Zn (1059.9 µg pot–1), Fe (18.28 mg
pot–1), Mn (6.69 mg pot–1) and Cu (693.3 µg pot–1) in IR 60 were recorded
with the addition of S. aculeata.

13.2.5 GREEN MANURING + BIOFERTILIZERS

Microbial inoculants or biofertilizers are essential components of organic

agriculture that help to feed crops by the nutrients they need. The microbes
help to fix nitrogen in the environment, solubilize, and mobilize phosphorus,
transfer small items such as zinc, copper, etc., to the plant, generate plant
growth that promotes hormones, vitamins, and amino acids and regulates
pathogenic fungi in plants, thereby improving soil health and increasing
crop production. Long-term use has been made of biofertilizers such as
Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, and blue-green algae (BGA). These
species fix and supply atmospheric nitrogen to plants. Therefore, it is called
biofertilizers. 20–30 kg N/ha/season is contributed by bacterial biofertil­
izers. Inoculant rhizobium is used in leguminous plants. Azotobacter can
be used in crops such as wheat, maize, mustard, cotton, potatoes, etc. For
sorghum, millets, corn, sugarcane, and wheat inoculants are primarily
recommended. The BGA of the genus Nostoc, Anabaena, Tolypothrix, and
Aulosira fix the atmospheric nitrogen and serve as inoculants for low and
Organic Production Technology of Rice 311

high ground paddy cultivation. However, the inoculants are most successful
for cultivation in lowland rice and contribute 20–30 kg N per hectare per
season with better grain quality. Azolla adds nitrogen up to 60 Kg/ha/Saison
to Azolla in combination with water fern and enriches soils with organic
matter. The term biofertilization or microbial inoculants can be described as
preparations contending strains of microorganisms that can increase micro­
biological processes such as fixation of nitrogen, phosphates solubilization
or mineralization, excretion from plant growth promotion of soil, compost,
or other environments for the purpose of cellulose or lignin biodegradation
(Gaur, 2006). The biofixing mechanism for nitrogen can be divided into 3
categories: (i) symbiotic system; (ii) Legume-Rhizobia symbiosis; and (iii)
other symbiotic nitrogen fixation systems. An artificially prepared Rhizo­
bium cultivation was used until the seed was seeded. A specific Rhizobium
culture is needed for a particular legume crop with high infection, nodula­
tion, fixation, and antibiotic resistance capacity (Bhattacharyya and Tandon,
2002). Azotobacter is non-symbiotic free-living soil bacteria which fixes
nitrogen in cereals, vegetables, and flowers. Application is usually achieved
by seed/seedling or soil treatment. It also reports its foliar submission. Both
Azotobacter fertilizers based on carriers and liquids are available. The
Azotobacter species are known to average 10 mg N/g sugar on nitrogen
free medium in pure culture. The most effective strains of Azotobacter will
have to oxidize approximately 1000 kg of organic matter in order to repair
30 kg N/ha. This does not sound practical for our very low active carbon
soils. Furthermore, soil has a wide range of other bacteria, all competing
for activated carbon. The blue-green algae (BGA) are frequently referred to
as cyanobacteria or cyanophyte that are a phylum of bacteria which obtain
energy from photosynthesis. The name “cyanobacteria” is taken from the
color of the bacteria, cyan (blue); no use or production of cyanide is made
by the bacteria. Cyanobacteria have been found to show fossil traces from
around 3.8 billion years, which certainly prove that Blue-green algae are
among the earliest forms of life on earth. Filamentous, photosynthetic
aerobic N fastening species are blue-green algae. Over 100 BGA species are
known to correct N. These can provide 25–30 kg N ha–1 as biofertilizer for
humidity rice (paddy). They also separate hormones such as IAA, GA, and
improve the structure of the soil by generating polysaccharides that help
attach soil particles to better soil aggregation. For growth and N-fixation,
BGA requires all plant nutrients. The optimum BGA temperature is about
30–35°C and its growth decreases at low temperatures. The optimal pH is
between 7.5 and 10.0 for BGA growth in cultivation media and is around
312 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

6.5–7.0 (Kumar and Shivay, 2008). The cultivation method of rice (Oryza
sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is spread out over 5 Asian coun­
tries, namely India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and China (approximately
28.8 million hectares) (Prasad, 2005; Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016). A
rice-wheat crop system accounts for approximately a quarter of South-East
Asia’s total food grain output. This means the contribution of the rice-wheat
cultivation method to the country’s food demands. However, the rice-white
cultivation system is considered the cornerstone of food self-sufficiency,
which faces a sustainability challenge because of the current processing
methods using chemical fertilizers and pesticides indiscriminately
(Amanullah and Inamullah, 2016; Amanullah et al., 2019a, c; Amanullah
and Khalid, 2020). Many studies have concluded that low productivity
mainly concerns dryland farming management practices (Tawaha and Turk,
2001; Turk and Tawaha, 2002b; Abebe et al., 2005a–d; Abera et al., 2005;
Assefa et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005a–d; Nikus et al., 2005a, b; Mesfine
et al., 2005; Sulpanjani et al., 2005a–c; Tawaha et al., 2005a, b; Yang et
al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2005; Assaf et al., 2006). The consequences of the
modern rice-wheat production system with unbalanced and harmful use
of chemical fertilizers and pesticides include concerns such as declining
factor productivity, deprivation of soil-based organic carbon and mineral
nutrients (Imranuddin et al., 2017; Shah Khalid, 2017; Amanullah et al.,
2019), water extraction and salinization, increasing nitrate concentrations
on wells, etc. The adverse effects of these chemicals on the soil structure,
microflora, water quality, food, and forage are clearly evident (Hidayatullah
et al., 2013; Hidaytullah, 2015; Khalid et al., 2018a). According to a global
survey conducted by Germany’s Ockologie and Landbau (SOUL), only 5%
of worldly cultivated food was developed in 2003. Austria’s organic farming
sector was the highest percentage, followed by Switzerland, Italy, Finland,
Denmark, Sweden, and the Czech Republic. In recent years, awareness of
improved food safety, health risks, and environmental concerns both at the
international and national level has increased. Bio-farming is also favored
due to increased demand from consumers for natural, high-quality, and
ethical organic foods. Organically, it also produces strong yields.

13.2.6 EFFECT OF GREEN MANURING, FYM, AND

BIOFERTILIZERS ON RICE

The application of FYM, Eichhornia, and Azolla compost yielded less grain
and pain than 60 kg N ha–1 as urea. These suggests that organic materials may
Organic Production Technology of Rice 313

have a strong potential to be a source of alternative nutrients in a rice crop

for the longer term (Flessa et al., 2002; Khan et al. 2004; Munda et al., 2018;
Shrestha et al., 2018; Amanullah et al., 2019a, 2020; Rahman et al., 2019;
Sharma et al., 2019). Dixit and Gupta (2000) have observed a growth in the
economic yield by applying fertilizer manure alone or together at 10 t ha–1
and BGA (Cyanobacteria) inoculation BGA averaged 0.24 t ha–1 (7.5%) in
grain yield, while the combined use of farm manure and BGA showed an
improvement of 0.60 t ha–1 (19.2%). Dixit and Gupta (2000) also pointed out
that content and uptake of N, P, and K showed increasing trends as a result
of the application of FYM, and BGA inoculation either alone or in combi­
nation. Shanmugam and Veeraputhran (2000) revealed that application of
either GM (Sesbania aculeata at 6.25 t ha–1) or FYM at 12.5 t ha–1 combined
with Azospirillum (2 kg ha–1) significantly increased the growth attributes
of rice. The FYM + SGM + BGA application was stated to have resulted in
more N and P uptake of rice than FYM by Van Quyen and Sharma (2003).
Highest N intake was achieved with the combined application of FYM +
SGM + BGA + PSB, which was substantially higher than both inorganic
and biologic combinations. The FYM + SGM + BGA + PSB combination
however substantially increased P uptake by grain, paw, and grain + straw
over FYM, SGM, and BGA combinations, while GM from Sesbania resulted
in a comparable uptake in N and P of 120 kg N + 13 kg P + 17 kg K ha–1
and 120 kg N + 26 kg P +34 kg ha–1 respectively. Total rice N and P intakes
were substantially higher than that found with FYM with sesbania GM.
However, if FYM+SGM+BGA are added together they resulted in more N
and P than FYM, SGM+FYM+BGA, in rice inoculation without significant
impact on total N rice intake. In addition to all combines of inorganic and
organic therapies, the FYM+SGM+BGA+PSB was added together to the
N uptake. However, the combined grain, paw, and grain + straw increased
considerably in P uptake over other FYM, SGM, and BGA combinations
except FYM + SGM +FGA. Dixit and Gupta (2000) reported that higher
number of tillers, number of total spikelets per panicle, test weight, grain,
and straw yields, larger panicles and lesser unfilled spikelets in both years
were recorded with application of Azolla along with 100% RDN. This was
on par with the application of Azospirillum and BGA with 100% RDN. All
the yield components, grain, and straw yields of rice due to inoculation of
any one of the biofertilizers along with 80% RDN were statistically similar
to that of 100% RDN alone without any biofertilizer inoculation, indicating
a saving of 20% RDN (24 kg N/ha) due to application of any one of the three
biofertilizers. The experiment was performed by Bhattacharya (2003), and
314 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

the results demonstrated that the quality and compatibility of biofertilizers

with inorganic fertilizers is gradually increasing. In the subsequent processes
treated with the biologics, major differences in soil fertility status (avail­
able N, P, and K) and soil biota increased (the third season). Kumar et al.
(2007) reported that approximately 50% of recommended dose of inorganic
fertilizers could be saved by using 20 t ha–1 of FYM + 10 kg ha–1 of BGA
[or cyanobacteria]. Supply of a portion of P and K along with secondary
and micronutrients required by crops could help offset the negative nutrient
balance and slow down nutrient depletion processes. Application of organic
manures improved the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil.
Sharma and Namdeo (1999) reported that FYM + biofertilizers improved all
the parameters of soil fertility over FYM alone as well over green manuring
alone. Kumar et al. (2007) reported that the direct and residual application of
GM increased the yield of hybrid rice by up to 1240 kg/ha (42.61%) during
the 1st year and 1275 kg/ha (45.94%) during the 2nd year. The highest grain
yield of hybrid rice (9300 and 8670 kg/ha during 1st and 2nd year, respectively)
was recorded for 150% NPK + GM + biofertilizer. The increase in the yield
of rice due to biofertilizer application ranged from 202 to 422 kg/ha during
the 1st year, and from 290 to 388 kg/ha during the 2nd year. The greatest total
removal of NPK (405.5 kg/ha and 394 kg/ha on the 1st and 2nd year in hybrid
rice was registered for 150% NPK + GM + biofertilizer. The increase in
nutrient use efficiency due to GM application was greater in the control and
lower at higher rates of applied fertilizers for rice (0.7–43.9%, with a mean
value of 17.4%, on the 1st year, and 10.68–44.36%, with a mean value of
16.61%, on the 2nd year). The percent increase in nutrient use efficiency due
to biofertilizer application on the 1st and 2nd year reached 6.5 and 8.16% in
rice.

13.3 CONCLUSION

The common organic amendments used in rice are FYM, vermicompost,

green manuring, and biofertilizers. The combination and combined use of
these various organic changes will meet the biorice nutrient requirement.
Organic farming improves soil organic carbon, phosphorus content available
and soil microbial population and enzymes, making it sustainable for the
production of organic crops. The organic system becomes sustainable for
the long term by protecting soils and increasing their productivity, ensuring
future generations’ productive potential.
Organic Production Technology of Rice 315

KEYWORDS

• biofertilizers
• biogas slurry
• compost
• farmyard manure
• green manures
• organic amendments
• vermicompost

REFERENCES

Abebe, G., Assefa, T., Harrun, H., Mesfine, T., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005d). Participatory
selection of drought-tolerant maize varieties using mother and baby methodology: A
case study in the semi-arid zones of the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(1), 22–27.
Abebe, G., Hattar, B., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005c). Nutrient availability as affected by
manure application in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] on calcareous soils.
Journal of Agriculture and Social Science, 1(1), 1–6.
Abebe, G., Sahile, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005a). Evaluation of potential trap crops on
Orobanche soil seed bank and tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 148–151.
Abebe, G., Sahile, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005b). Effect of soil solarization on Orobanche
soil seed bank and tomato yield in the central rift valley of Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(2), 143–147.
Abera, T., Feyisa, D., Yusuf, H., Nikus, O., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Grain yield of maize
as affected by biogas slurry and N-P fertilizer rate at Bako, Western Oromiya, Ethiopia.
Bioscience Research, 2(1), 31–38.
Amanullah, & Khalid, S., (2020). Agronomy-food security-climate change and the sustainable
development goals. Agronomy-Climate Change and Food Security. Intech Open, London.
Amanullah, I., & Inamullah, X., (2016). Dry matter partitioning and harvest index differ in rice
genotypes with variable rates of phosphorus and zinc nutrition. Rice Sci., 23(2), 78–87.
Amanullah, Iqbal, A., Khan, A., Khalid, S., Shah, A., Parmar, B., Khalid, S., & Muhammad,
A., (2019a). Efficient management of phosphorus, organic sources, and beneficial
microbes improve dry matter partitioning of maize. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.,
50(20), 2544–2569.
Amanullah, Khalid, S., Imran, Khan, H. A., Arif, M., Al-Tawaha, A. R., Adnan, M., et al.,
(2019b). Organic matter management in cereals based system: Symbiosis for improving
crop productivity and soil health. In: Lal, R., & Francaviglia, R., (eds.), Sustainable
Agriculture Reviews 29: Sustainable Soil Management: Preventive and Ameliorative
Strategies (pp. 67–92). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
316 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Amanullah, Khalid, S., Khalil, F., & Imranuddin, (2020). Influence of irrigation regimes on
competition indexes of winter and summer intercropping system under semi-arid regions
of Pakistan. Sci. Rep., 10(1), 8129.
Amanullah, Khan, N., Khan, M. I., Khalid, S., Iqbal, A., & Al-Tawaha, A. R., (2019c). Wheat
biomass and harvest index increases with integrated use of phosphorus, zinc, and beneficial
microbes under semiarid climates. J. Microbiol. Biotech. Food Sci., 9 (2), 242–247.
Amanullah, Khan, S. T., Iqbal, A., & Fahad, S., (2016). Growth and productivity response of
hybrid rice to application of animal manures, plant residues, and phosphorus. Frontiers
in Plant Science, 7, 1440.
Assaf, T. A., Hameed, K. M., Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2006). Effect of soil amendment
with olive mill by-products under soil solarization on growth and productivity of faba
bean and their symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
2(1), 21–28.
Assefa, T., Abebe, G., Fininsa, C., Tesso, B., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Participatory bean
breeding with women and smallholder farmers in eastern Ethiopia. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 1(1), 28–35.
Aulakh, M. S., Khera, T. S., Doran, J. W., Kuldip, S., & Bijay, S., (2000). Yields and nitrogen
dynamics in a rice-wheat system using green manure and inorganic fertilizer. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am J, 64(5), 1867–1876.
Badgley, C., Moghtader, J., Quintero, E., Zakem, E., Chappell, M. J., Aviles-Vazquez, K.,
Samulon, A., & Perfecto, I., (2007). Organic agriculture and the global food supply. Rene.
Agri. Food Sys., 22(2), 86–108.
Bhattacharya, S., (2003). Effect of humic acid (earth) on the growth and yield of transplanted
summer rice. Environ. Ecol., 21(3), 680–683.
Bhattacharyya, P., Dey, B. K., Nath, S., & Banik, S., (1986). Organic manures in relation to
rhizosphere effect iii. effect of organic manures on population of ammonifying bacteria
and mineralization of nitrogen in rice and succeeding wheat rhizosphere soils. Zent.
Mikro, 141(4), 267–277.
Bridgit, T., & Potty, N., (2006). Effect of cultural management on root characteristics and
productivity of rice in laterite soil. J. Trop. Agric, 40, 59–62.
Dixit, K., & Gupta, B., (2000). Effect of farmyard manure, chemical and biofertilizers on
yield and quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and soil properties. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci.,
48(4), 773–780.
Dwivedi, D., & Thakur, S., (2000). Effect of organics and inorganic fertility levels on
productivity of rice (Oryza sativa) crop. Indian J. Agron., 45(3), 568–574.
Flessa, H., Ruser, R., Dörsch, P., Kampb, T., Jimenez, M. A., Munchb, J. C., & Beese, F.,
(2002). Integrated evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O) from two
farming systems in southern Germany. Agri. Eco. Envi. Beh., 91(1–3), 175–189.
Gaur, A. C., (2006). Handbook of Organic Farming and Biofertilizers. Ambica Book Agency.
Ghimire, R., Norton, U., Bista, P., Obour, A. K., & Norton, J. B., (2017). Soil organic matter,
greenhouse gases and net global warming potential of irrigated conventional, reduced-
tillage and organic cropping systems. Nutri. Cyc. Agroecology., 107(1), 49–62.
Hidayatullah, A., Jan, A., & Shah, Z., (2013). Residual effect of organic nitrogen sources
applied to rice on the subsequent wheat crop. Int. J. Agron. Plant Prod, 4, 620–631.
Hidaytullah, A., (2015). Sources, ratios, and mixtures of organic and inorganic nitrogen
influence plant height of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.) at various growth stages. EC Agric,
2(3), 328–337.
Organic Production Technology of Rice 317

Hobson, P., (2005). Book review: Organic recycling and biofertilization in South Asia.
Bioresour. Technol., 96(3), 393.
Ibrahim, M., Arshad, M., & Tanveer, A., (2010). Variation in root growth and nutrient element
concentration in wheat and rice: Effect of rate and type of organic materials. Soil Envi.,
29(1), 47–52.
Imranuddin, Arif, M., Khalid, S., Nadia, Saddamullah, Idrees, M., & Amir, M., (2017). Effect
of seed priming, nitrogen levels, and moisture regimes on yield and yield components of
wheat. Pure App. Biol., 6(1), 369–377.
Khalid, S., Afridi, M. Z., Munsif, F., Imranuddin, & Nadia. (2018a). Effect of Sulphur foliar
application on yield and yield components of Brassica napus L. Int. J. Agric. Environ.
Res, 2, 232–236.
Khalid, S., Imranuddin, N., Nadeem, F., Saddamullah, A. M., & Ghani, F., (2017). Allelopathic
effect of Parthenium liquid extract on mung bean germination ability and early growth.
Inter. J. Agron. Agri. Res., 11(4), 31–36.
Khalid, S., Munsif, F., Nadia, I., Nadeem, F., Ali, S., Ghani, F., & Idrees, M., (2018b). Influence
of source limitation on physiological traits of wheat. Pure App. Biol., 7(1), 85–92.
Khan, A. R., Chandra, D., Nanda, P., Singh, S. S., Ghorai, A. K., & Singh, S. R., (2004).
Integrated nutrient management for sustainable rice production. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci.,
50(2), 161–165.
Kumar, A., Tripathi, H., & Yadav, D., (2007). Correcting nutrient imbalances for sustainable
crop production. Indian J. Fer., 2(11), 37.
Kumar, D., & Shivay, Y., (2008). Definitional Glossary of Agricultural Terms (p. 324). IK
International, New Delhi.
Lee, K. D., Sulpanjani, Tawaha, A. M., & Min, Y. S., (2005a). Effect of phosphorus application
on yield, mineral contents and active components of Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Bioscience Research, 2(3), 118–124.
Lee, K. D., Tawaha, A. R. M., & Supanjani, (2005c). Antioxidant status, stomatal resistance and
mineral composition of hot pepper under salinity and boron stress. Bioscience Research,
2(3), 148–154.
Lee, K. D., Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2005b). Nitrogen fixation in rice based farming
system. Bioscience Research, 2(3), 130–138.
Leifeld, J., Angers, D. A., Chenu, C., Fuhrer, J., Kätterer, T., & Powlson, D. S., (2013).
Organic farming gives no climate change benefit through soil carbon sequestration. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 110 (11), E984.
Lori, M., Symnaczik, S., Mäder, P., De Deyn, G., & Gattinger, A., (2017). Organic farming
enhances soil microbial abundance and activity-A meta-analysis and meta-regression.
PLoS One, 12(7).
Mäder, P., Fliessbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P., & Niggli, U., (2002). Soil fertility
and biodiversity in organic farming. Sci. Cult, 296(5573), 1694–1697.
Mesfine, T., Abebe, G., & Al-Tawaha, A. M., (2005). Effect of reduced tillage and crop
residue ground cover on yield and water use efficiency of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench) under semi-arid conditions of Ethiopia. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
1(2), 152–160.
Munda, S., Shivakumar, B. G., Rana, D. S., Gangaiah, B., Manjaiah, K. M., Dass, A., Layek,
J., & Lakshman, K., (2018). Inorganic phosphorus along with biofertilizers improves
profitability and sustainability in soybean (Glycine max)- potato (Solanum tuberosum)
cropping system. J. Saudi Soc. Agri. Sci., 17(2), 107–113.
318 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Nadeem, F., Khan, N. U., Imranuddin, Khalid, S., Azam, S., Saeed, B., Jah, T., et al., (2018).
4. Genotype × environment interaction studies in F5 populations of upland cotton under
agro-climatic condition of Peshawar. Pure App. Biol., 7(3), 973–991.
Nikus, O., Abebe, G., Takele, A., Harrun, H., Chanyalew, S., Al Tawaha, A. M., & Mesfin,
T., (2005b). Yield response of tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) to NP fertilization in
the semi arid zones of the central rift valley in Ethiopia. European Journal of Scientific
Research, 4(4), 49–60.
Nikus, O., Nigussie, M., & Al Tawaha, A. M., (2005a). Agronomic performance of maize
varieties under irrigation in Awash valley, Ethiopia. Bioscience Research, 2(1), 26–30.
Prasad, R., & Misra, B. N., (2001). Effect of addition of organic residues, farmyard manure
and fertilizer nitrogen on soil fertility in rice-wheat cropping system. Arch. Agron. Soil
Sci., 46(5, 6), 455–463.
Prasad, R., (2005). Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems (pp. 255–339). Elsevier, New Delhi, India.
Rahman, F., Hossain, A., & Islam, M. R., (2019). Integrated effects of poultry manure and
chemical fertilizer on yield, nutrient balance and economics of wetland rice culture.
Bang. Rice J, 22(2), 71–77.
Ram, M., Davari, M., & Sharma, S., (2011). Organic farming of rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) cropping system: A review. Inter. J. Agron. Plant Prod, 2(3),
114–134.
Shah, K., Afridi, M. Z., Imranuddin, Nadia, Nadeem, F., Aamir, M., & Saddamullah, (2017).
Effect of sulfur foliar fertilization on reproductive growth and development of canola.
Int. J. Agron. Agri. Res, 11(3), 61–67.
Shanmugam, P., & Veeraputhran, R., (2000). Effect of organic manure, biofertilizers, inorganic
nitrogen and zinc on growth and yield of rabi rice (Oryza sativa L.). Madras Agric. J. 87,
90–93.
Sharma, K., & Namdeo, K., (1999). Effect of biofertilizers and phosphorous on NPK contents,
uptake and grain quality of soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) and nutrient status of soil.
Crop Res, 17(2), 164–169.
Sharma, S., Padbhushan, R., & Kumar, U., (2019). Integrated nutrient management in rice-
wheat cropping system: An evidence on sustainability in the Indian subcontinent through
meta-analysis. Agronomy, 9(2), 71.
Shrestha, S., Bhatta, B., Shrestha, M., & Shrestha, P. K., (2018). Integrated assessment of the
climate and land-use change impact on hydrology and water quality in the Songkhram
River Basin, Thailand. Sci. Total Environ., 643, 1610–1622.
Singh, S. K., Kumar, M., Singh, R. P., Bohra, J. S., Srivastava, J. P., Singh, S. P., & Singh, Y.
V., (2018). Conjoint application of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients on yield,
nutrient uptake and soil fertility under rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum aestivum)
system. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 66(3), 287–294.
Sulpanjani, A., Yang, M. S., Tawaha, A. R. M., & Lee, K. D., (2005a). Effect of magnesium
application on yield, mineral contents and active components of Chrysanthemum
coronarium L. under hydroponics conditions. Bioscience Research, 2(2), 73–79.
Supanjani, Tawaha, A. M., Min, Y. M. S., & Lee, K. D., (2005b). Role of calcium in yield
and medicinal quality of Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Journal of Agronomy, 4(3),
188–192.
Supanjani, Tawaha, A. M., Yang, M. S., & Lee, Y. D., (2005c). Calcium effects on yield,
mineral uptake and terpene components of hydroponic Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, 1(1), 146–151.
Organic Production Technology of Rice 319

Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2001). Effects of dates and rates of sowing on yield and yield
components of Narbon vetch under semi-arid conditions. Acta Agronomica Hungarica,
49(1), 103–105.
Tawaha, A. M., & Turk, M. A., (2002). Lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.) productivity as
influenced by rate and method of phosphate placement in a Mediterranean environment.
Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 50(2), 197–201.
Tawaha, A. M., Turk, M. A., Lee, K. D., Supanjani, Nikus, O., Al-Rifaee, M., & Sen, R.,
(2005a). Awnless barley response to crop management under Jordanian environment.
Bioscience Research, 2(3), 125–129.
Tawaha, A. R. M., Turk, M. A., & Lee, K. D., (2005b). Adaptation of chickpea to cultural
practices in a Mediterranean type environment. Research Journal of Agriculture and
Biological Science, 1(2), 152–157.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002a). Impact of seeding rate, seeding date, rate and method
of phosphorus application in faba (Vicia faba L. Minor) in the absence of moisture stress.
Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 6(3), 171–178.
Turk, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2002b). Response of winter wheat to applied n with or
without ethrel spray under irrigation planted in semi-arid environments. Asian Journal of
Plant Sciences, 1(4), 464–466.
Turk, M. A., & Tawaha, A. M., (2001). Influence of rate and method of phosphorus placement
to Garlic (Allium sativum L.) in a Mediterranean environment. Journal of Applied
Horticulture, 3(2), 115–116.
Turk, M. A., Hameed, K. M., Aqeel, A. M., & Tawaha, A. M., (2003c). Nutritional status of
durum wheat grown in soil supplemented with olive mills by-products. Agrochimica,
209–219.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., Samara, N., & Latifa, N., (2003b). The response of six row
barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) to nitrogen fertilizer application and weed control methods
in the absence of moisture stress. Pakistan Journal of Agronomy, 2(2), 101–108.
Turk, M. A., Tawaha, A. M., Taifor, H., Al-Ghzawi, A., Musallam, I. W., Maghaireh, G. A.,
& Al-Omari, Y. I., (2003a). Two row barley response to plant density, date of seeding
and rate and method of phosphorus application in the absence of moisture stress. Asian
Journal of Plant Science, 2(2), 180–183.
Van, Q. N., & Sharma, S., (2003). Relative effect of organic and conventional farming on
growth, yield and grain quality of scented rice and soil fertility. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci.,
49(6), 623–629.
Yang, M. S., Tawaha, A. M., & Lee, Y. D., (2005). Effects of ammonium concentration on the
yield, mineral content and active terpene components of Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
in a hydroponic system. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, 1(2),
170–175.
Zheng, W. J., Tawaha, A. M., & Lee, K. D., (2005). In situ hybridization analysis of mcMT1
gene expression and physiological mechanisms of Cu-tolerant in Festuca rubra cv
merlin. Bioscience Research, 1(1), 21–26.
CHAPTER 14

PROSPECTS OF ORGANIC
AGRICULTURE IN FOOD QUALITY
AND SAFETY
AKBAR HOSSAIN,1 DEBJYOTI MAJUMDER,2 SHILPI DAS,3,4
APURBO KUMAR CHAKI,4,5 MST. TANJINA ISLAM,6 RAJAN BHATT,7
and TOFAZZAL ISLAM8

1
Bangladesh Wheat and Maize Research Institute, Dinajpur–5200,
Bangladesh
2
Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India
3
Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture, Mymensingh–2202,
Bangladesh
4
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland,
QLD–4072, Australia
5
On-Farm Research Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute (BARI), Gazipur, Dhaka, Bangladesh
6
Department of Agronomy, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and
Technology University, Dinajpur–5200, Bangladesh
7
Regional Research Station-Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, Punjab–144601, India
8
Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (IBGE),
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University,
Gazipur–1706, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

Innovative farming practices in the traditional agriculture have signifi­

cantly been progressed in the last 1,000 years. Most of these aboriginal
322 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

agricultural methodologies were not finely honed. Concurrent improve­

ment of biochemistry and engineering, farming practices were also rapidly
improved during the early 40 years of the 20th Century. After the industrial
revolution, the application of farm machineries, irrigation, and synthetic
fertilizers and pesticides in crop production have dramatically changed
the traditional farming practices. Although these modern approaches
significantly increased the yield of crops to feed the increasing population,
the degradation of environmental resources, including soils, has become
apparent. Increasing environmental pollution and residual effects of the
used synthetic chemicals pose a serious threat to human life and biodi­
versity. Considering these burning issues, researchers explored alternative
sustainable techniques or solutions to alleviate these deleterious effects of
modern farming, while preserving the maximum productivity. Therefore, an
organic farming system (OFS) concept was started in the 1940s for avoiding
the deleterious effects of the application of synthetic fertilizers and pesti­
cides to the crop fields. The OFS was established as a substitution of the
rapidly changing modern agricultural system in the early 20th century. In
the OFS, agricultural inputs and practices are generated from the biological
origins such as organic manure, compost, non-GM elite cultivars, crop
rotation and companion planting. Instead of synthetic chemicals, pests are
managed through integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The OFS
aims to maintain agroecosystem by encouraging interior self-regulation for
using synthetic agricultural inputs. The understanding of OFS revealed that
the system is environment-friendly, and good for biodiversity and sustain-
ability. Therefore, the environment-friendly OFS approaches have become
a subject for the improvement of sustainable agriculture by many countries
and organizations. This chapter highlights the current concept, status,
economic benefits, and challenges for sustainable OFS intensification. The
generated knowledge of OFS is thought to be useful for the sustainable
production of safe and nutritional food in the era of global climate change.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

After the industrial revolution, various inorganic methods were introduced

in modern agriculture for resolving the increasing demand of food and
nutrition for the increasing population of the world. At the same time,
the invention of the gasoline engine leads to improve the numerous farm
apparatuses. A concurrent improvement of biochemistry and engineering
has impacted on introduction of various farm machineries and synthetic
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 323

chemicals in agriculture. The application of machineries and synthetic

chemicals ultimately replaced the use of animal powers and organic inputs in
the agriculture. The primitive agriculture was the innovative type of farming
which has been experienced for 1000 of years. All aboriginal agricultural
systems are now measured to be “organic farming system (OFS)” though
that period there were no recognized non-living approaches (McConnell et
al., 2017). Since, farming was started to upgrade through the introduction
of new farming procedures and machinery, while several serious short and
longer-term side effects had appeared as a result of the excessive and imbal­
anced use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Therefore, soon it was well-
understood that modern production systems were not environment-friendly
and had severe adverse effects on human health and the environment.
Considering these burning issues, researchers started to explore alternative
sustainable techniques or solutions to alleviate these hazardous effects of
modern farming to preserve the potential of maximum productivity of the
farming system.
The OFS concept was started in practice in the 1940s for avoiding the
harmful effects of modern farming using artificial fertilizers and pesticides
(Colorado State University, 2020). The OFS is well-defined by the use of
plant nutrition of biological origin, including compost, manure, green
manuring compost, and bone meal, etc., and simultaneously producing
crops in farmland with a prioritization on procedures such as non-GMO
elite varieties, crop rotation and companion planting. The system varies
basically in soil fertility and productivity, diseases, and pests’ management,
nutritional quality and yield stability as compared to conventional farming
systems. Besides these, organic pests and diseases management, diversified
cropping and raising of insect killers are inspired. The OFS focuses on the
versatility and buffering limit in the ranch environment by animating inner
self-guideline through useful agrobiodiversity in or more the dirt, rather than
outer guideline through substance protectants. Natural norms are intended
to permit the utilization of normally happening substances while precluding
or carefully restricting manufactured substances (McEvoy, 2018). The OFS
was established as a substitution of the modern agricultural system which
initiated during the early in the 20th century in response to promptly altering
agricultural activities (Coleman, 1995; Arsenault, 2014; USDA, 2016). In
the OFS, agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides are gener­
ally obtained from the organic origins also must involve crop rotation and
companion planting methods. The OFS aims to maintain agroecosystem by
encouraging interior self-regulation for using synthetic agricultural inputs
(Halberg, 2006; Strochlic and Sierra, 2007).
324 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

It revealed that OFS is friendly to the environment, biodiversity, and

sustainability of the resource utilization. Therefore, various countries and
organizations have started to adopt, improve, and extend the use of OFS
for promoting sustainable agriculture. This chapter reviews and updates our
understanding of the current concept, status, economic benefits, and chal­
lenges for sustainable intensification of OFS. The knowledge of eco-friendly
OFS is described in relation to its usefulness for the safe production of
nutritional food in the era of climate change.

14.2 PRESENT STATUS OF ORGANIC FARMING ACROSS THE

GLOBE

Since 1990, the marketplace for an organic and additional foodstuff has full-
grown quickly, attaining $63 billion globally in 2012 (Helga et al., 2013) and
is now experienced in ˃120 countries (Willer and Yussefi, 2007). This need
for organic products has motivated a comparable intensification in naturally
accomplished farmland that raised from 2001 to 2011 at a compounding
proportion of 8.9% yearly (Paull, 2011a, b). As of 2018, about 71.5 Mha land
globally were cultivated under OFS naturally, demonstrating about 1.5% of
total farmland worldwide (FiBL, 2020) (Figures 14.1–14.3). According to the
latest FiBL organic agriculture survey data from 186 countries (conducted
at the end of 2018) revealed that the growth rate of organic agriculture was
2.9% or 2 Mha compared to 2017. Presently, specialized OFS is occupied
about 70 million ha land worldwide, where country Australia stands for
54% of global authorized organic land with the country recorded ˃35 Mha
verified OFS land (Paull, 2018, 2019). As a result of the huge area of organic
farmlands are practiced in Australia, half of the global OFS lands are situated
in Oceania (36.0 Mha) (Figures 14.1–14.3). Considering the country based
on OFS lands, Australia has the first (about 35.7 Mha), secondly Argentina
(3.6 Mha), and then China (3.1 Mha) in 2018 (Paull and Hennig, 2018).
In the case of continents under OFS land, Australia is the 1st (about 35.7
Mha), Europe is the 2nd (15.6 Mha), third in Latin America (8 Mha). Asia is
in 4th position (4.1 Mha), and North America is the 5th position (about 1.4
Mha) and Africa is the least (1.2 Mha) (Colom-Gorgues et al., 2009; Paull
and Hennig, 2018). In the year 2018, the international market for organic
food and products exceeded 97 billion euros (BES) for the first time, whereas
the USA contributes 40.6 BEs, next place was occupied for Germany (10.9
BEs) and France (9.1 BEs). In the meantime, the organic market in French
was grownup more than 15%. Consumers in Denmark and Switzerland
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 325

have already spent 312 Euros per capita in 2018 for organic food. Similarly,
Denmark spent 15% on organic food of its total food market. Additionally,
as an Asian country, India is the maximum number of organic food producers
(1,149,000), then place was occupied for African countries Uganda (210000)
and Ethiopia (204000).

FIGURE 14.1 Development of organic agriculture in several countries globally from 1999
to 2017.
Source: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL, 2020).

FIGURE 14.2 Trends (from 1999 to 2017) of organic agricultural land worldwide.
Source: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL, 2020).
326 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

FIGURE 14.3 Area (ha) under organic farming across the globe.
Source: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL, 2020).

14.3 CONCEPT, HISTORY, AND REGULATION OF ORGANIC

AGRICULTURE

14.3.1 CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING

The practice of term “organic” promoted by Howard and Rodale, who

mentions more precisely to usage of organic agricultural status in soils, high­
lighted from the effort of soil researchers who stated the concept of ‘humus
farming’ (Nayler, 2014). On the other hand, the term “organic” designates
that a farm should be regarded as active organisms (Kirchmann and Berg­
strom, 2008; Paull, 2011a, b). The exact concept of OFS is discussed by the
following quotations:

• An organic farm is a farm whose arrangement is shaped in simulated

of the construction of a natural structure that has the truthfulness, the
individuality, and the benevolent requirement of a natural creature
(IFOAM-Organics International, 2008).
• OFS can be well-defined as a combined agricultural structure that
struggles for the sustainability, the improvement of soil productiveness
and organic assortment, while with infrequent exemptions, elimination
artificial pesticides, fertilizers, phytohormones, and GM crop cultivars
(Martin, 2009; Gold, 2020).
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 327

• OFS is an assembly of a productive arrangement that withstands the

healthiness of soils, agroecosystems, and anthropological activity. It
trusts on environmental practices, biodiversity, and cycles adjusted
to home-grown conditions, rather than the use of contributions with
hostile effects. OFS associates custom, improvement, and discipline
to profit the collective location and indorse reasonable associations
and decent superiority of life for all involved (IFOAM-Organics
International, 2008).
• OFS is an unconventional cultivated system that initiated initial of the
20th century in response to promptly altering agricultural practices.
OFS approaches are globally synchronized and legitimately imposed
by numerous countries, established in huge part on the ethics set
by the IFOAM, which was established in 1972, an intercontinental
umbrella organization for OFS (Paull, 2010).

14.3.2 HISTORY OF ORGANIC FARMING

The traditional agriculture was the innovative kind of farming that has been
experienced for 1000 of years. Most of these traditional agricultural method­
ologies were underdeveloped and had unadorned adverse effects on human
health and also on the surrounding environment. Since non-natural plant
nourishments in agriculture were initially created at the time of mid-1900.
Comparable progresses of inorganic pesticides were materialized in the 1940s,
directed to the period being mentioned to as the ‘era of pesticide’ (Horne,
2008). As a concurrent improvement of biochemistry and engineering farm­
ing’s during the initial 40-year of the 20-century, farms size and cropping
were started bigger and specialized for using of efficient farm machinery
and also for reducing the dependence on physical and animal employments
in tillage, pesticides, and fertilizers applications. As an advancement of farm
mechanization and excessive and imbalanced use of modern agricultural
inputs including man-made agricultural stimulators, and the extreme events
of climate change (Stinner, 2007), resulted several short and lengthier side
effects on agroecological environment, leading to adverse effect on human
health. Researchers also started to search techniques/solutions to alleviate
these poisonous effects of modern farming, while preserving the maximum
productivity. In the circumstances, farmers and policymakers in the
emerging countries have adapted to contemporary biological approaches for
commercial reasons (Paull, 2007). Therefore, an OFS concept was started
in the 1940s for avoiding the poisonous effects that were emerged from the
328 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

application of artificial fertilizers and pesticides. The OFS was established

as a substitution of the agricultural system which initiated during the early in
the 20th century in response to promptly altering agricultural activities. The
historical trends of OFS have discussed in subsections.

14.3.2.1 PRE-WORLD WAR-II

Intentionally OFS started more or less concurrently in Europe and India.

Historical evidence of the Pre-World War-II concept on OFS are discussed
in the following several points:

1. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, scientists of soil environmental

science started to search for techniques for remedying these adverse
effects of synthetic agricultural inputs in modern agriculture, through
preserving the maximum agricultural productivity.
2. OFS conception was established by Sir Albert Howard, F.H. King,
Rudolf Steiner, and others in the early 19 Century, who presumed
that the utilization of compost, organic manures, cover crops, crop
rotation, and pest management through biological means ensued in a
healthier farming system.
3. An American agronomist namely ‘F. H. King’ published his findings on
‘Farmers of 40 Centuries’ who also visited in China, Korea, and Japan
during the year 1909 for lecturing on outdated agricultural system’s
nourishment, plowing, and wide-ranging of farming practices (King,
2004; Paull, 2011b).
4. From 1905 to 1924, the father of current OFS the British botanist Sir
Albert Howard and his wife a plant physiologist namely Gabrielle
worked as agricultural consultants in Pusa-Bengal, India, and exposed
the primitive Indian agricultural activities and suggested several meth­
odologies to respect them as loftier to their unadventurous agriculture
(Conford, 2001; Heckman, 2007). As soon as Howard backed to UK
in the initial of 1930s, he started to disseminate OFS in England and
Europe (Lotter, 2003; Vogt, 2007; Kirchmann and Bergstrom, 2008).
5. In the year 1924, the first comprehensive system of OFS namely
‘Development of biodynamic agriculture’ was coined by Rudolf
Steiner’s (a German Scientist), exposed by a series of lectures
with Steiner at a farm in Koberwitz (Kobierzyce now in Poland)
(Paull, 2011a, b). In the lecture they revealed that when crops are
cultivated in despoiled soil leads to deteriorate the productivity and
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 329

nutritional quality of crops and livestock as a consequence of exces­

sive and imbalanced utilization of inorganic stimulants. Although the
summary of these lecture series was first appeared as a publication
in November 1924, but it was first translated to English in the year
1928 in ‘The Agriculture Course’ (Paull, 2011b).
6. A soil microbiologist namely Masanobu Fukuoka (Japan) first
opened the contemporary agricultural movement. In 1937, he left his
job as a scientist and backed to his family’s farm in 1938, and dedi­
cated his next 60 years of life for developing a fundamental no-till
organic agricultural technique for increasing crop productivity. Now
these techniques are known as natural, natural farming, ‘do-nothing’
farming or Fukuoka farming.
7. In July 1939, the term “OFS” was first coined by Walter James in his
book ‘Look to the Land’ (Lord Northbourne), which was written in
1939 and was published in 1940) (Paull, 2011b, c, 2014). In the text
of the book, Walter James demarcated all-inclusive, environmentally
stable methodology to farming, known as “the farm as organisms”
(Paull, 2006); establishing based on Steiner’s farming moralities and
approaches (Paull, 2011a, c, 2014).
8. In 1939, Lady Eve Balfour had been working on farming systems
development since 1920 for generating data to test these beliefs at
Haughley Experiment, Suffolk-England (Gordon, 2017). Lady Eve
Balfour assumed that human healthiness and upcoming life are
depending on how the soil was used for producing their foodstuffs.
She also assumed that sketchy farming could harvest more healthy
food (Gordon, 2017).

14.3.2.2 POST-WORLD WAR-II

Technological progress at the time of 2nd World War was enhanced for the
post-war novelty in all sides of food production by ensuing in huge improve­
ments in modernization and synthetic inputs. In particular, two chemicals
were produced and used widely in agricultural production system. For
example, ammonium nitrate was used as a cheap source of nitrogen for plant
munitions. Besides the new pesticides, DDT was used widely for controlling
disease-carrying insects:

1. In 1944, an intercontinental movement named the ‘Green Revolu­

tion’ was hurled in Mexico with a private subsidy from the America.
330 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

The concept of ‘Green Revolution’ inspired the expansion of hybrid

crop cultivars, synthetic stimulators such as inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides, irrigated crops, and also introduction of mechanization
for intensive agricultural through reducing manual labors; as a result,
a single farmer started to big areas of land and fields raised larger.
2. During the year 1950s, a topic of sustainable agriculture was started
popularity in a scientific society, but researchers tend to spirit on
evolving the new chemical methods as one of the principals of the
ongoing ‘Green Revolution,’ for enhancing the agricultural produc­
tivity for a growing population. At that time, conversely, the hostile
effects of “modern” agriculture sustained to spark an unimportant but
increasing consciousness for OFS concept. For example, in the US, J.
I. Rodale started to promote the word and approaches of OFS, mainly
to clients by doing the advertising of organic horticulture initially.
3. During 1962, Rachel Carson, a prominent ecologist, published the
book ‘Silent Spring’ which recording the consequences of DDT and
other insecticides on the surrounding environment (Paull, 2007). The
US government in 1972 banned the usage of chemical DDT as per
the suggestions of the book Silent Spring.
4. During 1970, the meaning of “eco-agriculture” was first specified by
Charles Walters, in the Acres Magazine, in where Charles Walters
suggested not to use ‘synthetic stimulators’ in the cultivation rather
than organic agriculture; since these molecules have short and long-
term side effects (ACRES-Magazine, 2020).
5. During the 1970s, scientists and policy were worried about envi­
ronmental pollution as a consequence of intensive agricultural
production systems and emphasized on OFS. One objective of the
OFS effort was inspired for consuming locally produced food staffs
through slogans like “Know Your Farmer, Know Your Food.”
6. During 1972, the IFOAM was created in ‘Versailles’ (Paull, 2010),
France for dissemination and discussion about the benefits of OFS.
7. During 1975, the book ‘The One-Straw Revolution’ was published
by Fukuoka. In the book, Fukuoka discussed the robust impression
in various fields of the modern farming across the globe. He stated
that limited scale grain production should be accentuated carefully
to maintain the equilibrium of the local agroecosystem through
minimizing anthropological interference.
8. J. I. Rodale and his Rodale Press (now Rodale, Inc.) directed the
technique to minimize the adverse effects of artificial agricultural
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 331

inputs at the time period of 1970s and 1980s. He also highlighted the
benefits of OFS.
9. ‘Oregon Tilth’ started first for authorization of organic products and
service in the USA during 1984 (Musick, 2008).
10. In the 1980s, the government forced to producers and consumers for
authorization ruling of organic products. In the USA, the Organic
Foods Production ‘Act of 1990’ rule was first published in the
Federal Register in the year 2000 (USDA, 2000).
11. Since the early 1990s, due to increasing consumer request, OFS
products in developed economies have been growing up about 20%
annually.
12. The damage of Soviet financial livelihood resulting the failure of the
Soviet Union in 1991; regulated to emphasizing on native farming
production and the progress of an exclusive state-supported urban
OFS program called ‘Organopónicos.’

14.3.2.3 TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY

All the way of history, for meeting the food demand of raising population,
modern agriculture always emphasize the artificial agricultural inputs, not
on OFS. After agricultural modernization, biotechnology, and genetic engi­
neering approaches were introduced for the improvement of stress-tolerant
crop cultivars (USEPA, 2020). Since, farming was started to upgrade
through the introduction of new farming procedures and machinery, while
several serious short and longer-term side effects were arisen due to the
excessive and imbalanced use of synthetic stimulants including inorganic
plant nutrients and pesticides. Considering these burning issues, researchers
have started to search techniques or solutions to alleviate these poisonous
effects of modern farming, while preserving the maximum productivity.
Therefore, an OFS concept has been started for avoiding the deleterious
effects that were emerged from the application of artificial fertilizers and
pesticides. The OFS was established as a substitution of the agricultural
system in response to promptly altering agricultural activities. Data in the
year of 2018, revealed that approximately 71.5 Mha of land globally under
OFS naturally (FiBL, 2020). According to the latest FiBL (2020) organic
agriculture survey data from 186 countries (conducted at the end of 2018)
revealed that the growth rate of organic agriculture was 2.0 Mha compared
to 2017.
332 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

14.3.3 REGULATION OF ORGANIC FARMING

The products of OFS must be legally authorized by the governments of each

country. Growers should be certified for their products and foods to be exclu­
sively “organic,” and there are exact organic criterions for foodstuffs. Organic
authorization and fair-trade authorization are one of the eight successes of
the millennium development goals (MDGs), that were time-honored in the
Millennium Summit of the UN in the year 2000, since all UN member states
were committed to assist for achieving the goal of MDGs by the year 2015
(Setboonsarng, 2015).
Considering the aspect, the body of ‘Codex Alimentarius of the FAO’ was
established in November 1961. The Commission’s major aims are to keep
the healthily life of consumers and ensure quality food in the international
food market. The Codex Alimentarius body is recognized by the WTO as
an international authority for resolving arguments, regarding food security
and end-user health-safeguard (WTO, 2020). Since, most nations have
their own agendas, roles, and regulation for ensuring the quality and safety
of organic products (Figure 14.4). The certifiers of the EU or the United
States can examine and verify the other countries’ growers and processors
products when the country/organization want to export their product to these
countries. In the EU, organic certification and examination are approved by
authorized organic control bodies as per the standard levels of EU. In USA,
OFS products has been certified and examined by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) for ensuring the National Organic Standards. In the
USA, the Organic Foods Production ‘Act of 1990’ rule was first established
and published in the Federal Register in the year 2000 (USDA, 2000).

14.4 TYPES, PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS, AND BASIC METHODS

OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

14.4.1 TYPES OF ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM (OFS)

14.4.1.1 PURE ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM

This includes the use of organic inputs while completely avoids the use
of any types of chemicals. Further to become pure OFS, around 4–5 years
required to diminish the residual effects of already applied fertilizers.
Many agencies are there to provide certificates for the OFS. Generally,
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 333

organic produce is somewhat expensive as compared to the conventional

produce but superior from nutritional values (Brandt and Mølgaard, 2001).
However, inhabitants, particularly of developed nations demanding it even
after paying higher for it after considering its health benefits. However,
in underdeveloped nations, OFS is still requiring to jump many hurdles
(Meena et al., 2013).

FIGURE 14.4 Organic certification labels for different countries.

14.4.1.2 INTEGRATED ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM

This permits the sustainable use of both organic and inorganic fertilizers
to an extent at which it does not adversely affect our ecology. It is the kind
of cultivation practices, where cultivating of crops is done solely utilizing
natural resources (Meena et al., 2013). Legumes have a considerable scope
under this farming (Drinkwater et al., 1998). Further, it could also involve
the poultry, mushroom production, goat-rearing, and fishpond altogether for
having regular incomes (Yadav, 2017).

14.4.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM (OFS)

There are several principles of OFS, which are discussed in the following
sub-headings (Meena et al., 2013).
334 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

14.4.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF HEALTH

The OFS ultimately results in sustainable farming and reduces the carbon as well
as water footprints. The OFS increases the product quality which further helps
in attaining the overall sustainability. Good quality soils produce good quality
products which further has a favorable effect on the consumers (Meena et al.,
2013). Being having almost nil residual effects of chemicals, organic produce
always improves the health status of the consumers. Organically produced
products help to bring overall sustainability by improving the soil health, human
health, etc., (Drinkwater et al., 1998; Brandt and Mølgaard, 2001).

14.4.2.2 PRINCIPLE OF ECOLOGY

The OFS has sustainable effects on our ecosystems by one or other way as
it reduces the generation of GHGs, reduces carbon footprints, and expands
the soil fertility and productivity by improving organic matters in the soils.
It also has favorable effects on the beneficial insects which otherwise killed
by the strong pesticides, which further controls the harmful insects. Further
approaches such as Trichoderma has a significant role in controlling the
pest population. The objective is to have a favorable effect on the ecological
balance. Organic supervision must be reformed as per local agro-ecological
and social conditions (Drinkwater et al., 1998). The OFS uses natural organic
manures hence reduces the carbon as well as water footprints and makes the
whole agricultural system ecologically sustainable (Meena et al., 2013).

14.4.2.3 PRINCIPLE OF FAIRNESS

Fair relationship between common environment and life opportunities

must be there under the OFS (Brandt and Mølgaard, 2001), which involved
well-being of every whosoever involved, viz. farmers, workers, processors,
distributors, traders and consumers (Meena et al., 2013). Aim of the OFS is
to produce a better-quality product which is good for society, the ultimate
users (Drinkwater et al., 1998). Sustainable agriculture is a must for the
upcoming generations (Brandt and Mølgaard, 2001). Fairness required in
the production, transportation, handling, and trade of the product with a
minimum of food loss as well as to the food wastage.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 335

14.4.2.4 PRINCIPLE OF CARE

The OFS has a goal of improved health and wellness. Depending upon the
demands both external as well as internal, organic produce produced under
the principles of OFS, though it might be a bit costly as associated to the
traditional systems. Precaution and responsibility of OFS must be critically
followed for the optimum production (Meena et al., 2013).

14.4.3 COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING

Proper crop rotation, organic matter additions, nitrogen fixation, biogas, etc.,
are the main pillars for the OFS which must be followed while practicing the
OFS. Among organic manures, farmyard manures (FYMs), vermicompost,
green manuring, etc., are the key players for improving the soil health. OFS,
in brief, involved the following pillars in subsections (Figure 14.5).

FIGURE 14.5 Essential components of organic farming system.

336 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

14.4.3.1 CROP ROTATION

Under this method, different crops with different rhizosphere and different
nutrient mining capabilities are grown in sequence so as to grow crops
sustainably with the least possible pressure on the natural resources.
Introduced legumes in the crop rotation will improve the soil health and
livelihoods of the farmers by one or other way. Further, fertilizer demands
also reduced which reduced loads on the farmers’ pockets. Hence proper
crop rotation must be followed by adding legumes in the cereals.

14.4.3.2 CROP RESIDUE

Rice-wheat crop rotation followed on a significant portion of South Asia.

Among their residues, management of the rice residues is really a challenging
job as because of higher silica contents, and it is not used in the animal
husbandry sector. Therefore, several methods viz., ZT sown wheat with a
happy seeder, paralichar, phosphor-compost recommended in the region for
the sustainable management of the rice residues. Under OFS, use of paralichar
or phosphor-compost is highlighted.

14.4.3.3 ORGANIC MANURE

Use of organic manures viz., FYM, compost, vermicompost, etc., is recom­

mended in the OFS for sustainably cutting of the chemical fertilizers. Further,
organic manure slowly releases the nutrients and improves the soil health
as manures act as the feed for the microorganisms. The use of only organic
manures certainly cut down the potential yields, and that is why organic
produce is somewhat costlier than the conventional produce because of its
lower yields. Beside these above components, the following aspects are
important for an OFS:

• Shifting of land from conventional use to organic use with almost no

use of chemicals;
• Ensure biodiversity and sustainability of the system by overall
ecological maintenance;
• Sustainable crop production with different approaches viz., crop rota­
tion, management of crop residues, compost, manures, and managing
pests and diseases through biological means;
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 337

• Control of insect-pest population through the biological control

system;
• Use of organic concept in livestock by the use of organically produced
feed.

14.4.4 ORGANIC FARMING METHODS

As the accumulation of organic matter is a precedence for OFS, hence,

chemical fertilizers are ignored. Generally, organic matter is applied in the
soil in the form of the FYM, vermicompost, green manure (GM), compost,
and so on. The USDA National Organic Standards instructed those organic
manures must be incorporated in the soils within 3 to 4 months, based on soil
and air temperature, moisture availability, etc. Well decomposed compost or
FYM only be utilized in the soil to enhance the soil health that ultimately
further adds organic matter into the soils, improves the physicochemical
properties of the soils, and finally the potential yields and their quality
standards. As nutrients in these organic manures are un-mineralized, hence
the use of microbes is a must to make them available to the plants for
meeting their requirements, hence their release is slow, and uses efficiency
is relatively higher than that of the chemical fertilizers which easily released
the nutrients quickly. For example, urea easily hydrolyzed by the urease
enzyme to produce the CO2 and ammonia gas in the atmosphere, which
further causes the greenhouse gas (GHG) effect.
Green manuring practiced under OFS to add the organic matter in soil
and hence improves the product quality. Green manuring also helpful for
loading the soil with different macro and micronutrients. Further, minimum
tillage should be practiced as under the intensively tilled plots, hidden
organic matter oxidized by the microorganisms and produces the CO2 as
GHGs enhances the C-footprints which is certainly not required. Further,
under the OFS, to get ride-off from the different insects and pests, instead
of using different insecticides and pesticides, organically produced liquid
formulations containing neem leaves or neem oil or other organic products
like Lassi preferred. Further, some bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis, also
used at some site-specific locations. However, under the OFS, some inor­
ganic pesticides such as sulfur (S) and copper (Cu) are also allowed, since
they have no side effect on the food chain confirmed by several earlier find­
ings (NPR, 2011). Cu sources pesticides are recycled to fight against fungal
and bacterial diseases in plants; since it is not very toxic to human health.
Further, OFS much depends on the biological approaches to control insect
338 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

pests. Further, breeding and biotechnological approaches must be applied to

develop new plant cultivars which respond better to the OFS, could tolerate
different stresses, and resistant to the attack of different insect-pest and
diseases. The very basic methods of organic agriculture are discussed in the
following sub-headings.

14.4.4.1 CROP DIVERSITY

Diversification already advocated minimizing the water footprints in the

rice-based cropping systems (Bhatt et al., 2020a, b). Further, multi-cropping
could also be practiced for resolving the ever-increasing demands of the
burgeoning population. However, growing of a single crop for a number
of consecutive years removes the nutrients from a particular soil depth for
fulfilling further crop nutrient demands. Hence diversification is an impor­
tant method to be kept in the mind.

14.4.4.2 SOIL MANAGEMENT

Mostly under conventional crop establishment methods, soil health is

declining day after day due to intensively practiced rice-wheat cropping rota­
tion with conventional faulty methods, which led to declined soil health and
yields (Drinkwater et al., 1998; Bhatt et al., 2020a, b). However, under OFS
mostly nutrient requirements fulfilled through the organic inputs viz., FYM,
and vermicompost or even through the green manuring, etc., which further
improves the soil organic matter (SOM) status which further has its favor­
able effects in the soil physic-chemical and biological properties (Dobbs and
Smolik, 1996). Therefore, OFS depends on the natural way of farming and
avoid the use of chemical fertilizers (Brandt and Mølgaard, 2001).

14.4.4.3 WEED MANAGEMENT

Plants that are not required where they are not required are known as “weeds”
and they fight with the focal plants for water, nutrients, and sunlight, and
ultimately affected the overall land productivity (Drinkwater et al., 1998).
Under OFS generally, we used the practice of mulching and cutting instead
of using heavy weedicides, which further pollutes the underground water
and thus a threat to the ecosystem.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 339

14.4.4.4 INSECT-PEST CONTROL

Agricultural produce significantly affected by the attack of insect-pest and

diseases, which needs to be controlled for overall sustainability (Drinkwater
et al., 1998). However, instead of using the chemicals under OFS more
stress given on the biological control or spray of natural chemicals like
neem oil. Further, by doing so, we could also take care of the useful insects
which otherwise affected by the chemicals of conventional farming.

14.4.4.5 LIVESTOCK

OFS methods also focused on the other sectors like dairy, piggery, etc., along
with the agricultural sector to enhance the system sustainability. Further, this
also led to regular incomes for the farmers.

14.4.4.6 GENETIC MODIFICATION

In general, OFS discourages the use of the engineered animals/plants for

direct consumption by the humans as many complications are there regarding
their residual effects on the human health (Dobbs and Smolik, 1996). More­
over, up to now in India, these are not advocated except Bt cotton, which is
a non-food crop.

14.5 PROSPECTS OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE FOR FOOD

QUALITY AND SAFETY

Agricultural activity was started 10,000 years ago without the utilization
of synthetic stimulators. Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides were started
to use in the mid-1900. Initially, these artificial inputs were very inexpen­
sive, influential, and transportation of bulk volume was easy. Comparable
progresses were also happened for artificial pesticides in the 1940s, which
leading to the period being mentioned to as the ‘Pesticide Era’ (Horne, 2008).
Although application of artificial agricultural inputs significantly improved
the farming productivity (Hole et al., 2005), while excessive and imbalanced
application of these chemical fertilizers and pesticides generated a serious
short and longer-term side effects on soil and surrounding environment, and
also human health (Stinner, 2007). The green revolution has also contributed
340 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

to several environmental problems (Singh, 2000) which have directly or

indirectly influenced the human civilizations. In the present day the number
of food-insecure people in India, Bangladesh. Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri
Lanka are increasing not due to food availability but also due to food acces­
sibility. Considering the burning issue, researchers began to seek solutions
to alleviate these hostile effects of chemicals, while preserving the maximum
productivity. In the last part of the 1800’s and mid 1900’s, researchers
started to look for approaches to cure these results while as yet keeping up
higher productivity. Therefore, an OFS concept was started in the 1940s for
avoiding the poisonous effects that were emerged from the application of
artificial fertilizers and pesticides (Pugliese, 2001; Vogt, 2007). Under such
circumstances, there is an urgent need to provide access to food. As per the
report provided (IFAD, 2007), it has been observed that OFS can purposively
solve the problems by providing local food security by generating diverse
products with low input costs as compared to conventional agriculture. In
the OFS, agricultural inputs generally must be from biological origin also
must involve organic manure, compost, free from GMO, crop rotation and
companion planting, etc. The OFS aims to maintain agroecosystem by
encouraging interior self-regulation for using synthetic agricultural inputs.
Undeniably, profits of organic crops/products have been established to be
around 25% inferior to modern farming (Stolze and Lampkin, 2009), but
OFS is environmentally friendly, could improve nutritional quality through
incorporating diversified crop cultivars (Rigby and Cáceres, 2001). A study
conducted over 22 years in Rodale Institute test farm (Pimentel et al., 2005;
Steffanie et al., 2018). A 30th-anniversary report was published by Rodale in
2012 (Rodale Institute, 2020). During the trial, he expressed that the harvest
yields for corn and soybeans were at par in the animal based natural farming,
vegetable-based cropping pattern and regular cultivating frameworks.
It likewise found that fundamentally less fossil energy was exhausted for
the production of corn in the Rodale Institute’s organic leguminous based
cropping practices and natural vegetable cultivation frameworks than in the
traditional agronomic framework. Similarly, there was little distinction in
energy input consumption among the various treatments for the production
of soybeans. In the natural cropping practices, inorganic fertilizers and
chemical pesticides were avoided (McBride and Greene, 2013).
Organic food production system is needed to spread globally as the
currently practiced conventional agricultural production system poses a
detrimental effect on the environment, causing soil, water, land degradation
and also contributing to GHG emission leading to global warming. Organic
cropping system not only increases food productivity in some areas but also
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 341

helps in combating hunger where poverty exists providing both food security
and health enrichment. Initiatives taken by some developing countries to
slowly shift towards an organic package of practices through integrated
nutrient management are praiseworthy. It is to be mentioned that the chal­
lenge in adapting organic cropping system is neither agronomical constraints
nor economical boundaries but completely socio-political. Prospects and
benefits of OFS are discussed in the following sub-sections.

14.5.1 IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC FARMING ON FOOD

SECURITY

During the last few years, per capita world food production has increased by
almost 25%, and world food commodity rates have drastically decreased by
40% in actual terms. As per the study conducted by Pretty et al. (2001), during
the early 1960s and mid-90’s the mean cereal productivity increased signifi­
cantly from 1.2 t ha–1 to 2.52 t ha–1 in emerging nations like India, Bangladesh,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and Malaysia. However, total cereal production
has been increased dramatically from 420 to 1,176 million tons yearly.
Gradual progression towards achieving food sufficiency by reducing
hunger has been unfortunately slowed down in recent years. For the period
of the late ‘1990s and early 20th Century, the total figure of hungry/starved
people in the developing nations has been reduced by just 1%, from 824
million to 815 million. However, in the sub-Saharan African (SSA) region,
the scenarios are just the opposite, where there is a significant rise in hungry
people since the 1990s by almost 20% (Von Braun, 2005). Thus, it is very
much evident that humanity is far away from the reality in achieving the
goal which has been set as per MDGs of reducing the number of hungry
people around the globe by almost half. Yet paradoxically rather ironically
during the same period, nearly about 1.2 billion people, particularly in first
world nations, are over-eating, which increases obesity-related health issues
(World Watch Institute, 2000).
In 2007, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
reported that chemical fertilizers were needed to avoid hunger, particularly
in Africa where fertilizers are presently used 90% less than in Asia (FAO,
2007). Likewise, NEPAD, an advancement association of African govern­
ments, reported that taking care of Africans and forestalling ailing health
requires manures and upgraded seeds (Africa Fertilizer Summit, 2006). For
example, in Malawi, the yield has been boosted up using seeds and fertil­
izers (FAO, 2007). FAO additionally calls for utilizing biotechnology, as it
342 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

can help small and marginal producers (farmers) to improve their monetary
returns and food security (FAO, 2013). According to a 2012 study in Science
Digest, organic best management practices show an average yield of only
13% less than the conventional cultivation system (McGill University,
2012). On the planet’s less fortunate countries (under-developed nations)
where a large portion of the world’s ravenous individuals live, and where
individual farmers could not able to afford costly input materials, adoption
of natural and organic input materials enhances yields almost by 93% overall
and hence could be a significant piece of alternative way for achieving food
security (World Watch Institute, 2006). Many researchers, policymakers, and
experts opined that OFS would not only increase the world’s food demand
but might be the only technique to eliminate malnourishment (World Watch
Institute, 2006).
This is well established fact that there is an increasing need for capital
and chemical inputs that have deleterious consequences in the sustainability
of agriculture. There have been many arguments in the adaptation of conser­
vation agriculture, recycling of nutrients, biodiversity, and synergistic effect
between crops, animals including livestock and soils, etc., regeneration, and
conservation of natural resources. However, these strategies should accord
with policy, capacities, and interest with the small and medium farmers, who
otherwise will not be enthusiastic enough in adapting so.

14.5.2 THE SYNERGISTIC WELFARES OF ORGANIC FARMING

SYSTEM (OFS)

Organic methods reduce the production cost of food crop (Marshall, 1991;
Brown, 2008). During 2000, uncompensated costs for 1996 reached nearly
2,343 million British pounds or £208 per ha. (£84.20/ac) (Pretty et al., 2000).
An investigation of practices in the US distributed in 2005 presumed that crop­
land costs the economy roughly 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30–96/ha–$12–39/
ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars (Tegtmeier and
Duffy, 2005). Assessing the welfares and also the constraints of OFS is rather
very multifaceted. The effect of transforming to OFS will largely depend on
the initial interest and capabilities of the growers and farming communities,
their inherent skills, and the natural means obtainable to them. However,
several major relevant potentials prospects have been worked out:

• OFS can enhance agricultural output, particularly in regions where

growers are prone or subject to the vulnerability of food shortages.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 343

• OFS can enhance income generation and/or revenues to the farm

employment. This goal can be attained either through reaping the
better yields, superior prices due to higher demand, lower costs (for
inputs) or incorporations of these three parameters.
• The divergence of the agricultural production system, which is
intrinsic in OFS, decreases the risk of crop loss by any natural calami­
ties or anthropogenic sources due to various stress and synergistic
financial and food security restraints. The system consensuses power­
fully with the risk diversion approaches which have been embraced
by low income-generating farming families.
• OFS foodstuffs are safe, diversified, and nutritional.
• OFS bypasses the hidden risks related with the drastic and vigorous
use of toxic chemicals.
• OFS plays a vital role in sustaining natural resource conservation
such as decreasing water demand and run-off, soil erosion, enhancing
biodiversity, natural resource conservation.
• OFS plays a dynamic role for creating awareness regarding the impor­
tance of sustainable food production and consumption amongst the
farmers and consumers and also the importance of clean and safely
produced in order to safeguard the environment.
• OFS has significantly contributed to women upliftment in farming
societies as compared to additional relegated groups, as well as
ensuring innovative employment prospects for the poor landless.
• OFS identifies the importance of outdated and aboriginal under­
standing and thus helps in incorporating this knowledge in its produc­
tion system, thus growing social capability and self-value.
• OFS has proved to be sustainable in the long run. It increases the
capabilities of a production system towards climate resilience such as
drought, flooding, or other extreme events.
• OFS has a perfect cut role to encounter a variety of world ecological
policies and aims, comprising strategies to combat desertification,
preserving resource biodiversity, and bypassing the unfriendly effects
of global warming.

14.5.3 FOOD QUALITY IMPROVEMENT UNDER ORGANIC

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

The quality of food products is judgmental and shows temporal and spatial
variation. There are no specific criteria for classifying food superiority.
344 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Hence, the definition of food quality is highly flexible. Initially, there

were some fixed parameters for assessing food quality. Nowadays, a more
holistic approach is undertaken for defining food quality. Kahl et al. (2010)
analyzed the present condition/values of organic food quality as compared to
the potential quality that has been claimed in the superior world. A rational
gap between consumer demands regarding food quality of an individual to
that which can be guaranteed by the government as per policies, regulatory
law enforcement was also worked out. A study by Byerlee and Alex (2005)
showed that diversification and optimization of farm productivity, reduc­
tion of inputs for farm operations, resulting towards the development of
households,’ a market-orientated scheme for earning extra income; organic
production systems which have eventually resulted in alleviating hunger and
poverty. It is proven that improved income allows individual farmers to buy
food to a greater extent which would otherwise lead to a hunger crisis.
Incurred higher returns coming from the marketing of organic commodi­
ties often leads to seasonal or permanent diversification of cropping systems
from principle staple crop production towards high value lucrative high-
value commodities such as exotic vegetables, fruits, etc., depending upon
the farmers’ investment potentiality, agroecological conditions and local
demands. Although in many instances, principle food systems will continue
to dominate the market (for example, rice dominated 50% of Asia’s culti­
vated lands) and off-farm activities will generate extra revenue, however,
on the other hand, organic diversification contributes to higher net earn­
ings from land and labor savings. However, the adapting diversified crop
cultivation from conventional to organic practices requires strong will and
capital for establishment. Assured land, water source, sound technological
knowledge is some of the important prerequisites for investments in organic
diversification and commercialization as compared to any other forms of
agriculture.
Rural Schools and homestead gardens provide chemical-free nutritional
organic products that improve the health of rural children and households.
These systems significantly contribute to food accessibility, the safety of
children and improving the health and nutritional status of the families. In
certain instances, poorly known less popular varieties have proved to be an
important source of income generation opportunities through the marketing
of processed specialty foods (e.g., Chenopodium quinoa) or certain medic­
inal plants like Aswagandha, Cinchona, etc., or aromatic (Cinnamon) or dye
plants, which have high very high demand locally and in international export
markets.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 345

14.5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE TO

TRANSITIONAL FOOD CRISIS

Small and marginal farmers are often associated with pre- and post-production
risks factors, and thus, they are very much vulnerable to losses. For them,
sustainable food with assured income is more important than yield. Thus,
organic production system shows less variation in harvests and divergence
and hence, is one of the best-assured alternatives in cases of a sole crop
disappointment, climatic adversities, or even socio-economic crisis. Under
changing climatic scenarios with a rise in the number of risky weather events,
snow balling the flexibility of agroecosystems to weather abnormalities has
become an urgent need of present and future, especially in countries which are
agriculturally highly dependent. A thorough correlation of energy effective­
ness in grain production, produced yield, and animal husbandry concluded
that OFS had a better return for each unit of energy consumed over the huge
dominating animals and crop-based cropping system (Dalgaard et al., 2001).
Contradictory results on the profitability of OFS have also been reported
(Dalgaard et al., 2001). It has commonly been tracked down that the work
input per unit of yield was higher for organic means of agricultural practices
over conventional agricultural framework system (Pimentel et al., 1983).

14.5.5 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE CONTRIBUTION TO HEALTHY

DIETS

About 58% of deaths in the world are caused of non-transmissible diseases

like cardiac arrest, diabetes, kidney ailments due to malnutrition or imbal­
anced diets. In China alone, around 8.1% of the same households have both
underweight and an overweight member. Recent food patterns, however, have
immensely proved to be beneficial in combating malnutrition; specialized
agricultural systems focusing on enhancing nutritional contents of some staple
crops through biotechnological interventions have been a success in some
countries. Low dietary contents and micronutrients viz. vitamins, iron, and
iodine have affected more than half the population in developing nations like
India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, etc. This is indeed a key community
health anxiety which has been spoken through providing external addition and
biofortification in some important cereal crops like black rice, Golden rice,
High nutritional enriched fruits, and vegetables but in small scale which have
failed to target the majority of the population till date.
346 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Encouraging a miscellaneous indigenous food source may be available to

poor families, which has established to be a low cost and effective solution
to combat undernourishment. The feasibility of an OFS is highly dependable
to a different agroecosystem both spatially as well as temporally. Crop
diversification with the organic package of practice with even low economic
value have high nutrient enrichment is beneficial for the household in
improving the overall health. The reintroduction, assortment, and genetically
enrichment of location specific reformed cultivars makes an irreplaceable
involvement to “hidden hunger,” or nutritional micronutrient insufficiencies.
Several consumers’ survey reports have clearly depicted that consumers
of organic products have a healthier dietary status, particularly owing to
selections of “minor” legumes that contribute to improved foods.
While there may be some alterations in the quantities of nutrients and
anti-nutrients when progressively produced food and unadventurously
produced food products are compared, the variable idea of food creation
and taking care of makes it hard to sum up outcomes, and there is lacking
proof to make asserts that natural food is more secure or more grounded than
ordinary food (Bourn and Prescott, 2002; Blair, 2012; Smith-Spangler et al.,
2012; Barański et al., 2014).

14.5.6 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE SYSTEM INCREASES THE

PROFITABILITY

In the USA, OFS has been revealed 2.7 to 3.8 times extra cost-effective
to modern conventional farming (CT) (The Hindu, 2010; Gurung, 2011).
Worldwide, according to Metadata analysis across five continents in the year
2015, OFS was found 22 to 35% more income than CT (Hindu Business
Line, 2010; Times of India, 2010). Another observation found that on an
inclusive scale, 5–7% price premiums were needed to break even with CT
(Lotter, 2003; Crowder and Reganold, 2015). Martin and Kim (2008) found
that organic food is profitable, since organic products could be sold at a
relatively higher rate as compared to organically produced food.

14.5.7 ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM (OFS) INCREASES

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY OF LABORS

Organic production system is labor-intensive than CT (FAO, 2020), indi­

cating that OFS provides more jobs per unit area than conventional systems
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 347

(Green and Maynard, 2006). The 2011 United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) Green Economy Report suggests that an increase in investment in
OFS is anticipated to lead to growth rate in labor employment about 60%
compared with CT. The report also highlighted that investment in OFS could
create 47 million additional jobs compared with CT over the next 40 years
(UNEP, 2011), particularly for emerging nations. A large part of the develop­
ment in ladies work support in agribusiness and allied sectors are outside the
male dominated field of CT. Predominant associates in OFS are 21% ladies,
instead of 14% in conventional mode of farming sectors.

14.5.8 ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM (OFS) CONSERVES SOIL

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The OFS can build up SOM better than CT system, which suggests long-
term yield benefits from OFS (USDA-ARS, 2007). Researchers claimed
that naturally conserved soil has higher fertility and productivity (Johnston,
1986) leads to higher water retention (Kirchmann et al., 2007). USDA’s
Agricultural Research Service has observed that organic manure applica­
tions in tilled-OFS are better at constructing conserves soil physiological
and chemical properties than no-till (Hepperly et al., 2008; Paulson, 2008).
Scientists at Oxford University examined 71 peer-reviewed scientific
papers and looked into contemplates and observed that natural items are
once in a while are harmful rather detrimental for the climate (University of
Oxford, 2004) and generally, natural items required less energy, yet more land
(University of Oxford, 2004). Per unit of item, natural produce creates higher
nitrogen filtering, nitrous oxide outflows, smelling salts emanations, eutro­
phication, and fermentation potential than customarily developed produce
(Meleca, 2008; Tuomisto et al., 2012) and that OFS can diminish petroleum
derivative discharges (UNEP, 2011; Rodale Institute, 2014). Several experts
in the field of OFS techniques accept that the expanding land for cultivating
natural/organically produced food might actually annihilate the rainforests
and crash numerous environments (Goldberg, 2007; Leonard, 2007).

14.5.9 ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM (OFS) IS A BIODIVERSITY­

FRIENDLY PRACTICE

A wide scope of living beings profits by OFS, however, it is indistinct

whether natural techniques give more prominent financial advantages
348 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

than traditional coordinated agro-ecological projects (Hole et al., 2005).

OFS is regularly introduced as a greater biodiversity-accommodating
practice, however, the over-simplification of the valuable impacts of OFS
is bantered as the impacts show up frequently species-and setting reliant
and flow research have featured the need to measure the overall impacts of
neighborhood and scene scale the board on farmland biodiversity (Henckel,
2015). The protection of characteristic assets and biodiversity is a center
rule of natural creation. Three expansive administration rehearses (preclu­
sion/diminished utilization of synthetic pesticides and inorganic manures;
thoughtful administration of non-trimmed environments; and safeguarding
of blended cultivating) that are generally characteristic (yet not selective)
to OFS are especially helpful for farmland natural life. Utilizing rehearses
that draw in or present gainful creepy crawlies, give territory to birds and
vertebrates, and give conditions that expansion soil biotic variety serve to
supply crucial biological administrations to natural creation frameworks.
Benefits to guaranteed natural tasks that carry out these kinds of creation
rehearses include: (1) diminished reliance on external ripeness inputs; (2)
decreased bug the executives costs; (3) more solid wellsprings of clean
water; and (4) better fertilization (USDSA, 2018). Practically all non-crop,
normally happening species saw in similar homestead land practice reads
show an inclination for OFS both by plenitude and variety (Hole et al.,
2005; Gabriel et al., 2006). A normal of 30% more species possesses natural
homesteads (Bengtsston et al., 2005). Birds, butterflies, soil microorgan­
isms, scarabs, worms, (Blakemore, 2000), arachnids, vegetation, and well
evolved creatures are especially influenced. The absence of herbicides and
pesticides improve biodiversity wellness and populace thickness (Gabriel
et al., 2006). Many weed species draw in useful bugs that improve soil
characteristics and rummage on weed bothers (van Elsen, 2000). Soil-
bound creatures frequently advantage in view of expanded microorganisms
populaces because of regular compost like fertilizer, while encountering
decreased admission of herbicides and pesticides (Hole et al., 2005).
Expanded biodiversity, particularly from helpful soil microorganisms and
mycorrhizae have been proposed as a clarification for the significant returns
experienced by some natural plots, particularly considering the distinctions
found in a 21-year examination of natural and control fields (Fließbach et
al., 2006). Biodiversity from OFS gives cash-flow to people. Species found
in natural homesteads upgrade maintainability by diminishing human info
(e.g., manures, pesticides) (Perrings et al., 2006). The USDA’s agricultural
marketing service (AMS) distributed a Federal Register notice on 15
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 349

January 2016, reporting the national organic program (NOP) last direction
on Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation for Certified Organic
Operations. Given the expansive extent of regular assets which incorporates
soil, water, wetland, forest, and untamed life, the direction gives instances of
practices that help the hidden protection standards and exhibit consistence
with USDA natural guidelines (USDSA, 2018). The last direction furnishes
natural certifiers and homesteads with instances of creation rehearses that
help preservation standards and consent to the USDA natural guidelines,
which expect activities to keep up or improve common assets (USDA,
2018). The last direction likewise explains the job of guaranteed tasks (to
present an OSP to a certifier), certifiers (guarantee that the OSP depicts or
records rehearses that clarify the administrator’s checking plan and prac­
tices to help regular assets and biodiversity protection), and assessors (on
location investigation) in the execution and confirmation of these creation
rehearses (USDSA, 2018).

14.5.10 CAPACITY BUILDING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The OFS can donate to environmental sustainability, particularly in low

incoming countries (Hine and Pretty, 2006). Organic principles of OFS
employ of native assets (e.g., local seed varieties, manure, etc.). Local
and international markets for organic foodstuffs express the excellent
opportunities to improve the income of producers and exporters’ (Lockie,
2006). For expansion and improvement of OFS, International Federation
of OFS Movements accommodated more than 170 free handbooks and
75 training prospects online in the year 2007 (Niggli et al., 2008). United
Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) and the United Nations Confer­
ence on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) specified that OFS can be
more encouraging to food safety in Africa than CT, and more sustain­
able in the long-term and intensive production systems (Howden, 2008;
UNEP-UNCTAD, 2008). The estimation of OFS in the accomplishment
of the MDGs, especially in destitution decrease endeavors even with
environmental change, is appeared by its commitment to both pay and
non-pay parts of the MDGs (World Bank, 2008; Markandya et al., 2015;
Setboonsarng, 2015). A few overviews and studies have endeavored to
inspect and analyze regular and natural frameworks of cultivating and
have tracked down that natural strategies, while not without hurt, are less
harmful than ordinary ones since they diminish levels of biodiversity not
350 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

exactly customary frameworks do and utilize less energy and produce

less waste when determined per unit region (Stolze et al., 2000; Hansen
et al., 2001).

14.6 CHALLENGES OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM

Despite the fact that we need to recall that the world is still having a shortage
of good quality cultivable agricultural lands. Cultivating as of now involves
37% of the world’s territory zone and the majority of the great quality land is
as of now trimmed. By the mid-20th century we need to have to increase farm
outputs about 2-fold for feeding 9.7 billion people. The natural homesteads
as of now lose about a portion of their yield potential since they will not
utilize nitrogen compost and the more viable manufactured pesticides. They
are as of now suing regular ranchers for “dust contamination” from biotech
seeds. Presently they are beginning to lobby for “calamity installments” on
landslides and weeds. It has been proposed that OFS may profit farmland
biodiversity more in scenes that have lost a huge piece of its previous scene
heterogeneity.
In spite, it is a reality that the natural development faces a few obstacles
as it extends globally. A new audit of OFS recorded a few difficulties
confronting OFS (Halberg et al., 2005; Kristiansen et al., 2006; Smith et
al., 2010) including biological equity, creature government assistance,
reasonable exchange, store network improvement, profitability impediment
and local transformation and worldwide harmonization for norms. The most
important challenges for the sustainability of OFS under the growing food
demand of increasing population as well as in the modern era of changing
climate are discussed in subsections.

14.6.1 GENERAL CONSUMERS HAVE SEVERAL STANDARDS FOR

QUALITY ASPECTS THAT ARE DIFFICULT FOR ORGANIC
GROWERS TO MEET

Lettuce with holes in it or apples with a bit of scab are always passed over
by shoppers, although nutrition and flavor quality might be excellent.
Consumers have been trained to seek out food with Barbie-doll features.
Organic growers have higher rates of unmarketable blemished product which
often limits sales revenue.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 351

14.6.2 PROFITABILITY IS LOW BECAUSE FOOD PRICES ARE LOW

AND THE LAND IS EXPENSIVE

The vast majority of the farm producers we know have a normal day to day
employment to help the agricultural production which they do tirelessly on
evenings and throughout the week. Regardless of increment openness and
several benefits which have been acquired as of late, actually most of them
are yet not productive organizations.

14.6.3 ORGANIC FARMING ON COMMERCIAL LEVEL IS

DIFFICULT

Numerous organically harvested crops which are part of the monocropping

system, unlike conventional crops however, utilize naturally enlisted pesti­
cides and composts. It is basic for natural cultivators to splash pesticides
much more as often as possible as their customary partners to maintain
control pest and disease infestations. Natural techniques are considerably
more successful on a limited scale than on the commercial level.

14.6.4 THERE ARE MANY CONTRADICTORY CONCEPTS

REGARDING ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTS/CONSUMABLES

Many consumers buy organic because it seems like the ethical choice. But
how can big businesses (like Wal-Mart, General Mills, and Kellogg) grow
organically, and be any better than the produce grown in your own town?
Is organic really synonymous with pure? How do ethics of shopping for
organics compare with shopping local or fair-trade? Perhaps we are ready for
a new standard. How about farm-direct?

14.6.5 ORGANIC CERTIFICATION IS EXCLUSIVE

Numerous small producers do not legitimize the incurred cost for obtaining
organic certification. Some utilization strategies that are very appropriate for
obtaining organic tags, yet does not fulfill the underlying criteria for organic
tagging. On the off chance that you purchase directly from the producers
shops or village markets, you can converse with the producers regarding the
agronomic practices for producing the stuffs.
352 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

14.7 REGIONAL SUPPORT OF ORGANIC FARMING ACROSS THE

GLOBE FOR PROVIDING SAFETY AND NUTRITIONAL FOOD

The Chinese government, especially the local government, has been

providing various supports for the development of OFS since the 1990s.
OFS has been perceived by neighborhood governments for its potential in
advancing economic provincial turn of events (Aijuan, 2015). It is normal
for nearby governments to encourage land access of agribusinesses by
arranging land renting with neighborhood ranchers. The public authority
likewise sets up show natural nurseries, gives preparing to natural food
organizations to pass affirmations, and sponsors natural certificate
expenses, bug repellent lights, and natural manure, etc. The public authority
has likewise been assuming a functioning part in showcasing natural items
through getting sorted out natural food exhibitions and marking upholds
(Scott et al., 2015).
In India, in 2016, the northern territory of Sikkim accomplished its
objective of changing over existing homestead grounds to 100% OFS
(Hindu Business Line, 2010). Different provinces of India, including Kerala
(Martin, 2016), Mizoram, Goa, Rajasthan, and Meghalaya, have likewise
announced their expectations to move to completely natural development
(Indian Express, 2014; Paull, 2017). The South Indian state Andhra Pradesh
is likewise advancing OFS, particularly zero budget natural farming (ZBNF)
which is a type of regenerative agribusiness (Naresh et al., 2018). The
Dominican Republic has effectively changed over a lot of its banana yield
to natural (Paull, 2017). The Dominican Republic represents 55% of the
world’s confirmed natural bananas (Paull, 2017).
In Thailand, the Institute for Sustainable Agricultural Communities
(ISAC) was set up in 1991 to advance OFS (among other feasible horticul­
tural practices). The public objective by means of the National Plan for OFS
is to achieve, by 2021, 1.3 million rai of naturally cultivated land. Another
objective is for 40% of the produce from these farmlands to be burned
through locally (City Life-Chiang Mai (Thailand), 2017). Much advance­
ment has been made (City Life-Chiang Mai (Thailand), 2017). For instance,
numerous natural ranches have grown, developing produce going from
mangos-teenager to stinky bean. A portion of the homesteads have likewise
settled schooling communities to advance and share their OFS methods and
information. For expanding the showcasing offices for OFS items, the public
authority has been set up in excess of 18 natural business sectors (ISAC­
connected) in Chiang Mai Province of Thailand.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 353

14.8 CONCLUSIONS

To satisfy the growing demand of food for the increasing population in the
world, modern agricultural practices such as inorganic synthetic chemicals
and various farm machineries were introduced in crop production. However,
these new farming inputs and machineries have been found to cause serious
short and longer-term side effects to the environment, human health, and
biodiversity. Furthermore, these practices also cause degradation of soil
health and other natural resources and thus unsuitable for sustainable
agriculture. To overcome these challenges, OFS has been introduced in
the early 20th century as a suitable alternative to the modern agriculture for
the sustainable production of safe food without affecting the environment
and human health. In the OFS, agricultural inputs are generally obtained
from of the organic origins and should involve diversified crops with crop
rotation and companion planting for maintaining agroecosystem through
encouraging interior self-regulation for using synthetic agricultural inputs.
Discussion in this comprehensive review revealed that the OFS system
is environment-friendly and good for human health and biodiversity. The
information discussed in this review should be useful for the safe and
sustainable production of crops using OFS in the era of changing climate.
Although the OFS system works well in some developed countries as their
population is declining day by day, advanced research is needed to improve
the productivity OFS to ensure the food and nutritional security of the ever-
increasing population in the developing countries from the decreasing areas
of cultivable land.

KEYWORDS

• environmentally friendly
• food quality
• food safety
• integrated pest management
• millennium development goals
• national organic program
• organic agriculture
354 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

REFERENCES

ACRES-Magazine, (2020). What is Eco-Agriculture? Acres, USA. https://www.acresusa.com/

pages/what-is-eco-agriculture (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Africa Fertilizer Summit, (2006). The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD),
9–13 June 2006, Abuja, Nigeria. https://web.archive.org/web/20100304023531/http://
www.africafertilizersummit.org/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Aijuan, C., (2015). China’s Path in Developing Organic Agriculture: Opportunities and
Implications for Small-scale Farmers and Rural Development. PhD Thesis, University
of Waterloo.
Arsenault, C., (2014). Only 60 years of Farming Left if Soil Degradation Continues. Scientific
American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/only-60-years-of-farming-left-if­
soil-degradation-continues/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Barański, M., Srednicka-Tober, D., Volakakis, N., Seal, C., Sanderson, R., Stewart, G. B.,
Benbrook, C., et al., (2014). Higher antioxidant and lower cadmium concentrations and
lower incidence of pesticide residues in organically grown crops: A systematic literature
review and meta-analyses. The British Journal of Nutrition, 112(5), 794–811. doi: https://
doi.org/10.1017/S0007114514001366.
Bengtsston, J., Ahnström, J., & Weibull, A., (2005). The effects of organic agriculture on
biodiversity and abundance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology, 42(2),
261–269. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01005.x.
Bhatt, R., Hossain, A., & Hasanuzzaman, M., (2020b). Adaptation strategies to mitigate the
evapotranspiration for sustainable crop production: A perspective of rice-wheat cropping
system. Agronomic Crops: Management Practices (Vol. 2, pp. 559–582). Springer Nature,
Switzerland. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9783-8.
Bhatt, R., Hossain, A., & Singh, P., (2020a). Scientific interventions to improve land and
water productivity for climate smart agriculture in South-Asia. Agronomic Crops:
Management Practices (Vol. 2, pp. 499–558). Springer-Nature, Switzerland. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-981-32-9783-8.
Blair, R., (2012). Organic Production and Food Quality: A Down to Earth Analysis. Wiley-
Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
Blakemore, R. J., (2000). Ecology of earthworms under the ‘Haughley Experiment’ of organic
and conventional management regimes. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, 18(2),
141–159. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01448765.2000.9754876.
Bourn, D., & Prescott, J., (2002). A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and
food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods. Critical Review in Food
Science and Nutrition, 42(1), 1–34. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408690290825439.
Brandt, K., & Mølgaard, J. P., (2001). Organic agriculture: Does it enhance or reduce the nutritional
value of plant foods? The Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 924–931.
Brown, K., (2008). New Zealand’s Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Sector Performance
Policy. MAF Policy, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Wellington, New Zealand.
https://web.archive.org/web/20081015111550/http://www.maf.govt.nz/mafnet/rural-nz/
sustainable-resource-use/organic-production/organic-farming-in-nz/org10005.htm
(accessed on 13 July 2021).
Byerlee, D., & Alex, G., (2005). Organic Farming: A Contribution to Sustainable Poverty
Alleviation in Developing Countries. German NGO Forum on Environment and Develop­
ment, Bonn, Misereor, Naturland, EED, NABU and WWF.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 355

City Life-Chiang Mai (Thailand). (2017). Understanding the complexities of organic farming
in Thailand: Does organic farming exist in Thailand. https://www.chiangmaicitylife.
com/clg/business/agriculture/understanding-the-complexities-of-organic-farming-in­
thailand/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Coleman, E., (1995). The New Organic Grower: A Master’s Manual of Tools and Techniques
for the Home and Market Gardener (2nd edn., pp. 65, 108).
Colom-Gorgues, A., (2009). The challenges of organic production and marketing in Europe
and Spain: Innovative marketing for the future with quality and safe food products.
Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing, 21, 166–190. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1080/08974430802589675.
Colorado State University, (2020). Some Pesticides Permitted in Organic Gardening.
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. https://
denver.extension.colostate.edu/programs/horticulture/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Conford, P., (2001). The Origins of the Organic Movement. Glasgow, Great Britain: Floris
Books.
Crowder, D. W., & Reganold, J. P., (2015). Financial competitiveness of organic agriculture
on a global scale. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA, 112(24), 7611–7616.
Dalgaard, T., Halberg, N., & Porter, J. R., (2001). A model for fossil energy use in Danish
agriculture used to compare organic and conventional farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems,
Environment, 87(1), 51–65. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00297-8.
Dobbs, T. L., & Smolik, J. D., (1996). Productivity and profitability of conventional and alter­
native farming systems: A long-term on-farm paired comparison. Journal of Sustainable
Agriculture, 91(1), 63–79.
Drinkwater, L. E., Wagoner, P., & Sarrantonio, M., (1998). Legume-based cropping systems
have reduced carbon and nitrogen losses. Nature, 396, 262–265.
FAO, (2007). Organic Agriculture Can Contribute to Fighting Hunger. Food and Agricultural
Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/
news/2007/1000726/index.html (accessed on 13 July 2021).
FAO, (2013). Overcoming Smallholder Challenges with Biotechnology. Food and Agricultural
Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/
202820/icode/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
FAO, (2020). Organic Agriculture. FAO-Working Group on Organic Agriculture. FAO, Rome,
Italy. http://www.fao.org/organicag/oa-faq/oa-faq5/en/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
FiBL, (2020). Global Organic Area Continues to Grow-Over 71.5 Million Hectares of Farmland
are Organic. FiBL and IFOAM. https://www.fibl.org/en/info-center/news/global-organic­
area-continues-to-grow-over-71-5-million-hectares-of-farmland-are-organic.html
(accessed on 13 July 2021).
Fließbach, A., Oberholzer, H., Gunst, L., & Mäder, P., (2006). Soil organic matter and
biological soil quality indicators after 21 years of organic and conventional farming.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 118(1–4), 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
agee. 2006.05.022.
Gabriel, D., Roschewitz, I., Tscharntke, T., & Thies, C., (2006). Beta diversity at different
spatial scales: Plant communities in organic and conventional agriculture. Ecological
Applications, 16(5), 2011–21.
Gold, M. V., (2020). What is Organic Production? National Agricultural Library, USDA.
https://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/organic-productionorganic-food-information-access­
tools (accessed on 13 July 2021).
356 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Goldberg, B., (2007). The Hypocrisy of Organic Farmers. AgBioWorld. http://www.agbioworld.

org/biotech-info/articles/biotech-art/hypocrisy.html (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Gordon, I., (2017). Reproductive Technologies in Farm Animals (p. 10). CABI.
Green, M., & Maynard, R., (2006). The employment benefits of organic farming. Aspects of
Applied Biology, 79, 51–55.
Gurung, B., (2011). Sikkim Races on Organic Route. Telegraph India. https://www.telegraphindia.
com/states/west-bengal/sikkim-races-on-organic-route/cid/478489 (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Halberg, N., (2006). Global Development of Organic Agriculture: Challenges and Prospects
(p. 297). CAB International, Wallingford.
Halberg, N., Alrøe, H. F., & Kristensen, E. S., (2005). Synthesis: Perspectives for organic
agriculture in a global context. In: Halberg, N., Alrøe, H. F., Knudsen, M. T., & Kristensen,
E. S., (eds.), Global Development of Organic Agriculture: Challenges and Promises (pp.
344–368). CAB International, Wallingford.
Hansen, B., Alrøe, H. J., & Kristensen, E. S., (2001). Approaches to assess the environmental
impact of organic farming with particular regard to Denmark. Agriculture, Ecosystems
and Environment, 83(1, 2), 11–26. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00257-7.
Heckman, J., (2007). A History of Organic Farming: Transitions from Sir Albert Howard’s
War in the Soil to the USDA National Organic Program. The Weston A. Price Foundation,
Washington. https://www.westonaprice.org/health-topics/farm-ranch/a-history-of-organic­
farming-transitions-from-sir-albert-howards-war-in-the-soil-to-the-usda-national-organic­
program/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Helga, W., Julia, L., & Robert, H., (2013). The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics
and Emerging Trends 2013. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and the
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM).
Henckel, L., (2015). Organic fields sustain weed meta-community dynamics in farmland
landscapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 282(1808), 20150002. doi: https://doi.
org/10.1098/rspb.2015.0002.
Hepperly, P., Jeff, M., & Dave, W., (2008). Developments in Organic No-till Agriculture (pp.
16–19). Acres USA: The Voice of Eco-Agriculture.
Hindu Business Line, (2010). Sikkim ‘Livelihood Schools’to Promote Organic Farming. https://
www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/Sikkim-lsquolivelihood­
schools-to-promote-organic-farming/article20031763.ece (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Hine, R., & Pretty, J., (2006). Capacity Building Study 3: Organic Agriculture and Food Security
in East Africa. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.535.1631&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Hole, D. G., Perkins, A. J., Wilson, J. D., Alexander, I. H., Grice, P. V., & Evans, A. D., (2005).
Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation, 122(1), 113–130.
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.018.
Horne, P. A., (2008). Integrated Pest Management for Crops and Pastures (p. 2). CSIRO
Publishing.
Howden, D., (2008). Organic Farming Could Feed Africa. The Independent. http://
www.panna.org/sites/default/files/imported/files/IndependentOrganicFarms
CouldFeedAfrica20081022.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), (2007). Organic Agriculture and
Poverty Reduction in Asia (2005). China and India Focus.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 357

IFOAM-Organics International, (2008). Concept of Organic Agriculture. https://www.ifoam.

bio/why-organic/organic-landmarks/definition-organic (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Indian Express, (2014). CM: Will Get Total Organic Farming State Tag by 2016. https://www.
newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2014/nov/07/CM-Will-Get-Total-Organic-Farming­
State-Tag-by-2016-679699.html (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Johnston, A. E., (1986). Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops. Soil Use Management,
2(3), 97–105. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.1986.tb00690.x.
Kahl, J., Busscher, N., & Ploeger, A., (2010). Questions on the validation of holistic methods
of testing organic food quality. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, 27, 81–94.
King, F. H., (2004). Farmers of Forty Centuries: Organic Farming in China, Korea, and
Japan. Courier Corporation.
Kirchmann, H., & Bergstrom, L., (2008). Organic Crop Production-Ambitions and Limitations
(pp. 1–2). Springer Science & Business Media.
Kirchmann, H., Bergström, L., Kätterer, T., Mattsson, L., & Gesslein, S., (2007). Comparison
of long-term organic and conventional crop-livestock systems on a previously nutrient-
depleted soil in Sweden. Agronomy Journal, 99(4), 960–972. doi: https://doi.org/10.2134/
agronj2006.0061.
Kristiansen, P., Taji, A., & Reganold, J., (2006). Organic Agriculture: Opportunities and
Challenges (pp. 421–441). Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective. CSIRO Publishing,
Australia.
Leonard, A., (2007). Save the Rain Forest-Boycott Organic? How The World Works. https://
www.salon.com/2006/12/11/borlaug/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Lockie, S., (2006). Going Organic: Mobilizing Networks for Environmentally Responsible
Food Production (p. 239). Wallingford: CABI.
Lotter, D., (2003). Organic agriculture. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 21(4), 59. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1300/J064v21n04.
Markandya, A., Setboonsarng, S., Qiao, Y. H., Songkranok, A. R., & Stefan, S., (2015).
The costs of achieving the millennium development goals through adopting organic
agriculture. In: Setboonsarng, S., & Markandya, A., (eds.), Organic Agriculture and Post­
2015 Development Goals: Building on the Comparative Advantage of Poor Farmers (pp.
49–78). Manila: ADB.
Marshall, G., (1991). Organic farming: Should government give it more technical support?
Review of Marketing and Agricultural Economics, 59(3), 283–296.
Martin, A., & Kim, S., (2008). Sticker Shock in the Organic Aisles. New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/business/18organic.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
(accessed on 13 July 2021).
Martin, H., (2009). Introduction to Organic Farming. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food
and Rural Affairs. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/09-077.htm#define
(accessed on 13 July 2021).
Martin, K. A., (2016). State to Switch Fully to Organic Farming by 2016. https://www.
thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/state-to-switch-fully-to-organic­
farming-by-2016-mohanan/article6517859.ece (accessed on 13 July 2021).
McBride, W. D., & Greene, C. R., (2013). Organic data and research from the ARMS survey:
Findings on competitiveness of the organic soybean sector. Crop Management, 12(1), 1–11.
McConnell, D. J., Dharmapala, K. A. E., & Attanayake, S. R., (2017). The Forest Farms of
Kandy: And other Gardens of Complete Design. Routledge.
358 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

McEvoy, M., (2018). Organic 101: Allowed and Prohibited Substances. USDA Blog. https://
www.usda.gov/media/blog/2012/01/25/organic-101-allowed-and-prohibited-substances
(accessed on 13 July 2021).
McGill University, (2012). Can Organic Food Feed the World? New Study Sheds Light on
Debate Over Organic vs. Conventional Agriculture. Science Daily. www.sciencedaily.
com/releases/2012/04/120425140114.htm (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Meena, R. P., Meena, H. P., & Meena, R. S., (2013). Organic Farming: Concept and Components
(Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 1–14). Popular Kheti.
Meleca, (2008). The Organic Answer to Climate Change. https://web.archive.org/web/2008
1211111856/http://www.organicguide.com/community/education/the-organic-answer­
to-climate-change/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Musick, M. (2021). WA Tilth Association History. Washington Tilth. Retrieved from: http://
www.tilthalliance.org/about/abriefhistoryoftilth (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Naresh, R. K., Vivek, M. K., Kumar, S., Chowdhary, U., Kumar, Y., Mahajan, N. C., Malik,
M., et al., (2018). Zero budget natural farming viable for small farmers to empower food
and nutritional security and improve soil health: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy
and Phytochemistry, 7(2), 1104–1118.
Nayler, J., (2014). Second Thoughts About Organic Agriculture. Soil and health library. https://
web.archive.org/web/20140801061226/http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/
Second.Thoughts.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Niggli, U., Slabe, A., Schmid, O., Halberg, N., & Schlüter, M., (2008). Vision for an Organic
Food and Farming Research Agenda 2025: Organic Knowledge for the Future (p.
48). IFOAM-EU and FiBL. https://orgprints.org/13439/1/niggli-etal-2008-technology­
platform-organics.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
NPR, (2011). Public Health: Organic Pesticides: Not an Oxymoron. NPR Health Newsletter.
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2011/06/18/137249264/organic-pesticides­
not-an-oxymoron (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Paull, J., & Hennig, B., (2018). Maps of organic agriculture in Australia. Journal of Organics,
5(1), 29–39.
Paull, J., (2006). The farm as organism: The foundational idea of organic agriculture
elementals. Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 83, 14–18.
Paull, J., (2007). Rachel carson: A voice for organics-the first hundred years. Journal of
Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, (86), 37–41.
Paull, J., (2010). From France to the world: The international federation of organic agriculture
movements (IFOAM). Journal of Social Research and Policy, 1(2), 93–102.
Paull, J., (2011a). The Betteshanger summer school: Missing link between biodynamic
agriculture and organic farming. Journal of Organic Systems, 6(2), 13–26.
Paull, J., (2011b). Biodynamic agriculture: The journey from Koberwitz to the World,
1924–1938. Journal of Organic Systems, 6(1), 27–41.
Paull, J., (2013a). Breslau (Wrocław): In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner. Journal of Bio-
Dynamics Tasmania, 110, 10–15.
Paull, J., (2013b). Koberwitz (Kobierzyce): In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner. Journal of
Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 109, 7–11.
Paull, J., (2014). Lord Northbourne, the man who invented organic farming, a biography.
Journal of Organic Systems, 9(1), 31–53.
Paull, J., (2017). Four new strategies to grow the organic agriculture sector. AGROFOR-
International Journal, 2, 61–70.
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 359

Paull, J., (2019). Organic Agriculture in Australia: Attaining the Global Majority (51%).
Journal of Environment Protection and Sustainable Development, 5(2), 70–74.
Paulson, T., (2008). The Lowdown on Topsoil: It’s Disappearing: Disappearing Dirt Rivals
Global Warming as an Environmental Threat. https://www.seattlepi.com/national/article/
The-lowdown-on-topsoil-It-s-disappearing-1262214.php?source=mypi (accessed on 13
July 2021).
Perrings, C., Louise, J., Kamaljit, B. S., Lijbert, B., Brush, S., & Tom, G., (2006). Biodiversity
in agricultural landscapes: Saving natural capital without losing interest. Conservation
Biology, 20(2), 263–264.
Pimentel, D., Berardi, G., & Fast, S., (1983). Energy efficiency of farming systems: Organic
and conventional agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 9(4), 359–372.
Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D., & Seidel, R., (2005). Environmental,
energetic, and economic comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems.
BioScience, 55(7), 573–582.
Pretty, J. N., Morison, J. I. L., & Hine, R. E., (2003). Reducing food poverty by increasing
agricultural sustainability in developing countries. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environ­
ment, 95, 217–234.
Pretty, J., Brett, C., Gee, D., Hine, R. E., Mason, C. F., Morison, J. I. L., Raven, H., Rayment,
M. D., Van, D. B. G., et al., (2001). An assessment of the total external costs of UK
agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 65(2), 113–136. doi:10.1016/S0308-521X(00)00031-7.
Pugliese, P., (2001). Organic farming and sustainable rural development: A multifaceted and
promising convergence. Sociologia Ruralis, 41(1), 112–130.
Rigby, D., & Cáceres, D., (2001). Organic farming and the sustainability of agricultural
systems. Agricultural Systems, 68(1), 21–40.
Rodale Institute, (2014). Regenerative Organic Agriculture and Climate Change: A Down­
to-Earth Solution to Global Warming. https://rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/
Regenerative-Organic-Agriculture-White-Paper.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Rodale Institute, (2020). The Farming Systems Trial Rodale 30 Year Report. https://
rodaleinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/fst-30-year-report.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Scott, S., Si, Z., Schumilas, T., & Chen, A., (2018). Organic Food and Farming in China:
Top-down and Bottom-up Ecological Initiatives. Routledge.
Setboonsarng, S., (2015). Can ethical trade certification contribute to the attainment of
the millennium development goals? A review of organic and fair-trade certification.
In: Setboonsarng, S., & Markandya, A., (eds.), Organic Agriculture and Post-2015
Development Goals: Building on the Comparative Advantage of Poor Farmers (pp.
79–103). https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/161042/organic-agriculture­
post-2015-development-goals.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Singh, R. B., (2000). Environmental consequences of agricultural development: Case
study from the green revolution state of Haryana, India. Agriculture, Ecosystem and
Environment, 82, 97–103.
Smith, H. G., Dänhardt, J., Lindström, Å., et al., (2010). Consequences of organic farming
and landscape heterogeneity for species richness and abundance of farmland birds.
Oecologia, 162, 1071–1079. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-010-1588-2.
Smith-Spangler, C., Brandeau, M. L., Hunter, G. E., Bavinger, J. C., Pearson, M., Eschbach,
P. J., Sundaram, V., et al., (2012). Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional
alternatives?: A systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine, 157(5), 348–366.
doi:10.7326/0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00007.
360 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Steffanie, S., Zhenzhong, S., Theresa, S., & Aijuan, C., (2018). Organic Food and Farming
in China: Top-down and Bottom-up Ecological Initiatives (1st edn., p. 236). Routledge.
Stinner, D. H., (2007). The science of organic farming. In: Lockeretz, W., (ed.), Organic
Farming: An International History (pp. 40–72). Oxford shire, UK: CAB International.
Stolze, M., & Lampkin, N., (2009). Policy for organic farming: Rationale and concepts. Food
Policy, 34(3), 237–244.
Stolze, M., Piorr, A., Häring, A. M., & Dabbert, S., (2000). Environmental impacts of
organic farming in Europe. Organic Farming in Europe: Economics and Policy (Vol. 6).
Universität Hohenheim, Stuttgart-Hohenheim.
Strochlic, R., & Sierra, L., (2007). Conventional, Mixed, and “Deregistered” Organic
Farmers: Entry Barriers and Reasons for Exiting Organic Production in California (pp.
1–43). California Institute for Rural Studies. http://ccwiki.pbworks.com/f/CAStudy­
Barriers-Organic-CIRS-2007.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Tegtmeier, E. M., & Duffy, M., (2005). External costs of agricultural production in the United
States. The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture. https://www.organicvalley.
coop/why-organic-valley/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
The Hindu, (2010). Sikkim to Become a Completely Organic State by 2015. https://
www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/agriculture/Sikkim-to-become-a-completely-organic­
state-by-2015/article15908694.ece (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Tuomisto, H. L., Hodge, I. D., Riordan, P., & Macdonald, D. W., (2012). Does organic
farming reduce environmental impacts?: A meta-analysis of European research. Journal
of Environmental Management, 112, 309–320.
UNEP, (2011). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and
Poverty Eradication. www.unep.org/greeneconomy (accessed on 13 July 2021).
UNEP-UNCTAD, (2008). Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa. United Nations.
https://unctad.org/en/docs/ditcted200715_en.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
University of Oxford, (2004). Organic Farms Not Necessarily Better for Environment.
http://people.forestry.oregonstate.edu/steve-strauss/sites/people.forestry.oregonstate.
edu.steve-strauss/files/Organic%20farms%20not%20necessarily%20better%20for%20
environment%20-%20University%20of%20Oxford_2012.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2021).
USDA, (2000). National Organic Program. Federal Register/Vol. 65, No. 246/Rules and regula­
tions. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2000-12-21/pdf/00-32257.pdf (accessed on
13 July 2021).
USDA, (2016). USDA List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances in Organic Agriculture.
USDA. https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=9874504b6f1025eb0e6b67cad
f9d3b40&rgn=div6&view=text&node=7:3.1.1.9.32.7&idno=7 (accessed on 13 July 2021).
USDA-ARS, (2007). Organic Farming Beats No-Till? Agricultural Research Magazine,
USDA- Agricultural Research Service. https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/
research-news/2007/organic-farming-beats-no-till/ (accessed on 13 July 2021).
USDSA, (2018). Guidance Natural Resources and Biodiversity Conservation (pp. 1–9).
Agricultural Marketing Service. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/
NOP%205020%20Biodiversity%20Guidance%20Rev01%20%28Final%29.pdf
(accessed on 13 July 2021).
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), (2020). Organic Farming. https://
www.epa.gov/agriculture/organic-farming (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Organic Agriculture in Food Quality 361

Van, E. T., (2000). Species diversity as a task for organic agriculture in Europe. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment, 77(1, 2), 101–109. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00096-1.
Vogt, G., (2007). Chapter 1: The origins of organic farming. In: Lockeretz, W., (ed.), Organic
Farming: An International History (pp. 9–30). CABI Publishing, UK.
Von, B. J., (2005). The World Food Situation: An Overview. Presentation to the CGIAR
annual meeting, Marrakech (Morocco).
Willer, H., & Yussefi, M., (2007). The current status of organic farming in the world-focus
on developing countries. In: International Conference on Organic Agriculture and Food
Security (pp. 12, 13). Rome, Italy.
World Bank, (2008). Global Monitoring Report-2008: MDGs and the Environment: Agenda
for Inclusive and Sustainable Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Watch Institute, (2000). State of the World 2000. Norton Publishing, New York.
World Watch Institute, (2006). Can Organic Farming Feed Us All? (Vol. 19, No. 3) World
Watch Magazine. https://web.archive.org/web/20140209135230/http://www.worldwatch.
org/node/4060 (accessed on 13 July 2021).
WTO (World Trade Organization), (2020). Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures. World Trade Organization. https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/
legal_e/15sps_01_e.htm (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Yadav, A. K., (2017). Organic Agriculture-Concept, Scenario, Principals and Practices.
National Project on Organic farming, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
Government of India.
CHAPTER 15

ORGANIC FOODS IN SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA: HEALTH IMPACT, FARMERS’
EXPERIENCES, AND INTERNATIONAL
TRADE
OSEBHAHIEMEN ODION IKHIMIUKOR,1
OLUWADAMILOLA MATHEW MAKINDE,2
CHIBUZOR-ONYEMA IHUOMA EBERE,2 TOBA SAMUEL ANJORIN,3
and FAPOHUNDA STEPHEN OYEDELE2

Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology Laboratory,

1

Department of Microbiology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

2
Department of Microbiology, School of Science and Technology,
Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria
Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture,
3

University of Abuja, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

The organic food industry is a rapidly growing sector in Africa, with strong
links to economic and socio-cultural development. Organic food produc­
tion involves an ecosystem-friendly approach that harnesses biodiversity,
the biogeochemical cycles as well as the soil’s biological activity in the
production of fresh food void of chemical agricultural inputs. This chapter
aims at discussing organic foods vis-à-vis its health and economic impact on
consumers and producers within Africa with focus on creating awareness on
practices and regulations guiding it. Agricultural practices in Africa relies
heavily on chemical inputs to boost food production. Toxic concentrations of
these chemicals cause an imbalance in the soil’s natural ecosystem and may
364 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

eventually affect food quality to be unsuitable for international trade. Despite

efforts that gave birth to the strategic plan (2015–2025) for the development
of organic agriculture in Africa, the continent scores low (26%) of the total
number of producers of organic food worldwide. It is therefore the intention
of the authors to bring to the consciousness of the continent these statistics as
well as provide ways by which these statistics can be improved to guarantee
safety, food security and foreign exchange for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The Sub-Saharan region of Africa (SSA) accommodates over 950 million

people. The population in SSA is projected to increase by 22% by 2050
(FAOSTAT, 2015). Adequate nourishment of the ever-increasing population in
SSA is a challenge. Despite a reduction in the rate of undernourishment from
33% between 1990 and 1992 to 23% between 2014 and 2016, this region is
still rated as highly undernourished among developing countries (FAOSTAT,
2015). Food insecurity in this region has been linked with peculiar challenges,
one of which is low agricultural productivity. Close to 70% of the African
population are involved with one form of agriculture or the other, as highlighted
by AGRA (2017), and reports show that the major farming systems in this
region are crop production and livestock management (AGRA, 2016). Current
agricultural practices in SSA fail in achieving food sufficiency and security.
From an agricultural perspective, there is a drastic need for changes in the food
system. There is the need to produce more food at affordable prices, ensuring
better livelihoods to farmers and the people while reducing the environmental
cost of agriculture (Agama, 2015).
Organic farming is described by the Directorate-General for Agriculture
and Rural Development of the European Commission (2009) as a variant
of agriculture that utilizes eco-friendly, traditional methods in the cultiva­
tion, control of pest, and animal husbandry without the use of chemical
farm inputs. It is simply characterized by the exclusion of chemicals (i.e.,
fertilizers or pesticides) and total reliance on natural processes or products
to ensure food production (IFOAM, 2010). This system of farming aimed at
producing food with minimal harm to ecosystems, animals, or humans, is
the most prominent of the alternatives and is often proposed as a solution for
more sustainable agriculture (Agama, 2015).
Organic farming draws its origins from concepts established over a
century ago, borne out of a desire for efficient nutrient utilization on the
farm (Lockeretz, 2007). In the 1940s, the term organic farming was coined
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 365

to depict the farm as a biological system and not on the basis of the artificial
inputs employed in food production today (Kuepper, 2010). This biological
system comprises the minerals within the soil, its organic matter, soil micro-
flora as well as the soil’s flora and fauna and how they interact to create a
stable system. In this biological system, resources internally generated as
well as the biogeochemical cycle are of paramount importance (Letourneau
and Bothwell, 2008). Biogeochemical cycling of resources in the soil’s
ecosystem has been significantly influenced by climate change which conse­
quently affects organic farming. Evolving issues over the years, especially
those of environmental concern such as climate change, have affected the
way organic farming is perceived by placing a huge premium on enhancing
the cultivation of crops using biological and eco-friendly inputs (USDA/
AMS, 2000).
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with numerous challenges of which
poor policies on agriculture leads to malnutrition and loss of productivity
(Makinde et al., 2017). These poor policy decisions have also taken its toll
on organic farming in recent years. For instance, the amount of arable land
devoted to the practice of organic farming, despite huge growth in research
and awareness created concerning its benefits, can be greatly expanded
(De Ponti et al., 2012; Reganold and Wacher, 2016). In relation to the total
amount of land the world over devoted to organic farming (43.7 million
hectares) as at 2014, Africa had the lowest amount (3%, 1.3 million hectares)
despite its vast amount of suitable land for agriculture which is reported to
be 1031 million hectares (FAO, 2003). Uganda leads the continent with a
meager 240,000 hectares of arable land devoted to organic farming (Willer
and Lernoud, 2016).
In 2014, organic farming in SSA encouraged the cultivation of cash
crops like coffee and olives (Willer and Lernoud, 2016). Each of these
crops occupied 47% and 19% respectively of the total landmass available.
The major cash crop cultivated on the continent was coffee covering about
241,500 hectares (Willer and Lernoud, 2016). Organic crops cultivated by
organic farming on the continent include: oilseeds, cotton, cocoa, tea, fruits,
medicinal and aromatic plants, olives, sesame, cereals, oils, nuts, spices, and
vegetables. About 123,000 and 68,000 hectares of land were devoted to the
cultivation of oilseeds and cotton, respectively (Willer and Lernoud, 2016).
The statistics of organic farming in SSA as it concerns food security and
economic enhancement is quite poor. It is, therefore, the intention of the
authors to bring the Sub-Saharan populace to the consciousness of the poor
state of regional agriculture, its implications and possible ways for improve­
ment to guarantee safety, food security, and foreign exchange.
366 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

In SSA, where the focus is on improved nutrition, food security and

sustainable agriculture, organic farming in the form of organoponic systems
(which is adaptable to urban areas) can be explored to ensure high yield
and healthy food products. Organoponics is eco-friendly and improves the
microbial diversity of the soil which in turn influences soil fertility posi­
tively through the use of organic control systems (Prain, 2006). This form of
organic farming has been successful in Venezuela and Cuba with the active
support of their various governments (Orsini et al., 2013) and possesses huge
potential if adopted to provide food for the people of SSA. It is encouraged
that government at all levels on the continent show strong political will to
support the furtherance of organic farming in ensuring food security within
the continent.

15.2 AWARENESS PROFILE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Organic food production in SSA is largely practiced by small scale farmers

who are of the low-income class (Kisaka-lwayo and Obi, 2014). Despite the
growing popularity and inherent potentials of organic food production in
SSA, there are concerns over its ability to sustain and ensure food security in
the region (Issaka et al., 2016).
Data on the production of organic foods in SSA is primarily collated
by agencies of government as well as private sector organizations who are
stakeholders in the business of organic farming. These efforts have improved
the quality and availability of data in recent years within SSA. The data
revealed that Uganda has the highest number of organic farms in Africa to
the tune 187,893 farms, closely followed by Ethiopia and Tanzania with
100,000 and 85,366 farms, respectively (Willer and Lernoud, 2016).
Although Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria are the leading producers of
cocoa beans in the world, only 36% of organic cocoa is produced in SSA,
notably from DR Congo and the United Republic of Tanzania (FAOSTAT,
2015). Nigeria, a leading producer of pulses and vegetables, is reported to
have little or no data on its organic cultivation of these crops (Rahmann et
al., 2015).
The biggest African clients are in Europe, where it has its largest market.
In 2009, Uganda was reported to earn as much as 36.87 million US Dollars
from export as well as programs sponsored by international agencies.
Organic foods generated reported a profit of €10 million through exports
from Tanzania to the EU and the America (Kledal and Kwai, 2010).
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 367

15.3 NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH IMPACTS

15.3.1 HIGHER YIELD

Organic food production places a huge premium on the quality and yield
of food crops. According to De Ponti et al. (2012), crops whose growth is
properly managed under the organic method produce higher yields than
those produced by chemical-driven agriculture. With the use of chemical
agricultural inputs, yield was 6–11% less than organic production. The soil
ecosystem also contributes to getting the best in organic farming (Lockeretz
et al., 1981; Lotter et al., 2003). The ability of organic soil to retain water
over a long period of time confers on it this advantage (Niggli, 2014).

15.3.2 REDUCED PESTICIDE RESIDUES

Organic farming has been confirmed through scientific reports to have little
or no pesticide residues in the crops (Baker et al., 2002; Pussemier et al.,
2006; Smith-Spangler et al., 2012; Barański et al., 2014). A scary dimension
was introduced when Curl et al. (2003); and Lu et al. (2006), reported that
children who consumed conventionally produced foods had significantly
high concentrations of pesticide residues in their urine.

15.3.3 ENHANCED NUTRIENT QUALITY

In terms of nutrition, existing literature has proven organic foods to surpass

conventionally produced foods (SAOS, 2000; Brandt and Mølgaard, 2001;
Worthington, 2001). Despite little or no premium placed on nutrients obtained
from organic foods, they are reported to possess higher concentrations of
vitamin C, antioxidants, and omega-3 fats compared to conventionally
produced foods (Brandt et al., 2011; Smith-Spangler et al., 2012).
With increasing production, marketing, and consumption of conventional
foods, the occurrence of pesticides, fertilizers, and other contaminants in
foods generally has also increased, leading to the preference of organic foods
by individuals in recent times (Hurtado-Barroso et al., 2017). A number of
factors have been linked to the preference in organic foods, for example, their
environmental friendliness and health benefits (Dettmann and Dimitri, 2009;
Padilla et al., 2013). Similarly, some studies have linked the consumption of
368 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

organic foods to health and lifestyle indicators, more physical activity, and
lower body-mass index (BMI) than those who seldom or do not consume
organic foods (Dimitri, 2009; Eisinger-Watzl et al., 2015; Brantsaeter et
al., 2017). Many studies have shown that there is no significant difference
between organic foods and conventional foods in terms of its core nutrient
levels of carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals (Williams, 2002; Matallana
González et al., 2010), however, studies have also shown low levels of
nitrate in the former than the latter (Worthington, 2001; Matallana González
et al., 2010). This is a desirable quality as nitrates have been shown to be
associated with a high risk of gastrointestinal cancer and increased risks
of methemoglobinemia in infants (Forman and Silverstein, 2012). Higher
vitamin C concentration has been observed in organic leafy vegetables like
spinach, lettuce, and chard (21 out of 36 studies) (Williams, 2002). Some
other studies have postulated health benefits due to antioxidants effects
from organic foods as a result of their higher total phenol content as when
compared to conventional foods (Asami et al., 2003).
Differences in nutritional content in food has been argued to be a result of
many factors, including geographic location, soil quality, climate condition,
maturity, and time of harvest and storage conditions as well. Considering
all these factors, concluding on nutritional differences may not be definitive
with a report by Dangour (2009) highlighting high levels of nitrogen from
conventionally produced foods when compared to organic foods, which in
turn revealed high levels of phosphorus.
The health benefits of organic foods could also be viewed from its
compositional studies. The composition of dairy products, for example, is
dependent upon various factors like genetic variability and cattle breed.
However, milk produced both organically and conventionally has shown
to contain the same protein, vitamin, lipid, and trace elements. In terms of
microbial load, there is no evidence to prove that organic milk possesses high
levels of contamination by pathogenic bacteria compared to convention­
ally produced milk, however, conventionally produced milk could contain
antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry
(Forman and Silverstein, 2012). Hormones like estradiol and progesterone
were lower in concentration in conventionally produced milk than in organic
foods.
An animal-based study described by Huber (2010), showed higher growth
rate on animals which fed on conventional foods as against those fed organic
foods, however, immune responsiveness and recovery was observed to be
higher among those on organic foods. A number of studies have been made
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 369

to buttress the health impact of organic foods as compared to conventional

foods and they include:

• Reduction of allergies among children (5–13) through the consump­

tion of organic foods according to the cross-sectional PARSIFAL
study by Alfvén et al. (2006) and confirmed by Stenius (2011).
• Lowered risk of eczema at 2 years among babies who consumed
organic daily products according to the KOALA study by Alim et al.
(1999); and Kummeling (2008).
• Lower risk of being overweight (28% in women and 27% decrease
in men) or obese among organic food consumers according to the
Nutrient-Sainte study (Mie and Wivstad, 2015).
• A study in the United Kingdom reported by Bradbury et al. (2014),
described that there was no association between preference for organic
foods and all forms of cancer; however, 9% risk increase was reported
for organic food preference and breast cancer.

Health implications resulting from pesticide ingestion ranges from

neurotoxicity to its effect in human infertility through endocrine system
disruption (Laster and Rea, 1983). The latter has been subjected to studies
that came up with evidences of hormone synthesis disruption in male mice
by the herbicide glyphosate. It was also shown that exposure either by inges­
tion or occupationally to xeno-estrogen pesticides can affect the human male
offspring’s reproductive system (North and Golding, 2000). Savona (1998)
also reported that a reduction in the consumption of conventionally produced
foods by women presenting with signs of hormonal instability aids them in
regaining hormonal balance.
It was established that exposure to a combination of pesticides causes
an increased incidence of birth defects (Garry et al., 1996). The association
between exposures to pesticides and the risk of cancer has also been consid­
ered. And it was shown that Canadian farmers with exposures to pesticides
had higher incidences of cancer (Wiggle et al., 1990). Correlations between
organic food consumption and sperm health was also established to show
that men who were involved with organic farming and consumed organic
foods had higher sperm concentrations than control groups (Abell, 1994;
Chaudhary et al., 2015).
There is a paucity of data on the health impact of consumption of organic
foods as compared to conventionally produced foods in SSA, however,
emphasis elsewhere has been on the occurrence of pesticides and their levels
of occurrence in foods generally and this has raised some concerns on food
370 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

safety (Betarbet et al., 2000; Trewavas, 2001). The health impact of organic
foods is not conclusive, however, the negative health consequences of pesti­
cides either individually or in combination give organic foods an edge over
conventional foods.

15.4 MICROBE-ORGANIC FOOD RELATIONS

Soil which is home to a wide variety of microbes, is notably the first require­
ment in organic farming. Soil health, is therefore of paramount essence as its
unique features-one of which is compost, forms the foundation of organically
grown food. Organic farming being an alternative to the use of synthetic
pesticides and fertilizers for optimal crop yield and reduced environmental
pollution, has shown huge success and growing awareness throughout the
globe. One of the pivotal pillars in its success is the significant role played by
the microbial population in the soil. Microorganisms play important roles in
terms of pest and disease control as well as sustainable fertility management.
Microbial biomass present in soil comprises of fungi, protozoa, algae, yeast,
eubacteria, actinomycetes, and archaea. Their populations, however, vary
due to factors such as soil texture and structure, pH, air/moisture content,
temperature, and organic matter (Zarb et al., 2005). Their various contribu­
tions to organic farming are highlighted in subsections.

15.4.1 SOIL ENRICHMENT

Microorganisms enrich soil through various ways, including their posses­

sion of the enzyme urease, which helps in the degradation or hydrolysis of
organic nitrogen (Zarb et al., 2005). In addition, microorganisms have the
ability to melt and take up phosphate which is usually found in low concen­
trations in soils where conventional farming is practiced. Microbes known
for phosphate uptake include vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM),
Ecto-mycorrhizas, some fungi (Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium) and
some bacteria (Bacillus and Pseudomonas) (Wang et al., 2019).

15.4.2 SOIL STABILITY

Microorganisms also play important roles in soil formation and stability

by binding soil aggregates with hyphae and exudates secreted by them.
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 371

This is exemplified in the stimulated attachment of Pasteuria penetrans (a

parasite of plant-parasitic nematode) by a microbial population (including
mycorrhizal and nematophagous fungi) to the nematodes thereby reducing
nematode infection (Ozturk et al., 2017).

15.4.3 ANTAGONISM AND ANTIBIOSIS

Soil organisms also play antagonistic roles against other organisms. For
example, over 100 species of fungi are known to trap and prey on nema­
todes (Zarb, 2005), while many other fungi are hyperparasitic to other
fungi (Toppo and Naik, 2015). Microorganisms such as streptomycetes,
filamentous bacteria, which are known soil saprophytes are also associated
with antibiotic and extracellular hydrolytic enzymes. The microbial secre­
tions according to Samac et al. (2003) significantly contribute to a disease
management system due to their ability to colonize plants and bring about a
decrease in damage from a wide range of pathogens.
The plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) has the ability to
suppress plant pathogens through antibiosis, hormone production, and compe­
tition with other pathogens for basic resources. Some of these bacteria are
also known to promote root and shoot growth, bring about nodule formation
and mycorrhizal establishment (Nkebiwe et al., 2016; Thonar et al., 2017;
Mpanga et al., 2018).

15.4.4 DISEASE AND PEST CONTROL

Microorganisms control plant pests and disease through a number of ways

which are discussed in subsections.

15.4.4.1 COMPETITION

This is achieved when high compost or organic matter is introduced into

soil, thereby causing a rise in carbon source availability leading to increased
indigenous microbial activity. With a raise in native microbial biomass,
competition for basic resources with pathogens is subsequently increased,
ultimately leading to outright stamping out of pathogens within an organi­
cally treated farm field (Mohammadi, 2013).
372 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

15.4.4.2 PROTECTION

Studies have highlighted the use of microbes to protect seedlings against a

damping off disease caused by a Pythium species (Carr, 2016). Disinfecting
and subsequently inoculating seeds can help avoid or prevent seed-borne
diseases such as Fusarium (Nebert et al., 2016). Specific organisms such as
Trichoderma, Pseudomonas are known to protect seeds and seedlings from
various diseases (Trabelsi and Mhamdi, 2013; Mpanga et al., 2018).
In addition, some organisms have introduced certain structural changes
in their roots, thereby creating physical barriers to pathogen entry. Some of
these structural changes as reported by Eulenstein et al. (2016) occurs when
associations between soil fungi and plant roots (as Arbuscular mycorrhiza)
protects host plant from drought while enhancing nutrient uptake and plant
growth even under water stress conditions (Tauschke et al., 2015; Lopez-
Raez, 2016).
Microorganisms also have high tolerance for heavy metals (HMs),
thereby conferring protection to the plants from the uptake of HMs by way
of adsorption or various forms of fungal metabolism. Compost, as a major
ingredient in organic farming, can serve as a means of inoculation of soil
microbiota which in turn carry out unique activities for desired results. The
use of compost extract can inhibit weed seed germination, thereby reducing
weed competition (Mohammadi, 2013). Generally, organic farming system
(OFS) maintains organic matter levels through practices such as mixed
farming, rotations, recycling compost, farmyard and green manures (GMs).
Proprietary cultures in the form of root dips, feed additives and sprays are
also encouraged to help support the presence of soil microbiota, thereby
leading to improved soil structure and stability.

15.5 AFRICAN EXPERIENCE: AN UPDATE

The producers of organic foods have various motivating factors for engaging
in organic farming. Since the ultimate aim of food production is consumption,
most farmers thrive in organic farming based on the preference of consumers
for their products. Most consumers patronize organic farmers due to one or
more of the following reasons (SSNC, 2014):

• Food is produced with less or no agrochemicals;

• Food production does not lead to residue contamination;
• Organic farming leaves a cleaner environment with a richer wildlife;
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 373

• It is a practice which is kind to animals;

• Organic foods boost consumer health.

Before products are labeled as organic, farmers need to meet up with

specifications which are recognized either locally or internationally. Many
organic farmers’ associations exist in various countries, and these countries
ascertain help in proper marketing and distribution of organic products.
Countries which hold organic products in high regard have local markets in
strategic places for the sale and distribution of organic produce.
While these efforts help in boosting organic farming, certain challenges
exist among farmers who choose to engage in organic farming irrespective
of the choice of products cultivated. Some of the challenges faced by organic
farmers according to Saleki and Saleki (2012); and SSNC (2014) include:

• High price differences between organic and conventional produce.

Organic foods are notably more expensive in most countries, including
those within Sub-Saharan Africa. This gives a high percentage of the
consumers a choice in terms of purchasing power.
• Lack of trust for some organic foods despite their labels.
• Lack of substantive awareness about organic farming, organic foods
and organic food markets.

Despite the difficulties and challenges faced in organic farming, farmers

are rather encouraged by the reason described above, thus ensuring its conti­
nuity by upcoming generations of farmers.
With extreme poverty ravaging a vast majority of the citizenry in SSA,
organic food production provides a sure way of ameliorating this problem as
well as providing a wide range of benefits to farmers. Some of the benefits
enjoyed range from additional source of income from sales of excess food,
extra cost of employing chemically produced fertilizers and chemicals is
saved, fixed prices when international trade is involved as well as additional
value for processed products of organic origin exported and consumed from
and within the continent respectively (Twarog, 2006; UNCTAD, 2006,
2008). In terms of earnings from the export of products, organic farming
has been reported to be a significant source of foreign exchange and net
farm earnings compared to conventional farming. Other significant areas
such as the income of organic farmers and their families are reported to
witness significant increase to the tune of 87% with a resultant decrease in
poverty amongst farmers and increased food supply within the continent
(UNCTAD, 2008).
374 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Organic foods are produced via a systemic production process that

combines both traditional and scientific knowhow to ensure food safety and
availability. The level of awareness on organic foods has increased in the
developing countries of the world, which includes Africa, due to the huge
benefits it provides ranging from economic, environmental, and socio-
cultural (EU Commission, 2012).
According to IFOAM (2012), Africa has an estimated 570,000 producers
of organic food utilizing 3% (1 mio ha) of the world’s certified agricultural
land. Uganda (0.23 mio ha), Tunisia (0.18 mio ha) and Ethiopia (0.14 mio
ha) are also reported to be the countries with the most organic land on the
continent.
In economic terms, prices of organic food products within developing
countries including those from Africa; do not command premium prices
compared to those exported which command relatively high prices especially
those renowned for exceptional quality barring the challenges associated with
logistics such as transportation, ensuring quality is not compromised as well
as proper certification for the organic food products (Codex Alimentarius
Commission and FAO/WHO, 2007; EU Commission, 2012).

15.5.1 ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION AND AFFORDABILITY

According to FAO (2003), the cost of organic food products is observed to

be high when compared to food products from chemical laden agriculture
due to the fact that demand for organic food products is quite high due to its
immense benefits compared to its supply. Also, due to the high labor cost
involved per unit of organic food produced, and the diversity of products
making economics of scale unachievable, production cost of organic food
tends to increase with this having a huge impact on the price of the final
product (Post and Schahczenski, 2012). In addition, higher costs are incurred
during postharvest handling of small amounts of organic food products due
to the fact that they must be adequately separated from conventional food
products when it comes to transportation and processing, thus contributing
to the final cost which is borne by the consumer. In addition, inefficient
marketing and distribution systems for organic products due to its relatively
low volume also contribute to the high prices incurred by the consumers.
Despite the increasing demand for organic agricultural products, the
effective utilization of research findings from science and technology, which
translates into an increase in production, should help reduce the cost of price
of organic food products all through the production chain. This is realizable
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 375

because the prices of organic food products are not only made up of the cost
of production but also other factors unique to it and not considered when
prices of chemical laden (conventional) food products are set. Factors such
as curbing environmental pollution via commercial cultivation of organic
foods ensure the effective maintenance of soil fertility (Peterson et al.,
2012). However, the higher prices placed on these products helps to make up
for the low income made from crop rotation periods employed by chemical
laden agriculture. Also, animal products are required to meet high standards,
making the welfare of these animals of high priority and thus impacting on
the price. In addition, farmers are saved from the health impact of improper
handling of pesticides, thus averting spending on their health (Dalton,
2008). Finally, employment within the farm is created, and producers gain
maximum value for their products.

15.6 REGULATIONS

Organic food production is expected to be devoid of chemical inputs. However,

farmers are allowed to apply only environmentally friendly chemical pesticides
especially such as complexes of copper, sulfates, and chlorides, plant oils like
neem, and the bacteria-Bacillus thuringiensis can also be used in biocontrol.
Despite the safety concerns about some of the pesticides allowed in organic
farming, the foods are expected to have no residues in them. Where they occur,
incidence rates and levels are usually lower than when found in non-organic
or conventional foods (Woese et al., 1997; Heaton, 2001; Williams, 2002).
Washing and peeling fruit and vegetables are approved for precautionary
purposes prior to eating (Buffin, 1997). For regulatory purposes, maximum
residue level (MRLs) and acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) are set as Legal
Limits for individual pesticides in food produces. Regulation of organic foods
on the continent is subject to international regulations provided by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission and FAO/WHO (2007). They are responsible for
setting up guidelines for the production, processing, labeling, and marketing
of organic food for producers as well as ensure that consumers are safe and
not defrauded (EU Commission, 2012).
Guidelines specifically made by Codex Alimentarius for organic foods
carry no legal weight as international standards however they serve as
recommendations. These recommendations are encouraged for use by devel­
oping countries, including organic food producing countries in SSA (Codex
Alimentarius Commission and FAO/WHO, 2007). Producers are heavily
regulated by the private sector. Guidelines for producers was propounded by
376 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

IFOAM called the International Basic Standards for Organic Production and
Processing, with the sole aim of regulating how organic food products are
produced, processed, and handled.
According to EU Commission (2012), about 73 countries of the world
have already implemented guidelines and legislation on organic foods. Of this
total number, SSA has 11 countries that have either drafted regulations or fully
implemented such regulations. Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe are in the process of drafting regulations on organic food production
while Tunisia and the Eastern African countries of Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda,
Tanzania, and Uganda have fully implemented regulations and legislations
guiding the production, processing, and handling of organic foods.

15.7 CONCLUSION

With the proven advantages ascribed to organic farming in SSA, there is the
need for better policies by governments that will encourage the allocation of
more agricultural land for its practice. This is due to the fact that this region is
far behind other sub-regions in land allocation. Awareness and enlightenment
programs need to be enhanced in order to achieve desired results on food
safety. Improved healthy living and economic advantage through local and
international trade are directly associated with the consumption of organic
food. As the sub-region is economically challenged, a conscious effort
should be put in place to encourage the development of local and national
organic food production and markets. It is factual that organic agriculture has
a high potential to contribute immensely to food security, employment, and
increased incomes generation to the Sub-Saharan populace.

KEYWORDS

• conventional farming
• ecosystem
• International trade
• organic farming
• pesticides
• regulation
• Sub-Saharan Africa
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 377

REFERENCES

Abell, A., Ernst, E., & Bonde, J. P., (1498). High sperm density among members of organic
farmers’ association. The Lancet, 1994, 343.
Agama, J., (2015). Africa: Latest development in organic agriculture in Africa. In: Willer, H.,
& Lernoud, J., (eds.), The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends.
FiBL-IFOAM Report-Organics International, Bonn.
AGRA, (2016). Africa Agriculture Status Report 2016: Progress Towards Agricultural
Transformation. Nairobi, Kenya: Alliance for a Green Revolution for Africa (AGRA).
AGRA, (2017). Africa Agriculture Status Report: The Business of Smallholder Agriculture in
Sub-Saharan Africa (No. 5). Nairobi, Kenya: Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa
(AGRA).
Alfvén, T., Braun-Fahrlander, C., Brunekreef, B., Von, M. E., Riedler, J., Scheynius, A.,
Van, H. M., et al., (2006). Allergic diseases and atopic sensitization in children related
to farming and anthroposophic lifestyle-the PARSIFAL study. Allergy, 61(4), 414–421.
Alim, J. S., Swartz, J., Lilja, G., Scheynius, A., & Pershagen, G., (1999). Atopy in children of
families with an anthroposophic lifestyle. Lancet, 353(9163), 1485–1488.
Asami, D. K., Hong, Y. J., Barrett, D. M., & Mitchell, A. E., (2003). Comparison of the total
phenolic and ascorbic acid content of freeze-dried and air-dried marionberry, strawberry,
and corn grown using conventional, organic, and sustainable agricultural practices.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(5), 1237–1241.
Baker, B. P., Benbrook, C. M., Groth, E. I. I. I., & Benbrook, K. L., (2002). Pesticide residues
in conventional, integrated pest management (IPM)-grown and organic foods: insights
from three US data sets. Food Additives and Contaminants, 19, 427–446.
Barański, M., Srednicka-Tober, D., Volakakis, N., Seal, C., Sanderson, R., Stewart, G. B.,
Benbrook, C., et al., (2014). Higher antioxidant and lower cadmium concentrations and
lower incidence of pesticide residues in organically grown crops: A systematic literature
review and meta-analyses. British Journal of Nutrition, 112, 794–811.
Betarbet, R., Shera, T. B., McKenzie, G., Garcia-Osuna, M., Panov, A. V., & Greenamyre,
J. T., (2000). Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson’s
disease. Nature Neuroscience, 3(12), 1301–1306.
Bradbury, K. E., Balkwill, A., Spencer, E. A., Roddam, A. W., Reeves, G. K., Green, J., Key,
T. J., Beral, V., Pirie, K., & Million Women Study Collaborators, (2014). Organic food
consumption and the incidence of cancer in a large prospective study of women in the
United Kingdom. British Journal of Cancer, 110(9), 2321–2326.
Brandt, K., & Mølgaard, J. P., (2001). Organic agriculture: Does it enhance or reduce the
nutritional value of plant foods? Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81,
924–931.
Brantsæter, A. L., Ydersbond, T. A., Hoppin, J. A., Haugen, M., & Meltzer, H. M., (2017).
Organic food in the diet: Exposure and health implications. Annual Review of Public
Health, 38(1), 295–313.
Carr, R., (2016). Deploying Microbes as a Seed Treatment for Protection Against Soil-Borne
Plant Pathogen. Rodale Institute.
Chaudhary, S. A., Manani, Y., Pithadiya, A., Masram, P., Joshi, K., & Rathia, S., (2015).
Modern life-style: A threat for the fertility. International Journal of Herbal Medicine,
3(5), 47–51.
378 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Codex Alimentarius Commission and the FAO/WHO, (2007). Food standard program:
Organically produced foods, Rome.
Curl, C. L., Fenske, R. A., & Elgethun, K., (2003). Organophosphorus pesticide exposure of
urban and suburban preschool children with organic and conventional diets. Environmental
Health Perspectives, 111, 377–382.
Dalton, T. J., Parsons, R., Kersbergen, R., Rogers, G., Kauppila, D., McCrory, L., Bragg, L.
A., & Wang, Q., (2008). A Comparative Analysis of Organic Dairy Farms in Maine and
Vermont: Farm Financial Information From 2004–2006. University of Maine, Maine
Agricultural and Forest Experiment Station Bulletin 851, Orono, ME.
Dangour, A. D., Dodhia, S. K., Hayter, A., Allen, E., Lock, K., & Uauy, R., (2009). Nutritional
quality of organic foods: A systematic review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
90(3), 680–685.
De Ponti, T., Rijk, B., & Van, I. M. K., (2012). The crop yield gap between organic and
conventional agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 108, 1–9.
Dettmann, R. L., & Dimitri, C., (2009). Who’s buying organic vegetables? Demographic
characteristics of US consumers. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 16, 79–91.
Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development of the European Commission,
(2009). What is Organic Farming? http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic-farming/what­
organic_en (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Eisinger-Watzl, M., Wittig, F., Heuer, T., & Hoffmann, I., (2015). Customers purchasing
organic food-do they live healthier? Results of the German national nutrition survey II.
European Journal of Nutrition and Food Safety, 5, 59–71.
Eulenstein, F., Tauschke, M., Behrendt, A., & Monk, S., (2017). The application of mycorrhizal
fungi and organic fertilizers in horticultural potting soils to improve water use efficiency
of crops. Horticulture, 3, 8.
FAOSTAT, (2015). The FAO Homepage. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/
QC (accessed on 13 July 2021).
Forman, J., & Silverstein, J., (2012). Organic foods: Health and environmental advantages
and disadvantages. Pediatrics, 130, 1406–1415.
Garry, V. F., Schreinemachers, D., Harkers, M. E., & Griffith, J., (1996). Pesticide applicators,
biocides and birth defects in rural Minnesota. Environmental Health Perspectives, 104,
394–399.
Heaton, S., (2001). Organic Farming, Food Quality and Human Health (p. 87). Soil Association
Report, Bristol, UK.
Huber, M., Van De, V. L. P., Parmentier, H., Savelkoul, H., Coulier, L., Wopereis, S., Verheij,
E., et al., (2010). Effects of organically and conventionally produced feed on biomarkers
of health in a chicken model. British Journal of Nutrition, 103(5), 663–676.
Hughner, R. S., McDonagh, P., Prothero, A., Shultz, C. J., & Stanton, J., (2007). Who are
organic food consumers? A compilation and review of why people purchase organic food.
Journal of Consumer Behavior, 6, 94–110.
Hurtado-Barroso, S., Tresserra-Rimbau, A., Vallverdu-Queralt, A., & Lamuela-Raventos, R.
M., (2017). Organic food and the impact on human health. Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition, 30, 1–11.
IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements), (2010). Organic
Food and Farming: A System Approach to Meet the Sustainability Challenge (pp. 1–24).
IFOAM EU-Group, Belgium.
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 379

Issaka, Y. B., Antwi, M., & Tawia, G. A., (2016). Comparative analysis of productivity among
organic and non-organic farms in the West Mamprusi District of Ghana. Agriculture,
6(2).
Kisaka-lwayo, M., & Obi, A., (2014). Analysis of Production and consumption of organic
products in South Africa. In: Pilipavicius, V., (ed.), Organic Agriculture Towards
Sustainability (pp. 25–50). Intech Open, London.
Kledal, P. R., & Kwai, N., (2010). Organic food and farming in Tanzania. In: Helga, W.,
Youssefi-Menzler, M., & Sorensen, N., (eds.), The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics
and Emerging Trends 2008 (p. 111). FiBL and IFOAM.
Kuepper, G., (2010). A Brief Overview of the History and Philosophy of Organic Agriculture.
Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture.
Kummeling, I., Thijs, C., Huber, M., Van De, V. L. P. L., Snijders, B. E. P., Penders, J., Stelma,
F., et al., (2008). Consumption of organic foods and risk of atopic disease during the first
2 years of life in the Netherlands. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(3), 598–605.
Laster, J., & Rea, W., (1983). Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in environmentally sensitive
patients. Clinical Ecology, 2, 3–12.
Letourneau, K. L., & Bothwell, S. G., (2008). Comparison of organic and conventional
farms: Challenging ecologists to make biodiversity functional. Frontier in Ecology and
Environment, 6(8), 430–438.
Lockeretz, W., (2007). Organic Farming: An International History (pp. 1–282). Cromwell
Press, Trowbridge, UK.
Lockeretz, W., Shearer, G., & Kohl, D. H., (1981). Organic farming in the corn belt. Science,
211, 540–547.
Lopez-Raez, J. A., (2016). How drought and salinity affect arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis
and strigolactone biosynthesis. Planta, 243, 1375–1385.
Lotter, D., Seidel, R., & Liebhardt, W., (2003). The performance of organic and conventional
cropping systems in an extreme climate year. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture,
18, 146–154.
Lu, C., Toepel, K., Irish, R., Fenske, R. A., Barr, D. B., & Bravo, R., (2006). Organic
diets significantly lower children’s dietary exposure to organophosphorus pesticides.
Environmental Health Perspectives, 114, 260–263.
Makinde, O. M., Ikhimiukor, O. O., & Fapohunda, S. O., (2017). Bioprocess engineering
and genetically modified foods: Tackling food insecurity in Africa. Brazilian Journal of
Biological Sciences, 4(8), 233–246.
Matallana, G. M. C., Martínez-Tomé, M. J., & Torija, I. M. E., (2010). Nitrate and nitrite
content in organically cultivated vegetables. Food Additives and Contaminants: Part B,
3(1), 19–29.
Mie, A., & Wivstad, M., (2015). Organic Food-Food Quality and Potential Health Effects.
A review of current knowledge, and a discussion of uncertainties. SLU, EPOK-
Center for Organic Food and Farming. http://www.slu.se/Documents/externwebben/
centrumbildningarprojekt/epok/Organic_food_quality_and_health_webb.pdf (accessed
on 13 July 2021).
Mohammadi, G. R., (2013). Alternative weed control methods: A review. Weed and Pest
Control-Conventional and New Challenges.
Mpanga, I. K., Dapaah, H. K., Geistlinger, J., Ludewig, U., & Neumann, G., (2018). Soil
type-dependent interactions of P-solubilizing microorganisms with organic and inorganic
fertilizers mediate plant growth promotion in tomato. Agronomy, 8(10), 213.
380 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Nebert, L., Bohannan, B., Ocamb, C., Still, A., Kleeger, S., Bramlet, J., & Heisler, C.,
(2016). Managing Indigenous Seed-Inhabiting Microbes for Biological Control Against
Fusarium Pathogen in Corn. University of Oregon, USA.
Niggli, U., (2014). Sustainability of organic food production: Challenges and innovations.
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 74(1), 83–88.
Nkebiwe, P. M., Weinmann, M., & Müller, T., (2016). Improving fertilizer-depot exploitation
and maize growth by inoculation with plant growth-promoting bacteria: From lab to
field. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric., 3, 15.
North, K., & Golding, J., (2000). A maternal vegetarian diet in pregnancy is associated with
hypospadias. BJU International, 85, 107–113.
Orsini, F., Kahane, R., Nono-Womdim, R., & Gianquinto, G., (2013). Urban agriculture
in the developing world: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 33,
695–720.
Ozturk, L., Avci, G. G., Behmand, T., & Elekcioglu, I. H., (2017). Pasteuria penetrans: A
bacteria parasitizing plant-parasitic nematodes in vineyards and orchards of Thrace region.
In: 6th Entomopathogens and Microbial Control Congress (pp. 14–16). Gaziosmanpaşa
University, Tokat, Turkey.
Padilla, B. C., Cordts, A., Schulze, B., & Spiller, A., (2013). Assessing determinants of
organic food consumption using data from the German national nutrition survey II. Food
Quality Preference, 28, 60–70.
Peterson, H. H., Barkley, A., Chacon-Cascante, A., & Kastens, T. L., (2012). The motivation
for organic grain farming in the United States: Profits, lifestyle, or the environment?
Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 44(2), 137–135.
Ponisio, L. C., M’Gonigle, L. K., Mace, K. C., Palomino, J., De Valpine, P., & Kremen, C.,
(2015). Diversification practices reduce organic to conventional yield gap. Proceedings
of the Royal Society B, (282), 1–7.
Post, E., & Schahczenski, J., (2012). Understanding Organic Pricing and Costs of Production
(pp. 1–12). National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. National Center for
Appropriate Technology, IP441.
Prain, G., (2006). Integrated urban management of local agricultural development: The
policy arena in Cuba. In: Veenhuizen, R. V., (ed.), Cities Farming for the Future: Urban
Agriculture for sustainable cities (pp. 308–311). RUAF Foundation, IDRC and IIRR.
Pussemier, L., Larondelle, Y., Van, P. C., & Huyghebaert, A., (2006). Chemical safety of
conventionally and organically produced foodstuffs: A tentative comparison under
Belgian conditions. Food Control, 17, 14–21.
Rahmann, G., Olabiyi, T. I., & Olowe, V. I., (2015). Achieving social and economic
development through ecological and organic agricultural alternatives. Scientific Track
Proceedings of the 3rd African Organic Conference. Lagos, Nigeria. Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations and African Union Commission.
Reganold, J. P., & Wachter, J. M., (2016). Organic agriculture in the twenty-first century.
Nature Plants, 2, 1–8.
Saleki, Z. S., & Saleki, S. M. S., (2012). The main factors influencing purchase behavior of
organic products in Malaysia. Interdisciplinary Journal for Contemporary Research in
Business, 4, 98–116.
Samac, D. A., Willert, A. M., McBride, M. J., & Kinkel, L. L., (2003). Effects of antibiotics-
producing Streptomyces on nodulations and leaf spot in alfalfa. Appl. Soil. Ecol., 22,
55–66.
Organic Foods in Sub-Saharan Africa 381

SAOS (Soil Association Organic Standard), (2000). Organic Farming, Food Quality and
Human Health: A Review of the Evidence (pp. 1–88). Soil Association, Bristol.
Savona, N., (1998). Female health problems and their nutritional solutions. Optimum Nutrition,
11(3), 46–51.
Smith-Spangler, C., Brandeau, M. L., Hunter, G. E., Bavinger, J. C., Pearson, M., Eschbach,
P. J., Sundaram, V., et al., (2012). Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional
alternatives? Annals of Internal Medicine, 157, 348–366.
SSNC (Swedish Society for Nature Conservation), (2014). Organic Food and Farming for All
(pp. 1–30). SSNC, Stockholm.
Stenius, F., Swartz, J., Lilja, G., Borres, M., Bottai, M., Pershagen, G., Scheynius, A., & Alm,
J., (2011). Lifestyle factors and sensitization in children- the ALADDIN birth cohort.
Allergy, 66(10), 1330–1338.
Tauschke, M., Behrendt, A., Monk, J., Lentzsch, P., Eulenstein, F., & Monk, S., (2015).
Improving the water use efficiency of crop plant by application of mycorrhizal fungi.
In: Currie, L., & Burkitt, K. L., (eds.), Moving Farm Systems to Improved Nutrient
Attenuation (pp. 1–8), Fertilizer and Lime Research Center, Massey University, New
Zealand.
Thonar, C., Lekfeldt, J. D. S., Cozzolino, V., Kundel, D., Kulhánek, M., Mosimann, C.,
Neumann, G., et al., (2017). Potential of three microbial bio-effectors to promote maize
growth and nutrient acquisition from alternative phosphorous fertilizers in contrasting
soils. Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric., 4, 7.
Toppo, S. R., & Naik, U. C., (2015). Isolation and characterization of bacterial antagonist to
plant pathogenic fungi (Fusarium spp.) from agro-based area of Bilaspur. International
Journal of Research Studies in Biosciences, 6–14.
Trabelsi, D., & Mhamdi, R., (2013). Microbial Inoculants and their impact on soil microbial
communities: A review. Biomedical Research International, 2013(836240), 1–11.
Trewavas, A., (2001). Urban myths of organic farming. Nature, 410, 409–410.
Twarog, S., (2006). Organic agriculture: A trade and sustainable development opportunity
for developing countries. In: United Nations conference on trade and development
(UNCTD). Trade and Environment Review (pp. 141–224). UN, New York.
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), (2008). Certified
Organic Export Production. Implications for Economic Welfare and Gender Equality
Among Smallholder Farmers in Tropical Africa (UNCTAD/DITC/TED/2007/7).
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), (2006). Trade and
Environment Review. UN, New York (UNCTAD/DITC/TED/2005/12).
USDA/AMS. (2000). 7 CFR Part 205. National Organic Program; Final Rule. Federal Register,
65(46), 80564.
Wang, J., Fu, Z., Ren, Q., Zhu, L., Lin, J., Zhang, J., Cheng, X., et al., (2019). Effects of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth, photosynthesis and nutrient uptake of Zelkova
Serrata (Thunb.) Makino seedlings under salt stress. Forests, 10(2), 1–16.
Wiggle, D. T., Semenciw, R. M., Wilkins, K., Riedel, D., Ritter, L., Morrison, H., & Mao,
Y., (1990). Mortality study of Canadian male farm operators: Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
mortality and agricultural practices in Saskatchewan. Journal of the National Cancer
Institute, 82, 575–582.
Willer, H., & Lernoud, J., (2016). The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging
Trends. Frick: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and IFOAM-Organics
International, Switzerland.
382 Organic Farming for Sustainable Development

Williams, C. M., (2002). Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of
green? Proceedings of the Nutritional Society, 61(1), 19–24.
Woese, K., Lange, D., Boess, C., & Werner, B. K., (1997). A comparison of organically and
conventionally grown foods - results of a review of relevant literature. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, 74(3), 281–293.
Worthington, V., (2001). Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables,
and grains. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 7, 161–173.
Zarb, J., Ghorbani, R., Koocheki, A., & Leifert, C., (2005). The importance of microorganisms
in organic agriculture. Outlooks on Pest Management, 16(2), 52–55.
INDEX

A Active
cells (AC), 110, 324, 352
Abelmoschus esculentus, 88, 92
Allium defense compounds, 165–167
cepa L., 25, 30, 31 ingredient, 5, 6, 88, 125
sativum L., 165, 166, 173, 177 motility, 61
Alternaria, 15, 123, 174–176, 285, 288 taxonomic units (ATUs), 30
alternata, 15, 123, 124 Adaptation, 81, 283, 342
solani, 174 Adenophora axilliflora, 156
Aphis Adenosine triphosphate, 62
glycines, 111, 112 Adsorption, 5, 61, 84, 98, 372
gossypii, 115 Aerobic microorganism, 58
Aspergillus, 81, 82, 84, 86, 88, 89, 92, 123, Aeschynomene
134, 155, 174, 175, 370 aspera, 57
flavus., 123 indica, 57
fumigatus, 134, 155, 174 African
neoniger, 82 armyworm, 173
niger, 84, 85, 88, 92 bollworm, 173
ochraceus, 175 Agaricales, 40
parasiticus, 174 Aged garlic extract (AGE), 167, 168
terreus, 123 Aggregate
tubingensis, 81 interference, 270
Abiotic stability, 213
biotic environmental stresses, 109 Agribusinesses, 352
stress, 23, 44, 60, 79, 108, 241–243, 246 Agricultural, 1, 4, 51, 78, 165, 183, 207,
Abscisic acid (ABA), 37, 63, 243
226, 239, 259, 277, 278, 301, 303, 321,
Absorption, 25, 26, 33, 35, 39, 84, 88, 113,
325, 326, 329, 363, 364
245, 304, 305, 307
crops, 52, 54–56, 62, 63, 67, 68, 193
Acceptable daily intakes (ADIs), 375
fertilizers, 32
Acer saccharum, 40
manure, 306
Acetic, 58, 64, 65, 83, 85, 89, 94, 119, 188,
191 market, 11, 348
Acetylene reduction assay (ARA), 62, 68 pests, 79, 106, 108–110, 125, 126, 184,
Acidification, 81, 188 227
Acid-tolerant species, 54 management, 105, 109
Acinetobacter, 80 practices, 24, 27, 30, 89, 92, 112, 183,
Acremonium, 197 197, 198, 200, 220, 241, 327, 345, 353,
alternatum, 197 364
Acrodontium crateriform, 197 production, 78, 106, 107, 121, 126, 133,
Actigard treatment, 189 210, 213, 226, 279, 292, 329, 330, 340,
Actinobacteria, 40 343, 351
Actinomycetes, 186, 191, 197, 306, 370 productivity, 106, 213, 328, 330, 364
384 Index

significance (endophytic microorgan­ Anaerobic

isms), 107 conditions, 60, 191, 197, 198
wastes, 34, 98, 188, 192 decomposition, 191
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 124 digested
Agrochemical, 108, 118, 126, 157, 178, 210, dairy (ADD), 187
372 pig slurry (ADP), 187
Agroecological conditions, 344 slurry (ADS), 187
Agroecosystem, 119, 208, 226, 227, 230, soil disinfestation (ASD), 198, 199
265, 322, 323, 330, 340, 346, 353 rice bran, 199
Agro-fertilizer, 25, 82 Anhydrofulvic acid, 156
Agro-industry, 210 Animal
Agronomic husbandry, 336, 345, 364, 368
benefits, 248 manures, 184, 187, 308
constraints, 341 Annual species, 279
practices, 56, 351 Antagonism, 371
Ajoene, 173, 175 activity, 12, 192
Alamethicins, 7 impacts, 89
Alcaligenes, 80, 114 mechanism, 37
piechaudii, 114 properties, 9
Alfalfa plant, 95 Anthocyanins, 27
Alkaline phosphatases, 86 Anthranilic acid, 65
Alkaloids pyrrolizidine, 111 Anthraquinone
Allelochemicals, 284, 287 chromanone, 134, 143
Allelopathic, 283, 284, 287, 295 derivatives, 145
compounds inhibition, 260 Anthropogenic activities, 24, 32
Allicin, 166, 168, 173–175 Antiacetylcholinesterase activity, 150
Alliin, 166, 168 Anti-bacterial qualities, 177
Allinase, 165, 166, 168 Antibiosis, 195, 371
Allylmethyl sulfide, 169 Antibiotic, 7, 9, 11, 108, 117, 140, 191, 195,
Allymethyltrisulfide, 175 198, 208, 229, 311, 368, 371
Aloe vera, 58 Anticancer, 117
Aluminum, 78, 83, 87, 121, 122, 265 Anticarsia gemmatalis, 116
phosphate (AlPO4), 78, 87 Antifungal, 117, 123, 124, 133–135, 139,
Amalgamation, 34 142, 148, 174, 175, 177, 188, 191
Amaranthus activity, 197, 198
cruentus L., 86 qualities, 112
virdis, 286 Anti-inflammatory, 133, 134
Ambrosia, 286 Antimicrobial, 111, 122, 124, 134, 136, 138,
artemisiifolia L., 294 140, 141, 143, 148, 151, 157, 176, 189,
Ambuic acid, 117 190, 195
Amendments, 184–186, 197, 211, 220, 224, activities, 136, 143, 176
225, 240, 249 properties, 176, 189
Amino acids, 59, 310 Antimycotic, 117
Ammonia, 59, 61, 185, 188, 337 Antioxidant, 33, 37, 96, 117, 168, 195, 210,
Ammonium, 55, 59, 91, 185, 187, 329 367, 368
Ampelomyces quisqualis, 197 defense reactions, 33
Anabaena, 53, 310 Antiporters, 37
Anabolism, 34 Antique farming practice, 241, 246, 248
Index 385

Antiviral, 117 plant interaction, 60

Aquaporins (AQPs), 243 root interaction, 61
Aquatic microorganisms, 120 strains, 52, 55, 58
Arachnids, 348 Azotobacter, 11, 53, 89, 92, 310, 311
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM), 23–38, 40,
41, 43, 44, 53, 91, 113, 372 B
colonization, 30, 43 Bacillus, 4, 16, 53, 80, 84, 85, 87, 94, 112,
symbiotic plants, 27 115, 116, 125, 134, 135, 143, 157, 176,
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), 189, 193, 195, 198, 337, 370, 375
23–27, 29, 31, 38–44 aizawai S1576, 115
community composition, 39 amyloliquefaciens, 84, 112, 193
fungal diversity, 41 atrophaeus, 84
microbe interactions, 38 cereus, 116, 176, 195
Area under disease progress curve kurstaki S1168, 115
(AUDPC), 193 licheniformis, 84
Aromatic compounds, 59 megaterium, 84
Arthrobacter, 80 subtilis, 134, 135, 143, 157
Artificial thuringiensis (Bt), 4, 5, 16, 53, 114–116,
materials, 265, 270 125, 337, 375, 339
pesticides, 326, 339 toxin, 4, 5
Ascorbic acid, 97, 166 aizawai, 115
Asian citrus psyllid, 109 brasiliensis (Btb), 116
Aspartate, 108 colmeri (Btc), 116
Assessors, 349 huazhongensis (Bth), 116
Associative symbionts, 57 kurstaki (Btk) , 115, 116
Assortment, 28, 35, 346 morrisoni, 115
Aswagandha, 344 roskildiensis (Btr), 116
Atmospheric nitrogen, 51, 53, 55, 59–63, sooncheon (Bts), 116
67, 310 sooncheon, 116
Aulosira, 310 yunnanensis (Bty), 116
Avena sterilis L., 294 Botrytis, 7, 15, 43, 123, 134, 175, 190
Avicennia germinans L., 84 cinerea (BC), 7, 15, 43, 123, 124, 134,
Azaphilones, 134, 138, 139, 141, 146, 148, 135, 142, 190
151 Beauveria bassiana, 4, 53, 109–112, 116
Azolla microphylla, 310 Bacteria, 4, 26, 33, 38, 40, 52, 53, 57, 59,
Azospirillum, 25, 51–68, 80, 242, 310, 313 61, 63, 64, 67, 79–81, 83–87, 91, 92, 94,
amazonense, 54, 55 95, 97, 98, 110–113, 116–118, 124, 134,
bioinoculant, 60, 63, 67 137, 140, 151, 186, 189, 195, 214, 292,
brasilense, 54–57, 59–66 306, 311, 337, 368, 370, 371, 375
halopraeferens, 54, 55 community, 40, 199
inoculant, 67 infested soil, 189
inoculated, 53, 61, 64, 67 strain, 61, 78, 83, 84, 191
plants, 60 wilt disease, 188, 189
inoculum, 62 Bactericidal, 122, 153, 165, 170, 178
irakense, 55 activity, 178
largimobile, 55 Bacteroides fragillis, 134, 140
lipoferum, 54–57, 59, 61–63, 65, 66 Bagasse, 10, 188, 189
microbe, 52 Bale direct system, 294
386 Index

Banana, 110 Biodiversity, 209, 225–228, 272, 322, 324,

Barbie-doll features, 350 327, 336, 342, 343, 348–350, 353, 363
BB Fafu-13, 109 Bio-farming, 305, 312
BB Fafu-16, 109 Biofertilization, 311
Beating, 262 Biofertilizer, 9, 26–29, 31, 32, 38, 44, 52,
Below-ground biomass, 286 53, 58, 66, 68, 80, 83, 84, 87–95, 98, 242,
Beneficial microorganism, 8, 12, 13, 23, 24, 304, 305, 310–315
28, 42, 44, 79, 80, 97, 98, 107, 108, 121, Biofungicide, 133, 134, 157, 158
122, 125, 126, 186 Biogas slurry, 315
populations, 245 Biogeochemical cycle, 363, 365
Benzoquinone derivatives, 134 Biological
Berardia subacaulis Vill, 39 composition, 32
Betaines, 37 control, 10, 11, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34–36, 41,
Beushening, 309 86, 88, 91–96, 107–110, 115, 117, 118,
Biennial 120, 126, 191, 192, 198, 287, 337, 339
species, 280 agent, 10, 86, 108, 115, 191
weeds, 281, 282 invasions alteration, 40
Bio sequencing strains, 120 nitrogen fixation, 52, 63
Bioactive parameters, 292
compounds, 195 products, 117
phytochemicals, 178 properties, 117, 211, 245, 265, 307, 314,
Bioagents, 196 338
Biochar, 34, 35, 96, 212, 240–249 Biomass, 9, 10, 24, 30, 35, 36, 83, 92–94,
amendments, 240, 241, 248 96, 110, 118, 120, 138, 191, 192, 208,
plant growth, 247 213, 218, 220, 224, 225, 227, 229,
application, 240–248 241–243, 247, 248, 286, 292, 293, 306,
inoculation, 34 370, 371
plant production, 246 production, 191, 192, 247
soil fertility, 245 Bio-mechanism, 33
supplied nutrients, 247 Bionano
Biochemical hybrid agroparticles, 124
characters, 58, 63 nano-particles, 114
composition, 60 particles, 114
organic compounds, 33 Bio-organic fertilizer (BOF), 193
parameters, 52 Biopesticidal, 3–8, 11–16, 23, 105–107, 121
pesticides, 5 technology, 106
reactive species, 113 Bio-protector, 31
Bioconjugation, 124 Bio-regulatory organism, 37
Bio-control, 32–35, 113, 114, 118, 183, 192, Bioremediation, 38, 80, 97
194–197, 200 Bio-sorption substrate, 34
abilities, 34 Bio-stabilization, 119
activity, 7 Biotechnological
agent, 9, 11, 12, 14, 32, 34, 53, 186, 190, approaches, 338
191, 242, 287 interventions, 345
mediator, 113 tools, 124
microbes, 34 Biotic
Biodegradability, 227, 311 production, 97
products, 178 stress, 41, 44, 78, 79, 245
Index 387

Biotrophs, 42 Castor oil, 170

BioYield, 189 Caterpillars, 114–116, 166
Bipolaris sorokiniana, 175 Catharanthus roseus, 58
Black Cation exchange, 39, 247
garlic, 168 Cellulose, 6, 9, 11, 37, 311
mangroves, 84 Cellulosimicrobium, 95
Blue Celosia argentea, 286
green algae (BGA), 53, 310, 311, 313, 314 Cereal, 30, 38, 52–55, 57, 67, 112, 311, 336,
umbrella cultivar, 112 365
Blu-v2, 112, 113 productivity, 341
Body-mass index (BMI), 368 Chaetomium, 133–136, 138–140, 151–158
Boerhavia diffusa, 56 amygdalisporum, 133, 135
Bone phosphate, 93 atrobrunneum, 135
Bradyrhizobium sp., 53 aureum, 135
Brassica brasiliense, 133, 135, 136
chinesis, 57 coarctatum, 133, 136
rapa, 57 cochliodes, 133, 136–138
Bromophenol blue (BPB), 85 cupreum, 133, 138
Brush weeder, 291 elatum, 133, 139, 140
Bulk density, 213, 217, 229, 241, 248, 270 funicola, 133, 140
Burgeoning population, 338 globosum, 133, 140–151
Burkholderia, 80, 87, 90 gracile, 133, 151
anthina, 83, 90 indicum, 151
Butyric acid, 188, 191 longirostre, 133
lucknowense, 133
C mollicellum, 133, 152
Cadmium, 35, 36, 66 murorum, 133, 153
Calcification soils, 89 nigricolor, 153
Calcium, 28, 39, 78, 83–85, 89, 90, 125, olivaceum, 133, 153
188, 189 quadrangulatum, 133, 153
Candida albicans, 134, 136, 139, 155 retardatum, 133, 153
Cannibalistic, 117 seminudum, 133, 153
Capnodiales, 40 siamense, 133, 153
Capsule suspension, 6 subspirale, 154
Carbohydrates, 37, 282, 368 thielavioideum, 154
Carbon, 29, 41, 59, 79, 84, 89, 91, 122, trilaterale, 133, 154, 155
183, 184, 198, 210–212, 214, 224, 226, Chaetoatrosin A, 135
229, 240–242, 245, 248, 261, 269, 292, Chaetoaurin, 135
304–307, 311, 312, 314, 334, 371 Chaetochalasin, 134, 135, 138
dioxide (CO2), 97, 113, 198, 278, 286, Chaetocin, 135, 154
292, 293, 337 Chaetocochins A-C (44–46), 137
assimilation, 293 Chaetoglobosin, 135, 139, 141, 143, 144,
sequestration, 261 146, 148, 154
soil amendments, 210 chaetoglobosin A, 140, 141, 143, 146, 148
Carbonate substances, 269 chaetoglobosin C, 144
Carcinogenicity, 106 chaetoglobosin D, 135
Carotenoids, 27 chaetoglobosin Fex, 135, 154
Carrot, 43, 229, 281 chaetoglobosin V, 139
388 Index

Chaetominine, 156 Chromium, 66

Chaetomugilin A, 146–148 Chryseomonas luteola, 84
Chaetomugilin D, 146, 148 Chrysophanol, 143, 151, 153
Chaetoquadrin, 135, 153 Cinchona, 344
Chaetoquadrin B, 135 Citrus
Chaetoquadrin F, 153 limon, 109
Chaetoquadrin G, 135, 153 orchards, 220
Chaetoquadrin H, 135 plants, 7
Chaetoviridin A, 138, 141, 142, 147, 148, seedlings, 109
153 Cladosporium
Chaetoviridin B-D, 141 oxysporum, 197
Challenges of, resinae, 134, 143
organic agricultural system, 350 Claroideoglomus, 30
contradictory concepts (organic food Claroideoglomus lamellosum, 30
products), 351 Clerodentron viscosum, 56
general consumers (quality standards), Clerotinia sclerotiorum, 12
350 Climatic
organic certification, 351 conditions, 26, 67, 193, 228, 292, 294
organic farming (commercial level), 351 management, 114
profitability low (food prices and land), Clipping, 280
351 Clods, 262
Chelation-mediated modes, 97 Clostridium spp., 198
Chemical Clothianidin, 120
driven agriculture, 367 Cochliobolus lunatus, 134, 142
environments, 220 Cocoa, 365, 366
fertilizers, 4, 26, 29, 31, 52, 79, 241, 248, Coconut husk, 10
304, 305, 312, 336–339, 341 Codex alimentarius body, 332
herbicides, 289, 294, 295 Coffee, 26–29, 266, 365
pesticides, 3, 4, 178, 227, 340, 375 beans, 266
properties, 28, 82, 220, 248, 347 Co-inoculation, 25
Chemotaxis, 59, 61 Coleus forskholii, 58
Chenopodium Colletotrichum, 9
album, 286 capsici, 15, 195
quinoa, 344 gloesporioides, 12
Chetomin, 137, 140–142, 151, 153 Colloidal surfaces, 225
Chickpea crop plants, 34 Colonization, 11, 30, 35, 36, 39, 40, 42–44,
Chinese 53, 60, 61, 64, 92, 109
brake fern, 35 potentials, 30
cabbage, 193 process, 61
Chitin, 7, 12, 37, 125, 135 Coloring agent, 5
Chitinase, 7, 9, 12, 31 Combat undernourishment, 346
enzyme, 7, 12 Commensalism, 117
Chitosanase, 31 Commercial pesticides, 184
Chlamydospores, 9 Commercialization, 344
Chlorophyll content, 29, 118 Common
Cholangiocarcinoma cell lines, 134, 136, 139 cocklebur, 280, 293
Chorismic acid, 65 pokeweed, 281
Chromatographic condition, 172 Compartmentalization approaches, 37
Index 389

Competition, 194, 292, 371 production, 25, 39, 98, 105, 107, 208,
weed ability, 287 209, 240–242, 247, 248, 267, 279, 306,
Complex phosphates, 53 310, 322, 336, 344, 353, 364
Compost, 183, 190–197, 200, 210, 212, 220, productivity, 32, 68, 82, 89, 122, 184,
224, 225, 261, 304, 305, 307, 311, 312, 240, 246, 248, 292, 329
315, 322, 323, 328, 336, 337, 340, 348, protection, 106, 165, 166, 178
350, 351, 370–372 residues, 218, 336
Concentric rings, 9 rotation, 184, 210, 213, 218, 261, 265,
Concept history regulation (organic 278, 279, 283, 286, 295, 306, 322, 323,
agriculture), 326 328, 335, 336, 340, 353, 375
concept (organic farming), 326 rotation, 336
history (organic farming), 327–331 specialization, 209
regulation (organic farming), 332 stand, 278, 279, 295
Conidiophores, 9 system, 39, 199, 283, 287, 290, 307, 338,
Coniella diplodiella, 134, 149 340, 341, 344, 345
Conservation Crotalaria juncea, 310
agriculture, 342 Cruciferceae, 56
tillage practices, 218 Crude garlic extract, 169
Contaminants, 95, 304, 367 Crushing, 262
Contemporary agro practices, 112
Cryptocandin, 117
Conventional
Cryptococcus neoformans, 135
agricultural framework system, 345
Cryptomeria japonica, 247
farming (CF), 211, 214, 217, 218, 224,
Cucumis sativus, 8, 15, 57, 91
323, 339, 346, 347, 349, 370, 373, 376
Cucurbitaceae, 197
systems, 211, 214, 323
Cultivars, 87, 112, 169, 287, 295, 322, 326,
farms, 213, 220, 225
330, 331, 338, 340, 346
food, 367–370, 375
Cultivation, 31, 56, 58, 91, 260, 261, 265,
products, 374
269, 271, 282, 289, 304, 305, 309, 311,
intensive management, 24
management practices, 220 312, 330, 333, 340, 342, 344, 364–366, 375
tillage practices, 218 Cultural
Copper, 37, 95, 122–124, 166, 310, 337, 375 activities, 82
Cork compost (CC), 192, 193 characters, 58
Correlation, 28, 29, 41, 83, 84, 89, 97, 345 medium, 64, 65
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, 134, 157 Current biodiversity, 228
Cotton, 62, 84, 115, 186, 191, 280, 310, Curvularia lunata, 134, 142
339, 365 Cyanobacteria, 26, 53, 311, 313, 314
Cottonseed oil, 170, 175 Cylindrocladium sp., 12
Covalent bonding, 125 Cymbopogon winterianus, 63
Cover crops, 210, 224, 263, 279, 287, 289, Cynodon dactylon, 56
290, 305, 328 Cyperus rotundus, 56
Crabgrass, 280, 287 Cyprus sp., 56
Crop, 39, 62, 199, 283, 287, 289, 290, 307, Cysteine, 108, 142, 165
323, 327, 338, 340, 341, 344, 345 Cytochalasines, 117
diversity, 338 Cytokinins, 63
nutrient demands, 338 Cytoplasm, 35, 37, 245
pesticide control, 263 Cytotoxicity, 133–137, 139, 143–146, 149–152
390 Index

D Drilling, 261, 289, 308

Drought, 25, 34, 60, 79, 213, 240, 243, 244,
Diaphorina citri, 109, 110
246, 248, 249, 271, 278, 286, 292, 293,
Datura fastuosa, 186, 187
307, 308, 343, 372
Decomposition, 218, 224, 260, 266, 267,
Drug-resistant microorganisms, 122
269, 289
Dry
Deep taproots, 281
cycles, 269
Defense mechanisms, 42
formulations, 5
Degradation periods, 106
lime cake, 34
Delayed planting, 278, 279, 295
matter production, 67
Dendrograms, 27
olive residues (DOR), 189, 190
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 79, 112, 125
Dryland farming management practices,
Depsidones, 134–136, 152
304, 312
Desertification, 343
Duration, 27, 199, 224, 262
Dethio-tetra (methylthio) chetomin, 137, 141
Dustable powder, 5
Deuteromycetes, 9
Deuteromycotina, 9
Dhaincha, 308–310
E
Diallyl Enterobacter, 80, 84, 90, 110
disulfide (DADS), 169 aerogenes, 84
sulfide (DAS), 169, 174, 321 asburiae, 84
Dicalcium phosphate, 81 cloacae, 110, 111
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), Escherichia coli, 110, 134, 141, 157
106, 329, 330 Enterobacter taylorae, 84
Dichloromethane extract, 141 Earthworm, 267
Dicot-monocot crops, 290 Echinochloao ryzicola, 283
Dicotyledonous, 24 Ecological
Dietary status, 28, 346 distortions, 81
Digitaria decumbens, 54 stress, 112, 113
Dihydroxyxanthenone, 144 Eco-physiological balance, 111
Dimethyl trisulfide (DATS), 169 Ecorestoration, 23, 25, 31, 44, 78, 98
Direct-seeded rice (DSR), 293 Ecosystem, 4, 27, 29–32, 37, 38, 40, 57, 62,
Disease 88, 107, 112–114, 118–120, 123, 183,
causing 211, 212, 218, 227, 228, 338, 363, 365,
organisms, 29, 117 367, 376
pathogens, 165, 190, 195 habitation, 112
infestations, 351 reconstruction, 38
management, 177, 323 services, 27, 29, 211, 218, 227
system, 371 potential, 27
suppression, 183, 186, 188, 192, 194, Effective phosphate solubilizing strains, 94
198, 199 Efficacy, 12, 26, 31, 34, 37, 41, 52, 68, 88,
Disruption tolerant AMF taxa, 40 91, 95, 98, 126, 165, 166, 174, 177, 185,
Diversification, 289, 338, 344, 346 188–191, 197, 200
Diversispora, 30 Electric
Domesticated plants, 111 conductivities, 39, 58
Downy mildew, 166, 174, 175 potential, 225
Drechslera Electrostatic
oryzae, 134, 135 forces, 124
tritici-repentis, 175 repulsion, 225
Index 391

Emulsifier, 170 Eradication, 280

Emulsion, 5, 6, 122, 170 Ergosterol palmitate, 143
Encapsulations, 106, 107 Erosion, 79, 82, 208, 211–213, 218,
Encystations, 59 260–262, 270
Endangering, 117 Erwinia, 80
Endocrine system disruption, 369 Erysiphe pisi, 7
Endomycorrhizal, 27, 31 Erythroglaucin, 145
fungus, 27, 31 Essential climate variables (ECV), 291
Endophytes, 27, 39, 61, 107, 109–111, 114, Ethanol, 63, 167, 173, 199
116–119, 123, 127 Ethical organic foods, 305, 312
bacteria, 110–113 Ethylene, 108, 198
fungi, 109–112, 118, 119, 126 Eugenetin, 135
metabolites, 111 Eugenitol, 135
microbes, 111, 117, 118 Euphorbia hirta, 56
microorganism, 106–110, 118, 119, 121, European Union (EU), 226, 332, 366, 374–376
125, 126 Eutrophication, 78, 82, 88, 347
organisms, 117, 118 Evaporation prevention, 260, 263
plant-bacteria, 110 Excavation, 121
relationship, 112 Exopolysaccharide production, 58
Endophyticentomopathogenic strain, 111 Extrication, 36
Endopolygalacturonase, 11 Exudation, 39, 42, 287
Endosphere, 97
Endosymbiont, 57 F
Enhanced Fusarium oxysporum, 9, 12, 14, 15, 43, 123,
mineral uptake, 68 124, 190–192, 194, 197, 198
plant holobiomes (EPHs), 113 f. sp. basilici, 191
Entomo-pathogenic f. sp. lycopersici (FOL), 190, 193
endophytes, 112 f. sp. melonis, 192
fungi, 111 Fabaceae families, 197
fungi, 109 Fabrication, 110
Entomophilous agricultural plants, 227 Facultative
Environment, 3, 4, 16, 32, 33, 35, 53, 55, endophytic diazotrophs, 57
58, 61, 78, 83, 85, 106, 113, 118, 119, parasites, 196
126, 149, 189, 198, 208–210, 213, 225, Fallow grassland soils, 224
226, 230, 265, 279, 283, 287, 304, 306, False seedbed, 289
307, 310, 322–324, 327, 330, 334, 339, Familia Tuberculariaceae, 9
340, 343, 353, 372 Farm
contaminants, 32 community, 183, 197, 342
degradation, 30, 306 mechanization, 79, 327
friendly, 32, 52, 81, 118, 121, 340, 353, 375 operations, 344
quality, 213 plan, 262
stress, 28, 31, 32, 34–36, 111 productivity, 344
stressors, 32, 34, 35 systems, 230, 329, 364
temperature, 79 Farmyard manure (FYM), 14, 89, 304–307,
Enzyme 309, 310, 312–315, 335–338
activities, 89, 211, 224, 243 Feeding, 78, 109, 112, 174, 227, 350
production, 34 Fermentation, 13, 83, 84, 88, 92, 145, 146,
Epipolythiodioxopiperazines, 137, 151, 153 168, 198, 347
392 Index

Fertility enhancer, 38 causative agents, 113

Fertilizers, 31, 32, 52, 63, 67, 82, 177, hyphae growth, 124
184, 189, 193, 208, 211, 225, 229, 241, micro-biota, 111
242, 245, 248, 263, 269, 279, 311, 312, pathogens, 123, 191
314, 322, 323, 326–328, 331, 332, 337, phytopathogens, 12, 13
339–341, 364, 367, 370, 373 strains, 78, 109
Fetal diseases, 120 Fungicidal, 165, 170, 178
Field activity, 178
capacity, 39 Fungicides, 122, 123, 177, 191, 197
margins, 290 Funneliformis mosseae, 30
Filtered homogenate, 167 Fusarium, 4, 12, 14, 15, 43, 123, 175, 176,
Fishmeal, 184 187, 190–192, 194–198, 370, 372
Fixation, 34, 37, 53, 60–62, 113, 311 culmorum (FC), 190, 193
Flaming, 289, 291 solani, 187
Flash chromatography, 171, 172 strains, 14
Flavobacterium, 80
Flavonoids, 174 G
Flavo-viridae, 141 Glomus, 29–31, 35
Flooding, 209, 265, 343 intraradices, 29, 31, 36
Flora macrocarpum, 35
biochemical compositions, 113 Gaeumannomyces graminis f. sp. tritici, 193
immune system, 119 Gammaproteobacteria, 31
Foliar microbes, 31
pathogen, 43, 190, 245 Garlic, 165–169, 171, 173, 175, 176
spraying, 109 bulb, 166
Food cloves, 168, 169
Agriculture Organization (FAO), 307, components, 170, 173
332, 341, 342, 346, 365, 374, 375 efficacy optimization, 171
autosufficiency, 304 homogenate, 167
insecurity, 28, 32 natural ingredients, 177
production, 372 oil, 169
quality, 344, 353, 364 pesticidal products, 165
residues, 106, 209 powder, 168
safety, 32, 312, 349, 353, 374, 376 products, 165, 167, 169, 173, 176, 178
security, 28, 29, 292, 332, 340–343, Gasoline engine, 322
364–366, 376 Gelatin, 6, 125
Formic, 83, 94 Gene expression, 36, 37, 113
Formulation procedure, 178 Genetic
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy biodiversity, 261
(FTIR), 172 disorders, 120
Functional engineering, 5, 30, 98, 331
complementarity, 41 expression, 36
moieties, 124 make-up, 261
Fungal, 4, 7–9, 11, 12, 24–41, 53, 79, modification, 339
81–83, 86, 87, 92, 97, 111, 112, 116–119, phylogenetic sequence analysis, 112
134, 137, 174, 175, 186, 189–192, 195, Genus azospirillum, 54
197, 198, 214, 288, 292, 306, 370–372 Geographic information system (GIS), 294
bacteria endophytic organisms, 117 Gerlachia oryzae, 135
Index 393

Germination, 62, 94, 175, 176, 185, 187, hormones, 52, 63, 117, 208, 229, 279
193–195, 240, 245, 265, 287, 293, 294 parameters, 29, 44, 58, 86, 110
Giant cactus, 62 Guaiacol peroxidase, 36
Gibberellins, 63–65, 68, 118 Guanidine derivatives, 111
Ginger oil, 170
Ginkgo biloba, 146 H
Gliocladium, 195, 197
Halo zone, 94
Global
Hand weeding, 262, 278, 279, 295
population, 78
strategy plant conservation (GSPC), 227, Harmful microorganisms, 7
230 Harrington seed destructor’, 294
warming, 113, 340, 343 Harrowing, 289, 290
episodes, 113 Harvest weed seed control methods
Globosumones, 134, 143, 156 (HWSC), 294
Globosuxanthone A, 144 Health
Globosuxanthone B, 144 consciousness, 4
Globosuxanthone C, 144 supervisory atmosphere, 126
Gluconic, 83, 90, 94, 97 Heat
Glucose, 59, 91 dehydration, 169
Glutathione, 97 killed cells (HKC), 110
Glycine max, 57, 111, 112 Heavy metals (HMs), 32–34, 37, 88, 95, 96,
Goosegrass, 280 119, 120, 127, 372
Grain production, 304, 330, 345 noxiousness, 119
Gramineae, 56 Heinonen
Granules, 5, 37, 55, 58, 59, 125 method, 92
size, 5 technique, 88
Grape marc compost (GMC), 192, 193 Helianthus annuus, 118
Grassed Helicoverpa zea, 114
mulched plants, 266 Helotiales, 40
plots, 266 Hepatocellular carcinoma cells, 145
waterways, 290 Heptelidic acid, 140
Green
Herbal pesticides, 5
bio-endophytic anti-disease agent, 118
Herbicidal, 210, 265, 271, 279, 282, 283,
leaf manuring, 308
286, 294, 348
manure (GMs), 210, 212, 224, 304, 305,
systems, 272
308–310, 315, 337, 372
Herbicide glyphosate, 120, 369
manuring, 308–310, 312, 314, 323, 335, 338
in situ, 308 Heterodera cajanis, 176
revolution, 329, 330 Hexane, 171, 173, 174
Greeneyes roots, 27 High-pressure liquid chromatography
Greengram, 92 (HPLC), 63, 65, 172
Greenhouse Holobiomes, 113
agro cultivation, 114 Holobiont, 38
gas (GHGs), 113, 292, 334, 337, 340 Horticultural
Groundnut, 123, 176, 291 crops, 291
Growth ornamentals, 290
hormone production (azospirillum), 63 Host plant, 24, 33, 36, 41, 44, 62, 108, 110,
gibberellins, 65 372
indole acetic acid (IAA), 64 Hostas, 112
394 Index

Human Industrial revolution, 322

breast cancer, 133, 135, 139 Ineffective pathogen proliferation, 183, 194
civilizations, 340 Infected bacteria, 113
food requirement, 209 Infertility, 28, 120, 369
lung epithelial cells, 145 Inflammatory activity, 142
microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC), Infrared spectroscopy, 172
145 Inoculant
neuroma, 134, 135 manufacturers, 68
tumor cell lines, 133, 135 rhizobium, 310
Humanity, 341 Inoculation, 30, 60, 62, 63, 67, 68, 84–86, 89,
Humic substances (HS), 187 90, 93, 109, 110, 112, 189, 248, 313, 372
Humicola fuscoatra, 197 Inorganic
Humidity, 168, 262, 265, 267, 270, 311 fertilizers, 30, 31, 87, 93, 241, 248, 314,
Hydraulic conductivity, 217, 228 330, 333, 340
Hydrophobic relationship, 125 manures, 348
Hyper materials, 260
accumulative potentials, 35 organic therapies, 313
parasitism, 7, 194, 196, 200, 371 phosphate-solubilizing, 85
causing mycelial lysis, 196 bacteria, 85
sensitive response, 108 strains, 85
Hyphal cells, 9 Insect, 3–5, 7, 12, 15, 16, 106, 107, 109,
Hypocreales, 40 111, 114, 126, 166, 174, 227, 228, 267,
agaricales, 40 285, 288, 329, 334, 337, 339
Hypoviruses, 196 microbes associations, 114
oviposition, 174
I pest
Imbalanced diets, 345 control, 339
Immunoassays, 172 plantain lilies cultivars, 113
Immunosuppressive substances, 117 population, 337
In vitro antifungal assay, 123 Insecticidal, 116, 121, 125, 134, 155, 165,
Inceptisols, 31 170, 173, 178
Incorporation combination, 263 activity, 125, 134, 155, 173, 178
Indian agricultural activities, 328 properties, 173
Indicator species evaluation, 40 Institute for Sustainable Agricultural
Indigenous microorganisms, 81 Communities (ISAC), 352
Indol-3-yl-[13]cytochalasans, 134, 140 Integrated
Indole, 58, 63–65, 68, 89, 94, 109–111, 119, pest management (IPM), 4, 16, 107, 178,
142 322, 353
3-acetic acid, 94, 127 plant nutrition system (IPNS), 67
3-butyric acid (IBA), 63 Intensification, 226, 322, 324
3-methanol, 63 Intensive
acetic acid (IAA), 58, 63–65, 68, 89–91, agricultural practices, 24
94, 95, 109, 110, 119, 311 farming practices, 226
production, 58, 65 Intercontinental Umbrella Organization, 327
Induced Intercropping, 287
resistance, 43, 183, 196, 200 Interfacial polymerization, 6
systemic resistance (ISR), 7, 16, 43, 53, Internal transcribed spacer (ITS), 54, 87
68, 194–196, 245, 249 International trade, 376
Index 395

Inter-row Land
cultivators, 290 allocation, 376
hoeing, 290 formation, 263
spacing, 290 Landslides, 350
Intra-cellular media, 37 Lantana sp., 293
Intra-radical vesicles, 37 Larvicidal, 173, 174
Intra-row weeds, 290 Lateral roots, 64
Ionomes, 30 Lawns, 291
Ipomea sp., 56 Lead, 3, 41, 52, 60, 66, 78, 79, 96, 98, 108,
batatas, 31 120, 122–124, 194, 245, 262, 270, 292,
repens, 56 344, 347, 372
Iranian phosphate mine, 81 Lecithin, 87
Iron, 10, 36, 37, 63, 66, 67, 83, 194, 345 Leg-hemoglobin substances, 34
chelating compounds, 66 Legumes, 30, 38, 54, 210, 308, 333, 336, 346
Isaria fumosorosea, 109 Leguminosae, 55
Isobutyric, 85, 188, 191 Lemongrass oil, 170
acid, 188, 191 Lepidium sativum, 190
Isochromophilone II, 138, 139 Lepidopterous lymantria dispar, 116
Isocoumarin, 111 Leptochloa fusca, 54
Isolation, 187 Lethal effect, 198
Isoquinolines, 151 Lettuce, 350
Isotetrahydroauroglaucin, 145 Leucaena leucocephala, 308
Isovaleric, 85, 191 Leucas aspera, 56
Light, 270, 285
J weight materials, 270
Lignin, 108, 267, 311
Jasmonate acid, 43
Lipopolysaccharide, 153, 158
Jasmonic acid, 108
Liquid
Jesterone, 117
formulations, 6
Johnson grass, 282, 287
state fermentation, 10
swine manure (LSM), 187, 188
K Livestock, 208–210, 230, 329, 337, 339,
Karrikin, 294 342, 364
Keto gluconic acids, 97 Living microorganisms, 4
Key biological constraints, 292 Locally-made garlic powder, 169
Klebsiella pneumonia, 110 Loliterm B, 117
Kluyvera Lolium temulentum, 283
ascorbata, 114 Long-term conservative practices, 213
cryocrescens, 84 Loranthus sp., 286
Low dietary contents, 345
L Lslea, 37
Lsnced, 37
Lycopersicon esculentum, 190
Lycopersici, 123, 191, 194
Lactuca sativa, 190
Lymantria dispar, 116
Lactic, 63, 85, 176
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus,
176
M
Lagenaria siceraria, 88, 92 Macerating biofumigant plant, 263
Laguncularia racemosa, 84 Machineries, 322, 323, 353
Lake sediments, 85 activity, 261
396 Index

Macroaggregates, 212, 218 Medicinal aromatic plants, 365

Macronutrients, 83, 88 Melanin, 37
Macrophomina phaseolina, 187, 199 Membrane stability index, 34
Macropores, 214, 217 Metabolic
Macroporosity, 272 process, 79
Macroporousness, 260, 262 proliferation, 64
Magnaporthe Metabolites, 12, 97, 108, 109, 117, 125, 126,
grisea, 123 133, 134, 136, 139, 141, 143, 144, 146–148,
oryzae, 140 151, 153, 154, 156, 157, 166, 195
Magnesium, 10, 123 Metagenomic, 106, 107, 125, 126
Maize, 55, 56, 62, 66, 67, 87–89, 92, 125, study, 125
134, 173, 174, 229, 241, 242, 246–248, Metallothioneins, 33
271, 291, 293, 310, 321 Metam-sodium, 30
Malformations, 124 chemigation, 30
Malnourishment, 342 Metarhizium, 53, 111, 112
Malnutrition, 345, 365 brunneum, 111, 112
Manganese, 37, 66 strain, 112
Mangroves, 84 Methane, 198, 292
Man-made agricultural stimulators, 327 Methanol, 167, 171, 173, 174
Mannose, 59 Methemoglobinemia, 368
Manure, 89, 183, 184, 192, 200, 210, Methyl bromide, 106
212–214, 218, 220, 224, 225, 229,
Micro-macro plant nutrients, 225
304–308, 310, 313, 322, 323, 336, 340,
Microaerophilic conditions, 51, 53, 58, 59
347, 349, 352
Microaggregates, 212
Marine mangrove plants, 56
Microbes, 26, 32, 33, 40, 66, 88, 89, 91, 96,
Market-orientated scheme, 344
97, 107, 109, 111, 113, 114, 117, 118,
Marsilia quadrifolia, 56
125, 126, 186, 191, 192, 194–196, 243,
Mass
248, 310, 337, 370, 372
production, 53, 83, 98, 108
spectrometry (MS), 110, 172, 195 community
Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization- composition, 243
time of flight (MALDI-TOF), 110 structure, 38
Mattress material, 267 diversity, 24, 125, 183, 366
Maximum ecology, 184
correlation, 306 growth, 59
proliferation, 186 inoculants, 53, 87, 310, 311
residue level (MRLs), 375 inoculum, 26
Mechanical insecticides, 53
control, 288, 289 pathogens, 42
cultivation, 262, 272 pesticide, 4
soil structure alteration, 262 industry., 126
weed control, 214 adaptation, 126
Mechanism of, population, 53, 56, 80, 85, 186, 245, 248,
organic amendments, 184 304, 306, 314, 370, 371
composts, 190 relationship, 87
liquid swine manure (LSM), 187 Microbiota, 42, 372
plant seed-based cakes, 186 Microclimate changes, 272
s-h mixture, 188 Microelements, 166
slurry, 187 Micromonosporaceae, 85
Index 397

Micronutrients, 25, 27, 208, 209, 220, 224, Mycelium, 36, 193, 197
225, 229, 230, 241, 307, 314, 337, 345 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 133, 134, 136,
Micro-propagated banana seedlings, 25 138, 143
Microsclerotia, 185, 188 Mycoherbicides, 288
Millennium development goals (MDGs), Mycorrhizae, 348
332, 341, 349, 353 fungi, 38, 247
Millets, 54, 286, 310 mycelium, 35
Milling, 262 symbioses, 29
Mineral transformed carrot roots, 43
nutrients, 110, 208, 229, 230, 286, 312 Mycorrhizosphere, 24, 38, 42
solution (MMN), 110, 127 Mycotoxins, 124, 134
Mineralization, 39, 80, 88, 97, 224, 311
Mineralogy, 224 N
Mitigation, 23, 35–37, 106, 112, 117, 119 Nanoagroparticles, 121–123
Mitogen-activated protein kinase, 42 Nanoaluminum, 121
Modes of action, 24, 25, 41, 42, 44, 78, 85, Nanobiopesticides, 121–123
97, 98, 106, 107, 126, 127 Nanotechnology, 106, 107, 121, 127
Modulus of elasticity, 60 Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 64
Moisture retention, 211, 214 Narrow window burning, 294
Moldboard plow, 212, 218, 271, 289 National
treatments, 212 Botanical Research Institute Phosphate
Mollicellin D, 135 (NBRIP), 85, 86
Mollicellins A, 152 organic
Mollicellins H-J, 135 program (NOP), 262, 349, 353
Molybdenum, 63 standards, 332, 337
Monoamine oxidase (MAO), 142, 153, 158 Native farming production, 331
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs), 172 Natural
Monocotyledonous, 24 ecosystems, 225, 226, 228
Monoculturing, 184 homesteads, 348, 350
Monospecific genus, 39 mulches, 265, 267, 270
Morphological pesticides formulation issues, 176
changes, 64, 208, 229 products, 117, 134, 140, 157, 177
characterization, 112 Neighborhood ranchers, 352
characters, 58 Nematicidal, 117, 165, 178
Morphospecies, 27 activity, 178
Mowing, 282, 290 Nematodes, 4, 5, 16, 42, 185, 199, 371
Mucor plumbeus, 123 Neonicotinoids, 120
Mugil cephalus, 146 Nesting, 227
Mulchery, 265 Net photosynthetic effectiveness, 34
Mulches, 260, 263, 265–269, 278, 279, 295 Neural disorders, 106
Mulching, 260, 265, 266, 268–270, 272, 338 Neurological effects, 120
Multicellular, 9 Nicotinic acid, 65
Multi-cropping, 338 Nitrate, 55, 59, 91, 185, 188, 189, 312, 329,
Muscanthus, 57 368
sinensis, 57 Nitrification, 39, 185
Mushroom production, 333 Nitrite production, 61
Mustard seed meal (MSM), 199 Nitrogen, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 35, 37–39,
Mutualistic, 117 41, 52, 54, 56–64, 67, 68, 79, 80, 82, 84,
398 Index

89–91, 107, 109–111, 184, 185, 211, 212, availability, 34, 183, 184
222, 224, 267–269, 286, 310, 311, 329, depletion, 211, 314
335, 347, 350, 368, 370 immobilization, 260
fixation, 52, 54, 59–63, 68, 89, 107, 109, management, 29, 67, 305, 307, 341
311, 335 mobilization, 61, 241
efficiency, 62, 64 provision, 246, 248
processes, 59 release stimulation, 263
phosphorous potassium (NPK), 31, 52, stabilization, 33, 90
87, 286, 307, 314 uptake, 23, 26, 52, 95, 225, 310, 372
Nitrogenase, 59, 60, 62, 66, 68 Nutritional
activity, 62 health impacts, 367
enzyme, 68 enhanced nutrient quality, 367
Nitrous higher yield, 367
acid, 185, 188 reduced pesticide residues, 367
oxide (NO2), 292, 347 quality, 210, 323, 329, 340
Nodulation, 37, 241, 248, 311
Nodule-like tumors, 64 O
Nodulisporium sp., 109 Obligate endophytic diazotrophs, 57
Non-affected bacteria, 113 Ochrephilonol, 139
Non-agrochemical production (NAP), 134 Ocimum sanctum, 58
Non-cereal crop plants, 54 Oil
Non-endophyte, 110 dispersion, 6
Non-fumigated fields, 30 seeds, 365
Non-graminaceous crops, 56, 57 soluble sulfides, 168
Non-inhabited AM plant, 35 Olives, 365
Non-inoculated seeds, 60 Olpidium brassicae, 192
Non-metric multidimensional scaling O-methyl-sterigmatocystin, 135, 154
(NMDS), 28, 39 Onion thrips, 173
Non-mycorrhizal (NM), 29 Oocydin, 117
plants, 31 Oospores, 197
Non-point source pollution, 225 Operational taxonomic units, 40
Non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing microorgan­ Optimization, 86, 114, 118, 177, 344
isms, 54 Orchards, 290
Non-targeted microorganisms, 123 Orcinol, 143
Non-toxic Organic
mechanism, 5 acid, 9, 30, 59, 83, 85, 88, 94, 97, 98, 198
substrates, 10 agriculture (OA), 23, 25, 43, 44, 79, 108,
Norway maple, 40 134, 157, 158, 210–212, 217, 226–228,
roots, 40 261, 304, 310, 324, 325, 330, 331, 338,
Nostoc, 310 353, 364, 376
No-till organic agricultural technique, 329 approach, 228
No-tillage farming, 283 amendment, 185, 186, 188, 189, 191,
Novel mechanism, 122 197, 198, 212, 213, 218, 220, 224, 225,
Noxious alkaloids, 117 241, 248, 314, 315
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 172 assortment, 326
Nucleopolyhedrovirus, 125 authorization, 332
Nursery transplantation, 265 certification, 332, 351
Nutrient, 286 commodities, 344
Index 399

crop protection, 165, 178 Ostrinia furnacalis, 116

cropping systems, 210, 265 Ovicidal activities, 174
diversification, 344 Oxidative
farming, 3, 52, 67, 207–214, 217, 218, phosphorylation process, 62
220, 224, 225, 227–230, 259, 260, stress, 31, 37, 245
265, 272, 279, 304, 305, 308, 312, 314, Oxygen depletion, 198
322–324, 326, 332, 333, 335, 337, 341,
342, 346, 347, 352, 364–367, 369, 370, P
372, 373, 375, 376 Paenibacillus, 80, 84, 85
standards, 260 macerans, 84
system (OFS), 208, 209, 211–214, Panicum maximum, 62
217, 220, 225, 229, 260, 279, 308, Pantoea, 83, 89, 90, 94
322–343, 345–350, 352, 353, 372 agglomerans, 83, 84, 87, 90
farmlands, 324 Penicillium, 4, 86, 123, 174, 175, 370
fertilizer nutrients, 229 expansum, 123, 124
food, 4, 210, 305, 324, 325, 344, 346, Phytophthora, 15, 41, 43, 134, 153, 156,
349, 363, 364, 366–370, 372–376 174, 175, 187, 191–195, 197, 288
producers, 325 apsici, 197
production, 340, 363, 366, 367, 375 attack, 43
herbicides, 278, 295 capsici, 15, 187
manures, 228, 229, 272, 314, 328, cinnamomi, 193
334–337 fragariae, 193
materials, 198, 200, 213, 224, 229, 260, infestans, 109, 134, 156
305, 312 infestation, 175
matter, 39, 82, 113, 183, 184, 186, 189, nicotianae, 191, 192
191, 194, 197, 199, 200, 209, 212–214, parasitica, 31, 43, 191
217, 218, 224, 229, 261, 269, 307, 309, disease, 31
311, 334, 335, 337, 365, 370–372 Piriformospora indica, 109, 113
methods, 342 Pseudocercospora fijiensis, 110
mulch, 210, 214, 259, 265, 266, 269–272 Pseudomonas, 4, 31, 53, 64, 80, 84, 86, 87,
mulching, 259 89, 90, 93, 94, 114, 119, 120, 187–189,
plant breeding (OPB), 295 191, 194, 195, 370, 372
production system, 344, 345 aeruginosa, 86, 119, 120, 187
products, 3, 209, 324, 331, 332, 337, 344, strain, 120
346, 373, 374 diminuta, 31
reservoirs, 209 fluorescens, 4, 53, 64, 191, 194
supervision, 334 maltophila, 114
tagging, 351 putida, 53, 84, 87, 189
unstable metabolites, 112 89B61, 189
Organophosphates, 106 solanacearum, 188
Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), 120, 127 stutzeri, 84
Organoponic, 366 Paraglomus, 30
systems, 366 Paralichar, 336
Organo-sulfur compounds, 168, 169, 174, 178 Parasitization, 197
Orsellinic acid, 134, 143, 155 Parchment paper, 169
Oryza sativa L., 53, 304, 312 Parietin, 145
Oryzophagus oryzae, 116 Parkinson disorder, 120
Osmotic stress, 60 Parthenium hysterophorus, 286
400 Index

Paspalum notatum, 62 content, 85

Pasteuria penetrans, 371 efficiency, 93, 95
Pastures, 227, 228, 280, 281, 290 fungi, 82
Pathogen, 7, 9, 32, 33, 41–43, 61, 106–108, microorganisms (PSMS) , 78, 81–83
113, 117, 118, 122–124, 126, 127, 133, rhizospheric bacteria (PSRB), 91
157, 166, 175, 177, 184–186, 190–192, solvable microorganism, 89
194–199, 245, 288, 292, 371 starvation, 98, 240, 242
bacteria nematodes, 176 Phosphonium hydroxide (NaOH-P), 85
fungi, 11, 41, 123, 190, 310 Phosphor-compost, 336
microorganisms, 41, 79, 108, 122 Phosphorus (P), 10, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34,
population, 193 38, 39, 77–92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 107, 221,
related proteins, 108 242, 266, 269, 304, 310, 314, 368
Peanut cake, 185, 186 hydrochloride, 85
Pennisetum purpureum, 57 solubilization, 78, 84, 91, 94, 97, 98
Pentacyclic triterpenoid, 153 solubilizing microorganism, 78, 80, 81,
Perennial, 281 87, 98
crops, 281, 282 Photorespiration, 293
species, 281 Photosynthesis, 29, 34, 37, 41, 79, 113, 118,
weeds, 266, 282, 283, 286, 289 245, 292, 311
Perforated sheets, 265 processes, 35
Peritrichous flagella, 58 reactions, 113
Perlite medium, 191 Phyllanthus
Pesticides, 3, 4, 16, 24, 79, 106, 109, 111, amarus, 58
120, 121, 125, 126, 165–169, 171–173, niruri, 56
176–178, 208, 210, 304, 305, 312, 322, Phylloplane microbes, 118
323, 327–331, 334, 337, 339, 340, 348, Phyllosphere, 53
350, 351, 364, 367, 369, 370, 375, 376 region, 56
era, 339 Phyllostachys edulis, 82
preparation, 169 Physical quality, 213
usage (garlic products), 173 Physicochemical properties, 183, 194, 195,
Pests, 3–5, 7, 12, 15, 16, 25, 105–109, 111, 337
112, 114, 126, 165, 166, 173, 184, 261, Physiological
263, 287, 322, 323, 336–338, 371 alteration, 37
Phaseolus vulgaris, 8, 15 mechanism, 33
Phenolic, 43, 154, 174, 195 properties, 61, 168
Phenological phases, 27 Phytate, 83, 87
Phenylacetic acid, 63 Phytic acid, 80, 87
Phenylpropanoids, 108 Phytoalexins, 43, 108
Pheophytin isotopomer, 111 Phytochelatins, 33
Phialides, 9 Phytochemical, 165, 171, 172
Phoma medicaginis f. sp. pinodella, 193 Phyto-disease control, 118
Phosphate, 26, 28, 30, 34–37, 53, 78, 81–91, Phytohormone, 61, 64, 68, 108, 326
93–98, 109, 110, 240, 269, 370 production, 59, 61
solubilizers, 53, 86 Phytopathogenic, 3, 12, 16, 53, 60, 66, 86,
solubilizing 122, 134, 153, 156, 157, 183, 186, 188,
bacteria (PSB), 53, 83–86, 89–91, 95, 190, 192, 195, 197, 198, 200
313 fungi, 190
capability, 84, 85 microbes, 198
Index 401

Phytoremediation, 26, 33, 38, 119 Poly β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), 55, 58

Phyto-sphere, 118 Polyamines, 37
Phytotoxic, 120, 155, 189, 190, 247 Polygalacturonase activity, 64
Piggery, 339 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 27, 81,
Pigweeds, 280 97, 199
Pikovskaya (PVK), 82, 85, 87, 94 denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis
Pistilla stratiotes, 56 (PCR-DGGE), 27
Plant Polysiphonia urceolata, 145
boosters, 38 Poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate granules, 68
counter-reaction, 42 Pore-size distributions, 214
disease Portulaca quadrifida, 286
control, 134, 157, 158 Post-emergence tillage, 278, 295
management, 12, 183 Potassium, 28, 31, 39, 82, 90, 91, 188, 189,
eating animals, 109, 112 266, 286
growth promoting Potato, 10, 13, 16, 31, 82, 134, 156, 185,
activities, 61 187, 195, 199, 220, 291
bacteria (PGPB), 57, 108, 196 cultivation, 220
microorganisms (PGPM), 87, 98 dextrose agar (PDA), 13, 16
phytohormones, 53 Potential bio-fertilizer, 29
rhizobacteria (PGPR), 52–55, 66, 68, Poultry manure (PM), 89, 183–186, 224,
80, 189, 196, 371 242
substances, 63, 64 Pratylenchus penetrans, 199
host microbes, 26 Pre-post-harvest preservations, 118
incorporated-protectants, 5 Precipitation, 81, 167, 270, 292
inhibitors, 108 Preservation, 112, 125, 269, 272, 349
metabolism, 11, 61 Pressmud, 10
nutrients, 23, 39, 67, 87, 110, 209, 213, Prevention, 79, 108, 118, 270, 280
229, 240, 242, 266, 304, 307, 311, 323, Priming, 42, 43, 224
331 Prochaetoglobosin I, 143
parasitic nematode, 187, 199, 371 Prochaetoglobosin III, 139
pathogenic, 288 Proliferation, 65, 143, 200
microorganisms, 24 Prolines, 37
production, 24, 31, 245, 248, 249 Propane, 291
related microbial communities, 40 Prophylactic measure, 175
rhizosphere, 63, 68, 80 Propionibacterium acnes, 134, 141
sustenance, 27 Propionic acid, 83, 188, 191
Plasmodiophora brassicae, 192, 193 Protection, 165, 372
Plasmodium falciparum, 133, 134, 136, 138, Proteobacteria, 40
152 Proton efflux phenomenon, 67
Plasticity, 262 Protuberances, 34
Pleosporales, 40 Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides, 193
P-limiting regions, 82 Pseudoperonospora cubensis, 175
Ploughing, 289 Pungent-smelling malicious odor, 166
Plowing, 211, 217, 218, 265, 289, 328 Purification, 171, 172
Plummeting, 82 Purse lane, 280
Plutella xylostella, 114, 115, 134, 155 Pycniospores, 193
Podosphaera xanthil, 8 Pyrenochaet
Pollinators, 227 aterrestris, 198
402 Index

lycopersici, 194 Rhizomes, 282, 287

Pyricularia oryzae, 15, 134, 135, 142, 158 Rhizopus stolonifer, 123, 134, 149
Pyridoxine, 65 Rhizosphere, 12, 13, 32, 33, 52–58, 60, 61,
Pythium, 4, 134, 142, 153, 190–195, 197, 63, 66–68, 81, 82, 84, 85, 87, 91, 93, 97,
372 120, 186, 193, 229, 243, 245, 336
aphanidermatum, 192 diazotrophs, 57
arrhenomanes, 191 microorganisms, 54, 66, 85
infection, 190 PSBs, 91
ultimum, 134, 142, 193, 194 region, 12, 13, 52, 54–57, 60, 61
soil, 55, 56, 58, 63, 68, 82, 84, 193
Q wheat soils, 90
Rhyzopertha dominica, 121
Quercus suber L., 192
Ribonucleotide diphosphate reductase, 66
R Ribosomal DNA (rDNA), 85, 87, 95, 112,
120
Rhizoctonia, 7, 9, 43, 187, 190–194, 196, 197 Ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBisCO), 292
infection, 43 Rice, 10, 27, 55–58, 62, 64, 67, 96, 115,
solani, 7, 9, 14, 15, 187, 191–194, 196, 197 116, 123, 134, 135, 137, 140, 142, 153,
Ralstonia solanacearum, 187, 189, 193, 199 174, 175, 185, 186, 188, 189, 198, 199,
Ramifications, 26 242, 245, 246, 282, 283, 295, 304–314,
Ramphicarpa fistulosa, 293 336, 338, 344, 345
Rangeland, 290 wheat production mechanism, 304
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 113 Ridging, 291
Rebounding, 262 Rishitin, 43
Relative Risk diversion approaches, 343
humidity, 193 Rock phosphate (RP), 81, 89, 93
length of stem with brown xylem Role of,
(RLSBX), 193 tillage organic farming, 261
Reliable biotechnological tool, 23 mulch (weeds controller), 265
Remediation, 25, 37, 95, 96, 119 mulches effects, 263
Reproduction organic manures tillage, 262
development, 245 organic mulch (nutrients availability),
growth, 280 267
method, 281 organic mulch (soil erosion), 270
Resident microbial populations, 184 organic mulch (soil micro fauna), 266
Residual organic mulching (soil water), 271
management, 263 organic mulch-soil organic matter
toxicity, 106 (SOM), 269
Resistance, 11, 25, 28, 31, 34, 38, 42, 60, soil physical properties, 269
61, 66, 82, 95, 105, 106, 108, 109, 113, stubble mulches, 270
118, 122, 125, 165, 172, 175, 177, 196, tillage importance, 262
217, 245, 246, 271, 283, 311 Root
induction, 108 borne diseases, 116
Respiratory diseases, 120 colonization (trichoderma), 3, 11, 27, 30,
Rhapis cochinchinensis, 151 39, 52, 60, 61
Rhizobacteria, 53, 61, 80 action mechanism (t. harzianum), 12
Rhizobiaceae, 113 application (biopesticides), 14
Rhizobium, 11, 26, 52, 80, 94, 310, 311 trichoderma (sustainable agriculture), 11
Index 403

trichoderma applications (biological Seed

control), 13 cakes, 183, 200
trichoderma biopesticide features, 12 dressing, 5
trichoderma biopesticide production, 13 germination, 62, 191, 280, 289, 372
trichoderma interaction (other microor­ morphology, 282
ganisms), 11 Sensitization, 42
development, 52, 64, 229 Serine, 108, 142
dry matter, 64, 84 Serratia, 80
exudates, 41, 59, 61, 63, 98, 196, 287 Sesame oil, 170
microbial communities, 40 Sesbania, 308–310, 313
proliferation, 64, 263 Sesquiterpenes, 111
rot disease, 14, 118 Setaria viridis, 293
system, 12, 24, 26, 28, 41, 82, 88, 95, S-H mixture, 183, 188, 189, 200
109, 111, 113, 281, 286 Shallow mechanical disturbance, 217
vacuoles, 37 Shoot elongation, 91, 93
Rota evaporator, 171 Siderophore, 66, 68, 89, 95, 108, 109
Rotiorinols A–C, 139 production, 52, 194
Rubrorotiorin, 139 Sieving technique, 28
Russian knapweed, 282 Sigatoka disease, 110
Signal
S hormone, 118
Spodoptera frugiperda, 112, 113, 115, 125 transduction, 79
nucleopolyhedrovirus (SfNPV), 125 Silent spring, 330
Sesbania Silver nanoparticles, 123, 124
aculeata, 308–310, 313 Single super phosphorus (SSP), 89
rostrata, 309 Sitophilus oryzae, 121
Saccharomyces spp, 174 Slope centrifugation, 28
Saccharum officinarum, 14 Slurry, 13, 183, 187, 199, 200, 220, 225,
Salicylic acid, 108 304
Salinization, 79, 312 Small
S-allycysteine (SAC), 167 conventional agriculture habitats, 228
S-allylmercaptocysteine (SMAC), 167 medium entrepreneurship, 126
Salmonella Sochromophilonol, 139
choleraesuis, 134, 157 Socio-economic crisis, 345
typhimurium, 134, 153, 176 Sodium chloride, 60
Saponins, 174 Soil
Saprotrophic populations, 39 aggregates, 211, 213, 214, 218, 370
Sativum oil extract, 173 aggregation, 307, 311
Scanning electron microscopy, 124 amendment, 188, 189, 245
Sclerotinia minor (SM), 12, 190 bacteria, 81
Sclerotium biological
rolfsii, 12, 14, 118 activity, 209, 211
sclerotiorum, 14 stimulation, 263
Sebania speciosa, 310 borne plant diseases, 32
Secondary compaction, 211, 213, 217
branches, 9 conditioning, 263
metabolite, 9, 12, 108, 126, 133, 134, conditions, 198, 228, 261, 271
146, 153, 155, 157, 242 decontamination, 96
404 Index

degradation, 26, 28, 79, 208, 209, 241, 248 Solarization, 199
enrichment, 370 Solavetivone, 43
enzymes, 88, 266 Solid state fermentation (SSF), 10, 13, 16
erosion, 218, 262, 272, 343 Solubilization, 53, 80, 81, 84–87, 90, 91,
fertility, 24, 25, 29, 32, 53, 78, 86, 89, 93–95, 97, 98, 107, 109, 311
208, 209, 212, 226, 229, 240–242, 245, Sorbose, 59
246, 248, 249, 266, 304, 305, 314, 323, Sorghum, 55, 56, 62, 67, 271, 280, 293, 310
334, 366, 375 bicolor, 60
depletion, 78 Sound technological knowledge, 344
flooding, 197 Soybean, 26, 63, 65, 87, 170, 185, 186, 241,
hydraulic properties, 214 244, 247, 248, 280, 340
management, 338 oil, 170
microbial activity, 190, 191 Spartina pectinata, 57
microbiota, 186, 188, 194, 198, 240, 243, Species, 9, 24, 26–30, 38, 40, 41, 54, 55,
372 57, 58, 81, 84–86, 89, 90, 92–94, 97,
microorganisms, 24, 39, 40, 199, 267, 348 109, 113, 117, 133, 134, 151–153, 155,
organic 173–176, 189, 190, 198, 208, 224–228,
C (SOC), 224 278–282, 287, 292–294, 308–311, 348,
matter (SOM), 113, 208, 209, 211, 214, 371, 372
222, 224, 225, 227, 229, 260, 338, Spectrophotometric quantification, 84
347 Sphenophorus levis, 115
pH, 28, 38, 79, 185, 188, 220, 225, 279, 347 Spinacia oleracea, 57
buffer, 38 Spirilli, 81
physical properties, 213, 214, 229, 266 Spirillum, 54, 55
porosity, 214, 217, 241, 243, 246, 248 lipoferum, 54, 55
pot assay, 26 Spring
preparation practices, 282 tillage, 278, 279, 295
productiveness, 326 tooth harrow, 271
profile management, 38 Stakeholders, 366
quality, 26, 28, 88, 211, 213, 229, 241, Stale seedbed
242, 246, 248, 305, 368 method, 289
root endophytic symbiotic microorgan­ technique, 289
isms, 113 Staphylococcus aureus, 134, 135, 141, 157,
salinity, 243, 245 176
reclamation, 243 209P, 134, 141
salinization, 79 Starch, 5, 6, 10, 125
saprophytes, 371 Stationary perennials, 281
sodification, 79 Steochospermum marginatum, 187
solarization, 197–199 Sterigmatocystin, 135, 154
stability, 370 Stolon, 282
suppressiveness, 187, 199 Streptococcus, 134, 157, 176
tests, 187 aureus, 134
sustainability, 208, 241, 248 pyogenes, 134, 157
texture, 23, 28, 183, 214, 224, 370 Streptomyces scabies, 185
water retention, 214 Stress
weed seed bank, 288 alleviation, 107
Solanaceae, 56, 197 tolerant, 38, 56, 331
Solanum lycopersicum, 8, 15 Striga hermonthica, 293
Index 405

Stromata, 9 T
Structural
Trichoderma, 3, 4, 7–16, 53, 86, 113, 188,
stability, 224
192, 195, 196, 334, 372
uniformity, 260, 262 asperellum, 7, 9, 10
Stubble-mulch aureoviride, 9
agriculture, 271 biocontrol agents, 11
farming method, 271 biofungicides, 11
Sub-Saharan African (SSA), 341, 364–366, biopesticide, 3, 7, 8, 12–14, 16
369, 373, 375, 376 brevicompactum, 12
Subtropical bamboo ecosystem, 83 conidiophores, 9
Succinate, 59 gamsii, 9
Sugar, 59 hamatum, 9, 11, 14
beet, 34, 282 harzianum, 4, 7, 9–15, 86, 196
maple, 40 koningii, 9
Sulfur, 37, 165, 167, 169, 337 lignorum, 7
Sunflower hulls, 266 longibrachyatum, 9
Sunlight, 169, 177, 289, 292, 338 parareesei, 9
Supernatant, 64, 65 piluliferum, 9
Superoxide dismutase, 31 polysporum, 9
Supplement, 167, 290 pseudokoningii, 9
Suppression, 176, 193, 199, 200, 265, 295 reessei, 9
Suspo-emulsion, 6 selective medium, 86
Sustainable, 3, 4, 12, 16, 23–33, 35, 38, spore production, 10
39, 43, 78–82, 84, 91, 98, 106, 108, 111, spores, 7
112, 114, 119, 121–123, 165, 178, 200, strains, 14
208–210, 213, 226–228, 292, 294, 295, virens, 9
304, 306, 307, 312, 314, 322–324, 326, viride, 4, 9, 11–13, 15
330, 333, 334, 336, 339, 342, 343, 345, Triticum aestivum, 91, 119, 120, 190, 304,
349, 350, 353, 364, 366, 370 307, 312
Talaromyces aurantiacus, 82
agriculture, 3, 12, 16, 24, 80, 98, 111,
Taxonomy, 52, 54
114, 122, 322, 324, 330, 353, 364, 366
Tea-oil plants, 89, 90
biotechnological tool, 121, 123
Technological progress, 329
management, 33, 119, 209, 336
Temperature, 86, 91, 121, 168, 169, 176,
Sweeping cultivator, 271 177, 188, 192, 193, 197, 198, 260, 263,
Swollenin protein, 11 265–267, 269, 271, 278, 291–294, 311,
Symbiotic 337, 370
AM fungi, 31 Tension tolerance, 27
association, 26, 28 Termites, 173
relationship, 24 Terranchus urticae, 176
Synthetic Tetrahydroxanthenone, 144
agricultural inputs, 322, 323, 328, 340, 353 Tetra-S-methyl derivatives, 134
chemical, 105, 322, 323, 353 Thermo-photo-degradation, 170
pesticides, 4, 166 Thermophilus, 176
pesticides, 24, 105–107, 120–122, 125, Thiamethoxam, 120
166, 178, 183, 184, 279, 348, 370 Thin-layer chromatography (TLC), 172
Systemic Thiol-disulfide, 176
acquired resistance (SAR), 194, 196, 245 Three-point hitches, 290
establishment, 109 Tiliaceae, 56
406 Index

Tillage, 24, 184, 209, 211, 212, 217, 218, Environment Program (UNEP), 347, 349
220, 224, 259–263, 270–272, 279, 282, States of America (USA), 4, 7, 30, 324,
283, 288, 289, 327, 337 331, 332, 346
intensities, 218 Department of Agriculture (USDA),
practices, 262 213, 323, 331, 332, 337, 347–349, 365
processes, 261 Upright position, 291
tools, 262 Uprooting, 290
Tithonia diversifolia, 229
Titratable acidity (TA), 84, 90 V
Tolypothrix, 310 Valeric acid, 188
Tomato Vanadomoybdate
plant, 31, 43, 83, 94, 123 method, 92
seedlings, 189, 191, 193 technique, 88
Total organic carbon nitrogen, 224 Variety selection, 278, 279, 295
Toxic, 106, 114, 119–121, 151, 173, 177, Vascular tissues, 25, 26, 111, 186
188, 195 Vegetation
chemicals, 16, 343 coverage, 27, 39
compounds, 288 mimicry, 283
concentrations, 363 organs, 281, 282
metabolites, 7 parts, 27
metals, 25, 95 spores, 112
Trace-nutrients, 25 Vermicompost, 304, 305, 314, 315, 335–338
Traditional herbicidal systems, 261 Vermiculate (V), 11, 84, 147, 192, 193
Trans-cinnamic acid-precursor, 108 derivadas, 192
Transgenic crops, 79 Vertebrates, 348
Translocation, 24, 95, 96 Verticillium, 4, 12, 53, 184–186, 188, 191,
Transpiration, 118, 285 197, 198
Transplanted, 188, 307, 309, 310 chlamydosporium, 197
crops, 309 dahliae, 12, 185, 188, 191, 197, 198
Transportation, 53, 121, 334, 339, 374 Verticillium wilt, 184–186, 188, 191
Trash-mulch agriculture, 270 Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM), 370
Trechisporales, 40 Vicissitudes, 112
Tress disease, 118 Vigna
Tribasic calcium phosphate, 84 radiata, 83, 92
Tricalcium phosphate (TCP), 81, 83–87, 93, unguiculata, 309
94, 98 Village markets, 351
Trichodion, 143 Vinydithiins, 173
Tricholin, 7 Viridin, 7
Trichophyton mentagrophytes, 134, 135, 143 Vitamin, 65, 84, 367, 368
Trophobiotic, 117 Vitrification, 121
Tryptophan, 63–65 Volatile
independent pathway, 64, 65 fatty acid (VFA), 188, 191
Tumorpromoting agent, 142 compounds, 188
Turmeric, 291 organic compounds, 195, 198

U W
Ultraviolet (UV), 125, 172 Wastes effluents, 119
United Water, 243, 285, 288
Nations hemp, 280
Conference on Trade and Development infiltration, 214, 241, 243, 246, 248, 260,
(UNCTAD), 349, 373 263
Index 407

penetration, 263, 307 weed harrowing, 289

retention, 211, 213, 214, 217, 241, 246, population, 265, 287, 288, 295
248, 347 species, 57, 278, 279–281, 292–294, 348
capacity, 211, 213, 214 suppressive cultivars, 295
stable macro aggregation, 214 Weedicides, 338
wasters, 285 Wetlands, 308
Wedelia trilobata, 95 Wettable powders, 6
Weed, 57, 210, 211, 217, 218, 220, 224, Wheat, 10, 55, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 67,
227, 260–263, 265, 266, 269, 271, 272, 89–91, 119, 123, 175, 185, 186, 191, 193,
278–283, 285–295, 338, 348, 350, 372 195, 247, 266, 270, 272, 282, 283, 293,
control, 210, 218, 224, 260, 262, 263, 265, 295, 304, 305, 307, 309, 310, 312, 336,
278, 279, 283, 288, 290, 291, 294, 295 338
measures, 262 straw, 185, 186, 191, 272
cultural methods (management strate­ Whiteflies, 173
gies), 283-291 Wild buckwheat, 280
allelopathy, 287
biological control, 287 X
crop rotations, 286 Xanthobacter agilis, 84
weed crop competition, 283 Xeno-estrogen pesticides, 369
weed on weed, 287
harrowing, 289 Y
management, 277, 291, 294, 338
climate change strategies, 291 Yamchaetoglobosin, 150
programs, 294 Yeast extract glucose malt extract water
strategies, 278, 279 (YMG), 156
physical weed control methods (manage­
ment strategies), 288 Z
brush weeding, 291 Zea mays, 35, 36, 60, 88
flaming, 291 Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF), 352
harrowing-seed bed preparation, 289 Zinc, 37, 90, 121–123, 166, 310
inter-row cultivators, 290 oxide (ZnO), 123, 124
mowing, 290 Zoospore germination, 187
ploughing, 289 Zwittermycin A, 116, 195
ridging (potatoes-row crops), 291 Zygosporium masonii, 195
stubble cultivation, 288