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Chapter 1
1. Introduction
1.1. Basic definitions
Surveying is the science and art of determining the positions of various points above, on or below the
surface of the earth. The relative positions are determined by measuring horizontal distance, vertical
distance (elevations), horizontal angle, and vertical angle accurately using various surveying instruments.
After taking the measurements in the field, computations are done and the plans and maps are prepared in
the office. These plans and maps are used for planning of engineering works, making of boundaries,
computations of area and volumes, and various other purposes. Surveying also includes the art of setting
out or locating the points on the ground from the plan or map.
The first stage in all the big projects is generally to survey the area and to prepare plans. These plans are
used in the preparation of the detailed drawing, design, and estimate of the project. After finalizing the
drawings, setting out is done by establishing the various points and lines on the ground from the drawing.
Surveying although simple in concept, it requires great skill and practice for doing the work accurately
and economically. It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such as mathematics, physics,
geodesy and astronomy. The need for accurate surveying is increasing rapidly with the development in
technology. The construction of modern buildings, high ways, railways, high dams, long bridges, and
tunnels requires accurate surveying. As the cost the of land and property is increasing rapidly, high
accuracy is required in making the boundaries and land subdivisions
In order to gain a clear understanding of the procedures for making surveying measurements on earth’s
surface, it is necessary to be familiar with the meanings of certain basic terms.
Vertical line: - it is the line that follows the direction of gravity at a point on the earth’s surface. At a
point there is only one (single) vertical line.
Vertical plane: - any plane that contains the vertical line at the point on the surface of the earth. There
are unlimited numbers of vertical planes at a given point.
Horizontal line: - It is any line that is perpendicular to the vertical line at a point on the earth's surface.
At a point there are an unlimited number of horizontal lines.
Horizontal plane: - at a point on the earth's surface, the plane that is perpendicular to the vertical line at
that point is known as horizontal plane. There is only one horizontal plane through a given point.
A vertical angle: - is an angle measured in a vertical plane.
A Horizontal angle: - is an angle measured in a horizontal plane between two vertical planes.
Elevation of a point: is its vertical distance above or below a given reference level surface.
Difference in elevation between two points: is vertical distances between two level surfaces contain the
two points

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Need for surveying

Though it is impossible to predict when surveying started it is possible to assume surely that it was as old
as early civilization. Because every type of construction needs surveying as a prerequisite whatever may
be its type.
All types of engineers, as well as architectures, foresters, and hydrologists, are concerned with surveying
as a means of planning and laying out their projects, surveying is needed for subdivisions, buildings,
bridges, highways, railroads canals, piers, wharves, dams, irrigation and drainage networks, and many
other projects. In addition it is required for lying out of industrial equipment setting machinery, holding
tolerances in ships and air lines, preparing forestry and geological maps.
1.2. Types and principles of surveying
1.2.1 Types of surveying
i. primary division of surveying
Primary division of surveying is made on the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is considered or
assumed to be flat plane. The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is an ellipsoid revolution,
flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. The length of the polar axis is about 12713.168km and
that of equatorial axis is about 12756.602km.Thus the polar axis shorter than the equatorial axis by about
43.43km.
Because of the curvature of the earth's surface the measured distances on the earth are actually curved.
However, when the distances are small, compared with the radius of the earth, there is no significant
difference between the curved distance and the corresponding straight line distance and the curvature of
the earth can be neglected.
Surveying is thus divided into two types
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
1. Plane surveying
It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is assumed to be flat
surface. All distance and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on to a horizontal plane.
Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portion of the earth's surface and
areas involved are less than 250sq.km or so. It is worth noting that the difference between an arc distance
of 18.5km on the earth's surface and the corresponding chord distance is less than 10mm. Further the
difference between the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle having an area of 200sq.km on the earth's
surface and that of the corresponding angles of a plane triangle is only 1second. In plane surveying the
angled of polygons are considered as plane angles.
2. Geodetic surveying

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It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration, and a very
standard of accuracy is maintained. The main objective of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise
location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.
ii. Classification of surveying based on purpose
Most of these types of survey are planning type surveying.
1. Control survey: - is a survey made to establish the horizontal or vertical positions of an arbitrary
point.
2. Topographic Survey is a survey conducted to determine the configuration of the ground and all the
features on it (man made or natural)
3. Construction Survey: - Surveys performed to locate or layout engineering works.
4. Cadastral Survey: - us a survey made to determine the lengths and directions of boundary lines and
the area of the tract bounded by these lines. Or it is simply a survey made to establish the positions of
boundary lines on the ground.
5. Hydrographic Survey: - is a survey conducted to determine the configuration of the bottom of the
body of water.
6. Route Survey: - involves the determination of the relief and the location of natural and artificial
objects along a proposed route for high– way, railroad, canal, pipeline, power line or other utilities.
The may also involve the calculation of earthwork quantities.
7. Arial survey (or photogram metric survey): - a survey conducted by means of Arial photography.
iii. Classification of survey based on instruments used
Based On the instruments used surveying can be classified as under:
1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are taken
with a chain or tape.
2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape.
3. Level1ing: this is a type of surveying in which a leveling instrument is used for determinations of
vertical elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.
4. Plane table surveying: In plane table surveying, a map is prepared in the field while viewing the
terrain after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements with
telescopic alidade.
5. Theodolite surveying: theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles.The theodolite surveys can be broadly classified in two types:
 Traversing
 Triangulation.

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6. Tacheometric surveying: a tacheometric is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a Stadia
diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair. in tacheometric
surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured with a tacheometr.
7. Photogrametric surveying: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the help of
photographs. Photogrametric surveying are generally used for topographic mapping of vast areas.
8. EDM Surveying: Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of a triangle are
measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed indirectly from the known
sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides and angles are determined.
1.2.2. PRINCIPLES
Every profession must be founded upon sound practice and in this surveying is no different.
Practice in turn must be based upon proven principles. This section is concerned with examining the
principles of survey, describing their interrelationship and showing how they may be applied in practice.
Most of the principles below have an application at all stages of a survey and it is an unwise and
unprofessional surveyor who does not take them into consideration when planning, executing, computing
and presenting the results of the survey work. The principles described here have application across the
whole spectrum of survey activity, from field work to photogrammetry, mining surveying to metrology,
hydrography to cartography, and cadastral to construction surveying.
Control
A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates have been precisely determined
and are often considered definitive. The stations are the reference monuments, to which other survey
work of a lesser quality is related. By its nature, a control survey needs to be precise, complete and
reliable and it must be possible to show that these qualities have been achieved. This is done by using
equipment of proven precision, with methods that satisfy the principles and data processing that not only
computes the correct values but gives numerical measures of their precision and reliability.
Since care needs to be taken over the provision of control, then it must be planned to ensure that it
achieves the numerically stated objectives of precision and reliability. It must also be complete as it will
be needed for all related and dependent survey work. The practice of using a control framework as a basis
for further survey operations is often called ‘working from the whole to the part’. If it becomes
necessary to work outside the control framework then it must be extended to cover the increased area of
operations. Failure to do so will degrade the accuracy of later survey work even if the quality of survey
observations is maintained.
Economy of accuracy
Surveys are only ever undertaken for a specific purpose and so should be as accurate as they need to be,
but not more accurate. In spite of modern equipment, automated systems, and statistical data processing

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the business of survey is still a manpower intensive one and needs to be kept to an economic minimum.
Once the requirement for a survey or some setting out exists, then part of the specification for the work
must include a statement of the relative and absolute accuracies to be achieved. From this, a specification
for the control survey may be derived and once this specification has been achieved, there is no
requirement for further work.
Whereas control involves working from ‘the whole to the part’ the specification for all survey products is
achieved by working from ‘the part to the whole’. The specification for the control may be derived from
estimation based upon experience using knowledge of survey methods to be applied, the instruments to
be used and the capabilities of the personnel involved. Such a specification defines the expected quality
of the output by defining the quality of the work that goes into the survey. Alternatively a statistical
analysis of the proposed control network may be used and this is the preferable approach. In practice a
good specification will involve a combination of both methods, statistics tempered by experience. The
accuracy of any survey work will never be better than the control upon which it is based. You cannot set
out steelwork to 5 mm if the control is only good to 2 cm.
Consistency
Any ‘product’ is only as good as the most poorly executed part of it. It matters not whether that ‘product’
is a washing machine or open heart surgery, a weakness or inconsistency in the endeavor could cause a
catastrophic failure. The same may apply in survey, especially with control.
Consistency and economy of accuracy usually go hand in hand in the production of control.
The Independent check
The independent check is a technique of quality assurance. It is a means of guarding against a blunder or
gross error and the principle must be applied at all stages of a survey. Failure to do so will lead to the
risk, if not probability, of ‘catastrophic failure’ of the survey work. If observations are made with optical
or mechanical instruments, then the observations will need to be written down. A standard format should
be used, with sufficient arithmetic checks upon the booking sheet to ensure that there are no
computational errors. The observations should be repeated, or better, made in a different manner to
ensure that they are in sympathy with each other. For example, if a rectangular building is to be set out,
then once the four corners have been set out, opposite sides should be the same length and so should the
diagonals. The sides and diagonals should also be related through Pythagoras’ theorem. Such checks and
many others will be familiar to the practicing surveyor.
Checks should be applied to ensure that stations have been properly occupied and the observations
between them properly made. This may be achieved by taking extra and different measurements beyond
the strict minimum required solving the survey problem. An adjustment of these observations, especially

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by least squares, leads to misclosure or error statistics which in themselves are a manifestation of the
independent check.
Data abstraction, preliminary computations, data preparation and data entry are all areas where
transcription errors are likely to lead to apparent blunders. Ideally all these activities should be carried out
by more than one person so as to duplicate the work and with frequent cross-reference to detect errors.
In short, wherever there is a human interaction with data or data collection there is scope for error.
Every human activity needs to be duplicated if it is not self-checking. Wherever there is an opportunity
for an error there must be a system for checking that no error exists. If an error exists, there must be a
means of finding it.
Safeguarding
Since survey can be an expensive process, every sensible precaution should be taken to ensure that the
work is not compromised. Safeguarding is concerned with the protection of work. Observations which
are written down in the field must be in a permanent, legible, unambiguous and easily understood form so
that others may make good sense of the work. Observations and other data should be duplicated at the
earliest possible stage, so that if something happens to the original work the information is not lost. This
may be by photocopying field sheets, or making backup copies of computer files. Whenever the data is in
a unique form or where all forms of the data are held in the same place, then that data is vulnerable to
accidental destruction.
In the case of a control survey, the protection of survey monuments is most important since the precise
coordinates of a point which no longer exists or cannot be found are useless.
Basic measurements in surveying
Surveying basically consists of the following four measurements.
1. Horizontal distance: A horizontal distance is measured in a horizontal plane. If a distance is measured
along a slope, it is reduced to the horizontal equivalent.
2. Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at that point. The
vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in elevations height of the various points.
3. Horizontal ang1e: A horizontal angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is horizontal at
that point.
4 Vertical angles: Vertical angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is vertical at a point.
1.3. Errors and Mistakes
No one is perfect in nature while measuring any quantity and there is no perfect instrument with which to
do the measuring. Thus the results of all measurements are imperfect and this imperfectness is the results
of errors and/or mistakes

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Errors: - are inaccuracies in measurement caused by the types of equipment used for by the way in
which the equipments are used. In other words it is the difference from the true value due to personal or
instrumental imperfectness.
Errors cannot be eliminated but they can be minimized to some degree by careful work combined with
the application of certain numerical corrections.
Mistakes: - (or blunders) are inaccuracies in measurement occurring because of some part of the
surveying operation are performed improperly (i.e. carelessness of the surveyor). They are the difference
from the true value caused by the inattention of the survey or for example, he/she may read a number as 6
when it is actually 9 and record the wrong quantity.
Mistakes are also known as gross error and can be eliminated by adopting standard methods of
observation, booting and checking. They are random in nature.
Sources of error
In general there are three sources of error: people, instruments and nature. So, from this point of view the
sources of error may be summarized as follows.
1. Personal Errors: - caused by the inability of the individual to make exact observation due to the
limitations of human sight, touch and hearing. For example in estimating the fractional part of a
scale a person cannot read it perfectly and the reading will always be either a little large or a little
small.
2. Instrumental Errors: - Occur because of imperfect production of parts of the instrument cannot
be adjusted exactly with respect to each other. More over with time the wear and tear of the
instrument cause errors. These can be minimized or even eliminated by proper design and
adjustment of instrument.
3. Natural Errors: - Caused by the variations in one or more of the natural variables like
temperature, wind, moisture, magnetic variations and so on.
Types of errors
Errors are said to be systematic or accidental based on their occurrence and sources
1. Systematic Error; -are also known as cumulative error. These arise from the methods of
measurements, the instruments used and the physical conditions at the time of measurement must all
be considered in the respect.
Expansion of steel tapes, frequency changes in electromagnetic distance measure (EDM) instruments
and collimation in a level are jest few examples of possible sources of systematic errors. Though
they are cumulative in nature some of them can be eliminated and some may be minimized.
2. Accidental Errors: - (Random Errors) they are excess of systematic errors. They are beyond the
control of the observer and are random in nature.

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Accuracy and Precision

As discussed earlier any measurement cannot exactly be perfect, due to errors or/and mistakes. Hence a
major concern in surveying is the precision of the work and the objective of the surveyor is to make
measurements that are both precise and accurate. The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used
in surveying & yet their correct meanings are a little difficult to grasp.
Accuracy denotes the closeness of a given measurement to the true value. It is the degree of perfection
achieved in measurement.
Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity measured. In
other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to another. If a quantity is measured several times
and the values obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said to be high. It doesn’t necessarily
follow that better precision means better accuracy. A measurement that is precise will always be accurate
if it contains no errors.
In measuring distance precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the distance
measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.
Example: - If the distance of 210m is measured and the error is later estimated to equal 0.35m, the
precision of measurement is 0.35/210 = 1/ 600. This means for every 600m measurement there is an
error of 1m if the work were done with same degree of precision.
Precision and accuracy can be illustrated diagrammatically as shown below

1.4. Unit of Measurements

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT AND CONVERSIONS
There are two main systems of measurements:
1) Metric system (SI Système International)
2) British system

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Most countries of the world use SI metric units of measurement; SI stands for “Système International.”
Most measurements and computations in surveying are related to the determination of angles (or
directions), distance, area, and volume.

1.4.1. Distance (Length), Area, Volume

A. Distance (Length)
In the SI system of units, length or distance is measured primarily in terms of meters (m) and its fractions
where as in the brutish system; the basic unit for distance or length is the foot (ft) and its fractions.
SI Metric System British System
1 meter (m) =1000 millimeters (mm) 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 meter (m) =100 centimeters (cm) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 meter =10 decimeters (dm) 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters 1 chain (ch) = 66 feet
1 millimeter= 0.001 meter 1 chain =100 links (lk) = 4 rods (rd)
1 centimeter =0.010 meter 1 mile =80 chains
1 decimeter = 0.100 meter 1 fathom (fm) = 6 feet
British and SI Metric Equivalences
1 inch =25.4 millimeters* 1 meter= 39.37009 inches
1 foot=0.3048 meter 1 meter =3.2808399 feet
1 mile=1.609344 Kilometers 1 kilometer =0.62137119 mile
(Note: * denotes an exact equivalence.)
Example Conversions:
1. Convert a distance of 567.89 ft to its equivalent in meters.
567.89 ft x 0.3048 m =173.09 m
1 ft
2. Convert a distance 2.34 km to its equivalent in miles.
2.34 km x0.62 137 119 mi =1.45 mi
1 km
B. Area
The unit for measuring area, which expresses the amount of two-dimensional Space encompassed
within the boundary of a closed figure or shape, is derived from the basic unit of length. In SI
metric units, the basic unit for area is the square meter (m2). Large land areas may be expressed in
terms of square kilometers (sq km or km2) or hectares (ha), where 1 ha is equivalent to 1 0 000 m2.
Another metric unit for area is the are, where 1 are = 100 m2.

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British System SI Metric System

1 square yard (yd2) = 9 square feet (ft2) 1 square kilometer (km2) =106 square
1 cubic yard (yd3) = 27 cubic feet (ft3) meters (m2)
1 acre (ac) =10 square chains 1 square kilometer =100 hectares (ha)
1 acre = 43560 square feet 1 hectare= 10000 square meters
I square mile (mi2) = 640 acres 1 hectare =100 ares
1 are =100 square meters
1 m2 = 106 mm2
104 m2 = 1 hectare (ha)
106 m2 = 1 square kilometer (km2
British and SI Metric Equivalences
1 square yard =0.8361274 square meter 1 square kilometer=0.3861 Square mile
1 cubic yard =0.764555 cubic meter 1 square meter =1.19599 square yards
1 square foot =0.0929368 square meter 1 cubic meter =1.30795 cubic yards
1 acre = 0.40468564 hectare 1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometers
1 hectare= 2.47 10538 acres 1 square meter =10.76 square feet
C. Volume
The SI Unit for volume is the derived unit
cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters =1 cubic centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 Cu decimeters =1 cubic meter

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1.4.2. Describing the units for Plane angle

An angle is simply a figure formed by the intersection of two lines. It may also be viewed as being
generated by the rotation of a line about a point, from an initial position to a terminal position. The point
of rotation is called the vertex of the angle. Angular measurement is concerned with the amount of
rotation, or the space between the initial and terminal positions of the line.
There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal graduation and
radian.
Sexagesimal graduation (DEGREES, MINUTES AND SECONDS)
The sexagesimal units, in which a complete rotation of a line (or a circle) is divided into 360 parts called
degrees of arc, this is used in many parts of the world, including the UK, and measure angles in degrees
(º), minutes (') and seconds ('') of arc, i.e.1 degree is divided into 60 minutes, and 1 minute is further
divided into 60 seconds of arc. The symbols for degrees, minutes, and seconds are °, ', and '', respectively
 1circle=360º
 1º = 60'
 1' = 60''
Centesimal graduation (GRADS)
The centesimal system is quite common in Europe and measures angles in gons (g). Here, a complete
rotation is divided into 400 grades, or grads, written as 400g. The grad is subdivided into 100 parts called
centigrads (1g =100c, and the centigrad is further subdivided into centi-centigrads (1c = 100cc). A right
angle (90°) is equivalent to 100g. For an angle expressed as 139.4325g, the first two digits after the
decimal point are centigrads (0.43g = 43c), and the second pair of digits represents centi-centigrads
(0.0025g = 25cc).
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
The radian or rad
By definition, one radian is equivalent to the angle formed between two radii in a circle, when the arc
length between the radii is the same as the radius. Since the circumference of a circle is equal to 2πR,
there must be 2π (about 2 X 3.14 = 6.28) rad in a circle. Therefore 6.28 rad = 360° and 1 rad = 57.3°
A radian is that angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc on the circumference equal in length to
the radius of the circle, i.e.
2π rad = 360° = 400 gon
Thus to transform degrees to radians, multiply by π / 1800 and to transform radians to degrees, multiply by
180°/ π. It can be seen that:

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1 rad = 57.2957795° = 63.6619972gon

1.5. Scale
Considering the actual surface dimensions, drawings are made to smaller sizes of the area. It is never
possible to make its drawing to full size. This Operation is generally known as ‘drawing to scale’.
The scale of a map may be defined as the fixed proportion which every distance between the locations of
the points on the map, bears to the corresponding distances between their positions on the ground. For
an example, if 1 cm on a map represents a distance of 5 meters on the ground, the scale of the map is
said to be 1 cm = 5 m. The scale of a map is also sometimes expressed by fraction generally called,
‘Representative Fraction’ (R.F.). Scales of the maps are represented by the following two methods:
(i) Numerical scales. (ii) Graphical scales.
1. Numerical Scales. Numerical scales are further divided into two types, i.e.
a) Engineer’s scale b) Fraction scale.
(a) Engineer’s scale. The scale, on which one cm on the plan represents some whole number of
meters on the ground, is known as Engineer’s scale. For example1 cm= 5 m; 1 cm= 10 m, etc.
(b) Fraction scale. The scale on which a unit of length on the plan represents some number of the
same unit of length on the ground is known as Fraction Scale. For example 1: 500; 1: 1000; 1:
5,000, etc.
To convert an engineer’s scale into fraction scale, multiply the whole number of meters by 100.
Similarly, a fraction scale may be converted into engineer’s scale by dividing the denominator by 100
and equating the quotient to 1 cm.
2. Graphical scales. A graphical scale is a line subdivided into plan distances corresponding to some
convenient units of length on the surface of the earth.

Necessity of Drawing Scales on Maps

When a map is used after a considerable time or in different climatic conditions, the dimensions of the
paper usually get distorted. Due to distortion in the paper the numerical scales will not give accurate
results. On the other hand, if a graphical scale is drawn on the map, there will also be a proportional
distortion in the length of the scale and the distances from the distorted map will be accurately scaled off.
This is why scales are always drawn on the maps and charts which are maintained for future reference.
Requirements of a Useful graphic Scale
A useful map scale should possess the following essential requirements.

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1) It should be sufficiently long and should not be less than 18cm and more than 32cm.
2) Inter-divisions should be accurately done and correctly numbered.
3) The zero must always be placed between unit and its sub-divisions.
4) The name of scale and its R.F. should always be written on the plan.
5) It should be easily readable without making any arithmetical calculations for measuring the
distances on a map. The main divisions should, therefore, represent one, ten, hundred or thousand
units.
- Map scales may be classified as large, medium, or small.
 large scale 1:1000 or larger
 intermediate (medium) 1:1000 up to 1:10000
 small scale 1:10000 or smaller

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Chapter 2
Measuring horizontal distance
Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of the earth.
Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear measurements is required in chain surveying,
traverse surveying, and other types of surveying.
In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When slope distances are
measured in the field they are always reduced to their equivalent horizontal distance for preparation of
map.

There are in general three methods of making linear measurements

1. Direct methods
2. Optical methods
3. E.D.M methods
In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape. In optical methods, the
distance is no actually measure in the field. It is computed indirectly (for example: Stadia tacheometry).
Electromagnetic distance Measuring (EDM) instrument works based on speed of light/electromagnetic
waves. Used for measuring long distance and for construction lay out.
Two different types EDMs are available:
1) Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of distance.
2) Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of distance.
Approximate method of measuring distance
The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for the measurement
of horizontal distances. These methods are also use sometimes to detect large mistakes in linear
measurements obtained with a tape.
1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by counting the number of paces made. The
distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by the average length of the paces.

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2 Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consist of a wheel mounted on a lower end of a rod about 1 m
long through a fork. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The wheel is pushed along the ground. The
Traversed distance is recorded on the dial attached to the wheel.
3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the speed and the distance traveled. If
the ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to measure the distance.
Taping
Instruments for taping
1. Measuring tapes
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in their
manufacture.
i. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light and handy but not
very precise; these tapes are available in length of 10m 20m, 25m and 30m.
ii. Glass—fiber tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but they are made of
glass fiber. The tapes are quite flexible and non-conductive.
iii. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are made of waterproof fabric or glass-
fiber in which metallic wires are interwoven.
iv. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying. They are more
accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
v. invar tapes: Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%), which has a very
low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very high
precision.
Note: The zero-end of a tape can differ. To avoid blunders check the zero-end position of your tape
at the beginning of the measurement.
2. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape on the ground.
3. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end points of the
survey line.
4. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is called ranging.
Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on the straight line
joining the end stations. Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight grained timber.
5. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely suspended plumb
bob always points towards direction of the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line, in
linear measurements plumb bobs are used when measuring distances on sloping ground for
transferring points to the ground.

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Horizontal distance measurement on slopping ground

In surveying, all distances are measured with reference to the horizontal plane. The drawn plan will then
be a true projection of the ground.
a) Angle of inclination (indirect method). Land with a slope of 3° or less is usually considered as level,
since the difference between the length of the slope measurement and the horizontal measurement is
negligible. This is illustrated in Figure below, where AC represents the surface of the ground making an
angle α (the angle of inclination) with the horizontal AB. If AC and α are known, it is a simple matter to
calculate AB:
AB=AC cos α

Where the angle is very small, the value of the cosine is nearly unity. Obviously the smaller the angle α,
the nearer the length AC equates with AB. As the angle increases, the value of the cosine decreases
rapidly; therefore, for large angles of inclination, the correction must be made or a serious error will be
introduced.

Figure. Horizontal measurement on slopping ground

Although the required horizontal distance AB is calculated, it is possible, where no great accuracy is
involved, to draw the section to scale once the length AC and the angle α are known. The distance AB
will then be scaled off from the drawing.
b) Stepping or step-chaining (direct method): The chainmen hold the chain, or part chain, horizontal
from a point on the ground and into space. The next point of measurement on the ground is found by
means of a plumb-bob or a dropping-arrow. The surveyor will determine, by eye, the horizontality of the
chain (i.e. when it is at a right angle to the plumb-line) and an arrow is then inserted into the ground. This
point will be the next position from which the chain will be held horizontally.

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Figure. Illustrates the method, which should always be carried out in a downhill direction it would be
impossible to hold B1 exactly over B and resist a pull as the leader holds the chain at A. The method must
therefore be as follows: handle at A; horizontal chain AB1 plumb-bob to find B; handle moved to B;
horizontal chain BC1 plumb-bob to find C; and so on down the hill.
When chaining across a valley, it is necessary to erect a survey station, on line, in the trough and then
chain down both sides to this point.
Care must be taken to keep chain lengths short 10 m or 5m so that excessive sag does not result in positive
errors in measurement.
Common Mistakes Made in tapping
Some of the most common mistakes made in taping are described in this section, and a method of
eliminating each is suggested.
 Reading Tape Wrongly. A frequent mistake made by tape men is reading the wrong number on the
tape, for example, reading a 6 instead of a 9 or a 9 instead of a 6. As tapes become older these
mistakes become more frequent because the numbers on the tape become worn. These blunders can be
eliminated if tape men develop the simple habit of looking at the adjacent numbers on the tape when
readings are taken.
 Recording Numbers wrongly. Occasionally, the recorder will misunderstand a measurement that is
called out to him or her. To prevent this kind of mistake, the recorder can repeat the values aloud,
including the decimals, as he or she records them.
 Missing a Tape Length. It is not very difficult to lose or gain a tape length in measuring long
distances. The careful use of taping pins should prevent this mistake. In addition, the surveyor can
many times eliminate such mistakes by cultivating the habit of estimating distances by eye or by
pacing or better, by taking Stadia readings whenever possible.

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 Mistaking Zero End of a Tape. Some tapes are manufactured with the 0- end at the very ends of the
tapes. Other tapes have them at a little distance from the ends. Clearly, tape men should not make
mistakes like these if they have taken the time to examine the tape before they begin to take
measurements.
Taping corrections (Corrections applied to the measured length by tape)
Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in temperature, tension and
mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused by these sources behave according physical
Laws and can be expressed mathematical expressions. They are systematic errors.
1. Correction for standard: A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for example
it may be designated as 30m long under a tension of 50N at a temperature of 20 C° when laid on the flat.
During a period of use, a tape will gradually alter in length for a variety of reasons thus the tape should
be regularly checked against a reference tape kept specifically for this purpose.
The correction to be applied to any measurement made with the tape in order to account for the
deviation is called the absolute correction Ca.
Ca= true length–nominal length
The true length is the value determined by calibration under specific conditions. It is best to understand
and then memorize the following set of rules.
1. When measuring an unknown distance, if Tape is too long, add the correction; if tape is too short,
subtract the correction.
2. When laying out a given distance, if the tape is too short, add the correction; if the tape is too long,
subtract the correction

Example
A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be 1357.40m. Later the tape is
standardized and is found to have an actual length of 49.96m. What is the correct distance measured?
Solution: Ca=true length–nominal length
= 49.96–50=–0.04/ tape length
 1357.40  0.04 
Corrected distance=1357.40+  
 50 
= 1357.40–1.08592=1356.3141m

2. Correction for tension (pull correction): Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extent its length is
changed by variation in the tension applied. The correction, which should be applied, is

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Cp 
P  PsL
AE
Where: P = the tension applied in the field.
Ps = the standard/ calibration tension
A = the cross sectional area of the tape.
E =Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L = the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-Ps). To apply this correction a tension handle is
needed.
Example
A 29.94m distance is measured by a 30m tape weighing 0.90kg has cross-sectional area of 0.0485 cm2.
During the field measures the tape is pulled under a tension of 45kg. The tape was standardized under a
tension of 10kg and modulus of elasticity of the tape is 2.1x106 kg/cm2. Determine the correct distance
measured.

Solution; Using the above equation (correction for pull)

( p  Ps) L
Cp 
A.E
(45  10)29.94m

0.0485 * 2.1x10 6
 0.010
The correct distance =29.94+0.010
= 29.95m
3. Correction for sag: A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount that is related
to its weight and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be used to reduce
the magnitude of the correction. The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord
length.

 W 2 L3 
Cs   
2 
 24P 
Where: w= the weight of the tape per unit length
L= the observed length between supports
P = the tension applied in the field.
Note: if the tape is used on a plane surface, which can be considered flat then no correction is applicable.
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed. Sag correction is always negative.

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4. Correction for temperature: If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization
temperature then the correction is:
Ct=L (T–Ts)

Where:  = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material

Steel: 0.0000115 m /°C T= the field temperature
Invar: 0.000001 m/ °C Ts =the standardization temperature
Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (T– Ts). To apply this correction a thermometer is
needed.
Example
A traverse line is 152.4 m long. If the tape used in the field is 50.0m when standardized at 170c, what
correction must be applied if the temperature at the time of measurement is 230c? ( =11.2*10-6/0c)
Solution Ct=L (T-Ts)
= 50*11.2x10-6(23-17)
= 3.36 x10-3 m/length
152.4 3
* 3.36 x10
Total correction = 50
 0.010m
5. Correction for slope: In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a
distance lies along a uniform slope and when the difference in height or angle of inclination from
horizontal between the two end points has been determined it may be preferable to measure the distance
directly. Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following correction:
h 2
Csl   Where: ∆h = the difference in height between the end points
2S
S =the measured slope distance
Csl  S (cos  1) where  is the angle of inclination that the slope distance makes with the horizontal
line
6. Correction to mean sea level: In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured
on the ground and the equivalent length at mean sea level has to be considered.
If the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the correction to be
applied is
 Lm  H
Cmsl  . Where R is radius of the earth which is about 6370km
R

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7. Correction for alignment

Generally a survey line is set out in a continuous straight line. Sometimes it becomes necessary, due to
obstruction to follow the bent line which may be composed of two or more straight portions subtending
an angle other than 180˚

AB=l1cos  1+l2cos  2

Ca= l1cos +l2cos  2− (l1+l2) →l1 (cos  1−1) +l2 (cos  2−1)
In case stations A and B are not inter visible the angle ACB may be measured accurately with thedolite
and distance AB may computed with cosine formula.

AB  AC 2  BC 2  2 AC  BC  cos 

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Chapter 3
Leveling
Leveling is the operation in surveying which is made to determine and establish elevations of points, to
determine differences in elevation between points and to control grades in construction surveys. This
elevation of a point is the vertical distance of that point below or above a given reference level surface
called datum. The most commonly used datum is mean sea level (MSL).
The determination of the elevation of points has a great importance on control grades for road, railway,
drainage, and canal construction works. Leveling is used to determine the quantity of earthwork in
construction works. It is also used to calculate the quantity of water stored in a reservoir or dam etc.
Principles of ordinary leveling
The process of leveling may be direct or indirect
a) Direct leveling is the method of taking a direct measurement, up or down, from one point to another. It is
the method by which differences of height are measured, vertically, from a truly horizontal line of sight.
The method is used by architects, engineers, surveyors, and builders for lower-order work.
b) Indirect leveling is the method of taking an indirect measurement by observing the angle of elevation or
depression from one point to another. The tangent of this angle when multiplied by the horizontal distance
apart of the points gives their difference in height (after corrections). This method is used in advanced
leveling and higher-order work and is termed trigonometrically leveling.
c) Barometric leveling is a third method of finding the difference in height between two points, by means of
simultaneous readings of barometric pressure at the two points.
Terms used in direct leveling

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1. A vertical line: - is a line parallel to the direction of gravity. It is best represented by a plump bob,
which is suspended freely at a point.
2. A Level line: -is a curved line in a level surface where all points in a line have equal elevation.
Every element of a line is perpendicular to gravity.
3. Horizontal line: - a straight-line tangent to a level line at a given point.
4. Level surface: - is a surface of constant elevation that is per perpendicular to a plumb line at every
point. It is best represented by the shape that a large body of still water would take if it were
unaffected by tides.
5. Horizontal surface (plane): - is a plane tangent to a level plane or it is a plane perpendicular to
the direction of gravity.
6. Difference in elevation: -is the vertical distance between level surfaces passing through a point.
7. Reduced level (RL): - It is a level of a point from a reference datum.
8. Bench mark (BM): - is a permanent or semi permanent point of known elevation that provides
beginning point for determining the elevation of other points.
9. Back sight (BS) is the first sight taken after the setting up of the instrument. Initially it is usually
made to some form of benchmark.
10. Fore sight (FS) is the last sight taken before moving the instrument.
11. Intermediate sight (IS): It is the reading taken on a staff held at point whose elevations is
required, but which is not a turning point or the last point.
12. Height of the instrument (H.I): It is the elevation of the line of sight with respect to the datum. It
should be noted that the height of instrument is not the height of the line of sight above the ground
where the level instrument is set up.
13. Station: The station is the point where staff is held for taking reading (observation) from a level
instrument.
14. Turning point (TP): For leveling over a long distance, the instrument has to be set up a number of
times. A turning point is the point selected on the route before shifting the instrument. The turning
point should he selected on a firm ground or rock.
15. Balancing of sight: To reduce the effect of instrumental and other errors, the distance of the point
where a back sight is taken and the distance of the point where a fore sight is taken, as measured
from the instrument station, should be approximately equal. This is known as balancing of sights.

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3.1 How to operate leveling instruments

Leveling instruments
1. Levels
Levels are categorized in to three groups:
1) Dumpy levels
2) Tilting levels
3) Automatic levels
a. Dumpy levels: The dumpy level was commonly used in surveying work until the last few decades. It
consists of a telescope rigidly fixed to its support. A long bubble tube is attached to the telescope.
Originally, the dumpy level had an inverting eyepiece and as a result was shorter (thus the name “dumpy”)
than its predecessors with the same magnification power. A typical dumpy level with its various parts is
shown in figure below. Its major components are its telescope, level tube, and leveling head. These and
other parts are indicated in the figure.
b. Tilting levels: It has the telescope that can be tilted about a horizontal axis. This design enables the
operator to quickly and accurately center the bubble and brings the line of sight in to a horizontal plane.
In tilting levels the line of sight should be parallel to the axis of the telescope. It is only horizontal when
the bubble of the sprit level is central.
c. Automatic level: One of the most significant improvements in leveling, instrumentation has been
automatic level or self-leveling levels. It has an internal compensatory that automatically makes horizontal
the line of sight and maintains the position through the application of the force of gravity. As soon as the
instrument is leveled by a means of a circular bubble, the movable component of the compensatory swings
free to a position that makes the line of sight horizontal. The compensatory can operate within the range of
 10 minutes of arc from the horizontal.

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2. Tripods
A tripod is a three legged stand used to support a level or other surveying instrument during field
measurements. There are two models tripods: the extension leg tripod and the fixed leg tripod
3 Level rods (Leveling staff)
They are used to measure the vertical distance between a line of sight and a survey point and a height
different between two points. There are different types of staves. Some of them are illustrated in the figure
below.

Preparing levels for work

1. Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press the tripod feet firmly into the ground. The tripod head
should be approximately horizontal. Fix the instrument on it.
2. Leveling up: Level the instrument, with the foot screws until the circular bubble is in the center.
Fig. 1 shows the procedure how to level an automatic level:
The movement of the circular bubble can be divided into two directions. One direction is parallel to line
joining any two of the foot screws. The second direction is then parallel to a perpendicular line from the
third foot screw to the line joining the two other foot screws.
Turn the instrument until the telescope axis is parallel to any two foot screws.
The screws are held with thumb and forefinger of each hand and turned equally and simultaneously in the
opposite directions until the bubble has moved to the line AB (fig 1a). Line AB is perpendicular to the line
through the two foot screws.
By using the third screw the bubble is moved towards the centre of the circle (fig. lb). The leveling
procedure is completed when the bubble is in the centre of the circle (fig. 1c)

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Left thumb rule: the bubble is always moving towards the direction of movement of the left thumb!

3. Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs appear sharp and clear then point the telescope
towards the abject (staff) and focus until you see clearly the graduation of the staff.
NOTE
The instrument man should learn to keep both eyes open when looking through the telescope. First, it is
quite tiring to keep closing one eye all day to take readings. Second, it is convenient to keep one eye on
the cross hair and the other eye open to locate the target.
If a person wears ordinary glasses for magnification purposes with no other corrections, it will not be
necessary to wear glasses while looking through the telescope. The adjustment of the lens will compensate
for the eye trouble.
3.2 Types of leveling
1. Differential leveling and its procedures
Differential leveling is required for the determination of the difference of elevation of two points which
are quite apart. A number of setting ups of the instrument are required in differential leveling
In the Figure below BM1 represents a point of known elevation (benchmark) and BM2 represents a
benchmark to be established some distance away. It is desired to determine the elevation of BM2, The
level is placed in such a location that clear rod reading is obtainable, but no attempt is made to keep on the
direct line joining BM1 and BM2, A back sight is taken on BM1.The rod-man chooses a turning point T1 at
some convenient spot within the range Of the telescope along the general route BM1 to BM2. It is
desirable, but not necessary, that each foresight distance as I1—TP1 is approximately equal to its
corresponding back sight distance as BM1-I1. The chief requirement is that the turning point shall be a
stable object at an elevation and in a location favorable to a rod reading of the required precision. The rod
is held on a turning point and a fore sight is taken. The observer then set up the instrument at some

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favorable point as I2 and takes a back sight to the rod held on the turning point TP1. Then the rod-man
establishes the second turning point TP2 and the observer takes a fore sight. The process is repeated until
finally a foresight is taken on the terminal point BM2
To check whether there is an error or not the leveling work should always be started from a known point
and should be finished at a known point.
The leveling field book should be checked immediately in the field.

Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has to be held vertically!

2. Profile leveling and its procedures

The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured intervals along a fixed line is called
profile leveling. The need of profile leveling arises during the location and construction of highways,
railroads, canals, and sewers. The instrument is set up in some convenient location not necessarily on the
line (as at I1) and the rod is held on benchmark (BM3). A back sight is taken and the height of instrument
is obtained as in differential leveling. Readings are then taken with the rod held on the ground at
successive stations along the line. These rod readings, being for points of unknown elevation, are
foresights regardless of whether they are in front or ahead of the level. They are frequently designated as
intermediate foresights to distinguish them from foresights taken on turning points or benchmarks. The
intermediate foresights subtracted from the height of the instrument give ground elevations of stations.
When the rod has been advanced to a point beyond which further readings to ground points cannot be
observed, a turning point (TP1) is selected and a foresight (3.440m) is taken to establish its elevation. The
level is set up in an advanced position (12) and a back sight (2.988m) is taken on the turning point (TP1)
just established. Rod readings on ground points are then continued as before.

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Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has o he held vertically!
Sample Field book for profile leveling
station distance BS IS FS HI RL Remark
BM3
1
2
3
TP1
4
5
6
7

Plotting the profile

Draw a straight line AB to represent a total horizontal distance between the end stations to a convenient
scale. The distances between the consecutive points are marked there on. Verticals are drawn at each point
to and their elevations plotted along these verticals. Each ground point is thus plotted by a Cartesian
coordinate's i.e. horizontal distance as X- ordinate and elevations as Y- ordinates. The end points of all
verticals are joined by straight lines to show the profile of the ground. The elevations of the datum line
may be assumed as the elevation of the first point. But for easy calculation of difference between the
elevation of the datum line and the elevation of different points, it is always preferred to assume an
elevation having full meters.
Generally, horizontal scale is adopted as 1cm=10m and the vertical scale is kept 10 times the horizontal
scale i.e. 1cm=1m so that the inequalities of the ground may be shown clearly.

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Elevation (m) 200

199

198

197

196

195

Chainage (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Elevation (m) 200.125 200.122 197.570 197.481 197.241 195.651 198.995 198.875 198.885

profile drawing
horizontal scale 1:1000

3. Cross sectional leveling

Cross sections at right angles to the center line are run on either side for the purpose of determining the
lateral lay out line of the ground surface. The cross sections are taken at every 20m or 30m stations
depending up on the nature of the ground. They are numbered consecutively from the point of
commencement of the longitudinal profile and are set out at right angles to it with a chain, a tape and an
optical square. The distances are measured right or left from the center line peg. The lengths the cross
section also depends upon the topography of the ground and the type of the project.

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Sample of cross sectional field book

station distances B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L remark

No L C R
BM1 1.500 201.625 200.125
0 0 1.700 '' 199.925
L1 5 1.750 '' 199.875
L2 10 1.900 '' 199.725 cross
L3 15 1.856 '' 199.769 section
R1 5 1.755 '' 199.870 at 0m
R2 10 1.645 '' 199.980 chainage
R3 15 1.600 '' 200.025
1 20 1.966 '' 199.659
L1 5 1.899 '' 199.726
L2 10 1.798 '' 199.827
L3 15 1.879 '' 199.746
R1 5 1.865 '' 199.760 cross
R2 10 1.753 '' 199.872 section
R3 15 1.564 '' 200.061 at 20m
BM2 1.456 '' 200.169 chainage

The recordings of the readings of a longitudinal sections and cross sections with its number may be
entered separately. The full descriptions of each cross section whether it is on the left or on the right of the
center line must be written in the field book. Sometimes surveyors prefer to enter the readings of both the
longitudinal and cross sectional sections simultaneously as shown in the table above.
Plotting of cross sections
A horizontal line is drawn and different points of cross section are plotted on convenient scale, keeping
the central peg of the profile in the center. Perpendiculars are drawn at each point. A convenient datum
level is assumed and difference of elevation of each point and the datum are plotted along the
perpendiculars. The points so obtained are joined by straight lines to get the desired sectional elevation. In
a cross sectioning leveling the horizontal and vertical scales is generally kept the same i.e. 1cm=1m.
It may be noted that the elevations of cross datum lines for different sections may be kept different to have
the ordinates fairly short.

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4. Reciprocal leveling
When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible to balance the back sight and foresight
distances, it is necessary to take sights much longer than permissible. Under such a measurement errors
due to curvature and refraction become significant. To obtain the best results we should have to use the
procedure termed as reciprocal leveling.

The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by leveling from BM1. At a set up near BMl, a back
sight is taken on BM1 and fore sight on A. The difference in elevation is computed as (BS -FS). Next the
level is set up near point A. Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains constant during the time
between the two set ups, the correct differences in elevation is computed as the mean of the two measured
differences.

( a  b)  (c  d )
RLA   RLBM 1
2

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Level field books and arithmetic check

A level field book or a level book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points on the
surface of the earth. Booking and reduction of the levels may be done by following two methods.
1. Rise and fall method.
2. Height of collimation method.
1. Rise and Fall Method. In this method, the difference of level between two consecutive points for each
setting of the instrument is obtained by comparing their staff readings. The difference between their staff
readings indicates a rise if the back staff reading is more than the fore sight and a fall if it is less than the
fore sight. The rise and fall worked out for all the points give the vertical distance of each point relative to
the preceding one. If the R.L of the back staff point is known, then RL, of the following point may be
obtained by adding its rise or subtracting its fall from the RL of proceeding as the case may be. The
specimen page of a level book illustrating the method of booking staff readings and calculating R.Ls. of
stations by the rise and fall method is shown under.
Rise and fall method of reduction of levels
Station. BS IS FS RISE FALL RL Remark
1 0.585 100.000 BM
2 1.855 2.955 2.370 97.630 CP
3 1.265 0.590 98.220
4 2.925 1.660 96.560
5 2.350 0.350 2.575 99.135 CH
6 2.855 0.505 98.630
7 2.685 1.655 1.200 99.830 CP
8 2.435 0.250 100.080 BM
Totals 7.475 7.395 4.615 4.535

Arithmetic checks. The difference between the sum of the back sights and sum of the fore sights should
be equal to the difference of the sum of raises and the sum of falls and should also be equal to the
difference between the reduced levels of the last point and that of the first point i.e.
∑BF–∑F.S. = ∑Rise–∑Fall =Last R.L. –First R.L
7.475–7.395 = 4.6 15– 4.535 = 100.080— 100.000 = 0.080
In this method of reduction a complete check on intermediate sights is provided because these are
included for calculating the rises and falls.

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The 'raise' and 'fall' may be replaced by 'elevation difference' (∆h) in one column so that raise and fall will
be positive and negative respectively on the same column.
The following table shows a portion of the level book in which the rise and fall are replaced by ∆h:

After the leveling, the field book has to be checked and the error of closure has to be distributed. The
procedure is as follows:
1. Sum up all back sight and the fore sight readings ∑B.S and ∑F.S
2. Calculate the height difference between the end point and the starting point
Nominal ∆h =end point – starting point
3. Calculate the difference between ∑B.S and ∑F.S:
Actual ∆h = ∑B.S –∑F.S
4. Calculate the error of closure:
Error of closure = Nominal Dh – actual Dh

5. Calculate the allowable eall. The allowable error depends upon the accuracy you want to achieve:

Intermediate accuracy eall  10 mm  L where L is the leveled distance in km

Higher accuracy eall  1mm  L where L is the leveled distance in km

6. Check whether the closure error is less than the allowable. If the error is bigger you have to re-measure.
If not; you have to distribute the error of closure.

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7. Distribute the closure error to the B.S readings

Note: if there is remainder after distributing error to back sight readings equally, then distribute the
remainder to the larger BS readings accordingly.
8. Calculate all ∆h following the way of subtraction
9. Sum up all ∆h. You get SDh.

10. Check whether SDh is equal to nominal ∆h. This is the 1st check.

11. Calculate the elevations of the new points by adding each ∆h to the previous elevation.
12. Cheek whether you get the elevation of the end point. This is the 2nd check.
2. Height of Collimation Method. In this method, height of the instrument (HI) is calculated for each
setting of the instrument by adding back sight (BS.) to the elevation of the B.M. The reduced level of the
first station is obtained by subtracting its fore sight from the instrument height (HI.). For the second
setting of the instrument, the height of the instrument is calculated by adding the back sight taken on the
first station to its reduced level. The reduced level of the last point is obtained by subtracting the fore sight
of the last point from the height of instrument at the last setting.
If an intermediate sight is observed to an intermediate station, its reduced level is obtained by subtracting
its foresight from the height the instrument for its setting.
The specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of booking the staff readings and
calculating R.Ls. of the stations by the height of collimation method is shown under.
Height of instrument method of reduction of levels
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
1 0.585 100.585 100.000 BM
2 1.855 2.955 99.485 97.630 CP
3 1.265 '' 98.220
4 2.925 '' 96.560
5 2.350 0.350 101.485 99.135 CP
6 2.855 '' 98.630
7 2.685 1.655 102.515 99.830 CP
8 2.435 100.080 BM
Totals 7.475 7.395

Arithmetic checks. The difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum of the fore sights
should equate to the difference between the R.L of last station and the R.L. of the first station i.e.
SB.S–SFS=Last R.L– First R.L
7.475–7.395= 100.080–100.000=0.080.
In this method there is no check on intermediate sights.

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Comparison of line of collimation Method with Rise and Fall Method

Height of Collimation Method Rise and fall method
1 It is more rapid and saves considerable It is laborious as the staff reading of each station
time and labor. is compared to get a rise or fall.
2 It is well adopted for reduction of levels It is well adopted for determining the difference
for construction work such as in levels of two points where precision is
longitudinal or cross sectioning leveling required.
operation
3 There is no check on reduction of R.Ls. There is a complete check on the reduction of
of intermediate stations. R.Ls of intermediate stations.
4 There are only two arithmetical checks There are three arithmetical checks i.e. the
i.e. the difference between the sum of difference between the sum of the back sights and
the back sight and fore sights must be the sum of fore sights must be equal to the
equal to be the difference in RL. of the difference between the sum of the rises and the
last station and first station sum of falls as well as it must also be equal to the
difference in R.Ls of the last station and first
station.

2.2.7. Curvature and Refraction

The nature of the earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction affect leveling operations. The magnitude of
the curvature C in relation to the radius R of the earth and the tangent distance d can be derived as
follows:
a) Curvature

(R+C) 2 =R2+d2  R2+2RC+C2 = R2+d2  C (2R+C) =d2

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C is very small when compared with Radius so that negligible

Where R=6370km
 d2   d 2  1000 

C  
 km C   m  0.0785  d 2
 12740   12740 
b) Refraction
Retraction will cause the line of sight deflected downward by a small angle θ. Pressure, temperature,
latitude, humidity affect refraction and its value is not constant. Its value is taken as 1/7 of curvature or I
4% of the curvature of the earth, and is opposite in effect to that of curvature.
C) Combined correction

Combined correction= 0.0785  d 2 

1
7

0.0785  d 2 
=  0.0785  d 2 
6
7
C and R corrections= 0.0673  d2 meters
d is distance in km, and the result must be in m.
If the distance d is smaller than 120m curvature and refraction errors are negligible. The error introduced
by this source can he completely eliminated by balancing the back sight (BS) and fore sight (FS)
distances.
Difficulties in leveling
The following are some of the common difficulties faced in leveling:
1. Leveling in undulating terrain. While carrying out leveling in undulating terrain, the level should
never be set up on the top of the summits or bottoms so shallows. If the level is setup on the summits a
large number of stations will be required as illustrated in Fig. below and the progress of the work will be
considerably slow.

Figure. Incorrect positioning of the instrument stations

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In order to avoid short sights and to equalize fore and back sight readings, the instrument may first be set
up on the slope as illustrated in Figure below. In the first case the numbers of stations are 5 whereas in the
second case the number of stations has been reduced to 3, for the same length.

Figure. Correct positioning of the instrument.

2. Leveling across a lake. When a staff cannot be read clearly due to great distance, the difficulty may be
overcome as explained under:

Procedure: Proceed as under.

Drive in two pegs A and B flushed with the water surface on the opposite banks of the lake as shown in
Fig. above.
As per definition of level surface, the surface of water of a still lake or a pond represents a level surface.
Hence, the level of the tops of pegs A and B is the same. Reduced level of the top of peg A is determined
by taking a foresight from the instrument station X. The level is then shifted to the other bank and back
sight is taken on the top of peg B. In this case the two pegs A and B together have been considered as a
single change point for the purpose of running down the levels.
3. Staff to near the instrument
If the staff is too near to the instrument the graduations are not visible. If not visible, move a sheet of
whitepaper up or down on the staff until its one edge is bisected by the line of sight. Read the staff
corresponding to the edge of paper with naked eyes and note (record) the staff reading.
4.Leveling across an intervening high wall, (Fig. below)
When a high wall is intervened, leveling may be carried out as explained under.
Mark a point C on the wall in the line of sight. Measure the distance of E vertically above the point C. Let
it be x. Establish another point F on the other face of the wall such that EF is perpendicular to the first
face containing the point E. Suspend a plumb bob from F.

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Fig. Leveling across a wall

Transfer the level on the other side of the wall and adjust its height conveniently and make observation.
When the line of sight intersects the suspended chord, mark a point D. Measure the distance FD
accurately. Let it y. The reduced level of D may be calculated as under
R.L. of D=R.L. of C+CE–FD
=Ht of collimation at A + x–y
Therefore The height of collimation at B= Ht of collimation at A + x –y
Note: the values of X and Y can be observed by inverted staff reading holding the staff at the top of the
wall
Suggestion on Leveling
When leveling, the following practice should be adhered to if many of the sources of error are to be
avoided.
1) Leveling should always start and finish at points of known reduced level so that misclosure can be
detected. When only one bench mark is available, leveling lines must be run in loops starting and
finishing at the bench mark.
2) Where possible, all sights lengths should be below 50 m.
3) The staff must be held vertically by suitable use of a circular bubble
4) BS and FS lengths should be kept equal for each instrument position. For engineering applications,
many IS readings may be taken from each set-up. Under these circumstances it is important that
the level has no more than a small collimation error.
5) Readings should be booked immediately after they are observed and important readings,
particularly at change points should be checked.

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Chapter 4

MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLES
In addition to measurement of horizontal and vertical distance, angles and direction can also used to
locate the position of a point.
The measurement of the angles or directions can be made by the use of compass or a theodolite.
Introduction to Theodolites
Theodolites are manufactured to determine horizontal and vertical angles and for the purpose of
prolonging straight lines, leveling, stadia tachometry etc. Theodolites have horizontal and vertical circles
for angle measurements, but circles are made of glass instead of metal.

Terms Used in theodolite surveys

1. Centering: it is the process of setting up the instrument exactly over the station mark.
2. Vertical axis: it is an axis about which the instrument rotates in the horizontal plane.
3. Horizontal axis: it is the line passing through the center of the journals, which fit into the bearings
at the top of the standards
4. Face left face right observations
Face left  with the vertical circle on the left side of the eyepiece.
Face right  with the vertical circle on the right side of eyepiece.
5. Swinging the telescope  rotating the telescope by 1800 in the horizontal plane around the
vertical axis.
6. Transiting or plunging  rotating the telescope by 1800 in the vertical plane around the
horizontal axis.
7. Telescope normal and telescope reverse  Reading with normal telescope and reading with
swinging and transiting of telescope.
8. Double centering observing angles twice with telescope normal & reverse
9. Line of collimation: the line defined by cross hairs and optical center of the objective
Axis's of the theodolite
The collimation axis ZZ should be normal to the horizontal axis KK
The horizontal axis KK should be normal to the vertical axis VV
The plate bubble axis LL should be horizontal
The vertical axis VV should be vertical (in the plumb line)

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Preparing a theodolite for work

Preparing a theodolite for work is required to be made at each setting of the instrument before taking
observations.
To make ready the theodolite for work (the following five steps are required;
1) Setting up the theodolite
2) Centering the theodolite
3) Leveling up the theodolite
4) Focusing the eyepiece of the theodolite
5) Focusing the objective of the theodolite
1. Setting up and centering a theodolite by means of an optical plummet
 Extend the tripod legs to suitable lengths (the observer should sight through the telescope
comfortably!).
 Set up the tripod approximately over the ground point.
 Step back about one meter and check whether the vertical axis of the tripod coincides with the
ground point. If it does not, move the tripod accordingly.
 Stand at an approximately right angle to the previous position and check again whether the vertical
axis of the tripod coincides with the ground point
 Press the tripod feet firmly into the ground. The tripod head should be approximately horizontal

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 Take the theodolite carefully out of the carrying case, place it on the tripod head and immediately
tight it firmly by using the fastening screw.
 Check whether the 3 foot screws are on their mid sections.
 The optical plummet has now to be focused properly, that means both the cross hairs and the ground
point have to appear sharp while sighting through the eyepiece. Do the following:
 Shift the eyepiece of the optical plummet in or out until the ground point becomes sharp.
 Turn the eyepiece until the crosshairs appear sharp.
 The optical plummet (see figure below) is now focused, that means ground point and cross hairs are
projected in the same plane (this is also called elimination of parallax)

This can be checked by looking through the eyepiece and simultaneously moving the eye up and down
or sideway a small amount to detect whether the cross hairs appear to move with respect to the ground
point.
 By moving the foot screws and simultaneously sighting through the optical plummet bring the cross
hairs exactly over the ground point. The vertical axis of the theodolite is now roughly centered over
the ground point.
 By extending or reducing the lengths of the tripod legs bring the bubble in the central position (while
doing so, step slightly on to the respective tripod foot).
 Check whether the cross hairs of the optical plummet are still exactly over the ground point. If not,
loosen the fastening screw, grab the tribrach (not the foot screws!) and slide it carefully to the point,
marking the ground station.
Never rotate the tribrach!
 The theodolite is now exactly centered over the ground point and roughly leveled.

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2. Exact leveling of the theodolite by means of the 3 foot screws (see figure 3)
Turn the instrument until the axis of the spirit level is parallel with the line of any 2 foot screws.
The screws are held by the thumb and forefinger of each hand and turned equally and simultaneously in
the opposite directions until the bubble has moved to the central position. The bubble is now
centralized.
Left thumb rule:
The bubble is always moving along the bubble tube towards the direction of movement of the left thumb.
 The telescope has to be turned through 180º. If the spirit level is adjusted correctly the bubble has
to stay in the central position. If it does not, the bubble moves a distance of ‘a” (see. figure 3) away
from the central position. Read the amount of ''a” (number of divisions on the bubble tube) and
correct half the error “a/2'' (see figure 3). The bubble takes up now the mean position.
 Keep in mind the mean position!
 The telescope is now turned through 90 º. The bubble is brought to the mean position by turning
the remaining screw.
 If the whole process has been done correctly, the bubble should remain in the same position (mean
position) wherever the telescope is turned.
 If the bubble does not remain in the same position, start again by bringing the bubble in the central
position and repeat the process.
 The theodolite is now exactly centered and leveled and the survey can be started.

d) Focusing the eyepiece of the telescope:

The eyepiece is focused to make the crosshairs distinct and clear.

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It may be noted that the focusing of the eyepiece depends upon the eyesight (vision) of the observer.
e) Focusing the objective of the telescope:
The objective is focused to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross hairs. It may be noted that
the focusing of the objective depends upon the distance of the object. When the distance of the object is
change, focusing has to be done again.
4.1. Measuring horizontal angles
To measure angle AOB, the instrument is set up over station O and carefully leveled by means of the
foot screws.
 The telescope is directed and targeted to station A and when the telescope is closely pointing on A the
clamp is locked and the vertical cross hair is accurately sighted on to the station using the tangent
screw. With HR (horizontal angle to the right) the horizontal angle reading is now taken.
 Release the clamp. This frees the telescope to swing over a vertical axis. Swing the telescope on a
clockwise direction on to the signal at B and again bisect the signal using the clamp and slow motion
screw and record the angle read.
 The clamp is released, and the theodolite is swing through 1800 and transiting by 1800 in the vertical
plane. The telescope is sighted on B by fixing clamp and using tangent screw and horizontal angle is
recorded with HL (horizontal angle to the left)
 Releasing the clamp, the telescope is directed towards station A. The clamp is tightened and using
tangent screw the telescope is targeted on A and the angle is taken.
For two cases as telescope normal and telescope reverse the angles AOB are recorded and their mean is
taken for the value of given angle.
Example: To measure angle ABC the theodolite is set up at B and the telescope is fixed at A at
horizontal circle 0º00'00'' and an angle of 27000’35” was recorded with HR on targeting through C.
Reversing the telescope by swinging and plunging at C an angle of 180º00'00''was recorded and then
turning to A horizontal angle of 207000’37” with HL was recorded. What is the mean value of the angle
ABC?
Pointing HR HL
Station A 0000’00” 27000’37”
Station C 27000’35” 0000’00”
27000’35” 27000’37”
27 0 00'35"27 0 00'37"
mean   27 0 00'36"
2
The mean value of angle ABC=27000’36”

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station target reading angles average angle

HR HL face left face right º ' ''
º ' '' º ' '' º ' '' º ' ''
A B 30 45 15 180 45 30
C 90 50 45 120 40 10 60 05 30 60 05 20 60 05 25

Sample field book for horizontal angle measurement

4.2 Measuring vertical angles
The vertical angle is measured in a vertical plane using horizontal plane as a reference plane. When the
point sighted is above horizontal plane the vertical angle is called an angle of elevation and is considered
as a positive angle. When the point being sighted is below the horizontal plane the angle is called an
angle of depression and is considered as a negative angle.
The value of the vertical angle can range from –90º to +90º.
A zenith angle is also measured in a vertical plane but uses the overhead extension of plumb line as a
reference line. Its value ranges from 0º to 180º.
e.g. Zenith angle measured on station A to targets at stations B and C are 70 º and 120 º. The
corresponding vertical angles are 20 º and –30 º

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Observations should be made on both faces of the instrument for increasing accuracy and the mean
value gives the required vertical angle.
4.3. Tacheometric surveying
It is the procedure for obtaining horizontal distance and differences in elevation by rapid indirect methods,
which are based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed. This tacheometry is applied for
leveling, traversing, field surveys etc.

Methods that are used in tachometric surveying are Stadia, substance bar, staff and alidade.

Stadia method
For the measurement of stadia distance, the reticle in the telescope of the theodolite is equipped with three
horizontal cross hairs; the upper and lower cross hairs (used for distance measurement) are called stadia
hairs. The actual separation of the upper and lower stadia hairs in the reticle is taken as i. The distance
from the instrument to the rod held vertically is obtained from a stadia interval S in the rod, which crosses
the upper and lower cross hairs.

Horizontal stadia measurement

This is made for a rod reading through a horizontal telescope.

A
b b'
i c o F C S
a a'
d f R B
HD

Fig. Horizontal stadia

i= spacing of stadia hairs
s= stadia interval
f = focal length of lens
d= distance from center to object lens
HD= Horizontal distance from center of instrument to rod.

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From Similarity of triangles above fig

f  R  R  ( f ) s
i s i
Horizontal distance HD between the center of the instrument and staff station HD=R+ (f + d).

f
Substituting the value of R, HD   S  ( f  d)
i

The ratio f is called stadia interval factor and designated as M and its value is usually taken as 100.
i
The distance (f + d) is represented by K and called stadia constant and its value is taken as 0 for
internal focusing telescopes.

D=R+ (f + d) =R, for f + d=0

So, D=MS
The above equation is a stadia equation for a horizontal line of sighting using internal focusing telescope.

Inclined Stadia measurement

Inclined stadia measurements are more frequent than horizontal measurements. Each inclined

measurement is reduced to give the horizontal distance from the instrument to the rod and the difference in

elevation between the telescope axis at the center of the instrument and the point at which the middle cross

hair strikes the rod.

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Fig. Inclined stadia

Considering part of the figure above

u' l '
Cos  ulCos  u'l ' SCos  S ' Where S=U-L
ul
HD HD  SD  Cos
SD  MS ' Cos 
SD

SD  MS  cos

HD  MS  cos  cos HD  MS  cos 2 

h
sin   h  SD  Sin From the above equation SD  MS  cos
SD
h  MS  Cos  Sin
RL Px = RL BM +HI+ h −m

Example: Stadia readings were made from an instrument setup to three different points. The value of M is
100. The recorded values are S1=1.24m and 1  +5032’; S2=2.92m and  2  0012’; S3=1.99m and
 3  -9015’.compute the horizontal distance and the rise or fall of the line of sight.

Soln. From the above equations

HD=Ms Cos2  and h  MS  Cos  Sin

So,
HD1  100  1.24  cos 2 5 0 32 '  122.847m
HD 2  100  2.92  cos 2 0 012'  291.996m
HD3  100  1.99  cos 2 9 015'  193.858m

h1  100  1.24  sin 5 0 32' cos 5 0 32'  11.901m

h 2  100  2.92  sin 0 012' cos 0 012'  1.019m
h3  100  1.99  sin( 9 015' )  cos(9 015' )  31.572m

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Stadia tachometry table

Instrument ______________ Observer ___________ Date _______
Additive Constant K: _______ Multiplying factor M: ________
Instrument station ___________ Station height (BM) _________
Instrument height I________________________

S= upper – lower with S = staff intercept D=(K+MS) Cos2  with  = vertical angle from horizontal
h=(K+MS) sin  cos  D- Horizontal Distance
H= BM +I+h-mid

Target Horizontal Vertical Stadia readings S D h H Remar

angle angle upper mid lower k
From
horizontal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4.4. Reference meridian, Azimuth and bearing

The Relative directions of lines connecting survey points may be obtained in a variety of ways. The figure
below on the left shows lines intersecting at a point. The direction of any line with respect to an adjacent
line is given by the horizontal angle between the 2 lines and the direction of rotation. The figure on the
right shows the same system of lines but with all the angles measured from a line of reference (O-
M). The direction of any line with respect to the line of reference is given by the angle between
the lines and its direction of rotation.

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The direction of line is described by the horizontal angle that it makes with a reference line or direction.
This is usually done by referring to a fixed line of reference called a meridian.
There are several types of meridians: Astronomical or True, Magnetic, Grid, and Assumed.
Astronomical or True Meridians
A plane passing through a point on the surface of the earth and containing the earth’s axis of rotation
defines the astronomical or true meridian at that point. Astronomical meridians are determined by
observing the position of the sun or a star. For a given point on the earth, its direction is always the
same and therefore directions referred to the astronomical or true meridian remain unchanged. This
makes it a good line of reference.

Convergence
Astronomical or true meridians on the surface of the earth are lines of geographic longitude and they
converge toward each other at the poles. The amount of convergence between meridians depends on
the distance from the equator and the longitude between the meridians.
Magnetic Meridian
A magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth. The earth acts very
much like a bar magnet with a north magnetic pole located considerably south of the north pole
defined by the earth’s rotational axis. The magnetic pole is not fixed in position, but rather changes its
position continually. The direction of a magnetized needle defines the magnetic meridian at that point
at that time. Because the magnetic meridian changes as magnetic north changes, magnetic meridians
do not make good lines of reference.

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Grid Meridians
In plane surveys it is convenient to perform the work in a rectangular XY coordinate system in which
one central meridian coincides with a true meridian. All remaining meridians are parallel to this central
true meridian. This eliminates the need to calculate the convergence of meridians when determining
positions of points in the system. The methods of plane surveying, assume that all measurements are
projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians are parallel straight lines. These are known as grid
meridians.

Assumed Meridians

On certain types of localized surveying, it may not be necessary to establish a true, magnetic, or grid
direction. However it is usually desirable to have some basis for establishing relative directions within
the current survey. This may be done by establishing an assumed meridian.

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An assumed meridian is an arbitrary direction assigned to some line in the survey from which all other
lines are referenced. This could be a line between two property monuments, the centerline of a tangent
piece of roadway, or even the line between two points set for that purpose.

The important point to remember about assumed meridians is that they have no relationship to any other
meridian and thus the survey cannot be readily (if at all) related to other surveys. Also, if the original
monuments are disturbed, the direction may not be reproducible.

It is good practice when assuming a direction to avoid directions that might appear to be true. If assuming
a direction on a line that runs generally north and south, do not assume a north direction, as some future
surveyor may mistakenly use your direction as true.

Azimuths: The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the clockwise angle between the north end of
the meridian and the line. The magnitude of an azimuth is between 0º and 360º
Every line has two azimuths as forward and back azimuth.
Example
line Azimuth Back azimuth
OA 450 180+45=2250 * For Azimuths on the 1st and 2nd quadrant,
OB 170 180+170=3500 Back azimuth=forward azimuth +1800
* For azimuths on the 3 rd and 4th quadrant,
OC 200 200-180=200 Back azimuth =forward azimuth-1800
OD 340 340-180=1600

The magnitudes of forward and back ward azimuths differ by 1800.

Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle from nearest meridian (north (N) or south (S) end of the
meridian) to the direction of the given line. They can be NE, NW, SE, or SW

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Magnetic Declination and Variation

The horizontal angle between true or astronomic meridian and magnetic meridian is termed as magnetic
declination. If the north end of the compass needle points to the east of the true meridian as shown in the
figure below the declination is said to be east and if it points to the west of the true meridian, the
declination is said to be west.

N
on
ati
lin
ec
cd
True North

eti

th
or
gn

N
ma

c
neti
ag
M

Imaginary lines passing through points of equal magnetic declinations are known as isogonic lines or
isogons. Lines passing through points where magnetic declinations are zero are called agonic lines.
Variations in magnetic declination at any place may be Regular (periodic) or Irregular
Regular or periodic variations
 Secular (with a period of 300 years)
 Annual

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 Diurnal or daily
Irregular variation
Magnetic disturbances or magnetic storms usually associated with sunspots cause irregular variation.
Such variations are random and uncertain thus unpredictable.
Effect of magnetic variation
The Variations in magnetic declination changes the direction of magnetic meridians at a place, thus
changing the magnetic bearing of the survey lines. Old survey records in which the direction of the
survey lines are determined with magnetic compass can only be traced accurately if the declination of
the place at the time of survey and present declination are known. The date of the survey, magnetic
declination and annual change of the secular variation should be noted on the plan prepared by compass
survey for applying corrections for declinations in the future.
4.5. COORDINATE SYSTEM
1. Plane rectangular coordinate system (Cartesian coordinate system)
In civil engineering and construction surveying, the X coordinates are called easting, while the Y
coordinates are called northing. The terms difference in easting and difference in northing denoted as
DX and DY respectively are following logically. It should be remembered that X coordinates
(easting) are always given before Y coordinates (northing).

Y
(6m, 7m)
(-5m, 5m)
IV quadrant I quadrant

III quadrant II quadrant

(-7m, -5m) (5m,-6m)

Fig. Rectangular coordinate system Fig. polar coordinate system

Polar coordinate can easily be changed to rectangular coordinates

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X  R  sin 
Y  R  cos
Calculation of azimuths and distances from coordinates

(X2,Y2)

(X1,Y1)
dis AB  ( X 2  X 1 ) 2  (Y2  Y1 ) 2

 X  X1 
Az AB  tan 1  2 
Y 
 2 1 
Y

When calculating azimuths, the pocket calculator supplies depending upon the sign of the quotient
If ∆X and ∆Y are both positive take the result as it is
If ∆X is positive and ∆Y is negative add 180º to the result
If ∆X and ∆Y are both negative add 180 º to the result
If ∆X is negative and ∆Y is positive add 360º to the result

4.6 TOTAL STATION

Total station is Essentially a theodolite with a built-in EDM. Total stations usually have facilities for
recording and processing measurements electronically and have largely replaced conventional
theodolites.
Total stations can perform distance measurement, angle measurement, traversing, Resection, setting out,
coordinates measurement from some reference stations, area calculations enclosed by polygon traverse,
missed line measurement etc

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TOTAL STATION set up

► . When total station is moved or transported, it must be in the case!!

• Establish tripod over the point.

• Open the case and remove total station, placing it on the head of the tripod and attach securely
with center screw.

• Close the case.

• Grasp two tripod legs and look through the optical plumb, adjust the legs so that bulls eye is over
the point (keep the tripod head as level as possible).

• Utilizing the tripod leg adjustments, level the total station using the fish-eye bubble.

• Loosen the center screw to adjust the total station exactly over the point if needed.

• Complete leveling the total station using the level vial.

• Check to make sure you are still on the point.

Turning angles with total station

• Sight on the back sight utilizing the horizontal adjustment screw.

• Zero set the instrument (this provides an initial reading of 0 seconds.

• Loosen tangent screw and rotate instrument to foresight.

• Tighten tangent screw and bring cross hair exact on target with adjustment screw.

• Read and record angle as displayed

TOTAL STATION DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

• Point the instrument at a prism (which is vertical over the point.

• Push the measure button and record the distance.

You can measure the horizontal distance or the slope distance, it is important that you note which is
being collected.
• If you are measuring the slope distance, the zenith angle must be recorded to allow the horizontal
distance to be computed.

• If you are collecting topographic data with elevations, it is important that the height of the
instrument and the height of the prism be collected and recorded.

This can also be solved by setting the prism height the same as the instrument height.

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TOTAL STATION RULES

• Never point the instrument at the sun, this can damage the components of the instrument as well
as cause immediate blindness.

• Never move or transport the total station unless it is in the case provided.

• Do not attempt to rotate the instrument unless the tangent screw is loose.

• Avoid getting the instrument wet, if it does get wet, wipe it down and allow drying in a safe area
before storage.

• Batteries of the total station are NiCad and thus must be charged regularly. At least once per
month, the battery should be cycled.

• Care should be taken at all times, these units are expensive

Chapter 5
Establishing the horizontal control for construction site
The determination of the precise position of a number of stations, usually spread over a large area, is
referred to as control surveying. Control surveys can be horizontal or vertical.
The objective of horizontal control surveys is to establish a network of control stations whose position is
specified in terms of latitude and longitude, where as the objective of vertical control survey is to
provide the elevations of fixed benchmarks with respect to the mean sea level datum. These control
surveys are located where other surveys can be conveniently and accurately tied in to them.
The results of the control surveys are used as a basis from which surveys of smaller extent can be
originated. Boundary surveys, construction, route surveys, topographic and hydrographic surveys and
other may be involved.
Horizontal control can be carried out by precise traversing, by triangulation, by trilateration, and perhaps
by same combination of these methods. Intersection, resection, and satellite positioning are also the
other methods in horizontal control surveys. The exact method used depends of the terrain, equipment
available, information needed and economic factors.
5.1 Traversing
One of the principles of surveying is that horizontal and vertical control must be established for detail
surveying. A traverse is a series of connected lines of known length related to one another by known
angles. Distances along the line between successive traverse points are determined either by direct
measurement using a tape or electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment, or by indirect

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measurement using tachometric methods. At each point where the traverse changes direction, an angular
measurement is taken using a theodolite.

The angle formed between two lines is called traverse angle. The straight lines or sides are called
traverse sides (or traverse legs) and the point that connects the straight lines is called traverse station
Traverse party: it usually consists of an instrument operator, a head tape man and rare tape man.
Equipments for the traverse party:-The equipments for the traverse party are the theodolite, Level,
tapes, hand level, leveling staff, ranging pole & plumb bobs, EDM& reflector, stakes & hubs, tacks,
marking crayon, points, walkie talkies, & hammer etc.

Purpose of traverse: It is a convenient, rapid method for establishing horizontal control. The results of
field measurements are horizontal distances and angles. The results of office work are X and Y
coordinates of the new points.

Types of traverses
The following types of traverses have to be distinguished
1. Closed route traverse (link traverse) with reference angles measured on coordinated points at the
beginning and the end. In the following figure, a traverse has been run from the known point A to
another known point C and reference angles to the known points B and D has been taken.
Coordinates of points 1, 2, 3 have to be determined.

2. Closed route traverse (link traverse) with a coordinate closure on both ends.

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In the figure below, a traverse has been run from the known point A to another known point C.
Coordinates of points 1, 2, 3 have to be determined.

3. Closed ring traverse (polygon traverse or loop traverse) with reference angle measured on only one
known point.
In right figure a traverse starts at station A and returns to the same point. Station A can be of known
position. Coordinates of points 1, 2, 3 and 4 have to be determined.

4. Open traverse
In following figure the traverse starts at a known point A and finishes at an unknown point, and
therefore are not closed both azimuth and coordinate. In open traverses there is no external check on
the measurements.

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5.1.2 Traverse computation and adjustment (Coordinate calculation)

A. Computation and adjustment of a closed-route traverse with reference angle
The steps of computation are sequenced as follows:
1) Preparation of a computation sketch that must contain the reference points, the reduced distances
and the measured traverse angles, taken from the angular measurement field book (do not forget the
sum check).

2) Computation of the first azimuth αBA and the last azimuth

αcD using the following formula.
 E = EB – EA
 N = NB – N A
Tangent αBA =  EBA/  N BA
αBA = tan-1(  EBA/  NBA)

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Note: Azimuth must be taken care of which quadrant is involved, of course, with respect to the
signs. See also right figure.
3) Computation of the practical azimuth αCD based on the azimuth αBA and the measured traverse
angles β:
If the measured angles are to the left of direction of progress:
Practical azimuth αCD = theoretical azimuth αBA + [β] – (n  180)
Where as if the measured angles are to the right of direction of progress:
Practical azimuth αCD = theoretical azimuth αBA– [β] + (n  180)
Where: n = number of instrument stations (number of measured angles)
4) Computation of the angular misclosure fβ by comparing the theoretical azimuth αCD with the
practical azimuth αCD:
Angular misclosure fβ = theoretical azimuth αCD – practical azimuth αCD
5) Computation of the allowable angular misclosure fβ:

fβ =  1' n
Where: n = number of instrument stations
Note: the Angular misclosure error should not exceed the allowable error.
6) Computation of the corrections for each measured traverse angle:
f
Correction per angle corβ = n

7) Computation of the azimuths of each traverse side (balancing angles):

If the angle is to the right of the direction of progress If the angle is to the left of the direction of the
αA1 = αBA + Corβ -βA + 180 progress

α12 = αA1 + Corβ -β1 + 180 αA1 = αBA + Corβ +βA – 180

α23 = α12 + Corβ -β2 +180 α12 = αA1 + Corβ +β1 – 180

… α23 = α12 + Corβ +β2 – 180

…
Check: the practical azimuth αCD, computed now with the corrected traverse angles, has to be
equal to the theoretical azimuth αCD calculated in step 2.

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8) Calculation of the theoretical coordinate differences based on the given coordinate of the points A
and C
Theoretical DX=XC–XA theoretical DY=YC–YA
9) Computation of coordinates differences of each traverse side. Using the reduced distance and
calculated azimuth, transform this data (polar coordinates) to rectangular coordinates for each line of
the traverse. This may be done by the basic formula.
DXA1= dA1×SineαA1 DYA1= dA1×CosineαA1

DX12= d12×Sineα12 DY12= d12×Cosineα12

DX23= d23×Sineα23 DY23= d23×Cosineα23

DX3C= d3C×Sineα3C DY3C= d3C×Cosineα3C

10) Calculation of sum of practical coordinates differences
Practical ∑DX= [DX] practical ∑DY= [DY]
11) Computation of coordinate misclosure and accuracy. Based on the coordinates of known point A and
calculated partial coordinates, the coordinates of known point C can be also deduced. In theory, the
practical coordinates and the theoretical coordinates of the same point C are the same. The
discrepancy is referred to as coordinate misclosure of the traverse.
Closure of departure (f X) =theoretical DX–practical ∑DX

Closure of latitude (f Y) =theoretical DY–practical ∑DY

fs  fx  fy
2 2
Error of Linear misclosure

1 f
Allowable Relative Accuracy : s 
[d] 5000
Where: [d] = total length of the traverse and 1:5000 is the minimum allowable for general accuracy
The relative allowable relative accuracy should not be exceeded
12) Distribution of closure of departure (fX) and closure of latitude (fY) proportional to the length of each
traverse side:

f  respectiveLength
Correction for each departure  x
[ D]

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f  respectiveLength
y
Correction for each latitude 
[ D]
The corrections are now added to each respective departure and latitude (step 9 above)
Final departure=DX +correction for departure

Final latitude=DY +correction for latitude

13) Computation of the final coordinates of each point, using the corrected coordinate differences.
X1=XA+ final departure A1 Y1=YA+ final latitude A1
X2=X1+ final departure 12 Y2=Y1+ final latitude 12
etc etc
Check: finally, the calculated coordinates for the end point (here point C) must be equal to the
given coordinates of point C!

B. Computation and adjustment of a closed-ring traverse (loop traverse) with reference

angle.

The loop traverse can be taken as a special link traverse of coincidence with start point A and end point
A. Therefore the calculation is the same like for a closed route traverse. The differences of steps from
Link traverse are listed below:
Step 2: Computation of azimuth is considered only for αBA.
(An azimuth αCD does not exist!).
Step 3: Skipped!
Step 4: Computation of the angular misclosure fβ by comparing summation of interior or exterior
observed angles with theoretical summation:
Angular misclosure fβ = (N-2)  180 - [β] (for interior angle)
Angular misclosure fβ = (N+2)  180 - [β] (for exterior angle)

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Where: N = the number of interior or exterior angles and [β] = summation of observed angles.
Step8. Calculation of the theoretical coordinate differences based on the given coordinate of the point A
Theoretical DX=XA–XA=0 theoretical DY=YA–YA=0
5.1.3 Determining the area of enclosed within the polygon (loop traverse)

If the coordinates of the points, A, B, C, etc., shown in Fig. below, can be obtained by running a closed
traverse, the area within the traverse can be computed from the coordinates obtained after balancing the
closing error, if any.

Y D(X4,Y4)
E(X5,Y5)

C(X3,Y3)

A(X1,Y1)
B(X2,Y2)
o a e b d c
X
The area from the coordinates can be computed by the following approach:
Coordinates (latitudes and departures)
In Fig. above, the area within the closed traverse ABCDE is given by
A=Area (AaeE) + area (EedD) + area (DdcC) — area (AabB) — area (BbcC)
( x5  x1)( y5  y1)
Area of a trapezoid AaeE = 2

Thus
( x5 x1)( y5 y1)  ( x4 x5 )( y 4 y1)  ( x3 x4 )( y3 y 4 )  ( x2 x1)( y 2 y1)  ( x3 x2 )( y3 y 2 )
A= 2 2 2 2 2

A= 12 [ x1 ( y  y ) x (y  y ) x (y  y ) x (y  y ) x (y  y )
2 3 4 5
2 5 3 1 4 2 5 3 1 4

If a traverse has n sides, then

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A similar formula is obtained by interchanging x and y, if the projection on the Y axis is considered:

Area can be computed from any one of the above equations and the other one can be used as a check on
the computation. The above equations give positive or negative values depending upon the suffix
numbering the coordinates goes clockwise or counterclockwise.
The area can also be computed by arranging the coordinates in the determinant form, given below:

Take the product of the coordinates along full lines positive and along dashed lines negative.
Half of the sum of the products is the required area.
For example,

5.1.4 .Omitted measurements in traversing

In case of a closed traverse, the length and bearing of traverse side are generally measured in the field.
Sometimes due to obstacles or due to oversight it is not possible to make all measurements. Such
omitted measurements or missing quantities may be calculated only in case of closed traverse, provided
the required quantities are not more than two. Of course in such cases no check on the field work may be
made and the error propagated throughout the traverse is brought into to the computed values of the
missing quantities.
Calculation of missing data is based upon the fact that in case of a closed traverse starting from and
closing on the same station, the algebraic sum of the latitudes and departures is zero and the sum of the
interior angles and exterior angles of a polygon are (n-2)×180 and (n+2)×180 respectively. Where as in
case of closed link traverse starting from a station and closing on another known station the algebraic
sum of the latitudes and departures equal to the difference of latitudes and departures of the closing and
starting stations.

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If l1, l2, l3 …..ln are lengths of traverse legs and  1,  2,  3….  n are their reduced bearings then
∑L=l1cos  1+l2cos  2+l3cos  3+….+ lncos  n
∑D=l1sin  1+l2 sin  2+l3 sin  3+…. + ln sin  n
Solving the above equations any two missing quantities may be calculated.
l=length of traverse leg
 = reduced bearing of traverse leg
L= latitude of traverse leg
D=departure of traverse leg

Then l  D 2  L2
L  l  cos
D  l  sin 
D
  tan 1  
L
If any two quantities of the above equations are known the remaining quantities may be easily
calculated.

5.2. Triangulation
A triangulation consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an occasional line (called
the base line) is measured and all other sides of the triangles are calculated from angles measured at the
vertices of the triangles. The lines of a triangulation system form a network that ties together all the
triangulation stations at the vertices of the triangles.
Triangulation as a form of horizontal control is applied when a large area is to be surveyed and when the
methods of traversing would not be expected to maintain a uniformly high accuracy over the entire area.
The methods of triangulation require a maximum number of precise angle measurements and a
minimum number of distance measurements. The triangles are developed in to a net of interconnected
figures, and certain lines, called base lines, must be measured in order to compute the other sides in the
net.
Triangulation is necessary to control the location of large bridge structures, state and federal highways,
dams, canals, and other engineering works of a massive nature. A large project, such as boundary
location, power development, water resources development, flood control, irrigation, or reclamation,
requires triangulation in order to maintain the necessary accuracy throughout the system.
A triangulation has the following advantages:
1. More redundancies or checks are available i.e more than one route can be followed to compute
the length of a line.

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2. There is little tendency for the system to sway or bend i.e azimuths can be easily and accurately
carried or established throughout system.
3. Outstanding landmarks such as steeples, water tanks, etc can be located by establishing
directions from different stations.
Its disadvantages are it needs long-range inter visibility, which in turn requires the erection of special
towers and signals, making the system the most expensive. Moreover, a good weather is required to
attain inter visibility.
With trilateration, the lengths of the sides of a series of joined or overlapping triangles are measured
(usually with the EDM equipment) and the angles are computed from the lengths. It has the following
advantages:
1. It is more accurate than the other two types due to the fact that distances can be measured more
accurately than angles.
2. It is generally less expensive than triangulation.
3. More checks are available.
Unlike triangulation, it is not easy to position transmission towers, steeples, water tanks, etc. by the
EDM because to do so requires reflectors on these landmarks. These landmarks can be located if angular
measurements are made to them.
In combined triangulation and trilateration systems all sides and angles in the joined or over lapping
triangles are measured. This method provides the strongest control network.
Once a triangulation system, whether large or small, has been developed, measured and adjusted, the
points in the system then furnish control for subsequent traversing, minor triangulation, trilateration,
intersection, and resection needed for day-to-day engineering operations.
Principle of triangulation
The figure shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in the both triangles and
the length L of the side AB have been measured. Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at the
triangulation station A, whose coordinates (XA, YA), are known. The objective is to determine the
coordinates of triangulations stations B, C, and D by the method triangulation. Let us first calculate the
length of all lines. By the sine rule in ΔABC, we have

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AB BC CA
  We have AB=L=lAB
sin 3 sin 1 sin 2
L sin 1 L sin 2
BC   l BC And CA   lCA
sin 3 sin 3
Now the side BC being known in ΔBCD, by the sine rule we have
BC CD BD L sin 1 Let us now calculate the azimuth of all the lines
  , We have BC   l BC
sin 6 sin 4 sin 5 sin 3 AzimthofAB     AB
 L sin 1  sin 4 AzimthofAC    1   AC
CD     lCD
 sin 3  sin 6
AzimthofBC    180 0  2   BC
 L sin 1  sin 5
BC     l BD
 sin 3  sin 6 AzimthofBD    1800  2  4   BD
AzimthofCD    2  5   CD

From the known lengths of the sides and the azimuths the consecutive coordinates can be computed as
below:
LatitudeofAB  l AB cos AB  YAB LatitudeofBD  l BD cos BD  YBD
DepartureofAB  l AB sin  AB  X AB DepartureofBD  l BD sin  Bd  X BD
LatitudeofAC  l AC cos AC  YAC LatitudeofCD  lCD cos CD  YCD
DepartureofAC  l AC sin  AC  X AC DepartureofCD  lCD sin  CD  X CD

The desired coordinates of the triangulation station B, C and D are as follows

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X B  X A  X AB YC  YA  YAC
YB  YA  YAB X D  X B  X BD
X C  X A  X AC YD  YB  YBD

It would be found that the length of the side can be computed more than once following different routes,
and therefore to achieve a better accuracy the mean of the computed lengths of side is to be considered.
Classification of Triangulation Systems
Accuracies required for horizontal control depend on the type of survey and the ultimate use of the
control points. There are three orders of triangulation based on their uses: first order (primary), second
order (secondary) and third order (tertiary) triangulation.
First order is the highest accuracy and is required for developing the national network of horizontal
control and for large metropolitan control expansion. Since it covers a large area, the effect of earth’s
curvature is to be taken in to account-geodetic triangulation. It may cover the whole country primary
grids may be provided.
Second order (secondary) triangulation provides point at greater density than first order triangulation.
This network is adjusted to fit its parent primary triangle or its surrounding primary control. Less
refinement is needed as the network is surrounded by the primary control. It is recommended for
controlling extensive land subdivision and construction.
Third order (tertiary) triangulations used to establish control for local developments and improvements,

topographic and hydrographic surveys or other such projects for which they provide sufficient accuracy.

Arrangement of triangles

Although triangles are the basic figures in triangulation networks, they are not allowed to exist alone
because they do not provide sufficient checks on measurements and subsequent computations. Triangles
are combined to form other geometrical entities. The basic figures used in triangulation are triangles,
braced quadrilateral and polygon with central station. The most common figure used is the braced
quadrilateral. It is best suited to long narrow systems. Polygons with central station can also be used in
the case of wide systems.

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Fig. Triangulation figures

The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the commonly
used arrangements also called lay outs are as follows.
1. Single chain triangle: when the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of
terrain such as a valley between ridges
2. Double chain triangle: this arrangement is used for covering the large width of a belt.
3. Braced quadrilateral: triangulation figures consisting of four corner station and observed
diagonals
4. Centered triangles and polygons: used when vast area in all directions is required to be covered.
5. A combination of the above
Well conditioned triangles
The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the arrangement of triangles in the lay out
and the magnitude of the angles in the individual triangles. The triangle of such shape in which any error
in the angular measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths is known as well
conditioned triangle. In any triangle of a triangulation system the length of one side is generally obtained
from the computation of the adjacent triangle. The error in the other two sides if any will affect the side
of the triangle whose computation is based upon their values. Due to the accumulated errors entire
triangulation system is thus affected thereafter. To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally
affected, these should, therefore, equal in length. This condition suggests that all triangles must therefore
be isosceles. The best shape of an isosceles triangle is that triangle whose base angles are 56º14’ each.
How ever from practical considerations an equilateral triangle may be treated as well conditioned. In
actual practice, the triangles having an angle less than 30º or more than 120º should not be considered.

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Strength of Figures
The strength of the figure in triangulation, plays an important role to decide its lay out and to ensure a
desired degree of accuracy. Computation involves use of the angles of triangles and the length of known
side. The other sides are computed by the law of sines. For a given change in the angles, the sine of
small angles changes more rapidly than those of large angles. This suggests that smaller angles than 30º
should not be used in computation of triangulation. If due to unavoidable circumstances, angles less than
30º are used, then it must be ensured that this is not opposite the side whose length is require to be
computed for carrying forward the triangular series .
In any triangulation system more than one routes are possible for various stations. Hence becomes
necessary to find some criterion for the selection of the most appropriate route so that best shaped
triangulation net route may be adopted.
The strength of the figure is decided by an index number which is denoted by R.
The strength of the figure depends on the following factors:
1. Number of observed directions.
2. Number of trigonometric conditions.
3. Magnitude of the distance and angles.
The following equation is used to evaluate the strength of figure:

R
D C
D
 
 A2   A  B   B 2 
Where R = Strength of figure
D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure.
C = total number of angle and side conditions
δ A and δB are the respective differences of the sines.
The subscripts A and B refer to the two distance angles in each of the triangles under consideration.
For a triangle with all stations occupied C = (n'–S' + 1) + (n – 2S + 3)
Where n= total number of lines including the fixed line
n'= number of lines observed in both directions including the known side
S=total number of stations
S'=total number of occupied stations
D C
( A   A  B   B ) are related only to the number of
2 2
In the above equation, the two factors and
D
conditions and observations and the geometry of the triangles. Thus the value for R is independent of the

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precision of the measurements. Consequently this procedure is useful primarily as a means of comparing
various network configurations so as to obtain optimum geometric conditions and a desirable number of
conditions versus number of measurements. It is also used as a means for determining the most
favorable route for calculating through a network of triangulation.
Note:
1. The stronger the figure, the lower the value of R becomes.
2. The ‘A’ angle is opposite the side to be computed, whereas the ‘B’ angle is opposite the known
side
3. The third angle in each of the triangles is referred to as the azimuth angle the strength of the
figure does not depend on the size of the azimuth angle, only on the A and B.

Example:
Compute the first and second-best strength for the following figure to compute length CD. As AB is the
starting base length.

C D

A
B
Solution;
There are 10 directions as the line AB is fixed
Therefore, D = 10. Also n=4, n'=4, S=6, S'=6
The total number of side and angle conditions is
C = (n'–S' + 1) + (n – 2S + 3) C = (6–4+ 1) + (6 – 2  4 + 3) =4

The values of  A   A  B   B are obtained from table-1.2 and are tabulated below for the distance
2 2

angles A and B. the smaller of the two angles is read from the top row.
R
DC
D
  
 A2   A  B   B 2
D  C 10  4
  0.6
D 10

Triangle Known Computed Distance Angles  A 2   a b   b 2

side Side

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ABD AB BD 1120 390 5.4

BCD BD CD 74 80 1.0
6.4*0.6=3.84=R2
ABC AB AC 105 47 3.2
ACD AC CD 85 63 1.4
4.6*0.6=2.76=R1

ABD AB AD 31 39 28.6
ACD AD CD 85 33 11.6
40.2 *0.6=24.12

ABC AB BC 27 47 29
BCD BC CD 74 24 28.4
54.4*0.6=32.64

DC
As the number of conditions increases versus the number of measurements, the term
D
decreases. Also as the distance angles A and B approach the ideal value of 450, the term in the
summation become smaller. The stronger the figure, the smaller will be the value of R.

Triangulation procedure

1. Reconnaissance, select the locations of stations;

2. Evaluation of the strength of figures;
3. Erection of signals, and in some cases, tower for elevating the signals and /or instruments;
4. Observation of directions or angles;
5. Measurement of base lines;
6. Astronomic observation at one or more locations,
7. Computations including reduction to sea level, calculation of the lengths of all sides and
coordinates for all stations, and adjustment of the triangulation network to provide the best
estimates of co-ordinates of all points.
Selection of triangulation station
Triangulation stations are selected keeping in view the following considerations
1. Intervisibility of triangulation stations. For this purpose station are placed on the highest points
of elevated places such as hill tops, house tops, etc
2. stations should be easily accessible with instruments and equipments
3. various triangulation stations should form well conditioned triangles

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4. For plane surveys, excessively distant stations should be avoided.

5. stations should be in commanding positions so that these may be used for further extension of the
triangulation system
Determination of intervisibility of stations
As stated above triangulation stations should be chosen on high grounds so that all relevant stations are
intervisible. For small distances intervisibility can be ascertained during reconnaissance by direct
observation with aid of binocular, contoured maps of the area. However, if the distance between the
stations is large, the intervisibility is ascertained by knowing horizontal distance between the stations as
under. If there is no obstruction due to intervening ground, the distance of visible horizon from the
station of known elevation above mean sea level may be calculated with the formula

D2
h 1  2m Where h=height of station above datum
2R
D=distance of visible horizon
R= mean radius of the earth
M= mean coefficient of refraction (0.07 for sights over land and 0.08 for sight over sea)

Substituting the value of R in km the value of h in meters is given by h  0.06735D 2

Hence if there is obstruction due to intervening ground the intervisibility of stations may be easily
D2
determined with the formulae h  1  2m
2R

h  0.06735D 2
Let be two triangulation stations having their ground positions elevated to A' and B' respectively
A' C B'
h1 D1 D2 h2
D
A B

Let h1=reduced levels of station A

h2=minimum reduced elevations of station B so that it is visible from A
D1=distance of visible horizon from A

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D2=distance of visible horizon from B at an elevation of h2

D=the known distance between stations A and B
h1 h2
Now D1   3.858 h1 and D2   3.858 h2 but D=D1+D2
0.06735 0.06735

h2
Substituting the value of D2 From the above equation in equation D2   3.858 h2 we can
0.06735

 0.06735 D2 meters . From this equation the minimum required elevation h2 of the station B
2
get h2
may be determined. If the actual elevation of the station is more than the computed value, the station B
is visible from station A, otherwise not. The difference of computed value and actual value of elevations
of station B will suggest the minimum height of the signal to be erected. While deciding the
intervisibility of various stations the line of sight should be at least 3meters above the point of tangency
of the earth’s surface to avoid grazing sights.
Example: two stations A and b 80km apart, have elevations 15m and 270m above mean sea level
respectively. Determine whether there is intervisibility or not between A and B.
Solution: h1=15m, h2=270m and D=80km

D1=3.853 h1 =3.853 15 =14.92km

h2  0.06735  D 2 2  0.06735  65 .08   285 .23m

2
D2=D-D1=80km-14.92km=65.08km
The actual elevation of station B is less than the computed. 270m>285.23m so the station b is not visible
from station A. to be visible from station A the height of signal required at B 285.23m-270m=15.23m
Example 2: two triangulation stations A and B are 45km apart. Their elevations are 244.45m and 275m
above mean sea level respectively. The intervening ground may be assumed to have a mean elevation of
222m. Find the minimum height of the signal required to be erected at B so that the line of sight may not
graze the ground less than 3m.
Solution: the minimum elevation of line of sight =222+3=225m.
Assuming 225m as datum level the elevation of station A will be h1=244.45-225=19.45m.

The tangent distance D1 from the elevation h1  0.06735 D1

2

19.45
D1   17km
0.06735
D2=D-D1=45km-17km=28

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The elevation h2 corresponding to the distance 28km is

h2  0.06735  282  52.80m

The elevation of line of sight at B B=225+52.8=227.8m
Given ground level at B=275m
The actual elevation is less than the computed value so the station B is not visible from station A. the
minimum height of the signal above ground at B=227.8-275=2.80m

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