MEMORY

Memory
According to Psychologists, memory is ‘the process by which we
encode, store and retrieve information.
• Encoding – It is the first stage of human memory in
which information is recorded and registered for the
first time so that it becomes usable by our memory
system and substantial meaning is derived from the
incoming information
• Storage -It is the second stage of human memory in
which the encoded information is retained and held
over a period of time so that it can be utilized later
• Retrieval – It is the third stage of memory in which the
stored information can be recovered from our memory
as and when the situation demands
Information is stored in the following ways
1. Iconic memory
2. Echonic memory
Nature/ Systems of memory
 Atkinson And Shriffin (1968) have presented the following Modal
Model

Sensory Memory Long Term Memory

Extremely short interval – Less Short Term Memory_ Almost permanent:
than a second Holds information for • Procedural
• Iconic
• Echonic 15-20secs • Episodic
• Declarative
 SENSORY MEMORY
• Sensory memory is a very short-term memory store for
information being processing by the sense organs.
• Sensory memory has a limited duration to store information,
typically less than a second.
• It is the first store of the multi-store model of memory.
• The memory is destroyed or replaced with a new one unless
the information is transferred to STM before it is lost.
 STM- Short term memory
• Short-term memory can be defined as the ability to remember an
insubstantial amount of information for a short period of time.
• An example of this is when someone is given aphone number and is
forced to memorize it because there is no way to write it down.
• Information stored in sensory memory is in ‘raw’ form and is not
meaningful to store in the STM
• It is stored in the STM only if meaning is given to it i.e. by coding
“acoustically” which mean that information is converted into sounds.
• Short-term memory decays rapidly and usually disappears from a
person's mind within 15-20 seconds.
 CHUNKING AND MNEMONICS

• Chunk refers to the process of grouping related items

together so that someone can remember them more easily
and can be stored as a unit in STM.
• An example of chunking is grouping the everyday items
someone needs to have in their pockets before leaving the
house. This might include house keys, car keys, cell phone,
and a wallet or purse.
• Mnemonics are memory devices that help learners recall
larger pieces of information, especially in the form of lists like
characteristics, steps, stages, parts, etc.
• Chunking is also one of the mnemonic strategy.
Examples of Mnemonics
 PROCESS OF INFORMATION IN STM

Rehearsal Buffer Elaborative Rehearsal

• The information is repeated • This type of rehearsal is effective

because it involves thinking about
over and over again like a the meaning of the information and
connecting it to other information
telephone number or the already stored in memory.
notes the day before exams. • Imagine meeting someone whose
name is Sandy, then making an
• It is kept current in the STM association with a sandy beach to
but will not be transferred remember that name.
• The goal is to create a memorable,
to the Long Term Memory. personalized association with a
new piece of information one
• The moment the purpose is wants to remember.
served it will be forgotten.
• Short term memory is also known as ‘Working Memory’.
According to Aln Badley the STM has three part working
memory.

• The Central executive coordinates information stored to focus on during

reasoning and decision-making.
• It consists of two sub components:
1. The Visual Spatial Sketch pad which concentrates on Visual and Spatial
information.
2. The Phonological loop which is responsible for holding and organizing
information relating to speech, words and numbers.
 Why STM is known as “ Working Memory”

• When we see a new object like

a Tachistoscope.
• To give meaning to this object
we need to retrieve information
from the Long Term Memory
hence the information is
brought back to STM.
• This information is combined
with the information that
already exists in the STM to
help us understand the
information better.
• Hence it is known as ‘Working
Memory’.
 LTM- Long Term Memory

• Long term memory is the third stage of memory in which

information is stored for later use.
• When the long term memory is formed there is physical
change in the nervous system called memory traces or
engram
• LTM is a storehouse of unlimited capacity organized and
stored just like the books in the library or folder in the
computer system.
DIVISION OF THE LONG TERM MEMORY

Knowing ‘How to do things’

 1. Declarative Memory

Declarative memory consists of facts and events that can be consciously recalled
or "declared."
All information pertaining to facts, names, dates like a car has four wheels,14th
February is valentine’s day is part of the declarative memory. Facts retained in
the declarative memory are amenable to verbal descriptions
E.g. recollections of words, definitions, names dates, events concepts and ideas.
 Declarative memory can be further subdivided
onto :

• A. Semantic memory : • B. Episodic memory:

The semantic memory system • Also known as Autobiographical
contains information about memory
general knowledge. • Memory for biological details of
E.g. mathematical formulas, our individual lives.
historical data, rules of grammar. • Influenced by mood, emotions and
perceptions.
Constructive memory refers to
• E.g. memory of the happiest day of
the process of integrating
your life, smell of a certain event.
information from small pieces to
meaningful information.
Example combining individual
sentences into a book, combining
witness and proofs to win a legal
argument.
3. Procedural memory: Procedural memory is a
part of the long-term memory that is responsible
for knowing how to do things, also known as
motor skills.
E.g. walking, talking and riding a bike.
 The retrieval from the Long term Memory

• Information in the LTM can be retrieved into two ways:

• Recognition and Recall

Recognition Recall

• The ability to judge a recently • Recall in memory refers to the mental

encountered item as having been process of retrieval of information
presented previously. from the past.
• It involves memory of a place, person or • It involves retrieving specific pieces of
incident. information by ourselves.
• If we are familiar with the person or • Dependent on retrieval cues which
answer the memory traces for that refers to the stimuli that help us to
information are activated enabling recall information that we feel unable
recognition. to recall otherwise.
• Retrieval cues can be external/
‘context dependent’ or internal/ State
dependent
 Examples of Recall
Examples of Recognition

Context dependent can include

Asking a witness to sound, smell, place or an item
describe the crime scene
or criminal
 The other forms of memory are:

• A)Implicit memory and B)explicit memory are both types of long-

term memory.
• Information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly is
known as implicit memory
• Information that you have to consciously work to remember is
known as explicit memory.
c) Flashbulb memories- A flashbulb memory is a
Labelled vivid long-lasting recollection of
surprising, shocking or tragic events that holds a
special place in memory (Roger Brown and
James Kulik 1977)
• E.g., the memory of 26/11 attacks, a school
shooting, college graduation, or even the
birth of one's child.

d) Autobiographical memories-
Autobiographical memories are the memories
of significant personal events and experiences
from an individual's life which is stored in the
episodic memory
• For some of us these memories may be
fascinating and have either published
books or made a movie.
• This is done to analyse more about
ourselves (Ross 1989)
e) Prospective memory is defined as the ability to remember to
carry out intended actions in the future.

• Example setting an alarm clock to wake us up later in the

morning, planning for an important presentation at work,
catching a train/flight/bus.
Some of the methods/ techniques that facilitates memory from STM
to LTM

• Mnemonics are strategies used to improve memory.

• It is an effective and organizational strategy which can help in
retention of emotion.
1. Use of Mnemonic devices to trigger the creative part of the brain- The right
part of the brain can greatly improve the recalling capacity for e.g., making use
of flowchart, diagrams using colors to highlight.
2. Organization- Organization a large of mass information into a small and
meaningful structure. This process can serve to be helpful for exams. For e.g.
VIBGYOR, UNESCO, UNICEF etc.
3. Association- When newly acquired information has to be recalled they can
be associated with readily available cues. E.g., You need to remember a new
friends name Jeffrey you notice that Jeffery is very energetic, so you can
imagine him jumping around his work and connect Jeffrey with jumping. The
next time you see him. you'll think, "There's 'Jumping Jeffery,' and you can say
hello by name.“
4. The method of Loci-The method of loci is a mnemonic memory strategy to help
people remember new information in sequential order.
For e.g., using different locations to study for exams.
Economical methods of memorization:
1. Masses and spaced learning- Massed learning is the process of learning
that takes place when material is easy and short we can read it in one
sitting, repetitively till it is mastered. When we try to learn long and
difficult material we learn better by spacing the learning process into
periods/intervals. This process is known as spaced learning and it
strengthens the engrams.
2. Part and whole learning- Learning a short story or poem should be
done as a whole it is better to learn at as a whole in order to appreciate
the meaning and characters in the story. However if the material is
lengthy and difficult it is better to learn part by part in order to learn
further and further. E.g. syllabus of a subject into units/chapters.
3. Over learning- When we continue to study and rehearse material even
after we are able to reproduce it 100% this process is known as
overlearning.
5. Repetition and Relearning- Repetition improves learning
because finding at least one trace of an event becomes easier
when there are more traces of that event in memory.
Regaining knowledge of material that has been learned and
forgotten. Technique which allows for the measure of forgotten
knowledge that may be present but not immediately accessible.
E.g., Important topics for an examination.

6. Rote Learning- Rote learning is the memorization of

information based on repetition. Examples of rote learning
include memorizing the alphabet, numbers, and multiplication
tables. Some consider rote learning to be a necessary step in
learning certain subjects but not for subjects like Mathematics
and Chemistry
FORGETTING
• Forgetting is essential to the proper
functioning of memory.
• Some psychologist consider
forgetting as a great gift because it
allows human beings to avoid being
burdened and distracted by
memories. E.g., overcoming grief
when we lose a loved one.
• Much of what we think is usually
forgotten and never encoded or
stored in the first place.
Hence Forgetting is the loss, permanent
or temporary, of the ability to recall or
recognize something learned earlier
(Munn, 1967)
Why do we forget?
• Herman Ebbinghaus 1885/1913 conducted an experiment on himself to
test his retention.
• According to him most forgetting occurs during the first nine hours after
learning, especially the first hour, after which forgetting continues but at a
much faster rate.

Kinds of Forgetting
Forgetting can be classified as normal and abnormal forgetting.
1. Normal forgetting occurs with the lapse of time in a normal way without
any intention from the learner. you might occasionally forget a person's
name, but recall it later in the day. You might misplace your glasses
sometimes.
2. Abnormal forgetting also known as wishful thinking occurs when an
individual deliberately tries to forget something.
 A: Normal Forgetting
1. Decay Theory: According to this theory information in the LTM
decays with the passage of time.
• When information is not used for a long period of time the
information fades away and is forgotten.
• For e.g. memory traces of the old number slowly decays from LTM
when it is no longer in use.

2. Interference- Interference can be of two types:

a) Retroactive interference
b) Proactive interference
i. In retroactive interference new learning information interferes with information
which is already present in our memory.
E.g., students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience
retroactive interference.
ii. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes
with the present learning.
For example, if you move into a new house, you might find yourself accidentally
writing your old address down when filling out forms.
3. Accident- Temporary disturbances in the
blood supply, use of drugs like antianxiety,
narcotic pain killers, anti-seizures drugs can
cause a person to forget information.
• Injury to the head due to accidents, fall and
concussions can also account for forgetting
and can also cause amnesia.
4. Emotional Shocks- Our mind and body are
connected and affect each other, our emotions
and thoughts can impact our brain.
• The energy it takes to cope with certain
feelings or life stress can get in the way of
storing or remembering details and
schedules.
• E.g. sudden death of a dear one, witnessing
something traumatising, can result in
difficulty in retrieving unpleasant/ anxiety
provoking information stored in the LTM
5. State Dependent memory- It is a phenomenon where people are more
likely to retrieve memories that were created in similar states of one’s
emotional state. For example, if you learned something while you stress and
having coffee angry you will have a higher chance of remembering it if you
are under pressure and having coffee.
Abnormal Forgetting

6. Alzheimer’s Disease-

7. Motivated Forgetting
 8. Amnesia

• Amnesia refers to the loss of memories, including facts, information

and experiences.
• It is the inability to form new memories.
• It is also referred to as abnormal forgetting.
• Amnesia are of the types
i. Retrograde amnesia
ii. Anterograde amnesia
 Retrograde Anterograde
Amnesia Amnesia

• Anterograde amnesia (AA) refers to an impaired capacity for

new learning.
• Retrograde amnesia (RA) refers to the loss of information
that was acquired before the onset of amnesia.
9. Psychological amnesia- When adults are asked about their first memories they
usually don’t recall events before the age of 2-3, with only fragmented recollection
of events that happened between the age of 3 and 7.
This phenomenon is often called childhood or infantile amnesia. It represents an
inability of both children and adults to recall episodic memories (i.e., memories for
particular events or stimuli that occur in a particular context) from infancy and early
childhood, before the age 2-4.
 Benzodiazepines may be prescribed to treat severe anxiety
or severe insomnia, when either is having a significant
impact on your daily life

10. Drugs alcohol and toxic effect- Use of prescribed drugs due to
illness can cause temporary forgetting which can get better if the
person stop using the drug.
• Loss of memory is one of the main symptoms seen in drug addicts.
• Heavy drinking can cause amnesia where the person may not recall
events when the individual was under the influence of alcohol.
• Addiction to alcohol can cause Korsakoff’s syndrome which is due to
thiamine deficiency.
• It is characterized by apathy, confusion and memory impairment.