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 Essentials in Clinical
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Anatomy of the Equine

Locomotor System
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 Essentials in
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Clinical Anatomy
of the Equine
Locomotor System
BY JEAN-MARIE DENOIX
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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑ in‑ Publication Data

Names: Denoix, Jean-Marie, author. | Continuation of (work): Denoix,

Jean-Marie. Equine distal limb.
Title: Essentials in clinical anatomy of the equine locomotor system /
Jean-Marie Denoix.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2018. | This book continues The
equine distal limb : an atlas of clinical anatomy and comparative imaging.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018034912| ISBN 9781498754415 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780429755446 (pdf) | ISBN 9780429755439 (epub) | ISBN 9780429755422
(mobi/kindle)
Subjects: LCSH: Horses--Anatomy. | MESH: Horses--anatomy & histology |
Musculoskeletal System--anatomy & histology | Locomotion--physiology |
Atlases
Classification: LCC SF765 .D46 2018 | NLM SF 765 | DDC 636.10891--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018034912

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

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 CONTENTS
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Introduction ix
Author xi

CHAPTER A THE PROXIMAL THORACIC LIMB 1

A.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 1

A.2 BONE AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 2
A.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 7
A.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 13

CHAPTER B THE BRACHIUM AND ELBOW 19

B.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 19

B.2 BONES, JOINT AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 21
B.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 25
B.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 31

CHAPTER C THE ANTEBRACHIUM 35

C.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 35

C.2 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 37
C.3 CROSS-SECTIONS 45

CHAPTER D THE CARPUS 49

D.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 49

D.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 50
D.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 59
D.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 70

CHAPTER E THE METACARPUS 77

E.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 77

E.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 78
E.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 80
E.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 87
 vi Contents

CHAPTER F THE DIGITAL AREA 99

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F.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 99

F.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 100
F.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 117
F.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 124

CHAPTER G THE NECK 131

G.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 131

G.2 NUCHAL AREA 132
G.2.1 Radiographic anatomy 132
G.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 133
G.4 CROSS-SECTION 137
G.5 MIDDLE AND CAUDAL CERVICAL AREAS 138
G.5.1 Radiographic anatomy 138
G.5.2 Dissected specimen 141
G.5.3 Cross-sections 147

CHAPTER H THE BACK (THORACOLUMBAR REGIONS) 151

H.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 151

H.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 152
H.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 156
H.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 164
H.4.1 Median and paramedian sections 164
H.4.2 Transverse sections 166

CHAPTER I THE PELVIS 171

I.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 171

I.2 BONES 172
I.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 177
I.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 185

CHAPTER J THE HIP AND THIGH 189

J.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 189

J.2 SUPERFICIAL STRUCTURES 190
J.3 THE HIP (COXOFEMORAL REGION) AND THIGH 191
J.3.1 Physical aspect 191
J.3.2 Radiographic anatomy 191
J.3.3 Dissected specimen 192
J.3.4 Cross-sections 199
 Contents vii

CHAPTER K THE STIFLE 201

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K.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 201

K.2 BONE AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 202
K.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 210
K.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 217

CHAPTER L THE CRUS 221

L.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 221

L.2 BONE ANATOMY 222
L.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 223
L.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 227

CHAPTER M THE TARSUS 229

M.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 229

M.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 231
M.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 238
M.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 252

CHAPTER N THE METATARSUS 257

N.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 257
N.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 258
N.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 260
N.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 264

CHAPTER O THE DIGITAL AREA OF THE PELVIC LIMB 269

O.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT 269

O.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY 270
O.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN 271
O.4 CROSS-SECTIONS 277

Index 279
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 INTRODUCTION
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ix

A natomy is the mother science of a number of scientific fields and clinical procedures.
Descriptive anatomy offers the foundation to understanding functional anatomy and bio-
mechanics. In the clinical field, it is the basis of the physical examination, an important part
of the evaluation of the horse’s locomotor system. Understanding the strategy made by the
horse to relieve biomechanical stresses on painful areas is essential in the diagnosis of lameness.
Interpretation of diagnostic analgesic techniques and potential cross-reactions is also directly
related to the knowledge of regional anatomic features. The need for precise information on
descriptive anatomy and cross-sectional anatomy is increasingly important following the develop-
ment and the clinical use of sophisticated diagnostic imaging techniques, including 3D represen-
tation. Anatomy and imaging techniques have also been incorporated in the therapeutic field with
the development of real-time guided injections in precise structures, and biomechanics is gaining
a paramount interest in the expanding field of rehabilitation.
This book continues on from The Equine Distal Limb: An Atlas of Clinical Anatomy and
Comparative Imaging; in it, the complete thoracic limb, axial areas (neck, back and pelvis) and the
complete pelvic limb are considered. For every area of the horse locomotor system, the superficial
anatomy is presented to introduce the physical examination. Bone anatomy is considered through
radiographic images (digital imaging facilitating the use of this technique). Dissections of the
superficial and deep anatomical layers of each aspect of a specific area are presented and followed
by cross-sections displaying the topographical aspect and relationships of anatomical structures.
The objective of this atlas is to provide the practitioner with all the clinically useful anatomi-
cal features needed to facilitate achievement and interpretation of diagnostic procedures, espe-
cially cross-sectional imaging such as ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
It will also be useful to veterinary students who have little access to dissection, to complement
their teaching material or provide a reference guide to help their access in the clinical sciences.
In this book, trainers, riders and every person interested in horses will find illustrations of the
detailed, and sometimes unexpected, constitution of the equine musculoskeletal system, which
plays a key role in the horse’s motion and needs to be an overriding consideration in training and
rehabilitation.

J.-M. Denoix
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 AUTHOR
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xi

Jean-M arie Denoix graduated from the Veterinary School of Lyon (France, 1977). He passed
the agrégation in Veterinary Anatomy (1983) and defended a PhD thesis in Biomechanics (1987).
In 1988 he moved to the Veterinary School of Alfort and became professor of Anatomy, head of
the equine clinical unit (until 2005), and head of a research unit devoted to biomechanics and
pathology of the locomotor system in horses (until 2003). He became head of CIRALE (Center
of Imaging and Research in Equine Locomotor Pathology) in 1999. Since 2006, he has been
President of the ISELP (International Society of Equine Locomotor Pathology), large animal
imaging associate of the ECVDI (European College of Veterinary Diagnostic Imaging) since
2010, and President of the ALAPILE (South American Association of Pathology and Imaging of
the Equine Locomotor System) since 2012. In 2013 he became Diplomate of the American College
of Veterinary Sport Medicine and Rehabilitation (ACVSMR) and is a founding Diplomate of the
European College of Veterinary Sport Medicine and Rehabilitation (ECVSMR).
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 Chapter A

THE PROXIMAL THORACIC LIMB

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A.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. A.1 Lateral aspect of the equine proximal forelimb: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Spine of the scapula; 2- Supraspinatus muscle; 3- Infraspinatus muscle, 3a- tendon; 4- Deltoideus
muscle, 4a- caudal muscle part, 4b- aponeurotic part; 5- Major tuberculum (caudal part or con-
vexity); 6- Deltoid tuberosity; 7- Brachiocephalicus muscle covering the biceps brachii muscle;
8- Pectoralis descendens muscle; 9- Sulcus of the elbow and brachialis muscle; 10- Triceps bra-
chii muscle, 10a- long head, 10b- lateral head; 11- Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle; 12- Point
of the elbow (olecranon); 13- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 14- Dorsal digital extensor muscle;
15- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 16- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 17- Trapezius muscle (thoracic
part); 18- Latissimus dorsi muscle; 19- Serratus ventralis thoracis muscle; 20- Subclavius muscle;
21- Pectoralis ascendens muscle; 22- Lateral thoracic vein.
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A.2 BONE AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. A.2 Lateral aspect of the bones and joints of the proximal forelimb.

Scapula: 1- Spine of the scapula, 1a- Tuberculum of the spine; 2- Supraspinatus fossa;
3- Infraspinatus fossa; 4- Proximal margin and cartilage of the scapula (partly ossified); 5- Neck
of the scapula, 6- Glenoid cavity (lateral articular margin); 7- Tuberculum supraglenoidale;
Humerus: 8- Head; 9- Neck; 10- Major tuberculum, 10a- caudal part or convexity, 10a- cra-
nial part or top, 10c- crest; 11- Tricipital line; 12- Deltoid tuberosity; 13- Brachial sulcus;
14- Supracondylar crest; 15- Medial epicondyle; 16- Olecranon fossa; 17- Lateral epicondyle;
18- Humeral condyle;
Ulna : 19- Body; 20- Olecranon; 21- Tuber olecrani;
Radius : 22- Body; 23- Lateral tuberosity (insertion of the lateral collateral ligament of the elbow
joint); 24- Antebrachial interosseous space;
Vertebral column and thorax : 25- Fifth cervical vertebra; 26- Seventh cervical vertebra;
27- Spinous process of the first thoracic vertebra; 28- Fourth left rib; 29- Sixth costal cartilage;
30- Sternum, 30a- carina, 30b- manubrium, 30c- xiphoid process.
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Fig. A.3 Distolateral aspect of the scapula.

1- Spine of the scapula; 2- Tuberculum of the spine; 3- Supraspinatus fossa; 4- Cranial margin;
5- Cranial angle; 6- Infraspinatus fossa; 7- Caudal margin; 8- Caudal angle; 9- Proximal mar-
gin; 10- Neck of the scapula; 11- Distal angle; 12- Glenoid cavity, 12a- lateral articular margin,
12b- medial articular margin, 12c- glenoid incisura; 13- Tuberculum supraglenoidale;
14- Coracoid process.

Fig. A.4 Cranial aspect of the scapulohumeral joint.

Scapula: 1- Neck of the scapula; 2- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 3- Coracoid process; 4- Glenoid

cavity, 4a- lateral articular margin, 4b- medial articular margin, 4c- glenoid incisura;
Humerus: 5- Head; 6- Synovial space between the head and tubercles of the humerus; 7- Major
tuberculum, 7a- cranial part or top, 7b- caudal part or convexity, 7c- crest; 8- Minor tuberculum,
8a- cranial part or top, 8b- caudal part or convexity; 9- Sulcus intertubercularis, 9a- intermediate
tuberculum, 9b- lateral groove, 9c- medial groove; 10- Body of the humerus; 11- Insertion tuber-
osity of the teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles; 12- Tricipital line; 13- Deltoid tuberosity;
Thorax: 14- Ribs.
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Fig. A.5 Mediolateral radiographic image of the right scapulohumeral joint.

Scapula: 1- Cranial border; 2- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 3- Coracoid process; 4- Glenoid cav-

ity, 4a- subchondral bone, 4b- glenoid incisura, 4c- articular margin;
Humerus: 5- Head, 5a- caudal articular margin; 6- Neck; 7- Synovial space between the
head and tubercles of the humerus; 8- Minor tuberculum, 8a- cranial lobe (top), 8b- caudal
lobe (convexity); 9- Major tuberculum, 9a- cranial lobe (top), 9b- caudal lobe (convexity);
10- Intermediate tuberculum; 11- Sulcus intertubercularis, medial groove; 12- Sulcus intertu-
bercularis, lateral groove; 13- Deltoid tuberosity; 14- Body of the humerus, 14a- cranial cortex,
14b- caudal cortex;
Cervical vertebral column and thoracic structures: 15- Transverse process of the sixth cervi-
cal vertebra; 16- Vertebral fossa of the seventh cervical vertebra; 17- Head of the first thoracic
vertebra; 18- First right rib; 19- Trachea, 19a- lumen, 19b- dorsal limit of the lumen, 19c- ventral
limit of the lumen.
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Fig. A.6 Mediolateral radiographic image of the scapulohumeral joint.

Scapula: 1- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 2- Coracoid process; 3- Glenoid cavity, 3a- glenoid

incisura, 3b- articular margin;
Humerus: 4- Head; 5- Synovial space between the head and tubercles of the humerus; 6- Major
tuberculum, 6a- cranial lobe (top), 6b- caudal lobe (convexity); 7- Minor tuberculum, 7a- cranial
lobe (top), 7b- caudal lobe (convexity); 8- Sulcus intertubercularis, 8a- medial groove, 8b- inter-
mediate tuberculum, 8c- lateral groove; 9- Tricipital line (ending on the deltoid tuberosity);
Cervical vertebral column and thoracic structures: 10- Transverse process of the sixth cervical
vertebra; 11- Vertebral fossa of the sixth cervical vertebra; 12- Head of the seventh cervical vertebra;
13- Intervertebral disc; 14- Trachea, 14a- dorsal limit of the lumen, 14b- ventral limit of the lumen.

Fig. A.7 Caudolateral oblique radiographic image of the scapulohumeral joint.

Scapula: 1- Neck; 2- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 3- Coracoid process; 4- Glenoid cavity,

4a- subchondral bone, 4b- articular margin;
Humerus: 5- Head; 6- Neck; 7- Major tuberculum, 7a- cranial lobe (top), 7b- caudal lobe (con-
vexity); 8- Intermediate tuberculum; 9- Minor tuberculum, 9a- cranial lobe (top), 9b- caudal lobe
(convexity); 10- Sulcus intertubercularis, 10a- lateral groove, 10b- medial groove, 11- Shadow of
proximal tendon of the biceps brachii muscle.
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Fig. A.8 Proximodistal radiographic image of the scapulohumeral joint.

Scapula: 1- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 2- Coracoid process; 3- Neck; 4- Glenoid cavity;

5- Subscapular fossa;
Humerus: 6- Major tuberculum, 6a- cranial lobe (top), 6b- caudal lobe (convexity), 6c- crest;
7- Intermediate tuberculum; 8- Minor tuberculum, 8a- cranial lobe (top), 8b- caudal lobe (convex-
ity); 9- Sulcus intertubercularis, 9a- lateral groove, 9b- medial groove; 10- Synovial space between
the head and tubercles of the humerus and vascular foramen; 11- Shadow of proximal tendon of
the biceps brachii, 11a- lateral lobe, 11b- medial lobe.
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A.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. A.9 Lateral aspect of the shoulder and brachium: superficial structures.

Cervical and thoracic muscles: 1- Brachiocephalicus muscle, 1a- clavicular intersection,

1b- cleidocephalicus muscle, 1c- cleidobrachialis muscle; 2- Omotransversarius muscle;
3- Pectoralis descendens muscle; 4- Pectoralis transversus muscle; 5- Pectoralis profundus
(ascendens) muscle; 6- Subclavius muscle; 7- Latissimus dorsi muscle; 8- Trapezius muscle,
8a- cervical part, 8b- thoracic part; 9- Rhomboideus cervicis muscle; 10- Rhomboideus tho-
racis muscle;
Shoulder muscles: 11- Supraspinatus muscle; 12- Infraspinatus muscle; 13- Deltoideus muscle,
13a- cranial (spinal) head, 13b- caudal (long) head, 13c- aponeurosis (covering the infraspinatus
muscle);
Brachial and antebrachial muscles: 14- Brachialis muscle; 15- Triceps brachii muscle; 15a- long
head, 15b- lateral head, 15c- tendon; 16- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 17- Dorsal (common)
digital extensor muscle; 18- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 19- Deep digital flexor muscle (ulnar head).
Other structures: 20- Scapula, 20a- cartilage, 20b- tuberculum of the spine; 21- Olecranon;
22- Brachial fascia; 23- Antebrachial fascia; 24- Lateral collateral ligament of the elbow joint;
25- Cervical superficial artery; 26- Skin.
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Fig. A.10 Lateral aspect of the shoulder and brachium: intermediate structures.

1- Scapula, 1a- spine, 1b- supraspinatus fossa, 1c- neck, 1d- tuberculum supraglenoidale;
2- Humerus, 2a- major tuberculum, 2b- deltoid tuberosity, 2c- lateral epicondyle, 2d- medial epi-
condyle and olecranon fossa, 2e- supracondylar crest; 3- Olecranon, 3a- tuber olecrani; 4- Radius
(proximolateral tuberosity); 5- Aponeurosis of the deltoid muscle (cut); 6- Infraspinatus muscle,
6a- body, 6b- tendon; 7- Teres minor muscle; 8- Intramuscular aponeurosis of the supraspina-
tus muscle; 9- Biceps brachii muscle, 9a- body, 9b- proximal tendon, 9c- intramuscular tendon;
10- Brachialis muscle; 11- Triceps brachii muscle, 11a- long head, 11b- tendon, 11c- medial head
(lateral head removed); 12- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 13- Dorsal (common) digital exten-
sor muscle; 14- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 15- Deep digital flexor muscle (ulnar head); 16- Lateral
collateral ligament of the elbow joint; 17- Suprascapular nerve; 18- Bicipital bursa; 19- Brachial
fascia; 20- Antebrachial fascia.
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Fig. A.11 Lateral aspect of the shoulder and brachium: deep structures.

1- Scapula, 1a- spine, 1b- infraspinatus fossa, 1c- cartilage; 2- Humerus, 2a- major tuberculum,
2b- deltoid tuberosity, 2c- lateral epicondyle, 2d- medial epicondyle, 2e- olecranon fossa, 2f- supra-
condylar crest; 3- Olecranon, 3a- tuber olecrani; 4- Supraspinatus muscle, 4a- body, 4b- superfi-
cial aponeurosis, 4c- lateral tendon; 5- Teres minor muscle, 5a- body, 5b- proximal aponeurosis,
5c- distal insertion; 6- Teres major muscle, 6a- body, 6b- distal tendon; 7- Biceps brachii muscle,
7a- body, 7b- proximal tendon, 7c- intramuscular tendon; 8- Bicipital bursa; 9- Brachialis muscle;
10- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 11- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle; 12- Ulnaris
lateralis muscle; 13- Lateral collateral ligament of the elbow joint.
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Fig. A.12 Medial aspect of the shoulder and brachium: muscles and arteries.

Bones: 1- Scapula (scapular cartilage); 2- Humerus (minor tuberculum).

Thoracic muscles: 3- Pectoralis transversus muscle; 4- Pectoralis profundus (ascendens);
5- Subclavius muscle; 6- Rhomboideus cervicalis muscle; 7- Rhomboideus thoracis muscle;
8- Serratus ventralis cervicis muscle; 9- Serratus ventralis thoracis muscle; 10- Latissimus dorsi
muscle, 10a- muscle body, 10b- tendon;
Shoulder muscles: 11- Supraspinatus muscle, 11a- muscle body, 11b- medial tendon;
12- Subscapular muscle, 12a- muscle body, 12b- distal tendon; 13- Teres major muscle;
Brachial muscles: 14- Triceps brachii muscle (long head); 15- Tensor fasciae antebrachii muscle;
Antebrachial muscle: 16- Extensor carpi radialis muscle;
Arteries: 17- Dorsal scapular artery; 18- Axillary artery; 19- External thoracic artery;
20- Suprascapular artery; 21- Subscapular artery; 22- Thoracodorsal artery; 23- Brachial artery
Other structures: 24- Antebrachial fascia; 25- Skin.
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Fig. A.13 Medial aspect of the shoulder and brachium: muscles and arteries.

Bones and joints: 1- Scapula (costal face), 1a- scapular cartilage, 1b- cranial serrata face,
1b- caudal serrata face, 1d- caudal angle; 2- Humerus, 2a- minor tuberculum (insertion surface of
the pectoralis ascendens); 2b- medial face; 2c- medial epicondyle; 3- Radius; 4- Medial collateral
ligament of the elbow joint;
Shoulder muscles: 5- Subscapularis muscle, 5a- body, 5b- aponeurosis, 5c- distal tendon;
6- Supraspinatus muscle, 6a- body, 6b- fascia, 6c- medial tendon; 7- Teres major muscle, 7a- body,
7b- proximal tendon, 7c- distal tendon (fused with the tendon of the latissimus dorsi mus-
cle); 8- Tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle; 9- Coracobrachialis muscle, 9a- proximal tendon,
9b- long head; 9c- short head;
Brachial muscles: 10- Biceps brachii muscle, 10a- body, 10b- proximal tendon, 10c- distal
insertion, 10d- lacertus fibrosus; 11- Brachialis muscle; 12- Tensor fasciae antebrachii muscle
(covering the long head of the triceps brachii muscle), 12a- body, 12b- proximal aponeurosis,
12c- musculoaponeurotic junction with the antebrachial fascia; 13- Triceps brachii muscle,
13a- long head, 13b- medial head;
Antebrachial muscles: 14- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 15- Flexor carpi radialis muscle;
16- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (humeral head); 17- Antebrachial fascia;
Arteries and nerves: 18- Axillary artery; 19- Subscapular artery; 20- Thoracodorsal artery (cut);
21- Cranial humeral circumflex artery; 22- Brachial (humeral) artery; 23- Deep brachial artery;
24- Ulnar collateral artery; 25- Median artery; 26- Median nerve; 27- Ulnar nerve; 28- Skin.
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Fig. A.14 Medial aspect of the shoulder joint area: muscles and arteries.

Humerus: 1- Cranial part (top) of the minor tuberculum; 2- Caudal part (convexity) of the minor
tuberculum; 3- Insertion surface of the pectoralis profundus (ascendens); 4- Proximal metaphysis.
Shoulder muscles: 5- Subscapular muscle, 5a- body, 5b- distal tendon, 5c- motor nerve ramus;
6- Supraspinatus muscle, 6a- body, 6b- fascia, 6c- medial tendon; 7- Teres major muscle, 7a- body,
7b- distal tendon (fused with the latissimus dorsi tendon); 8- Coracobrachialis muscle, 8a- proxi-
mal tendon, 8b- long head, 8c- short head;
Brachial muscles: 9- Biceps brachii muscle, 9a- body, 9b- proximal tendon, 9c- bicipital bursa
space; 10- Triceps brachii muscle (medial head);
Arteries and nerves: 11- Axillary artery; 12- Subscapular artery; 13- Thoracodorsal artery;
14- Cranial humeral circumflex artery; 15- Brachial (humeral) artery; 16- Deep brachial artery
(origin); 17- Median nerve.
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A.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. A.15 Transverse section of the shoulder. (A) Section level; (B) anatomical structures .

Scapula: 1- Neck; 1a- spine, 1b- supraspinatus fossa, 1c- infraspinatus fossa, 1d- subscapular fossa;
Muscles: 2- Omotransversarius muscle; 3- Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle; 4- Cutaneous trunci
muscle; 5- Subclavius muscle; 6- Supraspinatus muscle, 6a- intramuscular tendon; 7- Infraspinatus
muscle, 7a- intramuscular tendon and aponeuroses; 8- Deltoideus muscle; 9- Subscapular muscle,
9a- intramuscular aponeurosis; 10- Teres minor proximal tendon; 11- Teres major muscle;
12- Latissimus dorsi muscle; 13- Triceps brachii muscle (long head);
Vessels and skin: 14- Subscapular artery and vein; 15- Skin.
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Fig. A.16 Sagittal section of the shoulder joint (A) Section level; (B) anatomical structures.

Scapula: 1- Neck; 2- Ventral angle; 3- Glenoid cavity, articular surface, 3a- articular cartilage,
3b- articular margin; 4- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 5- Caudal margin of the neck;
Humerus: 6- Head, 6a- articular surface, 6b- articular cartilage, 6c- articular margin; 7- Neck;
8- Intertubercular sulcus, 8a- intermediate tuberculum;
Joint structures: 9- Joint capsule; 9a- glenohumeral fascicules; 10- Joint cavity, 10a- cranial
recess, 10b- caudal recess;
Muscles: 11- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 12- Pectoralis descendens muscle; 13- Subclavius muscle;
14- Supraspinatus muscle; 15- Biceps brachii muscle, 15a- proximal tendon, 15b- fibrocartilagi-
nous segment, 15c- body, 15d- intramuscular tendon; 16- Bicipital (intertubercular) bursa;
17- Brachial muscle; 18- Triceps brachii muscle, 18a- long head; 18b- medial head;
Vessels and nerves: 19- Scapular circumflex vein; 20- Caudal humeral circumflex artery and
vein; 21- Cranial humeral circumflex artery; 22- Deep brachial artery and veins; 23- Cephalic
vein; 24- Radial nerve; 25- Skin.
 The Proximal Thoracic Limb 15
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Fig. A.17 Transverse sections of the shoulder joint and proximal brachium: section levels of the fol-
lowing images A.18 and A.19.

Fig. A.18 Transverse section of the shoulder joint (see section level on Fig. A.17).

Scapula: 1- Glenoid cavity, 1a- dorsal margin, 1b- caudal margin, 1c- articular cartilage;
Humerus : 2- Head, 2a- articular cartilage;
Joint structures: 3- Joint capsule with glenohumeral fascicules; 4- Glenoid labrum; 5- Joint
cavity; 6- Fat pad;
 16 CHAPTER A
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Muscles: 7- Subclavius muscle; 8- Omotransversarius muscle; 9- Cutaneous omobrachialis

muscle; 10- Supraspinatus muscle, 10a- medial head, 10b- medial tendon, 10c- lateral head,
10d- lateral tendon, 10e- supraspinatus fascia; 11- Infraspinatus muscle, 11a- body,
11b- infraspinatus tendon; 12- Teres minor muscle; 13- Deltoideus muscle, 13a- cranial (spi-
nal) head, 13b- caudal (long) head; 14- Subscapular muscle, 14a- body, 14b- subscapular tendon;
15- Coracobrachialis proximal tendon; 16- Teres major muscle; 17- Proximal tendon of the biceps
brachii, 17a- medial lobe, 17b- lateral lobe, 17c- cranial striated muscle fasciculi; 18- Triceps
­brachii muscle (long head); 19- Tensor fasciae antebrachii muscle;
Vessels and skin: 20- Subscapular artery and vein; 21- Suprascapular rami; 22- Thoracodorsal
artery and vein; 23- Muscle rami of the deep brachial artery; 24- Skin.

Fig. A.19 Transverse section of the proximal brachium (see section level on Fig. A.17).

Humerus: 1- Neck, 1a- spongy bone, 1b- cortex; 2- Base (crest) of the major tuberculum;
3- Sulcus intertubercularis, 3a- medial groove, 3b- intermediate tuberculum, 3c- lateral groove;
Muscles: 4- Subclavius muscle; 5- Pectoralis profundus (ascendens) muscle; 6- Omotransversarius
muscle; 7- Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle; 8- Infraspinatus tendon; 9- Teres minor muscle;
10- Deltoideus muscle, 10a- cranial (spinal) head, 10b- caudal (long) head; 11- Coracobrachialis
muscle; 12- Teres major muscle; 13- Proximal tendon of the biceps brachii, 13a- medial lobe,
13b- lateral lobe, 13c- cranial striated muscle fasciculi; 14- Bicipital (intertubercular) bursa;
15- Brachialis muscle; 16- Triceps brachii muscle, 16a- long head, 16b- lateral head; 17- Tensor
fasciae antebrachii muscle;
Vessels, nerves and skin: 18- Axillary artery and vein; 19- Caudal circumflex artery and vein;
20- Ulnar collateral artery and vein; 21- Axillary nerve; 22- Median nerve; 23- Radial nerve;
24- Ulnar nerve; 25- Skin.
 The Proximal Thoracic Limb 17
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Fig. A.20 Frontal section of the shoulder joint. (A) Section level; (B) anatomical structures.

Scapula: 1- Neck; 2- Cranial border; 3- Glenoid cavity, 3a- medial margin, 3b- lateral margin;
Humerus: 4- Head, 4a- articular cartilage; 5- Major tuberculum; 6- Minor tuberculum; 7- Neck;
8- Body;
Joint structures: 9- Joint capsule; 10- Glenoid labrum; 11- Joint cavity;
Muscles: 12- Subclavius muscle; 13- Pectoralis profundus (ascendens) muscle;
14- Omotransversarius muscle; 15- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 16- Supraspinatus muscle,
16a- lateral tendon; 17- Infraspinatus muscle, 17a- body, 17b- infraspinatus tendon; 18- Teres
minor muscle; 19- Subscapular muscle, 19a- body, 19b- subscapular tendon; 20- Coracobrachialis
muscle; 21- Brachialis muscle;
Vessels, nerves and skin: 22- Suprascapular artery, vein and nerve; 23- Skin.
VetBooks.ir
 Chapter B

THE BRACHIUM AND ELBOW

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19

B.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. B.1 Lateral aspect of the equine brachium and elbow: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Humerus, 1a- major tuberculum (caudal part or convexity), 1b- deltoid tuberosity;
2- Proximolateral tuberosity of the radius; 3- Point of the elbow (olecranon); 4- Sulcus of the
elbow; 5- Brachiocephalicus muscle (covering the biceps brachii muscle); 6- Pectoralis descendens
muscle; 7- Pectoralis profundus (ascendens) muscle; 8- Deltoideus muscle, 8a- caudal (long) head,
8b- proximal aponeurosis covering the infraspinatus muscle; 9- Brachial muscle; 10- Triceps bra-
chii muscle, 10a- long head, 10b- lateral head; 11- Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle; 12- Extensor
carpi radialis muscle; 13- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle; 14- Lateral sulcus of the
antebrachium; 15- Ulnaris lateralis muscle.
 20 CHAPTER B
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Fig. B.2 Cranial aspect of the equine brachium and elbow: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Manubrium of the sternum; 2- Humerus, 2a- major tuberculum (caudal part or convexity),
2b- deltoid tuberosity; 3- Sulcus of the elbow; 4- Radius (medial aspect); 5- Brachiocephalicus
muscle (covering the biceps brachii muscle); 6- Pectoralis descendens muscle; 7- Pectoralis trans-
versus muscle; 8- Deltoideus muscle; 9- Brachial muscle (crossed by the lacertus fibrosus of the
biceps brachii muscle); 10- Triceps brachii muscle, 10a- long head, 10b- lateral head; 11- Extensor
carpi radialis muscle; 12- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle; 13- Flexor carpi radialis mus-
cle; 14- Cephalic vein.
 The Brachium and Elbow 21
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B.2 BONES, JOINT AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. B.3 Lateral aspect of the bones of the elbow.

Humerus: 1- Body; 2- Supracondylar crest; 3- Humeral condyle, 3a- trochlea (medial ridge),
3b- capitulum; 4- Coronoid fossa; 5- Olecranon fossa; 6- Medial epicondyle; 7- Lateral epicon-
dyle; 8- Insertion fossa for the lateral collateral ligament of the elbow;
Radius: 9- Fovea capitis; 10- Coronoid process; 11- Radial tuberosity; 12- Lateral tuberosity;
13- Proximal metaphysis (neck); 14- Body;
Ulna: 15- Olecranon, 15a- olecranon tuberosity, 15b- anconeal process; 16- Body;
Joint and interosseous spaces: 17- Humeroantebrachial joint space; 18- Radioulnar joint;
19- Antebrachial interosseous space.
 22 CHAPTER B
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Fig. B.4 Cranial aspect of the articular surfaces of the elbow.

Humerus: 1- Body; 2- Supracondylar crest; 3- Coronoid fossa; 4- Humeral condyle, 4a- troch-
lea (medial ridge), 4b- trochlea (sagittal groove), 4b'- synovial fossa, 4c- trochlea (lateral ridge),
4d- capitulum;
Radius: 5- Proximal epiphysis; 6- Radial tuberosity; 7- Coronoid process; 8- Lateral tuberos-
ity; 9- Fovea capitis, 9a- medial groove, 9b- sagittal ridge, 9b'- synovial fossa, 9c- lateral groove,
9d- lateral glenoid surface for the capitulum;
Ulna: 10- Olecranon; 11- Anconeal process; 12- Trochlear incisura; 13- Synovial fossa;
Joint and tendons: 14- Radioulnar joint space, 14a- medial part, 14b- lateral part; 15- Medial col-
lateral ligament; 16- Lateral collateral ligament; 17- Proximal tendon of the digital flexor muscles;
18- Proximal tendon of the ulnaris lateralis muscle.
 The Brachium and Elbow 23
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Fig. B.5 Mediolateral radiographic image of the elbow joint.

Humerus: 1- Body, 1a- cranial cortex, 1b- caudal cortex; 2- Humeral condyle, 2a- capitulum
(lateral part), 2b- trochlea (medial ridge), 2b'- sagittal groove, 2c- proximocranial margin,
2d- proximocaudal margin; 3- Coronoid fossa, 3a- medial margin, 3b- bottom, 3c- lateral margin;
4- Supracondylar crest; 5- Olecranon fossa (bottom); 6- Lateral epicondyle; 7- Medial epicondyle;
Radius: 8- Radial head, 8a- fovea capitis (medial part), 8b- fovea capitis (lateral part), 8c- coronoid
process; 9- Radial tuberosity; 10- Lateral tuberosity; 11- Proximal metaphysis (neck); 12- Body,
12a- cranial cortex, 12b- caudal cortex;
Ulna: 13- Olecranon, 13a- olecranon tuberosity, 13b- anconeal process, 13c- cranial cortex,
13d- caudal cortex; 14- Body, 14a- cranial face, 14b- caudal margin;
Radioulnar space: 15- Trochlear incisura; 16- Radioulnar joint, 16a- medial part, 16b- lateral
part; 17- Antebrachial interosseous space.
 24 CHAPTER B
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Fig. B.6 Craniocaudal radiographic image of the elbow joint.

Humerus: 1- Body, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cortex; 2- Humeral trochlea, 2a- medial ridge,
2b- sagittal groove, 2c- lateral ridge, 2d- proximocranial margin, 2e- proximocaudal margin;
3- Capitulum; 4- Coronoid fossa; 5- Supracondylar crest; 6- Olecranon fossa; 7- Medial epicon-
dyle; 8- Lateral epicondyle; 9- Insertion fossa of the medial collateral ligament; 10- Insertion fossa
of the lateral collateral ligament;
Radius: 11- Radial head: fovea capitis, 11a- medial groove, 11b- sagittal ridge, 11c- lateral groove,
11d- lateral glenoid surface for the capitulum; 12- Radial tuberosity; 13- Lateral tuberosity;
14- Proximal metaphysis; 15- Body, 15a- medial cortex; 15b- lateral cortex;
Ulna: 16- Olecranon, 16a- olecranon tuberosity, 16b- anconeal process, 16c- medial aspect,
16d- lateral aspect; 17- Medial (collateral) coronoid process; 18- Lateral (collateral) coronoid pro-
cess; 19- Body, 19a- medial margin, 19b- lateral aspect and cortex; 20- Humeroantebrachial joint
space.
 The Brachium and Elbow 25
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B.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. B.7 Lateral aspect of the elbow: superficial structures.

Bones: 1- Humerus (lateral epicondyle); 2- Radius: lateral tuberosity; 3- Ulna (olecranon),

3a- olecranon tuberosity;
Muscles and tendons: 4- Pectoralis descendens muscle; 5- Deltoideus muscle; 6- Brachialis
muscle; 7- Triceps brachii muscle, 7a- lateral head, 7b- long head, 7c- distal (olecranon) ten-
don; 8- Lateral collateral ligament of the elbow joint; 9- Antebrachial fascia, 9a- cranial part,
9b- caudal part; 10- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 11- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle,
11a- muscle body, 11b- tendon; 12- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 13- Deep digital flexor muscle (ulnar
head);
Vessels, nerves and skin: 14- Lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (originating from the radial
nerve) and satellite arterial ramus; 15- Skin.
 26 CHAPTER B
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Fig. B.8 Lateral aspect of the brachium and elbow: intermediate structures.

Humerus: 1- Head; 2- Major tuberculum, 2a- cranial part (top), 2b- crest, 2c- caudal part (con-
vexity); 3- Neck; 4- Tricipital line; 5- Deltoid tuberosity; 6- Olecranon fossa; 7- Supracondylar
crest; 8- Humeral condyle; 9- Lateral epicondyle;
Ulna: 10- Olecranon, 10a- olecranon tuberosity;
Elbow joint structures: 11- Lateral collateral ligament; 12- Dorsal capsule (cut);
Muscles and tendons: 13- Infraspinatus tendon; 14- Teres major muscle; 15- Biceps brachii
muscle, 15a- body, 15b- lacertus fibrosus; 16- Bicipital bursa; 17- Brachialis muscle; 18- Triceps
brachii muscle, 18a- long head, 18b- distal (olecranon) tendon, 18c- medial head; 19- Antebrachial
fascia (cut); 20- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 21- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle;
22- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 23- Deep digital flexor muscle (ulnar head);
Vessels and nerves: 24- Muscle ramus of the deep brachial artery; 25- Deep ramus of the radial
nerve.
 The Brachium and Elbow 27
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Fig. B.9 Lateral aspect of the elbow: deep structures.

Humerus: 1- Body (brachial sulcus); 2- Supracondylar crest; 3- Olecranon fossa; 4- Lateral

epicondyle;
Ulna and radius: 5- Body of ulna; 6- Olecranon, 6a- olecranon tuberosity; 7- Body of radius;
8- Radial tuberosity; 9- Lateral tuberosity; 10- Radioulnar syndesmosis;
Elbow joint structures: 11- Lateral collateral ligament; 12- Dorsal capsule; 13- Lateral recess;
Muscles and tendons: 14- Biceps brachii muscle, 14a- body, 14b- distal tendon, 14c- lacertus
fibrosus (cut); 15- Ulnaris lateralis, 15a- body, 15b- proximal tendon; 16- Superficial digital flexor
muscle (body).
 28 CHAPTER B
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Fig. B.10 Medial aspect of the brachium and elbow: muscles and arteries.

Bones and joints: 1- Humerus, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- condyle, 1d- medial epicon-
dyle; 2- Radius; 3- Medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint, 3a- caudal fasciculus, 3b- long
fasciculus;
Shoulder muscles: 4- Teres major muscle, 4a- body, 4b- distal tendon (fused with the tendon of
the latissimus dorsi muscle); 5- Coracobrachialis muscle, 5a- long head; 5b- short head;
Brachial muscles: 6- Biceps brachii muscle, 6a- body, 6b- distal insertion, 6c- lacertus fibrosus
(covering partly the extensor carpi radialis muscle body); 7- Brachial muscle; 8- Tensor fasciae
antebrachii muscle (covering the long head of the triceps brachii muscle), 8a- body, 8b- proximal
aponeurosis, 8c- musculoaponeurotic junction with the antebrachial fascia; 9- Triceps brachii
muscle, 9a- long head, 9b- medial head;
Antebrachial muscles: 10- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 11- Flexor carpi radialis muscle,
11a- body, 11b- proximal tendon; 12- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (humeral head); 13- Antebrachial
fascia, 13a- cranial part, 13b- caudal part;
Arteries and nerves: 14- Brachial (humeral) artery; 15- Cranial humeral circumflex artery;
16- Deep brachial artery, 16a- muscle rami; 17- Ulnar collateral artery; 18- Median artery;
19- Median nerve; 20- Ulnar nerve; 21- Skin.
 The Brachium and Elbow 29
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Fig. B.11 Medial aspect of the elbow joint: deep structures.

Humerus: 1- Body, 1a- vascular foramen; 2- Olecranon fossa; 3- Medial epicondyle; 4- Humeral
condyle (medial aspect of the trochlea), 4a- proximodorsal margin;
Radius and ulna: 5- Body of radius; 6- Proximal epiphysis of radius; 7- Body of ulna; 8- Olecranon,
8a- olecranon tuberosity;
Elbow joint structures: 9- Humeroantebrachial joint space; 10- Medial collateral ligament,
10a- long (cranial) fasciculus, 10b- short (caudal) fasciculus; 11- Medial radioulnar ligament;
12- Antebrachial radioulnar syndesmosis; 13- Antebrachial interosseous space;
Muscles and tendons: 14- Insertion surface for the flexor carpi radialis muscle; 15- Insertion
surface for the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (humeral head); 16- Proximal tendon of the humeral
heads of the superficial and deep digital flexor muscles; 17- Ulnaris lateralis muscle body.
 30 CHAPTER B
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Fig. B.12 Cranial aspect of the brachium and elbow: intermediate structures.

Bones: 1- Neck of the scapula; 2- Tuberculum supraglenoidale; 3- Coracoid process; 4- Minor

tuberculum of the humerus; 5- Major tuberculum; 6- Intertubercular sulcus; 7- Proximal metaph-
ysis of the humerus; 8- Deltoid tuberosity; 9- Medial aspect of the radius;
Elbow joint structure: 10- Medial collateral ligament;
Muscles: 11- Biceps brachii muscle, 11a- body (*- intramuscular tendon), 11b- proximal tendon
(arrow), 11c- distal tendon, 11d- lacertus fibrosus (cut); 12- Brachialis muscle, 12a- body, 12b- dis-
tal part; 13- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 14- Flexor carpi radialis muscle.
 The Brachium and Elbow 31
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B.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. B.13 Levels of the cross-sections presented on Figures B.14 and B.15.

Fig. B.14 Transverse section of the elbow: passing proximal to the humeral condyle: anatomical
structures.

Bones: 1- Humerus, 1a- coronoid fossa, 1b- sagittal groove, 1c- lateral trochlear ridge (proximal
margin), 1d- lateral epicondyle, 1e- medial epicondyle; 2- Olecranon, 2a- coracoid process and
trochlear incisura, 2b- base of the olecranon tuberosity;
 32 CHAPTER B
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Elbow joint structures: 3- Dorsal capsule; 4- Medial collateral ligament (origin); 5- Lateral col-
lateral ligament (origin); 6- Dorsal recess; 7- Olecranon recess;
Cutaneous and pectoral muscles: 8- Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle; 9- Pectoralis transversus
muscle;
Brachial muscles: 10- Biceps brachii muscle, 10a- body (medial part), 10b- body (lateral part),
10c- intramuscular tendon (distal part), 10d- lacertus fibrosus (origin); 11- Brachialis muscle;
12- Tensor fasciae antebrachii muscle; 13- Lateral head of the triceps brachii muscle; 14- Brachial
and antebrachial fascia, 14a- medial part, 14b- lateral part;
Antebrachial muscles: 15- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 15a- insertion on the elbow joint cap-
sule; 16- Dorsal digital extensor muscle (origin); 17- Ulnaris lateralis muscle (origin); 18- Superficial
digital flexor muscle (origin of proximal tendon); 19- Deep digital flexor muscle (ulnar head);
Arteries and nerves: 20- Transverse cubital artery and vein; 21- Median artery and vein;
22- Median vein of the elbow; 23- Cephalic vein; 24- Collateral ulnar artery and vein; 25- Median
nerve; 26- Deep ramus of the radial nerve; 27- Ulnar nerve; 28- Skin.
Bones: 1- Humerus, 1a- medial trochlear ridge, 1b- lateral trochlear ridge; 1c- capitulum;
2- Radius (subchondral bone and articular cartilage of the radial fossa); 3- Ulna (base of olecra-
non), 3a- medial (collateral) coronoid process, 3b- lateral (collateral) coronoid process;
Elbow joint structures: 4- Dorsal capsule; 5- Medial collateral ligament; 6- Lateral collateral liga-
ment; 7- Humeroantebrachial joint space; 8- Radioulnar joint space; 9- Medial radioulnar ligament;
Cutaneous and pectoral muscles: 10- Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle; 11- Pectoralis trans-
versus muscle;
Brachial muscles: 12- Biceps brachii muscle, 12a- distal part of the muscle body, 12b- distal
tendon, 12c- lacertus fibrosus; 13- Brachialis muscle; 14- Tensor fasciae antebrachii muscle;
15- Antebrachial fascia, 15a- medial part, 15b- lateral part;
Antebrachial muscles: 16- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 17- Dorsal (common) digital extensor
muscle; 18- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 19- Flexor carpi ulnaris, 19a- ulnar head, 19b- humeral head;
20- Flexor carpi radialis origin; 21- Superficial digital flexor muscle; 22- Deep digital flexor mus-
cle, 22a- humeral head, 22b- ulnar head;
Arteries and nerves: 23- Transverse cubital artery and vein; 24- Median artery and vein;
25- Median vein of the elbow; 26- Cephalic vein; 27- Collateral ulnar artery and vein; 28- Median
nerve; 29- Deep ramus of the radial nerve; 30- Ulnar nerve; 31- Skin.
 The Brachium and Elbow 33
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Fig. B.15 Transverse section of the elbow passing through the humeroantebrachial joint space: ana-
tomical structures.
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 Chapter C

THE ANTEBRACHIUM
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35

C.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. C.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the equine antebrachium: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Proximolateral tuberosity of the radius; 2- Point of the elbow (olecranon); 3- Sulcus of the
elbow; 4- Brachialis muscle; 5- Triceps brachii muscle (lateral head); 6- Extensor carpi radialis
muscle; 7- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle; 8- Lateral digital extensor muscle; 9- Lateral
sulcus of the antebrachium; 10- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 11- Accessory carpal bone; 12- Lateral
collateral ligament of the carpus; 13- Radius (medial aspect), 13a- styloid process; 14- Flexor carpi
radialis muscle; 15- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 16- Carpal canal; 17- Antebrachial cephalic vein;
18- Cutaneous veins; 19- Chestnut.
 36 CHAPTER C
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Fig. C.2 Lateral aspect of the equine antebrachium on the flexed limb: palpable anatomical
structures.

1- Proximolateral tuberosity of the radius; 2- Lateral collateral ligament of the elbow joint;
3- Point of the elbow (olecranon); 4- Sulcus of the elbow; 5- Triceps brachii muscle (lateral head);
6- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 6a- body, 6b- tendon; 7- Dorsal (common) digital extensor
muscle, 7a- body, 7b- tendon; 8- Lateral digital extensor muscle; 9- Lateral sulcus of the antebra-
chium; 10- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 11- Deep digital flexor muscle (ulnar head).
 The Antebrachium 37
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C.2 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. C.3 Lateral aspect of the antebrachium and distal thoracic limb.

Bones: 1- Humerus, 1a- brachial sulcus, 1b- supracondylar crest, 1c- lateral epicondyle, 1d- olec-
ranon fossa; 2- Radius, 2a- lateral tuberosity, 2b- distal metaphysis; 3- Ulna (olecranon), 3a- olec-
ranon tuberosity; 4- Third metacarpal bone; 5- Fourth metacarpal bone; 6- Proximal phalanx;
7- Middle phalanx; 8- Distal phalanx; 9- Distal sesamoid bone;
Muscles and tendons: 10- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 10a- body, 10b- tendon; 11- Dorsal
(common) digital extensor muscle, 11a- body, 11b- tendon; 12- Lateral digital extensor muscle,
12a- body, 12b- tendon, 12c- accessory ligament; 13- Extensor carpi obliquus muscle, 13a- body,
13b- tendon; 14- Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 14a- proximal tendon, 14b- body, 14c- distal tendon;
15- Deep digital flexor muscle, 15a- humeral head, 15b- ulnar head, 15c- tendon, 15d- accessory
ligament; 16- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (ulnar head); 17- Extensor retinaculum; 18- Flexor reti-
naculum; 19- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 20- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory liga-
ment); 21- Palmar ligament;
Hoof: 22-Hoof wall; 23- Medial heel.
 38 CHAPTER C
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Fig. C.4 Lateral aspect of the antebrachium and distal thoracic limb in flexion.

Bones: 1- Humerus, 1a- brachial sulcus, 1b- supracondylar crest, 1c- capitulum, 1d- lateral epi-
condyle, 1e- medial epicondyle, 1f- olecranon fossa; 2- Radius, 2a- lateral tuberosity, 2b- distal
metaphysis; 3- Ulna (olecranon), 3a- olecranon tuberosity; 4- Accessory carpal bone; 5- Third
metacarpal bone; 6- Fourth metacarpal bone; 7- Proximal phalanx; 8- Middle phalanx; 9- Distal
phalanx;
Muscles and tendons: 10- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 10a- body, 10b- tendon; 11- Dorsal
(common) digital extensor muscle, 11a- body, 11b- tendon; 12- Lateral digital extensor muscle,
12a- body, 12b- tendon, 12c- accessory ligament; 13- Extensor carpi obliquus muscle; 14- Ulnaris
lateralis muscle, 14a- proximal tendon, 14b- body, 14c- distal tendon; 15- Deep digital flexor mus-
cle, 15a- ulnar head, 15b- tendon, 15c- accessory ligament; 16- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (ulnar
head); 17- Extensor retinaculum; 18- Flexor retinaculum; 19- Superficial digital flexor tendon,
19a- manica flexoria, 19b- lateral branch; 20- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament)
lateral branch; 21- Palmar ligament;
Hoof: 22-Hoof wall; 23- Sole; 24- Frog; 25- Digital cushion.
 The Antebrachium 39
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Fig. C.5 Craniolateral aspect of the antebrachium (after removal of the extensor carpi radialis
muscle body).

Bones and joints: 1- Humerus, 1a- brachial sulcus, 1b- supracondylar crest, 1c- coronoid fossa,
1d- lateral epicondyle; 2- Radius, 2a- lateral tuberosity, 2b- body; 3- Ulna (olecranon), 3a- olec-
ranon tuberosity; 4- Accessory carpal bone; 5- Dorsal capsule of the elbow joint; 6- Lateral col-
lateral ligament of the elbow joint; 7- Lateral collateral ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 8- Anconeus muscle; 9- Distal tendon of the biceps brachii muscle;
10- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 11- Extensor carpi obliquus muscle; 12- Dorsal (common)
digital extensor muscle, 12a- body, 12b- tendon; 13- Lateral digital extensor muscle, 13a- body,
13b- tendon; 14- Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 14a- proximal tendon and muscle fibres, 14b- body
(covered by the antebrachial fascia), 14c- distal tendon; 15- Extensor retinaculum;
Vessels and nerves: 16- Brachial artery; 17- Transverse cubital artery; 18- Median artery;
19- Median nerve; 20- Deep ramus of the radial nerve.
 40 CHAPTER C
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Fig. C.6 Cranial aspect of the antebrachium.

Bones and joints: 1- Radius, 1a- body (medial aspect), 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- styloid process;
2- Third metacarpal bone; 3- Medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint;
Muscles and tendons: 4- Biceps brachii muscle, 4a- distal part of the body, 4b- lacertus fibro-
sus; 5- Brachialis muscle, 5a- body, 5b- distal part; 6- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 6a- body
(covered by the antebrachial fascia), 6b- tendon, 6c- distal enthesis; 7- Extensor carpi obliquus
muscle, 7a- body, 7b- tendon; 8- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle, 8a- body, 8b- tendon;
9- Lateral digital extensor muscle, 9a- body, 9b- tendon; 10- Flexor carpi radialis muscle (covered
by the antebrachial fascia); 11- Extensor retinaculum;
Vessels and nerves: 12- Median artery and vein.
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Fig. C.7 Medial aspect of the antebrachium and distal thoracic limb in flexion.

Bones and joints: 1- Humerus, 1a- body, 1b- vascular foramen, 1c- craniomedial crest of the
distal metaphysis, 1d- medial epicondyle; 2- Radius, 2a- radial tuberosity, 2b- body, 2c- dis-
tal metaphysis, 2d- styloid process; 3- Ulna (olecranon tuberosity); 4- Third metacarpal bone;
5- Second metacarpal bone; 6- Proximal phalanx; 7- Middle phalanx; 8- Dorsal capsule and recess
of the elbow joint; 9- Medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint; 10- Medial collateral ligament
of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 11- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 11a- body, 11b- tendon, 11c- distal
enthesis; 12- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon; 13- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon;
14- Extensor retinaculum; 15- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 15a- body, 15b- distal tendon;
16- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 16a- humeral head, 16b- ulnar head, 16c- body, 16d- distal tendon;
17- Superficial digital flexor muscle, 17a- origin, 17b- tendon, 17c- manica flexoria, 17d- medial
branch; 18- Deep digital flexor muscle, 18a- ulnar head, 18b- tendon; 19- Flexor retinaculum;
20- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 20a- body, 20b- medial branch, 20c- medial
extensor branch; 21- Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament; 22- Palmar ligament; 23- Distal digi-
tal annular ligament;
Foot: 24- Medial ungular cartilage; 25- Hoof wall.
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Fig. C.8 Medial aspect of the antebrachium and carpus.

Bones and joints: 1- Humerus, 1a- vascular foramen, 1b- craniomedial crest of the distal
metaphysis; 1c- medial epicondyle, 1d- olecranon fossa and anconeus muscle; 2- Radius, 2a- body,
2b- distal metaphysis, 2c- styloid process; 3- Ulna (olecranon tuberosity); 4- Accessory carpal
bone; 5- Medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint; 6- Medial collateral ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 7- Distal tendon of the biceps brachii muscle; 8- Extensor carpi obliquus
tendon; 9- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 9a- body, 9b- proximal tendon, 9c- distal tendon (enter-
ing its sheath); 10- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 10a- humeral head, 10b- ulnar head, 10c- body,
10d- distal tendon; 11- Superficial digital flexor muscle, 11a- origin, 11b- tendon; 12- Deep digital
flexor muscle (ulnar head); 13- Flexor retinaculum; 14- Tendon sheath of the flexor carpi radialis
distal tendon;
Vessels and nerves: 15- Brachial artery; 16- Median artery; 17- Distal radial artery; 18- Collateral
ulnar artery; 19- Median vein; 20- Median nerve; 21- Ulnar nerve.
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Fig. C.9 Medial aspect of the antebrachium and carpus.

Bones and joints: 1- Humerus, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- craniomedial crest, 1c- medial epi-
condyle; 2- Radius, 2a- proximal metaphysis, 2b- body, 2c- distal metaphysis, 2d- styloid process;
3- Ulna, 3a- olecranon tuberosity, 3b- body; 4- Third metacarpal bone; 5- Second metacar-
pal bone; 6- Medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint; 7- Radioulnar interosseous space;
8- Radioulnar syndesmosis; 9- Medial collateral ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 10- Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 10a- body, 10b- tendon; 11- Extensor
carpi obliquus tendon; 12- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 12a- body (cut), 12b- distal tendon (enter-
ing its sheath); 13- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 13a- humeral head (cut), 13b- tendon; 14- Ulnaris
lateralis muscle; 15- Superficial digital flexor muscle, 15a- origin, 15b- body, 15c- musculoten-
dinous junction, 15d- tendon; 16- Accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon;
17- Deep digital flexor muscle, 17a- ulnar head, 17b- humeral head, 17c- radial head, 17d- mus-
culotendinous junction, 17e- tendon; 18- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon;
19- Flexor retinaculum (cut, the carpal canal is open); 20- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory
ligament).
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Fig. C.10 Caudal aspect of the antebrachium and carpus.

Bones and joints: 1- Humerus, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- olecranon fossa, 1c- humeral trochlea,
1d- medial epicondyle; 2- Radius, 2a- proximal epiphysis, 2b- proximal metaphysis, 2c- body,
2d- distal metaphysis, 2e- styloid process; 3- Ulna, 3a-olecranon tuberosity, 3b- body; 4- Accessory
carpal bone; 5- Medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint; 6- Medial collateral ligament of the
carpus; 7- Lateral collateral ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 8- Superficial digital flexor muscle, 8a- origin, 8b- body, 8c- musculo-
tendinous junction, 8d- tendon; 9- Accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon;
10- Deep digital flexor muscle, 10a- ulnar head, 10b- humeral head, cranial part, 10c- humeral
head, caudal part, 10d- radial head, 10e- tendon; 11- Flexor carpi radialis tendon in its sheath;
12- Extensor carpi obliquus; 13- Accessory ligament of the lateral digital extensor tendon;
14- Accessoriometacarpal ligament.
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C.3 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. C.11 Levels of the cross-sections presented on Figs C.12 through C.14.

Fig. C.12 Transverse section of the antebrachium: proximal third (section A on Fig. C.11).
 46 CHAPTER C
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Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- cranial cortex, 1c- medial cortex, 1d- caudal cortex,
1e- lateral cortex; 2- Ulna (body); 3- Radioulnar synostosis;
Muscles and tendons: 4- Pectoralis transversus muscle; 5- Extensor carpi radialis muscle;
6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle; 7- Lateral digital extensor muscle; 8- Ulnaris latera-
lis muscle; 9- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 10- Flexor carpi radialis muscle; 11- Deep digital flexor
muscle, 11a- cranial part of the humeral head, 11b- caudal part of the humeral head (fused with the
superficial digital flexor muscle body), 11c- tendon of the ulnar head; 12- Superficial digital flexor
muscle; 13- Antebrachial fascia, 13a- cranial part, 13b- caudal part;
Vessels and nerves: 14- Median nerve; 15- Median artery and veins; 16- Cephalic vein (col-
lapsed); 17- Ulnar nerve and collateral ulnar artery and vein; 18- Cranial antebrachial interosse-
ous artery and vein; 19- Caudal antebrachial interosseous artery and vein; 20- Skin.

Fig. C.13 Transverse section of the antebrachium: mid-level (section B on Fig. C.11).

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- cranial cortex, 1c- medial cortex, 1d- caudal cortex,
1e- lateral cortex; 2- Ulna (fibrous part of the body);
Muscles and tendons: 3- Extensor carpi radialis musculotendinous junction; 4- Extensor carpi
obliquus muscle; 5- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle; 6- Lateral digital extensor muscle;
7- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 8- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 9- Flexor carpi radialis muscle; 10- Deep
digital flexor muscle, 10a- cranial part of the humeral head, 10b- caudal part of the humeral head
(fused with the superficial digital flexor muscle body), 10c- tendon of the ulnar head; 11- Superficial
digital flexor muscle; 12- Antebrachial fascia, 12a- cranial part, 12b- caudal part;
Vessels and nerves: 13- Median nerve; 14- Median artery and veins; 15- Cephalic vein (col-
lapsed); 16- Ulnar nerve and collateral ulnar artery and vein; 17- Cranial antebrachial interosse-
ous artery and vein; 18- Skin.
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Fig. C.14 Transverse section of the antebrachium: distal fourth (section C on Fig. C.11).

Bones: 1- Radius (distal metaphysis);

Muscles and tendons: 2- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 3- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon;
4- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 5- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 6- Extensor reti-
naculum; 7- Ulnaris lateralis musculotendinous junction; 8- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 9- Flexor
carpi radialis tendon (in its sheath); 10- Deep digital flexor muscle, 10a- humeral head, 10b- ten-
don of the ulnar head, 10c- tendon of the radial head; 11- Superficial digital flexor musculo-
tendinous junction; 12- Accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon; 13- Carpal
sheath, 13a- fibrous wall, 13b- cavity; 14- Antebrachial fascia; 15- Proximomedial part of the
flexor retinaculum;
Vessels and nerves: 16- Median nerve; 17- Median artery and veins; 18- Distal radial artery;
19- Cephalic vein; 20- Ulnar nerve; 21- Collateral ulnar artery and vein; 22- Palmar network of
the carpus; 23- Dorsal network of the carpus; 24- Skin.
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 Chapter D

THE CARPUS
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49

D.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. D.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the equine carpus: palpable anatomical structures.

Antebrachium: 1- Extensor carpi radialis muscle; 2- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle;
3- Lateral digital extensor muscle; 4- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 5- Styloid process of the ulna;
6- Radius, 6a- body, 6b- styloid process; 7- Flexor carpi radialis muscle; 8- Flexor carpi ulnaris
muscle; 9- Cephalic vein; 10- Chestnut;
Carpus: 11- Accessory carpal bone; 12- Lateral collateral ligament; 13- Medial collateral liga-
ment; 14- Carpal canal;
Metacarpus: 15- Third metacarpal bone; 16- Fourth metacarpal bone; 17- Second metacarpal
bone; 18- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament); 19- Accessory ligament of the deep
digital flexor tendon; 20- Deep digital flexor tendon; 21- Superficial digital flexor tendon.
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D.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. D.2 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the left equine carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Body (diaphysis) of the radius, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cortex;
2- Distal metaphysis of the radius; 3- Radial styloid process; 4- Ulnar styloid process; 5- Transverse
crest of the radius (insertion of the common palmar ligament); 6- Distal epiphysis of the radius;
7- Radial (antebrachial) condyle; 8- Distal epiphysis of the ulna (fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 9- Radial carpal bone; 10- Intermediate carpal bone; 11- Ulnar carpal bone;
12- Accessory carpal bone;
Distal row: 13- Second carpal bone (no first carpal bone on this carpus); 14- Third carpal bone;
15- Fourth carpal bone;
Metacarpal bones: 16- Second metacarpal bone; 17- Third metacarpal bone, 17a- medial cortex
superimposed with the second metacarpal bone, 17b- lateral cortex superimposed with the fourth
metacarpal bone, 17c- vascular foramen; 18- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 19- Radioulnar synostosis; 20- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 21- Mediocarpal joint;
22- Carpometacarpal joint; 23- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 24- Third intermetacarpal
syndesmosis.
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Fig. D.3 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the left equine carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Distal metaphysis of the radius; 2- Radial styloid process; 3- Ulnar sty-
loid process; 4- Sulcus of the lateral digital extensor tendon; 5- Transverse crest of the radius
(insertion of the common palmar ligament); 6- Sagittal fossa (palmar aspect); 7- Radial (ante-
brachial) condyle, 7a- medial part, 7b- intermediate part, 7c- caudal margin, 7d- lateral part (distal
part of the ulna);
Proximal row: 8- Radial carpal bone, 8a- dorsal condyle, 8b- distoaxial process for the inter-
mediate carpal bone, 8c- intermediate part, 8d- distal glenoid cavity, 8e- palmar glenoid surface,
8f- palmar tubercle, 8g- medial surface (irregular); 9- Intermediate carpal bone (blue), 9a- dorsal
condyle, 9b- dorsodistal angular surface articulating with the dorsal parts of the third and fourth
carpal bones, 9c- proximopalmar margin, 9d- palmar tubercle articulating with the palmar tuber-
cle of the third carpal bone; 10- Ulnar carpal bone, 10a- distopalmar part; 11- Accessory carpal
bone (yellow), 11a- proximodorsal part articulating with the ulna, 11b- distodorsal part articu-
lating with the ulnar carpal bone, 11c- medial aspect, 11d- palmar part; 12- Radiointermediate
interosseous space;
Distal row: 13- First carpal bone; 14- Second carpal bone (green), 14a- head, 14b- palmar part
articulating with the third carpal bone, 14c- bed for the first carpal bone; 15- Third carpal bone,
15a- radial fossa, 15b- intermediate fossa, 15c- palmar tubercle, 15d- palmar surface for the sec-
ond carpal bone, 15e- distodorsal surface for the third metacarpal bone, 15f- distopalmar surface
for the second metacarpal bone; 16- Fourth carpal bone, 16a- dorsal part, 16b- palmar tubercle
(opacity), 16c- Distal surface for the fourth metacarpal bone, 16d- Distoaxial surface for the third
metacarpal bone;
Metacarpal bones: 17- Second metacarpal bone; 18- Third metacarpal bone; 19- Fourth meta-
carpal bone, 19a- palmar tubercle;
Joints: 20- Antebrachiocarpal joint, 20a- dorsal part, 20b- palmar part; 21- Mediocarpal joint;
22- Carpometacarpal joint, 22a- dorsal part, 22b- palmar part; 23- Second intermetacarpal syn-
desmosis (palmar part); 24- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis (palmar part).
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Fig. D.4 Lateromedial radiographic image of the right equine carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- body (diaphysis), 1b- cranial cortex, 1c- caudal cortex, 1d- dis-
tal metaphysis, 1e- sulcus of the dorsal digital extensor tendon, 1f- transverse crest (insertion of
the common palmar ligament), 1g- distal epiphysis of the radius, 1h- radial (antebrachial) condyle,
1i- dorsal locking surface, 1j- sagittal fossa; 2- Distal epiphysis of the ulna (fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 3- Radial carpal bone; 4- Intermediate carpal bone; 5- Ulnar carpal bone, 5a- dis-
topalmar tubercle; 6- Accessory carpal bone;
Distal row: 7- Second carpal bone (no first carpal bone on this carpus); 8- Third carpal bone;
9- Fourth carpal bone;
Metacarpal bones: 10- Second metacarpal bone; 11- Third metacarpal bone, 11a- dorsal cortex,
11b- palmar cortex (superimposed with the second and fourth metacarpal bones), 11c- vascular
foramen; 12- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 13- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 14- Mediocarpal joint; 15- Carpometacarpal joint;
16- Accessorioulnar joint; 17- accessoriocarpoulnar joint.
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Fig. D.5 Lateromedial radiographic image of the right equine carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- sulcus of the extensor carpi radialis
tendon, 1c- sulcus of the dorsal digital extensor tendon, 1d- transverse crest (insertion of the
common palmar ligament), 1e- distal epiphysis of the radius, 1f- radial (antebrachial) condyle,
1g- dorsal locking surface, 1h- sagittal fossa; 2- Distal epiphysis of the ulna (fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 3- Radial carpal bone, 3a- dorsal condyle, 3b- palmar glenoid surface, 3c- palmar
tubercle, 3d- distal glenoid cavity, 3e- distodorsal articular surface for the third carpal bone;
4- Intermediate carpal bone (blue), 4a- dorsal condyle, 4b- palmar articular surface, 4c- proxi-
mopalmar margin, 4d- dorsodistal angular surface articulating with the dorsal parts of the third
and fourth carpal bones, 4e- palmar tubercle; 5- Ulnar carpal bone (red outline), 5a- distodorsal
angle, 5b- articular surface for the accessory carpal bone, 5c- distopalmar tubercle; 6- Accessory
carpal bone, 6a- proximodorsal part articulating with the ulna, 6b- distodorsal part articulating
with the ulnar carpal bone, 6c- intermediate part (crossed by the sulcus of the ulnaris lateralis
long tendon), 6d- palmar part;
Distal row: 7- First carpal bone; 8- Second carpal bone (green), 8a- head, 8b- bed for the first
carpal bone; 9- Third carpal bone, 9a- radial fossa, 9b- intermediate fossa, 9c- palmar tubercle,
9d- distal surface for the third metacarpal bone; 10- Fourth carpal bone (yellow), 10a- dorsal part,
10b- palmar tubercle;
Metacarpal bones: 11- Second metacarpal bone (head); 12- Third metacarpal bone, 12a- proxi-
mal tuberosity (insertion of the extensor carpi radialis tendon), 12b- dorsal cortex, 12c- palmar
cortex (superimposed with the second and fourth metacarpal bones); 13- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 14- Antebrachiocarpal joint, 14a- medial part, 14b- intermediate part, 14c- lateral part;
15- Mediocarpal joint, 15a- medial part, 15b- lateral part; 16- Carpometacarpal joint, 16a- medial
part, 16b- lateral part; 17- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 18- Third intermetacarpal syn-
desmosis; 19- Accessorioulnar joint; 20- Accessoriocarpoulnar joint.
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Fig. D.6 Dorsolateral radiographic image of the left equine carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- transverse crest (insertion of the com-
mon palmar ligament), 1c- distal epiphysis of the radius, 1d- radial (antebrachial) condyle, 1e- dor-
sal locking surface, 1f- sagittal fossa; 2- Ulna, 2a- body, 2b- distal epiphysis (fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 3- Radial carpal bone, 3a- dorsal condyle, 3b- palmar tubercle, 3c- distal glenoid
cavity, 3d- distodorsal articular surface for the third carpal bone; 4- Intermediate carpal bone,
4a- dorsal condyle, 4b- proximopalmar margin, 4c- dorsodistal angular surface articulating with
the dorsal parts of the third and fourth carpal bones, 4d- palmar tubercle; 5- Ulnar carpal bone,
5a- distopalmar tubercle; 6- Accessory carpal bone, 6a- proximodorsal part articulating with the
ulna, 6b- distodorsal part articulating with the ulnar carpal bone, 6c- medial aspect, 6d- palmar
part;
Distal row: 7- First carpal bone; 8- Second carpal bone, 8a- head, 8b- bed for the first carpal
bone; 9- Third carpal bone, 9a- radial fossa, 9b- intermediate fossa, 9c- palmar tubercle, 9d- distal
surface for the third metacarpal bone; 10- Fourth carpal bone, 10a- palmar tubercle;
Metacarpal bones: 11- Second metacarpal bone, 11a- base, 11b- body; 12- Third metacarpal
bone, 12a- dorsomedial cortex; 13- Fourth metacarpal bone, 13a- base, 13b- palmar tubercle,
13c- body;
Joints: 14- Radioulnar synostosis; 15- Antebrachiocarpal joint, 15a- medial part, 15b- intermedi-
ate part, 15c- lateral part; 16- Mediocarpal joint; 17- Carpometacarpal joint, 17a- medial part,
17b- intermediate part, 17c- lateral part; 18- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis (dorsal aspect);
19- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis.
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Fig. D.7 Dorsomedial radiographic image of the left equine carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- crest separating the extensor tendon
sulci, 1c- transverse crest (insertion of the common palmar ligament), 1d- styloid process, 1e- dis-
tal epiphysis of the radius, 1f- radial (antebrachial) condyle, 1g- dorsal locking surface, 1h- sagittal
fossa; 2- Ulna (distal epiphysis fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 3- Radial carpal bone, 3a- dorsal condyle, 3b- palmar tubercle, 3c- distal glenoid
cavity, 3d- distodorsal articular surface for the third carpal bone; 4- Intermediate carpal bone
(violet), 4a- dorsal condyle, 4b- proximopalmar margin, 4c- dorsodistal angular surface articu-
lating with the dorsal parts of the third and fourth carpal bones, 4d- palmar tubercle; 5- Ulnar
carpal bone, 5a- distopalmar tubercle; 6- Accessory carpal bone, 6a- proximodorsal part articulat-
ing with the ulna, 6b- distodorsal part articulating with the ulnar carpal bone, 6c- palmar part;
Distal row: 7- Second carpal bone, 7a- head, 7b- distal facet for the second metacarpal bone;
8- Third carpal bone, 8a- radial fossa, 8b- intermediate fossa, 8c- distal surface for the third meta-
carpal bone; 9- Fourth carpal bone, 9a- palmar tubercle;
Metacarpal bones: 10- Second metacarpal bone, 10a- base, 10b- body; 11- Third metacarpal
bone, 11a- dorsolateral cortex; 12- Fourth metacarpal bone, 12a- base, 12b- body;
Joints: 13- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 14- Mediocarpal joint; 15- Carpometacarpal joint;
16- Secondotercer interosseous space; 17- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis.
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Fig. D.8 Lateromedial radiographic image of the flexed right carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- cranial cortex, 1c- caudal cortex,
1d- transverse crest (insertion of the common palmar ligament), 1e- distal epiphysis of the radius,
1f- radial (antebrachial) condyle, 1g- dorsal locking surface, 1h- sagittal fossa; 2- Distal epiphysis
of the ulna (fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 3- Radial carpal bone, 3a- dorsal condyle, 3b- palmar glenoid surface, 3c- palmar
tubercle, 3d- distal glenoid cavity, 3e- distodorsal articular surface for the third carpal bone;
4- Intermediate carpal bone, 4a- dorsal condyle, 4b- palmar articular surface, 4c- proximopalmar
margin, 4d- distodorsal angular surface articulating with the dorsal parts of the third and fourth
carpal bones, 4e- palmar tubercle; 5- Ulnar carpal bone, 5a- dorsal margin, 5b- articular surface
for the accessory carpal bone, 5c- distopalmar tubercle; 6- Accessory carpal bone, 6a- proxi-
modorsal part articulating with the ulna, 6b- distodorsal part articulating with the ulnar carpal
bone, 6c- intermediate part with the sulcus of the ulnaris lateralis long tendon, 6d- palmar part;
Distal row: 7- Second carpal bone, 7a- head, 7b- distal facet; 8- Third carpal bone, 8a- radial
fossa, 8b- palmar tubercle, 8c- distal surface for the third metacarpal bone; 9- Fourth carpal bone,
9a- dorsal part, 9b- palmar tubercle;
Metacarpal bones: 10- Second metacarpal bone (base); 11- Third metacarpal bone, 11a- proxi-
mal tuberosity (insertion of the extensor carpi radialis tendon), 11b- dorsal cortex, 11c- palmar
cortex (superimposed with the second and fourth metacarpal bones); 12- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 13- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 14- Mediocarpal joint; 15- Carpometacarpal joint, 15a- medial
part, 15b- sagittal part, 15c- lateral part; 16- Accessorioulnar joint; 17- Accessoriocarpoulnar
joint.
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Fig. D.9 Dorsolaterodistal radiographic image of the flexed left carpus.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- craniomedial cortex, 1b- caudolateral cortex, 1c- transverse
crest; 1d- radial (antebrachial) condyle, 1e- sagittal fossa; 2- Ulna, 2a- distal part of the body,
2b- distal epiphysis of the ulna (fused with the radius);
Proximal row: 3- Radial carpal bone, 3a- dorsal condyle, 3b- palmar tubercle, 3c- distal glenoid
cavity, 3d- distodorsal articular surface for the third carpal bone; 4- Intermediate carpal bone,
4a- dorsal condyle, 4b- distodorsal angular surface articulating with the dorsal parts of the third
and fourth carpal bones, 4c- palmar tubercle; 5- Ulnar carpal bone, 5a- proximal articular sur-
face for the ulna, 5b- distopalmar tubercle; 6- Accessory carpal bone, 6a- dorsal part, 6b- medial
aspect, 6c- palmar part;
Distal row: 7- Second carpal bone; 8- Third carpal bone, 8a- radial fossa, 8b- palmar tubercle;
9- Fourth carpal bone, 9a- proximal surface, 9b- palmar tubercle;
Metacarpal bones: 10- Second metacarpal bone; 11- Third metacarpal bone, 11a- dorsomedial
cortex, 11b- palmarolateral cortex; 12- Fourth metacarpal bone, 12a- base, 12b- body;
Joints: 13- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 14- Mediocarpal joint; 15- Carpometacarpal joint; 16- Third
intermetacarpal syndesmosis.
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Fig. D.10 Proximodistal radiographic image of the flexed left carpus.

Proximal row: 1- Radial carpal bone; 2- Intermediate carpal bone; 3- Ulnar carpal bone;
Distal row: 4- Second carpal bone; 5- Third carpal bone, 5a- radial fossa, 5b- intermediate fossa;
6- Fourth carpal bone;
Metacarpus: 7- Third metacarpal bone; 8- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 9- Radiointermediate joint; 10- Intermedioulnar joint; 11- Secondotertius joint,
12- Tertioquartal joint.
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D.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. D.11 Dorsal aspect of the equine carpus and adjacent areas.

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- body (medial aspect), 1b- styloid process; 2- Third metacarpal bone,
2a- body, 2b- proximal tuberosity; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 4- Medial collateral ligament; 5- Lateral collateral ligament; 6- Third intermetacarpal
syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 7- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 8- Extensor carpi obliquus muscle,
8a- body, 8b- tendon; 9- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle, 9a- body, 9b- tendon; 10- Lateral
digital extensor muscle, 10a- body, 10b- tendon, 10c- accessory ligament; 11- Accessory digital
extensor tendon; 12- Ulnaris lateralis muscle; 13- Extensor retinaculum.
 60 CHAPTER D
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Fig. D.12 Dorsolateral aspect of the equine carpus and adjacent areas.

Bones: 1- Radius (distal metaphysis); 2- Lateral styloid process (ulna); 3- Accessory carpal bone;
4- Third metacarpal bone, 4a- body, 4b- proximal tuberosity; 5- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 6- Lateral collateral ligament, 6a- superficial layer, 6b- deep layer; 7- Third intermetacar-
pal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 8- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 9- Extensor carpi obliquus muscle,
9a- body, 9b- tendon; 10- Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle, 10a- body, 10b- tendon;
11- Lateral digital extensor muscle, 11a- body, 11b- tendon, 11c- accessory ligament; 12- Accessory
digital extensor tendon; 13- Extensor retinaculum; 14- Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 14a- body,
14b- short tendon, 14c- origin of the long tendon; 15- Deep digital flexor muscle; 16- Flexor reti-
naculum; 17- Superficial digital flexor tendon.
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Fig. D.13 Dorsal aspect of the flexed equine carpus: deep structures.

Antebrachial bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- radial styloid process, 1c- sulcus of the
extensor carpi radialis tendon, 1d- sulcus of the dorsal digital extensor tendon, 1e- radial (ante-
brachial) condyle, 1f- dorsal locking glenoid surface; 2- Ulna (distal condyle);
Carpal bones: 3- Radial carpal bone; 4- Intermediate carpal bone; 5- Ulnar carpal bone;
6- Second carpal bone; 7- Third carpal bone, 7a- radial fossa, 7b- intermediate fossa; 8- Fourth
carpal bone;
Metacarpal bones: 9- Third metacarpal bone, 9a- body, 9b- proximal tuberosity; 10- Fourth
metacarpal bone;
Joints: 11- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 12- Mediocarpal joint; 13- Carpometacarpal joint; 14- Medial
collateral ligament; 15- Lateral collateral ligament, 15a- superficial layer, 15b- deep layer; 16- Dorsal
radiointermediate ligament; 17- Dorsal intermedioulnar ligament; 18- Dorsal secondotertius liga-
ment; 19- Dorsal tertioquartal ligament;
Other structures: 20- Extensor carpi radialis distal insertion; 21- Lateral digital extensor ten-
don; 22- Dorsal antebrachial interosseous artery; 23- Dorsal arterial network of the carpus.
 62 CHAPTER D
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Fig. D.14 Lateral aspect of the equine carpus.

Bones: 1- Radius (distal metaphysis); 2- Lateral styloid process (ulna); 3- Accessory carpal bone;
4- Third metacarpal bone, 4a- body, 4b- proximal tuberosity; 5- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joints: 6- Lateral collateral ligament, 6a- superficial layer, 6b- deep layer; 7- Third intermetacar-
pal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 8- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 9- Extensor carpi obliquus muscle,
9a- body, 9b- tendon; 10- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 11- Lateral digital extensor
tendon, 11a- accessory ligament; 12- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 13- Extensor retinacu-
lum; 14- Dorsolateral carpal fascia; 15- Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 15a- body, 15b- short tendon;
16- Flexor retinaculum and palmar metacarpal fascia; 17- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
18- Deep digital flexor tendon; 19- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon.
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Fig. D.15 Lateral aspect of the equine carpus.

1- Radius (distal metaphysis); 2- Lateral styloid process (ulna); 3- Accessory carpal bone; 4- Lateral
collateral ligament, 4a- superficial layer, 4b- deep layer; 5- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 6- Dorsal
(common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor tendon, 7a- accessory ligament (cut);
8- Extensor retinaculum; 9- Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 9a- body, 9b- short tendon, 9c- long tendon;
10- Deep digital flexor muscle; 11- Antebrachial fascia (cut); 12- Accessoriometacarpal ligament;
13- Palmarolateral recess of the mediocarpal joint; 14- Proximolateral recess of the carpal sheath;
15- Dorsal antebrachial interosseous artery; 16- Dorsal arterial network of the carpus; 17- Palmar
arterial network of the carpus.
 64 CHAPTER D
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Fig. D.16 Lateral aspect of the equine carpus: joint structures.

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- transverse crest; 2- Lateral styloid process (ulna);
3- Accessory carpal bone; 4- Third metacarpal bone, 4a- body, 4b- proximal tuberosity; 5- Fourth
metacarpal bone, 5a- body, 5b- base;
Joint structures: 6- Dorsal capsule of the carpus; 7- Common palmar ligament of the carpus;
8- Lateral collateral ligament, 8a- superficial layer, 8b- deep layer; 9- Accessorioulnar ligament;
10- Accessoriocarpoulnar ligament; 11- Accessorioquartal ligament (covered by synovial mem-
brane and connective tissue); 12- Accessoriometacarpal ligament; 13- Third intermetacarpal
syndesmosis;
Tendons: 14- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 15- Long tendon of the ulnaris lateralis muscle,
15a- distal part (cut), 15b- subtendinous bursa; 16- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory liga-
ment); 17- Flexor retinaculum (distolateral part).
 The Carpus 65
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Fig. D.17 Palmar aspect of the equine carpus and adjacent areas.

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- medial aspect, 1b- styloid process; 2- Accessory carpal bone; 3- Second
metacarpal bone; 4- Third metacarpal bone; 5- Fourth metacarpal bone;
Joint structures: 6- Medial collateral ligament; 7- Lateral collateral ligament (superficial layer);
Muscles and tendons: 8- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon; 9- Dorsal (common) digital extensor
tendon; 10- Lateral digital extensor tendon, 10a- accessory ligament; 11- Ulnaris lateralis muscle;
12- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 13- Antebrachial fascia, 13a- opening for the dorsal ramus of the
ulnar nerve; 14- Flexor retinaculum; 15- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 16- Superficial digital flexor
tendon; 17- Deep digital flexor tendon; 18- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor ten-
don; 19- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament); 20- Distal radial artery; 21- Cephalic
vein (cut).
 66 CHAPTER D
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Fig. D.18 Palmar aspect of the equine carpus: joint structures.

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- transverse crest, 1c- styloid process; 2- Accessory
carpal bone; 3- Second metacarpal bone, 3a- body, 3b, base; 4- Third metacarpal bone (medial
aspect); 5- Fourth metacarpal bone (base);
Joint structures: 6- Medial collateral ligament; 7- Lateral collateral ligament (superficial layer);
8- Common palmar ligament of the carpus; 9- Flexor retinaculum, 9a- medial section plane,
9b- proximomedial part, 9c- tendon sheath for the flexor carpi radialis tendon, 9d- distolateral
part; 10- Accessoriometacarpal ligament; 11- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon;
Tendons: 12- Ulnaris lateralis distal tendon; 13- Flexor carpi radialis tendon; 14- Extensor carpi
obliquus tendon; 15- Lateral digital extensor tendon, 15a- accessory ligament; 16- Third interos-
seous muscle (suspensory ligament).
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Fig. D.19 Medial aspect of the equine carpus and adjacent areas.

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- styloid process; 2- Accessory carpal bone;
3- Second metacarpal bone, 3a- body, 3b- base; 4- Third metacarpal bone, 4a- body, 4b- proximal
tuberosity;
Joint structures: 5- Medial collateral ligament; 6- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 7- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 8- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon;
9- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 9a- tendon sheath within the flexor retinaculum; 10- Flexor
carpi ulnaris muscle; 11- Antebrachial fascia; 12- Flexor retinaculum, 12a- proximomedial part;
13- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 14- Extensor retinaculum; 15- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
16- Deep digital flexor tendon; 17- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 18- Third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament);
Vessels: 19- Distal radial artery; 20- Cephalic vein pathway.
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Fig. D.20 Palmaromedial aspect of the equine carpus: vessels and nerves.

Bones and joint: 1- Radius, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- styloid process; 2- Accessory
carpal bone;
Joint structure: 3- Medial collateral ligament;
Muscles and tendons: 4- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 4a- body, 4b- tendon, 4c- tendon sheath
within the flexor retinaculum; 5- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 5a- body, 5b- tendon; 6- Antebrachial
fascia (cut); 7- Flexor retinaculum, 7a- proximomedial part, 7b- superficial layer, 7c- deep layer;
8- Accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon;
Vessels: 9- Median artery; 10- Distal radial artery; 11- Cephalic vein; 12- Ramus communi-
cans coming from the lateral common digital vein; 13- Median vein (empty); 14- Median nerve;
15- Ramus communicans from median to ulnar nerves.
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Fig. D.21 Medial aspect of the equine carpus: flexor retinaculum removed, carpal canal open.

Bones and joint: 1- Radius, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- styloid process; 2- Third meta-
carpal bone;
Joint structures: 3- Medial collateral ligament; 4- Common palmar ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 5- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 6- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon;
7- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 7a- body, 7b- tendon; 8- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 8a- body,
8b- tendon; 9- Superficial digital flexor muscle, 9a- body, 9b- tendon, 9c- accessory ligament
of the superficial digital flexor tendon; 10- Deep digital flexor muscle, 10a- body, 10b- tendon,
10c- accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 11- Antebrachial fascia (cut); 12- Flexor
retinaculum (proximomedial part).
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D.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. D.22 Levels of the cross-sections presented on Figs D.23 through D.26.

Fig. D.23 Transverse section of the carpal canal (section A on Fig. D.22).

Bone: 1- Radius (distal metaphysis);

Muscles and tendons: 2- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 3- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon;
4- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 5- Extensor retinaculum; 6- Ulnaris lateralis
 The Carpus 71
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musculotendinous junction; 7- Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle; 8- Flexor carpi radialis tendon (in its
sheath); 9- Deep digital flexor musculotendinous junction, 9a- humeral head, 9b- tendon of the
ulnar head, 9c- tendon of the radial head; 10- Superficial digital flexor musculotendinous junc-
tion; 11- Accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon; 12- Carpal canal, 12a- fibrous
wall, 12b- cavity; 13- Antebrachial fascia; 14- Flexor retinaculum, 14a- proximomedial part;
Vessels and nerves: 15- Median artery and veins; 16- Distal radial artery; 17- Cephalic vein;
18- Collateral ulnar artery and vein; 19- Rami communicans with the collateral ulnar artery and
vein connected to the lateral palmar common digital artery and vein; 20- Median nerve; 21- Ulnar
nerve; 22- Ramus communicans from median to ulnar nerves; 23- Palmar network of the carpus;
24- Dorsal network of the carpus; 25- Skin.

Fig. D.24 Transverse section of the carpus (section B on Fig. D.22).

Bone and joint: 1- Radius, 1a- transverse crest; 2- Medial collateral ligament; 3- Lateral collateral
ligament; 4- Common palmar ligament of the carpus; 5- Synovial fluid cavity of the antebrachio-
carpal joint, 5a- palmarosagittal recess, 5b- proximopalmarolateral recess; 6- Dorsal capsule of
the carpus; *- Origin of the antebrachioradial ligament;
Muscles and tendons: 7- Extensor carpi radialis tendon and sheath; 8- Extensor carpi obliquus
tendon; 9- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon and sheath; 10- Lateral digital extensor tendon;
11- Extensor retinaculum; 12- Ulnaris lateralis musculotendinous junction; 13- Flexor carpi ulnaris
muscle; 14- Flexor carpi radialis tendon (in its sheath); 15- Deep digital flexor tendon, 15a- radial
head; 16- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 16a- accessory ligament; 17- Carpal canal, 17a- fibrous
wall, 17b- cavity; 18- Antebrachial fascia; 19- Flexor retinaculum, 19a- proximomedial part;
Vessels and nerves: 20- Median artery and vein; 21- Distal radial artery; 22- Cephalic vein;
23- Collateral ulnar artery and vein; 24- Rami communicans with the collateral ulnar artery
and vein connected to the lateral palmar common digital artery and vein; 25- Median nerve;
26- Ulnar nerve; 27- Ramus communicans from median to ulnar nerves; 28- Palmar network of
the carpus; 29- Dorsal network of the carpus; 30- Skin.
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Fig. D.25 Transverse section of the carpus: proximal row (section C on Fig. D.22).

Bone and joints: 1- Radial carpal bone, 1a- palmar tubercle; 2- Intermediate carpal bone,
2a- palmar tubercle; 3- Ulnar carpal bone; 4- Accessory carpal bone, 4a- lateral sulcus, 4b- medial
aspect, 4c- palmar part; 5- Medial collateral ligament; 6- Lateral collateral ligament; 7- Common
palmar ligament of the carpus; 8- Dorsal capsule of the carpus; 9- Radiointermediate interosseous
ligaments; 10- Intermedioulnar interosseous ligaments; 11- Accessoriocarpoulnar interosseous
ligament; *- Distal insertion of the antebrachioradial ligament;
Muscles and tendons: 12- Extensor carpi radialis tendon and sheath; 13- Extensor carpi obliquus
tendon; 14- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon and sheath; 15- Lateral digital extensor
tendon; 16- Extensor retinaculum; 17- Ulnaris lateralis tendons, 17a- short, 17b- long; 18- Flexor
carpi ulnaris tendon insertion; 19- Flexor carpi radialis tendon (in its sheath); 20- Deep digital
flexor tendon; 21- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 22- Carpal canal, 22a- fibrous wall, 22b- cavity;
23- Flexor retinaculum, 23a- superficial layer, 23b- deep layer;
Vessels and nerves: 24- Median artery; 25- Distal radial artery; 26- Cephalic vein; 27- Collateral
ulnar artery and vein connected to the lateral palmar common digital artery and vein; 28- Median
nerve; 29- Ulnar nerve; 30- Palmar network of the carpus; 31- Dorsal network of the carpus;
32- Skin.
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Fig. D.26 Transverse section of the carpus: distal row (section D on Fig. D.22).

Bone and joints: 1- Second carpal bone; 2- Third carpal bone, 2a- palmar tubercle; 3- Fourth
carpal bone; 4- Medial collateral ligament; 5- Lateral collateral ligament; 6- Common pal-
mar ligament of the carpus, 6a- proximal fibers of the third interosseous muscle, 6b- origin
of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 7- Dorsal capsule of the carpus;
8- Secondotertius interosseous ligaments and spaces; 9- Tertioquartal interosseous ligament
and space; 10- Accessorioquartal interosseous ligament; 11- Accessoriometacarpal ligament;
*- Palmarolateral recess of the mediocarpal joint;
Muscles and tendons: 12- Extensor carpi radialis tendon and sheath; 13- Dorsal (common) digi-
tal extensor tendon and sheath; 14- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 15- Accessory digital extensor
tendon; 16- Extensor retinaculum; 17- Flexor carpi radialis tendon; 18- Deep digital flexor ten-
don; 19- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 20- Carpal canal; 21- Flexor retinaculum, 21a- superfi-
cial layer, 21b- deep layer, 21c- distolateral part;
Vessels and nerves: 22- Median artery; 23- Distal radial artery; 24- Cephalic vein; 25- Collateral
ulnar artery and vein connected to the lateral palmar common digital artery and vein; 26- Median
nerve; 27- Ulnar nerve; 28- Palmar network of the carpus; 29- Dorsal network of the carpus;
30- Skin.
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Fig. D.27a Sagittal section of the carpus: section plane.

Fig. D.27b Sagittal section of the carpus: anatomical structures.

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Bones and joints: 1- Radius, 1a- body, 1b- cranial cortex, 1c- caudal cortex, 1d- distal metaphy-
sis, 1e- transverse crest, 1f- distal condyle, 1g- dorsal locking glenoid cavity, 1h- sagittal fossa;
2- Intermediate carpal bone, 2a- dorsal condyle, 2b- palmar glenoid surface, 2c- palmar tubercle;
3- Third carpal bone, 3a- intermediate fossa, 3b- palmar tubercle; 4- Accessory carpal bone (pal-
mar part); 5- Third metacarpal bone, 5a- proximal tuberosity, 5b- dorsal cortex, 5c- palmar cor-
tex; 6- Antebrachiocarpal joint; 7- Mediocarpal joint; 8- Carpometacarpal joint; 9- Dorsal capsule
of the carpus; 10- Radiointermediate interosseous ligament; 11- Antebrachioradial ligament;
12- Common palmar ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 13- Extensor carpi radialis tendon, 13a- distal enthesis; 14- Extensor reti-
naculum; 15- Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 15a- body, 15b- short tendon; 16- Superficial digital flexor
muscle, 16a- body, 16b- superficial digital flexor tendon (lateral margin); 17- Deep digital flexor
muscle, 17a- muscle body of the radial head, 17b- muscle body of the humeral head, 17c- tendon of
the ulnar head, 17d- deep digital flexor tendon; 18- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor
tendon; 19- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 19a- carpal origin, 19b- metacarpal
origin; 20- Carpal canal sheath cavity; 21- Flexor retinaculum;
Vessels and nerves: 22- Collateral ulnar artery and vein, 22a- connection to the lateral palmar
common digital artery and vein; 23- Proximal deep palmar arch; 24- Palmar metacarpal artery
and vein in fat; 25- Ulnar nerve, 25a- palmar ramus; 26- Palmar network of the carpus; 27- Dorsal
network of the carpus; 28- Skin.
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Fig. D.28a Frontal section of the carpus: section plane.

Fig. D.28b Frontal section of the carpus: anatomical structures.

Bone, muscles and tendons: 1- Accessory carpal bone; 2- Accessoriometacarpal ligament;

3- Ulnaris lateralis long tendon; 4- Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 4a- muscle body, 4b- tendon
sheath (opened); 5- Deep digital flexor muscle, 5a- muscle body of the humeral head, 5b- deep
digital flexor tendon; 6- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 7- Accessory ligament of the superficial
digital flexor tendon; 8- Antebrachial fascia; 9- Flexor retinaculum, 9a- superficial layer, 9b- deep
layer, 9c- distolateral part; 10- Carpal canal sheath cavity; 11- Palmar metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 12- Median artery; 13- Distal radial artery; 14- Cephalic vein; 15- Connection
to the lateral palmar common digital artery and vein; 16- Rami of the collateral ulnar artery and
vein and dorsal ramus of the ulnar nerve; 17- Palmar ramus of the ulnar nerve; 18- Skin.
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77

E.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. E.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the equine distal limb: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Third metacarpal bone; 2- Fourth metacarpal bone, 2a- base, 2b- body, 2c- distal end; 3- Second
metacarpal bone, 3a- base, 3b- body, 3c- distal end; 4- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory lig-
ament), 4a- body, 4b- lateral branch, 4c- medial branch, 4d- lateral extensor branch; 5- Accessory
ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 6- Deep digital flexor tendon; 7- Superficial digital
flexor tendon, 7a- lateral branch; 8- Lateral collateral ligament of the fetlock; 9- Base of the
proximal sesamoid bone; 10- Ergot; 11- Proximal phalanx; 12- Middle phalanx; 13- Coronet;
14- Ungular cartilage; 15- Hoof wall.
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E.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. E.2 Dorsomedial radiographic image of the metacarpus: left forelimb.

Carpus: distal row: 1- Second carpal bone; 2- Third carpal bone; 3- Fourth carpal bone;
Metacarpus: 4- Second metacarpal bone, 4a- head, 4b- body, 4c- end; 5- Third metacarpal bone,
5a- palmaromedial cortex, 5b- dorsolateral cortex, 5c- medullary cavity superimposed with the
fourth metacarpal bone, 5d- vascular foramen; 6- Fourth metacarpal bone, 6a- head, 6b- body,
6c- end;
Proximal sesamoid bones: 7- Medial proximal sesamoid bone; 8- Lateral proximal sesamoid
bone;
Joints: 9- Mediocarpal joint; 10- Carpometacarpal joint; 11- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis.
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Fig. E.3 Dorsolateral radiographic image of the metacarpus: left forelimb.

Carpus: distal row: 1- Second carpal bone; 2- Third carpal bone; 3- Fourth carpal bone;
Metacarpus: 4- Second metacarpal bone, 4a- head, 4b- body, 4c- end; 5- Third metacarpal bone,
5a- dorsomedial cortex, 5b- palmarolateral cortex, 5c- medullary cavity superimposed with the
second metacarpal bone, 5d- vascular foramen; 6- Fourth metacarpal bone, 6a- head, 6b- body,
6c- end;
Proximal sesamoid bones: 7- Medial proximal sesamoid bone; 8- Lateral proximal sesamoid
bone;
Joints: 9- Mediocarpal joint; 10- Carpometacarpal joint; 11- Fourth intermetacarpal syndesmosis.
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E.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. E.4 Lateral aspect of the metacarpus: left forelimb.

Bones: 1- Accessory carpal bone; 2- Third metacarpal bone, 2a- body, 2b- proximal tuberosity
(covered by the extensor carpi radialis tendon), 2c- distal metaphysis; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone,
3a- base, 3b- body, 3c- distal end; 4- Proximal phalanx; 5- Base of the proximal sesamoid bone;
Joints: 6- Lateral collateral ligament of the carpus, 6a- superficial layer, 6b- deep layer;
7- Accessoriometacarpal ligament; 8- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 9- Lateral collateral
ligament of the fetlock joint (superficial layer); 10- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock joint; 11- Palmar
(intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part); 12- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament;
13- Straight sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons: 14- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 15- Accessory digital extensor tendon;
16- Lateral digital extensor tendon, 16a- accessory ligament; 17- Extensor retinaculum; 18- Third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 18a- body, 18b- lateral branch, 18c- lateral extensor
branch; 19- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 20- Deep digital flexor ten-
don; 21- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 21a- lateral branch; 22- Accessoriosuperficial fibers;
23- Flexor retinaculum, *- distolateral part; 24- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 25- Palmar annular
ligament; 26- Proximal digital annular ligament (proximolateral attachment).
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Fig. E.5 Lateral aspect of the metacarpus: left forelimb.

Bones: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis; 2- Fourth metacarpal bone,
2a- base, 2b- body, 2c- distal end;
Joints: 3- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 4- Lateral collateral ligament of the fetlock joint
(superficial layer); 5- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part);
Tendons: 6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Accessory digital extensor tendon;
8- Lateral digital extensor tendon, 8a- accessory ligament; 9- Third interosseous muscle (suspen-
sory ligament), 9a- body, 9b- lateral branch, 9c- medial branch; 10- Accessory ligament of the
deep digital flexor tendon; 11- Deep digital flexor tendon; 12- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
13- Flexor retinaculum; 14- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 15- Palmar annular ligament.
 82 Chapter  E
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Fig. E.6 Medial aspect of the metacarpus: right forelimb.

Bones: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- body, 1b- proximal tuberosity (covered by the extensor
carpi radialis tendon), 1c- distal metaphysis; 2- Second metacarpal bone, 2a- base, 2b- body,
2c- distal end; 3- Proximal phalanx; 4- Base of the proximal sesamoid bone;
Joints: 5- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 6- Medial collateral ligament of the fetlock joint
(superficial layer); 7- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock joint; 8- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament
(suprasesamoidean part), 8a- metacarpopalmar ligament; 9- Medial oblique sesamoidean liga-
ment; 10- Straight sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons: 11- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 12- Third interosseous muscle (sus-
pensory ligament), 12a- body, 12b- medial branch, 12c- medial extensor branch, 12d- lateral
branch; 13- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 14- Deep digital flexor tendon;
15- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 15a- manica flexoria, 15b- medial branch; 16- Flexor retinac-
ulum; 17- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 18- Palmar annular ligament; 19- Proximal digital annular
ligament, 19a- proximomedial attachment.
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Fig. E.7 Medial aspect of the metacarpus and adjacent areas: right forelimb.

Bones: 1- Radius, 1a- distal metaphysis, 1b- styloid process; 2- Third metacarpal bone, 2a- body,
2b- proximal tuberosity (covered by the extensor carpi radialis tendon), 2c- distal metaphysis;
3- Second metacarpal bone, 3a- base, 3b- body, 3c- distal end; 4- Proximal phalanx; 5- Base of the
medial proximal sesamoid bone;
Joints: 6- Medial collateral ligament of the carpus; 7- Common palmar ligament of the carpus;
8- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 9- Medial collateral ligament of the fetlock joint (superfi-
cial layer); 10- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock joint; 11- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (supra-
sesamoidean part), 11a- metacarpopalmar ligament; 12- Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament;
13- Straight sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons: 14- Extensor carpi radialis tendon; 15- Extensor carpi obliquus tendon; 16- Flexor
carpi radialis tendon; 17- Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon; 18- Dorsal (common) digital extensor
tendon; 19- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 19a- body, 19b- medial branch,
19c- medial extensor branch, 19d- lateral branch; 20- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor
tendon; 21- Deep digital flexor tendon; 22- Accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor
tendon; 23- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 23a- manica flexoria; 24- Flexor retinaculum (cut),
24a- sheath of the flexor carpi radialis tendon; 25- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 26- Palmar annular
ligament; 27- Proximal digital annular ligament.
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Fig. E.8 Palmar aspect of the metacarpus: left forelimb.

Bones: 1- Accessory carpal bone; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Third metacarpal bone; 4-Fourth
metacarpal bone;
Joints: 5- Medial collateral ligament of the carpus; 6- Lateral collateral ligament of the carpus;
7- Accessoriometacarpal ligament;
Tendons: 8- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 9- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 10- Accessory
ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 11- Third interosseous muscle, 11a- body, 11b- medial
branch, 11c- lateral branch; 12- Flexor retinaculum (open), 12a- Distolateral part; 13- Palmar
annular ligament; 14- Distal radial artery; 15- Medial palmar common digital artery; 16- Cephalic
vein; 17- Palmar ramus of the ulnar nerve (having incorporated the proximal ramus communicans
of the median nerve); 18- Deep ramus of the ulnar nerve; 19- Superficial ramus providing the
lateral palmar common digital nerve; 20- Medial palmar common digital nerve; 21- Distal ramus
communicans; 22- Medial proper digital artery and nerve; 23- Lateral proper digital artery and
nerve.
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Fig. E.9 Palmar aspect of the metacarpus after removal of the flexor tendons: left forelimb.

Bones: 1- Accessory carpal bone; 2- Third metacarpal bone, 2a- medial aspect, 2b- lateral aspect,
2c- palmar aspect; 3- Second metacarpal bone; 4- Fourth metacarpal bone; 5- Proximal phalanx,
5a- medial palmar eminence, 5b- lateral palmar eminence; 6- Base of the medial proximal sesa-
moid bone; 7- Base of the lateral proximal sesamoid bone;
Joints: 8- Medial collateral ligament of the carpus; 9- Lateral collateral ligament of the car-
pus; 10- Common palmar ligament of the carpus; 11- Accessoriometacarpal ligament;
12- Accessoriocarpoulnar ligament; *- Flexor retinaculum (distolateral part); 13- Palmar (inters-
esamoidean) ligament, 13a- suprasesamoidean part, 13b- sesamoidean part, 13c- interosseopalmar
ligament; 14- Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament; 15- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament;
16- Straight sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons: 17- Flexor carpi radialis tendon (distal part); 18- Accessory ligament of the deep digi-
tal flexor tendon (reclined proximally); 19 - Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament),
19a- origin, 19b- body, 19c- bifurcation, 19d- medial branch, 19e- lateral branch, 19f- medial
extensor branch, 19g- lateral extensor branch.
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Fig. E.10 Palmar aspect of the proximal metacarpus after removal of the flexor tendons: left
forelimb.

Bones: 1- Second carpal bone, 1a- head; 2- Third carpal bone, 2a- palmar tubercle; 3- Fourth
carpal bone, 3a- palmar tubercle; 4- Third metacarpal bone; 5- Second metacarpal bone, 5a- base,
5b- body; 6- Fourth metacarpal bone, 6a- base, 6b- body;
Joints: 7- Carpometacarpal joint; 8- Secondometacarpal ligament; 9- Second intermetacarpal
syndesmosis; 10- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Tendons: 11- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 11a- third carpal bone origin,
11b- fourth carpal bone origin, 11c- second metacarpal bone origin, 11d- third metacarpal bone
origin (seen through the neurovascular pathways), 11e- fourth metacarpal bone origin.
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E.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. E.11 Levels of the transverse sections presented on Figs E.12 through E.20.

Fig. E.12 Transverse section of the proximal metacarpus (section A on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Fourth metacarpal
bone; 4- Medial collateral ligament of the carpus; 5- Lateral collateral ligament of the carpus;
6- Accessoriometacarpal ligament; 7- Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 8- Third intermeta-
carpal syndesmosis; 9- Palmarolateral recess of the carpometacarpal joint;
Muscles and tendons: 10- Extensor carpi radialis enthesis; 11- Dorsal (common) digital extensor
tendon and sheath; 12- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 13- Accessory digital extensor tendon;
14- Extensor retinaculum; 15- Flexor carpi radialis tendon (distal enthesis); 16-Third interosseous
muscle, 16a- third carpal bone origin, 16b- fourth carpal bone origin, 16c- third metacarpal bone
origin; 17- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 18- Deep digital flexor tendon;
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19- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 20- Carpal canal sheath cavity; 21- Flexor retinaculum,
21a- distolateral part;
Vessels and nerves: 22- Medial palmar common digital artery; 23- Distal radial artery; 24- Lateral
palmar common digital artery and vein; 25- Medial palmar common digital vein; 26- Medial dor-
sal metacarpal artery; 27- Lateral dorsal metacarpal artery; 28- Medial palmar common digital
nerve; 29- Lateral palmar common digital nerve; 30- Skin.

Fig. E.13 Transverse section of the proximal metacarpus (section B on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- dorsal cortex, 1b- palmar cortex, 1c- spongy
bone; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone; 4- Second intermetacarpal syndes-
mosis; 5- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor
tendon and its accessory ligament; 8- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 9- Dorsal metacarpal fas-
cia; 10- Second interosseous muscle (vestigial); 11- Third interosseous muscle, 11a- medial lobe,
11b- lateral lobe, 11c- third carpal bone origin; 12- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor
tendon, 12a- accessoriosuperficial fibers; 13- Deep digital flexor tendon; 14- Superficial digital
flexor tendon; 15- Distal recess of the carpal canal; 16- Flexor retinaculum (distolateral part);
17- Palmar metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 18- Medial palmar common digital artery and vein; 19- Lateral palmar
common digital artery and vein; 20- Medial palmar metacarpal artery and vein; 21- Lateral pal-
mar metacarpal artery and vein; 22- Deep palmar arch; 23- Medial dorsal metacarpal artery;
24- Lateral dorsal metacarpal artery; 25- Medial palmar common digital nerve; 26- Lateral pal-
mar common digital nerve; 27- Skin.
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Fig. E.14 Transverse section of the proximal third interosseous metacarpal enthesis (section B on
Fig. E.11).

Bones and joint: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- palmar cortex, 1b- spongy bone; 2- Fourth meta-
carpal bone; 3- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 4- Fat;
Muscles and tendons: 5-Third interosseous muscle, 5a- dorsal tendinous part of the medial lobe,
5b- fat and striated muscle fibers, 5c- palmar tendinous part of the medial lobe, 5d- dorsal tendi-
nous part of the lateral lobe, 5e- fat and striated muscle fibers, 5f- palmar tendinous part of the
lateral lobe, 5g- sagittal connective tissue, 5h- third carpal bone origin; 6- Accessory ligament of
the deep digital flexor tendon;
Vessels and nerves: 7- Medial palmar metacarpal artery and vein; 8- Lateral palmar metacarpal
artery and vein; 9- Deep palmar arch.
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Fig. E.15 Transverse section of the proximal metacarpus (section C on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- dorsal cortex, 1b- palmar cortex, 1c- spongy
bone; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone; 4- Second intermetacarpal syndes-
mosis; 5- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor
tendon and its accessory ligament; 8- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 9- Third interosseous
muscle, 9a- medial lobe, 9b- lateral lobe, 9c- sagittal connective tissue; 10- Accessory ligament
of the deep digital flexor tendon, 10a- accessoriosuperficial fibers; 11- Deep digital flexor tendon;
12- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 13- Flexor retinaculum (distolateral part); 14- Palmar meta-
carpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 15- Medial palmar common digital artery and vein; 16- Lateral palmar com-
mon digital artery and vein; 17- Medial palmar metacarpal artery and vein; 18- Lateral palmar
metacarpal artery; 19- Medial palmar common digital nerve; 20- Lateral palmar common digital
nerve; 21- Skin.
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Fig. E.16 Transverse section of the metacarpus: middle third (section D on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cortex, 1c- medullary
cavity; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone; 4- Second intermetacarpal syn-
desmosis; 5- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor
tendon; 8- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 9- Third interosseous muscle body, 9a- sagittal
tendon part, 9b- medial part, 9c- lateral part, 9d- interosseous fascia; 10- Accessory ligament of
the deep digital flexor tendon; 11- Deep digital flexor tendon; 12- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
13- Flexor retinaculum (distolateral part); 14- Palmar metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 15- Medial palmar common digital artery and vein; 16- Lateral palmar com-
mon digital artery and vein; 17- Medial palmar metacarpal artery and vein; 18- Lateral palmar
metacarpal artery; 19- Medial palmar common digital nerve; 20- Lateral palmar common digital
nerve; 21- Skin.
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Fig. E.17 Transverse section of the metacarpus: middle third (section E on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cortex, 1c- medullary
cavity; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone (distal end); 4- Second intermeta-
carpal syndesmosis; 5- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor
tendon; 8- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 9- Dorsal metacarpal fascia; 10- Third interosse-
ous muscle body, 10a- interosseous fascia; 11- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor ten-
don (fused with the tendon); 12- Deep digital flexor tendon; 13- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
14- Palmar metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 15- Medial palmar common digital artery and vein; 16- Lateral palmar com-
mon digital artery and vein; 17- Medial palmar metacarpal artery and vein; 18- Lateral palmar
metacarpal artery; 19- Medial palmar common digital nerve; 20- Lateral palmar common digital
nerve; 21- Skin.
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Fig. E.18 Transverse section of the metacarpus: distal third (section F on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cortex, 1c- medullary
cavity; 2- Second metacarpal bone; 3- Fourth metacarpal bone; 4- Second intermetacarpal syn-
desmosis; 5- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis;
Muscles and tendons: 6- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor
tendon; 8- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 9- Dorsal metacarpal fascia; 10- Third interosseous
muscle, 10a- medial branch, 10b- lateral branch; 11- Deep digital flexor tendon; 12- Superficial
digital flexor tendon; 13- Synovial membrane of the proximodorsal recess of the digital flexor
tendon sheath; 14- Palmar metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 15- Medial palmar common digital artery and vein; 16- Lateral palmar
common digital artery and vein; 17- Distal palmar anastomosis; 18- Medial palmar metacarpal
artery and vein; 19- Lateral palmar metacarpal artery; 20- Medial palmar common digital nerve;
21- Lateral palmar common digital nerve; 22- Skin.
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Fig. E.19 Transverse section of the distal metacarpus (section G on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cortex, 1c- spongy
bone; 2- Second metacarpal bone (distal end); 3- Fourth metacarpal bone (distal end); 4- Second
intermetacarpal syndesmosis; 5- Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis and metacarposesamoid-
ean ligament; 6- Proximal attachment of the dorsal capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint;
7- Proximopalmar recess of the metacarpophalangeal joint, 7a- wall, 7b- cavity and synovial plica;
Muscles and tendons: 8- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 9- Lateral digital extensor
tendon; 10- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 11- Dorsal metacarpophalangeal fascia; 12- Third
interosseous muscle, 12a- medial branch, 12b- lateral branch; 13- Deep digital flexor tendon;
14- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 15- Palmar metacarpal fascia; 16- Digital flexor tendon
sheath, 16a- wall and synovial membrane, 16b- cavity;
Vessels and nerves: 17- Medial palmar common digital artery; 18- Medial palmar common digi-
tal vein; 19- Lateral palmar common digital vein; 20- Palmar metacarpal vein; 21- Palmar meta-
carpal arteries; 22- Medial palmar common digital nerve; 23- Lateral palmar common digital
nerve; 24- Skin.
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Fig. E.20 Transverse section of the distal metacarpus (section H on Fig. E.11).

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone distal metaphysis, 1a- medial cortex, 1b- lateral cor-
tex, 1c- spongy bone; 2- Medial metacarposesamoidean ligament; 3- Lateral metacarposesamoi-
dean ligament; 4- Proximal attachment of the dorsal capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint;
5- Medial collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint (proximal fibers of the superficial
layer); 6- Lateral collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint (proximal fibers of the super-
ficial layer); 7- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part); 8- Proximopalmar
recess of the metacarpophalangeal joint, 8a- synovial membrane, 8b- synovial cavity, 8c- medial
interosseopalmar recess, 8d- lateral interosseopalmar recess;
Muscles and tendons: 9- Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon; 10- Lateral digital extensor
tendon; 11- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 12- Dorsal metacarpophalangeal fascia; 13- Third
interosseous muscle, 13a- medial branch, 13b- lateral branch; 14- Deep digital flexor tendon;
15- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 15a- manica flexoria (proximal part); 16- Digital flexor ten-
don sheath, 16a- wall and synovial membrane, 16b- cavity (proximodorsal recess); 17- Palmar
metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 18- Medial proper palmar digital artery; 19- Lateral proper palmar digital
artery; 20- Medial proper palmar digital vein; 21- Lateral proper palmar digital vein; 22- Palmar
network of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 23- Dorsal network of the metacarpophalangeal joint;
24- Medial proper palmar digital nerve; 25- Lateral proper palmar digital nerve; 26- Skin.
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Fig. E.21 Sagittal section of the metacarpus: section plane.

Fig. E.22 Sagittal section of the metacarpus: anatomical structures.

Bones and joints: 1- Third carpal bone, 1a- palmar tubercle; 2- Third metacarpal bone, 2a- prox-
imal tuberosity, 2b- dorsal cortex, 2c- palmar cortex, 2d- medullary cavity, 2e- nutrient foramen,
2f- metacarpal condyle; 3- Carpometacarpal joint; 4- Dorsal capsule of the carpus; 5- Common
palmar ligament of the carpus; 6- Dorsal capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 7- Palmar
(intersesamoidean) ligament, 7a- sesamoidean part, 7b- suprasesamoidean part; 8- Proximopalmar
recess of the metacarpophalangeal joint;
Muscles and tendons: 9- Extensor carpi radialis tendon (distal enthesis); 10- Dorsal (common)
digital extensor tendon; 11- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 11a- third carpal
bone origin, 11b- third metacarpal bone origin, 11c- body, 11d- bifurcation; 12- Accessory liga-
ment of the deep digital flexor tendon; 13- Deep digital flexor tendon; 14- Superficial digital flexor
tendon, 14a- manica flexoria; 15- Flexor retinaculum; 16- Palmar annular ligament;
Vessels and nerves: 17- Collateral ulnar vein; 18- Deep palmar arch; 19- Palmar metacarpal
arteries and veins in adipose connective tissue, 19a- nutrient vessels of the third metacarpal bone;
20- Distal palmar anastomosis; 21- Lateral proper palmar digital artery; 22- Skin.
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Fig. E.23 Sagittal section of the proximal metacarpus (see Fig. E.21, image at the top).

Bones and joint: 1- Third carpal bone, 1a- palmar tubercle; 2- Third metacarpal bone, 2a- dorsal
cortex, 2b- palmar cortex, 2c- spongy bone, 2d- medullary cavity; 3- Palmar recess of the medio-
carpal joint; 4- Carpometacarpal joint; 5- Common palmar ligament of the carpus;
Muscles and tendons: 6- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 6a- third carpal bone
origin (palmar wall of the palmar recess of the carpometacarpal joint), 6b- third metacarpal bone
origin, 6c- body, 6d- striated muscles fibers; 7- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor
tendon, 7a- third carpal bone origin; 8- Deep digital flexor tendon; 9- Superficial digital flexor
tendon; 10- Flexor retinaculum; 11- Palmar metacarpal fascia;
Vessels and nerves: 12- Collateral ulnar vein; 13- Deep palmar arch; 14- Palmar metacarpal
arteries and veins in adipose connective tissue; 15- Palmar ramus of the ulnar nerve; 16- Skin.
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Fig. E.24 Sagittal section of the distal metacarpus (see Fig. E.21, image at the bottom).

Bones and joint: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- dorsal cortex, 1b- palmar cortex, 1c- medul-
lary cavity, 1d- spongy bone, 1e- metacarpal condyle; 2- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament,
2a- sesamoidean part, 2b- suprasesamoidean part; 3- Interosseopalmar ligament; 4- Proximopalmar
recess of the metacarpophalangeal joint;
Muscles and tendons: 5- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 5a- body, 5b- bifur-
cation; 6- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 7- Deep digital flexor tendon;
8- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 8a- manica flexoria; 9- Digital flexor tendon sheath, 9a- synovial
cavity, 9b- synovial membrane attaching on the manica flexoria, 9c- dorsal recess, 9d- proximal
recess; 10- Palmar annular ligament;
Vessels and nerves: 11- Palmar metacarpal arteries and veins in adipose connective tissue;
12- Distal palmar anastomosis (between proper digital, metacarpal and common digital veins);
13- Lateral proper palmar digital artery (origin); 14- Skin.
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THE DIGITAL AREA

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99

F.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. F.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the equine distal limb: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Third metacarpal bone; 2- Fourth metacarpal bone, 2a- body, 2b- distal end; 3- Second meta-
carpal bone, 3a- body, 3b- distal end; 4- Dorsal digital extensor tendon; 5- Lateral digital exten-
sor tendon; 6- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 6a- body, 6b- lateral branch,
6c- lateral extensor branch, 6d- medial branch, 6e- medial extensor branch; 7- Deep digital flexor
tendon and accessory ligament; 8- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 8a- lateral branch, 8b- medial
branch; 9- Lateral collateral ligament of the fetlock; 10- Medial collateral ligament of the fetlock;
11- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock; 12- Base of the lateral proximal sesamoid bone; 13- Base of the
medial proximal sesamoid bone; 14- Neurovascular anastomosis; 15- Lateral proper palmar digi-
tal vessels; 16- Medial proper palmar digital vessels; 17- Ergot; 18- Proximal phalanx; 19- Middle
phalanx, 19a- lateral tubercle of the flexor tuberosity; 20- Coronet; 21- Distal pastern fossa;
22- Lateral ungular cartilage; 23- Medial ungular cartilage; 24- Hoof wall, 24a- toe, 24b- lateral
quarter, 24c- lateral heel, 24d- medial quarter, 24e- medial heel.
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F.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. F.2 Lateromedial radiographic image of the left fetlock and pastern.

Metacarpus: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- dorsal cortex, 1b- palmar cortex, 1c- medullary cav-
ity, 1d- spongy bone, 1e- distal metaphysis, 1f- metacarpal condyle, 1g- sagittal ridge; 2- Second
metacarpal bone (distal end); 3- Fourth metacarpal bone (distal end);
Proximal sesamoid bones: 4a- apex, 4b- body, 4c- base, 4d- articular surface, 4e- palmar margin;
Proximal phalanx: 5a- glenoid cavity, *- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 5b- spongy
bone, 5c- medullary cavity, 5d- dorsal cortex, 5e- palmar cortex, 5f- trigonum (insertion of the
oblique sesamoidean ligaments), 5g- condyle, *- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 5h- supra-
condylar fossa for insertion of the scutocompedal ligament (attachment of the scutum medium
and through it, superficial digital flexor tendon);
Middle phalanx: 6a- glenoid cavity, *- subchondral bone, 6b- sagittal ridge (palmar part),
6c- extensor process, 6d- flexor tuberosity, 6e- dorsal compact bone, 6f- palmar compact bone,
6g- spongy bone;
Joints: 7- Metacarpophalangeal joint (MPJ); 8- Metacarposesamoidean joint; 9- Proximal inter-
phalangeal joint;
Soft tissues: 10- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock joint and extensor tendons; 11- Third interosseous
muscle (suspensory ligament); 12- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part);
13-Sesamoidean ligaments; 14- Deep digital flexor tendon; 15- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
16- Ergot.
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Fig. F.3 Lateromedial radiographic image of the left metacarpophalangeal joint.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Dorsal cortex; 2- Palmar cortex; 3- Spongy bone of the metaphysis;
4- Metacarpal condyle, 4a- sagittal ridge, 4b- proximodorsal margin, 4c- proximopalmar margin;
5- Dorsal supracondylar fossa; 6- Palmar supracondylar fossa;
Proximal sesamoid bones: 7- Apex; 8- Body; 9- Base; 10- Articular surface; 11- Palmar margin;
Proximal phalanx: 12- glenoid cavity, 12a- sagittal groove, 12b- subchondral bone of the sagittal
groove, 12c- dorsal margin, 12d- palmar margin; 13- Palmar eminence; 14- Sagittal fossa between
palmar eminences; 15- Spongy bone; 16- Dorsal cortex; 17- Palmar cortex;
Joints: 18- Metacarpophalangeal joint (cartilaginous space); 19- Metacarposesamoidean joint
(cartilaginous space);
Soft tissues: 20- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock joint and extensor tendons; 21- Third interosseous
muscle (suspensory ligament) branches; 22- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoid-
ean part); 23-Sesamoidean ligaments; 24- Deep digital flexor tendon; 25- Superficial digital flexor
tendon; 26- Ergot, 26a- pulvinus.
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Fig. F.4 Lateromedial radiographic image of the flexed metacarpophalangeal joint.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Dorsal cortex; 2- Palmar cortex; 3- Medullary cavity, 4- Spongy
bone of the metaphysis; 5- Metacarpal condyle, 5a- sagittal ridge, 5b- proximodorsal margin,
5c- proximopalmar margin; 6- Dorsal supracondylar fossa; 7- Palmar supracondylar fossa;
Fourth metacarpal bone: 8- Distal end;
Proximal sesamoid bones: 9- Apex; 10- Body; 11- Base; 12- Articular surface; 13- Palmar margin;
Proximal phalanx: 14- glenoid cavity, 14a- sagittal groove, 14b- subchondral bone of the sagittal
groove, 14c- dorsal margin, 14d- palmar margin; 15- Palmar eminence; 16- Sagittal fossa between
palmar eminences; 17- Spongy bone; 18- Dorsal cortex; 19- Palmar cortex; 20- Trigonum (inser-
tion of the oblique sesamoidean ligaments) distal end; 21- Medullary cavity; 22- Condyle;
Joints: 23- Metacarpophalangeal joint; 24- Metacarposesamoidean joint;
Soft tissues: 25- Dorsal capsule of the fetlock joint and extensor tendons; 26- Third interosse-
ous muscle (suspensory ligament) branches; 27- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesa-
moidean part); 28- Sesamoidean ligaments; 29- Middle scutum; 30- Deep digital flexor tendon;
31- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 32- Ergot, 32a- pulvinus; 33- Skin folds.
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Fig. F.5 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the left fetlock and pastern regions.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Medial cortex; 2- Lateral cortex; 3- Medullary cavity; 4- Spongy
bone; 5- Metacarpal condyle, 5a- sagittal ridge, 5b- medial part, 5c- lateral part; 6- Medial col-
lateral fossa; 7- Lateral collateral fossa;
Second and fourth metacarpal bones: 8- Second metacarpal bone (distal end); 9- Fourth meta-
carpal bone (distal end);
Proximal sesamoid bones: 10- Apex; 11- Body; 12- Base; 13- Interosseous face; 14- Palmar mar-
gin; 15- Axial margin;
Proximal phalanx: 16- Glenoid cavity, 16a- sagittal groove, 16b- medial part, 16c- lateral part,
16d- dorsal margin, 16e- palmar margin, 16f- subchondral bone; 17- Spongy bone; 18- Medullary
cavity; 19- Medial cortex; 20- Lateral cortex; 21- Condyle, 21a- sagittal groove, 21b- medial part,
21c- lateral part; 22- Medial epicondyle; 23- Lateral epicondyle;
Middle phalanx: 24- Glenoid cavity, 24a- sagittal ridge, 24b- medial part, 24c- lateral part,
24d- palmar margin; 25- Flexor tuberosity, 25a- medial tubercle, 25b- lateral tubercle;
Joints: 26- Metacarpophalangeal joint; 27- Proximal interphalangeal joint.
Soft tissues: 28- Flexor tendons; 29- Radiolucent space between flexor tendons and lateral cortex
of the metacarpal bone; 30- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 30a- medial branch,
30b- lateral branch; 31- Medial collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 32- Lateral
collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 33- Medial collateral ligament of the proxi-
mal interphalangeal joint; 34- Lateral collateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal joint.
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Fig. F.6 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the left fetlock.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Medial cortex; 2- Lateral cortex; 3- Spongy bone of the metaphysis;
4- Metacarpal condyle, 4a- sagittal ridge, 4b- medial part, 4c- lateral part, 4d- medial parasagittal
sulcus, 4e- lateral parasagittal sulcus; 5- Medial collateral fossa; 6- Lateral collateral fossa;
Medial proximal sesamoid bone: 7- Apex; 8- Body; 9- Base;
Lateral proximal sesamoid bone: 10- Interosseous face; 11- Palmar margin; 12- Axial margin;
Proximal phalanx: 13- Glenoid cavity, 13a- sagittal groove, 13b- medial part, 13c- lateral part,
13d- dorsal margin, 13e- palmar margin, 13f- subchondral bone; 14- Medial palmar eminence;
15- Lateral palmar eminence; 16- Spongy bone; 17- Medial cortex; 18- Lateral cortex;
Joints: 19- Metacarpophalangeal joint (cartilaginous space); 20- Sesamoidophalangeal space;
Soft tissues: 21- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 21a- medial branch, 21b- lat-
eral branch; 22- Medial collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 23- Lateral collat-
eral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint.
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Fig. F.7 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the flexed fetlock.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Medial cortex; 2- Lateral cortex; 3- Spongy bone; 4- Metacarpal
condyle (palmarodistal profile), 4a- sagittal ridge, 4b- medial part, 4c- lateral part, 4d- medial
parasagittal sulcus, 4e- lateral parasagittal sulcus; 5- Medial collateral fossa; 6- Lateral collateral
fossa;
Medial proximal sesamoid bone: 7- Apex; 8- Body; 9- Base;
Lateral proximal sesamoid bone: 10- Interosseous face; 11- Palmar margin; 12- Axial margin;
Proximal phalanx: 13- Glenoid cavity (dorsal profile), 13a- sagittal groove, 13b- medial part,
13c- lateral part, 13d- palmar margin; 14- Medial palmar eminence; 15- Lateral palmar eminence;
16- Spongy bone; 17- Medial cortex; 18- Lateral cortex;
Joints: 19- Metacarpophalangeal joint (cartilaginous space); 20- Sesamoidophalangeal space;
21- Intersesamoidean space;
Soft tissues: 22- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 22a- medial branch, 22b- lat-
eral branch; 23- Medial collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 24- Lateral collat-
eral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint.
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Fig. F.8 Dorsolateral radiographic image of the left fetlock and pastern.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Dorsomedial cortex; 2- Palmarolateral cortex; 3- Medullary cavity;

4- Spongy bone; 5- Distal metaphysis and palmar supracondylar fossa; 6- Metacarpal condyle,
6a- sagittal ridge, 6b- medial part, 6c- lateral part; 7- Medial collateral fossa;
Second and fourth metacarpal bones: 8- Second metacarpal bone, 8a- body, 8b- distal end;
9- Fourth metacarpal bone, 9a- body, 9b- distal end;
Medial proximal sesamoid bone: 10- Interosseous face; 11- Flexor surface;
Lateral proximal sesamoid bone: 12- Apex; 13- Body; 14- Base; 15- Axial margin; 16-Palmar
margin;
Proximal phalanx: 17- Glenoid cavity, 17a- sagittal groove, 17b- medial part, 17c- lateral part,
17d- dorsomedial margin, 17e- palmarolateral margin, 17f- subchondral bone, 17g- palmaromedial
margin; 18- Lateral palmar eminence; 19- Spongy bone; 20- Medullary cavity; 21- Dorsomedial
cortex; 22- Palmarolateral cortex; 23- Condyle, 23a- medial part, 23b- lateral part; 24- Lateral
epicondyle;
Middle phalanx: 25- Glenoid cavity, 25a- medial part, 25b- lateral part, 25c- palmar margin;
Joints: 26- Metacarpophalangeal joint; 27- Sesamoidophalangeal space; 28- Proximal interpha-
langeal joint;
Soft tissues: 29- Joint capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 30- Flexor tendons and lateral
branch of the third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament); 31- Lateral branch of the superfi-
cial digital flexor tendon.
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Fig. F.9 Frontal proximolateral radiographic image of the left fetlock.

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Dorsal cortex; 2- Palmar cortex; 3- Spongy bone; 4- Metacarpal
condyle, 4a- sagittal ridge, 4b- medial part, 4c- lateral part; 5- Palmar supracondylar fossa;
Medial proximal sesamoid bone: 6- Apex; 7- Interosseous face; 8- Articular surface; 9- Flexor
surface;
Lateral proximal sesamoid bone: 10- Apex; 11- Palmar margin; 12- Articular surface; 13- Base;
Proximal phalanx: 14- Glenoid cavity (lateral part), 14a- sagittal groove; 15- Lateral palmar
eminence; 16- Spongy bone; 17- Dorsal cortex; 18- Palmar cortex;
Joints: 19- Metacarpophalangeal joint (cartilaginous space); 20- Sesamoidophalangeal space.
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Fig. F.10 Lateromedial radiographic image of the left foot.

Proximal phalanx: 1- Dorsal cortex; 2- Palmar cortex; 3- Spongy bone; 4- Condyle,

4a- Subchondral bone of the sagittal groove; 5- Supracondylar fossa for insertion of the scuto-
compedal ligament (attachment of the scutum medium and through it, superficial digital flexor
tendon);
Middle phalanx: 6- Glenoid cavity, 6a- subchondral bone, 6b- sagittal ridge (palmar end);
7- Extensor process; 8- Dorsal compact bone; 9- Dorsal margin of the insertion fossae of the col-
lateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint; 10- Flexor tuberosity; 11- Palmar compact
bone; 12- Spongy bone; 13- Condyle, 13a- dorsal margin of the articular surface, 13b- palmar
margin of the articular surface, 13c- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 13d- medial and
lateral parts;
Distal phalanx: 14- Glenoid cavity, 14a- subchondral bone, 14b- sagittal ridge; 14c- medial
and lateral parts; 15- Extensor process; 16- Articular surface for the distal sesamoid bone;
17- Parietal surface; 18- Solar surface, 18a- cutaneous plane, 18b- flexor surface; 18c- semilunar line;
19- Insertion fossa of the collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint; 20- Solar margin;
21- Palmar process, 21a- distal part, 21b- palmar incisura (or foramen); 22- Body of the distal
phalanx, 22a- semilunar sinus; 22b- solar canal;
Distal sesamoid bone: 23- Articular surface, 23a- proximal part in contact with the middle pha-
lanx, 23b- distal part in contact with the distal phalanx; 24- Flexor surface; 25- Palmar compact
bone; 26- Spongy bone;
Soft tissues: 27- Dorsal recess of the distal interphalangeal joint; 28- Straight sesamoidean lig-
ament and scutum medium; 29- Proximal sesamoid ligament; 30- Deep digital flexor tendon;
31- Dorsal hoof wall; 32- Coronal corium; 33- Parietal corium; 34- Sole; 35- Digital cushion;
36- Frog, 36a- sulci; 37- Heel; 38- Distal pastern fossa;
Joints: 39- Proximal interphalangeal joint; 40- Distal interphalangeal joint.
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Fig. F.11 Lateromedial radiographic image of the left foot: interphalangeal joints.

Proximal phalanx: 1- Condyle, 1a- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 1b- spongy bone,
1c- medial and lateral parts;
Middle phalanx: 2- Glenoid cavity, 2a- subchondral bone, 2b- sagittal ridge, 2c- medial and
lateral parts; 3- Extensor process; 4- Dorsal compact bone; 5- Dorsal margin of the insertion fos-
sae of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint; 6- Flexor tuberosity; 7- Palmar
compact bone; 8- Spongy bone; 9- Condyle, 9a- dorsal margin of the articular surface, 9b- palmar
margin of the articular surface, 9c- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 9d- medial and lateral
parts (superimposed);
Distal phalanx: 10- Glenoid cavity, 10a- subchondral bone, 10b- sagittal ridge, 10c- medial and
lateral parts; 11- Extensor process, 11a- periarticular margin, 11b- tubercle of insertion of the
dorsal digital extensor tendon; 12- Articular surface of the distal sesamoid bone; 13- Parietal
surface; 14- Solar surface, 14a- cutaneous plane, 14b- flexor surface, 14c- semilunar line;
15- Spongy bone; 16- Solar margin; 17- Vascular channel; 18- Body of the distal phalanx,
18a- semilunar sinus; 18b- solar canal; 19- Palmar process, 19a- proximal part, 19b- distal part,
19c- palmar incisura (or foramen);
Distal sesamoid bone: 20- Articular surface, 20a- proximal part in contact with the middle
phalanx, 20b- distal part in contact with the distal phalanx; 21- Flexor surface, 21a- proximal
margin, 21b- distal margin; 22- Palmar compact bone; 23- Spongy bone; 24- Subchondral bone;
25- Synovial fossae;
Soft tissues: 26- Dorsal recess of the distal interphalangeal joint; 27- Proximal sesamoidean
ligament; 28- Deep digital flexor tendon; 29- Dorsal hoof wall; 30- Parietal corium; 31- Sole;
32- Sulcus of the frog; 33- Digital cushion;
Joints: 34- Proximal interphalangeal joint, *- cartilaginous space; 35- Distal interphalangeal
joint, *- cartilaginous space.
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Fig. F.12 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the left foot.

Proximal phalanx: 1- Medial cortex; 2- Lateral cortex; 3- Medullary cavity; 4- Spongy bone;
5- Condyle, 5a- medial part, 5b- sagittal groove, 5c- lateral part; 6- Medial epicondyle; 7- Lateral
epicondyle;
Middle phalanx: 8- Glenoid cavity, 8a- medial part, 8b- sagittal ridge, 8c- lateral part; 8d- palmar
margin, 8e- subchondral bone; 9- Medial compact bone; 10- Lateral compact bone; 11- Spongy
bone; 12- Insertion fossa of the medial collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint;
13- Insertion fossa of the lateral collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint; 14- Condyle,
14a- medial part, 14b- sagittal groove, 14c- lateral part;
Distal phalanx: 15- Glenoid cavity, 15a- medial part; 15b- sagittal ridge, 15c- lateral part,
15d- palmar margin, 15e- subchondral bone; 16- Extensor process; 17- Body of the distal phalanx
(spongy bone); 18- Medial solar canal; 19- Lateral solar canal; 20- Semilunar sinus; 21- Vascular
channel; 22- Solar margin, 22a- crena; 23- Medial collateral fossa (insertion of the medial collat-
eral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ)); 24- Lateral collateral fossa (insertion of
the lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ); 25- Medial palmar process, 25a- palmar incisura (or
foramen); 26- Lateral palmar process; 27- Parietal sulcus;
Distal sesamoid bone: 28- Proximal margin; 29- Distal articular margin in contact with the
distal phalanx; 30- Medial angle; 31- Lateral angle;
Joints and soft tissues: 32- Proximal interphalangeal joint; 33- Distal interphalangeal joint;
34- Shadow of the medial heel bulb; 35- Shadow of the lateral heel bulb; 36- Hoof wall (medial
heel); 37- Hoof wall (lateral heel).
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Fig. F.13 Lateromedial and dorsopalmar radiographic images of the left distal interphalangeal joint.

Middle phalanx: 1- Insertion fossa of the medial collateral ligament of the DIPJ; 2- Insertion
fossa of the lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ; 3- Palmar compact bone; 4- Medial compact
bone; 5- Lateral compact bone; 6- Spongy bone; 7- Condyle, 7a- medial part, 7b- sagittal groove,
7c- lateral part, 7d- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 7e- palmar margin;
Distal phalanx: 8- Glenoid cavity, 8a- medial part, 8b- sagittal ridge, 8c- lateral part, 8d- sub-
chondral bone; 9- Articular surface for the distal sesamoid bone (superimposed on the dorsopal-
mar image with the distal margin of the flexor surface of the distal sesamoid bone); 10- Extensor
process; 11- Flexor surface, 11a- compact bone; 12- Semilunar line; 13- Spongy bone (body of the
distal phalanx); 14- Solar canal; 15- Palmar process;
Distal sesamoid bone: 16
Soft tissues: 17- Proximal sesamoidean ligament; 18- Deep digital flexor tendon;
Joints: 19- Distal interphalangeal joint, 19a- interphalangeal part, 19b- sesamoidophalangeal part.
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Fig. F.14 Lateromedial and dorsopalmar radiographic images of the left distal sesamoid bone.

Middle phalanx: 1- Condyle;

Distal phalanx: 2- Glenoid cavity;
Distal sesamoid bone: 3- Palmar compact bone; 4- Spongy bone; 5- Subchondral bone;
6- Medial angle; 7- Lateral angle; 8- Proximal border; 9- Articular surface for the middle phalanx,
9a- proximal margin, 9b- sagittal ridge, 9c- dorsal angle; 10- Articular surface for the distal phalanx;
11- Flexor surface, 11a- proximal margin, 11b- sagittal ridge, 11c- distal margin; 12- Synovial
sulcus, 12a- synovial fossae;
Soft tissues: 13- Proximal sesamoidean ligament; 14- Deep digital flexor tendon;
Joints: 15- Distal interphalangeal joint, 15a- interphalangeal part, 15b- sesamoidophalangeal
part.
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Fig. F.15 Proximodistal radiographic image of the left distal sesamoid bone.

Middle phalanx: 1- Condyle, 1a- medial part, 1b- sagittal groove, 1c- lateral part;
Distal phalanx: 2- Medial palmar process; 3- Lateral palmar process; 4- Parietal surface,
4a- parietal sulcus; 5- Insertion fossa of the lateral collateral ligament; 6- Flexor surface;
Distal sesamoid bone: 7- Articular surface for the middle phalanx, 7a- sagittal ridge;
8- Flexor surface, 8a- sagittal ridge; 9- Medial angle; 10- Lateral angle; 11- Palmar compact
bone; 12- Subchondral bone; 13- Spongy bone; 14- synovial fossae;
Joints: 15- Distal interphalangeal joint (sesamoidophalangeal part);
Soft tissues and hoof: 16- Shadow of the palmar fetlock; 17- Hoof wall; 18- Parietal corium;
19- Digital cushion and frog.
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Fig. F.16 Dorsopalmar radiographic image of the weight-bearing left distal limb (fetlock, pastern and
foot).

Third metacarpal bone: 1- Medial cortex; 2- Lateral cortex; 3- Spongy bone; 4- Metacarpal
condyle, 4a- medial part, 4b- sagittal ridge, 4c- lateral part; 5- Medial collateral fossa; 6- Lateral
collateral fossa;
Proximal sesamoid bones: 7- Apex; 8- Body; 9- Base; 10- Interosseous face; 11- Axial margin;
Proximal phalanx: 12- Glenoid cavity, 12a- medial part, 12b- sagittal groove, 12c- lateral part,
12d- dorsal margin; 13- Spongy bone; 14- Medullary cavity; 15- Medial cortex; 16- Lateral cor-
tex; 17- Condyle, 17a- medial part, 17b- sagittal groove, 17c- lateral part; 18- Medial epicondyle;
19- Lateral epicondyle;
Middle phalanx: 20- Glenoid cavity, 20a- medial part, 20b- sagittal ridge, 20c- lateral part,
20d- dorsal margin, 20e- subchondral bone; 21- Flexor tuberosity, 21a- medial tubercle,
21b- lateral tubercle; 22- Spongy bone; 23- Insertion fossa of the medial collateral ligament
of the DIPJ; 24- Insertion fossa of the lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ; 25- Condyle,
25a- medial part, 25b- sagittal groove, 25c- lateral part;
Distal phalanx: 26- Glenoid cavity, 26a- medial part; 26b- sagittal ridge, 26c- lateral part,
26d- subchondral bone; 27- Extensor process; 28- Body of the distal phalanx (spongy bone);
29- Medial solar canal; 30- Lateral solar canal; 31- Solar margin; 32- Parietal surface, 32a- pari-
etal sulcus; 33- Medial collateral fossa (insertion of the medial collateral ligament of the DIPJ);
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34- Lateral collateral fossa (insertion of the lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ); 35- Medial
palmar process; 36- Lateral palmar process;
Distal sesamoid bone: 37- Proximal (articular) margin; 38- Distal (flexor surface) margin;
39- Medial angle; 40- Lateral angle;
Joints: 41- Metacarpophalangeal joint; 42- Proximal interphalangeal joint; 43- Distal interpha-
langeal joint;
Soft tissues and hoof: 44- Medial collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint (MPJ);
45- Lateral collateral ligament of the MPJ; 46- Medial extensor branch of the third interosseous
muscle; 47- Lateral extensor branch of the third interosseous muscle; *- Ergot; 48- Medial col-
lateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ); 49- Lateral collateral ligament of the
PIPJ; 50- Coronet; 51- Hoof wall, 51a- medial quarter, 51b- lateral quarter; 52- Coronal corium;
53- Parietal corium; 54- Sole; 55- Frog, 55a- apex, 55b- base;
Shoe and pad: 56- Shoe; 57- Pad; 58- Silicone in the frog sulcus.

Fig. F.17 Dorsomedial radiographic image of the weight-bearing left distal limb (fetlock, pastern and
foot) (cassette at the palmarolateral aspect of the distal limb).

Proximal phalanx: 1- Palmaromedial cortex; 2- Dorsolateral cortex; 3- Spongy bone; 4- Medullary

cavity; 5- Condyle, 5a- medial part, 5b- sagittal groove, 5c- lateral part; 6- Medial epicondyle;
7- Lateral epicondyle; 8- Insertion fossa of the scutocompedal ligament;
Middle phalanx: 9- Glenoid cavity, 9a- medial part, 9b- sagittal ridge, 9c- lateral part, 9d- dor-
sal margin, 9e- subchondral bone; 10- Flexor tuberosity, 10a- medial tubercle; 11- Spongy bone;
12- Insertion fossa of the lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ, 12a- proximal edge; 13- Condyle,
13a- medial part, 13b- sagittal groove, 13c- lateral part;
Distal phalanx: 14- Glenoid cavity, 14a- medial part, 14b- sagittal ridge, 14c- lateral part;
15- Extensor process; 16- Body of the distal phalanx (spongy bone); 17- Medial solar foramen
and canal; 18- Lateral solar canal; 19- Flexor surface, 19a- compact bone; 20- Semilunar line;
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*- Cutaneous plane; 21- Solar margin; 22- Parietal surface, 22a- parietal sulcus; 23- Medial col-
lateral fossa (insertion of the medial collateral ligament of the DIPJ); 24- Lateral collateral fossa
(insertion of the lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ); 25- Medial palmar process, 25a- proximal
part, 25b- distal part, 25c- palmar incisura; 26- Lateral palmar process;
Distal sesamoid bone: 27- Proximal margin; 28- Distal (flexor surface) margin; 29- Medial
angle; 30- Lateral angle;
Joints: 31- Proximal interphalangeal joint; 32- Distal interphalangeal joint;
Soft tissues and hoof: 33- Medial branch of the superficial digital flexor tendon; 34- Coronet;
35- Bulb of the medial heel; 36- Hoof wall, 36a- dorsolateral part, 36b- medial heel; 37- Coronal
cushion; 38- Coronal corium; 39- Parietal corium; 40- Sole (lateral branch); 41- Frog, 41a- body,
41b- medial sulcus, 41c- lateral sulcus.

Fig. F.18 Dorsolateral-proximolateral radiographic image of the left weight-bearing foot (cassette
under the foot).

Middle phalanx: 1- Dorsomedial cortex; 2- Palmarolateral cortex; 3- Insertion fossa of the

medial collateral ligament of the DIPJ, 3a- proximal edge; 4- Condyle, 4a- medial part, 4b- sagit-
tal groove, 4c- lateral part, 4d- palmar margin;
Distal phalanx: 5- Glenoid cavity, 5a- medial part, 5b- lateral part, 5c- palmar margin and
articular surface for the distal sesamoid bone, 5d- dorsomedial margin, 5e- dorsolateral margin;
6- Extensor process; 7- Body of the distal phalanx (spongy bone); 8- Medial solar canal; 9- Lateral
solar canal; 10- Semilunar sinus; 11- Vascular channel; 12- Solar margin, 12a- crena; 13- Parietal
surface, 13a- parietal sulcus; 14- Medial collateral fossa (insertion of the medial collateral liga-
ment of the DIPJ); 15- Lateral collateral fossa (insertion of the lateral collateral ligament of the
DIPJ); 16- Lateral palmar process, 16a- proximal part, 16b- distal part, 16c- palmar incisura;
Distal sesamoid bone: 17- Proximal articular margin; 18- Proximal margin of the flexor surface;
19- Distal articular margin; 20- Distal margin of the flexor surface; 21- Medial angle; 22- Lateral
angle;
Joints: 23- Distal interphalangeal joint;
Soft tissues and hoof: 24- Hoof wall (dorsomedial part); 25- Lateral heel; 26- Coronal corium;
27- Parietal corium; 28- Frog, 28a- apex, 28b- body.
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F.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. F.19 Medial aspect of the right thoracic limb digital area.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone (distal metaphysis); 2- Proximal phalanx; 3- Middle
phalanx; 4- Dorsal capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 5- Metacarpophalangeal fascia;
6- Collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint (superficial layer); 7- Collateral sesamoid-
ean ligament; 8- Dorsal recess of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 9- Proximopalmar recess of the
metacarpophalangeal joint; 10- Collateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal joint;
Tendons and associated structures: 11- Dorsal digital extensor tendon; 12- Third interos-
seous muscle (TIOM, suspensory ligament), 12a- medial branch, 12b- medial extensor branch;
13- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 13a- medial branch; 14- Deep digital flexor tendon (covered
by the digital sheath wall); 15- Palmar annular ligament; 16- Proximal digital annular ligament;
17- Distal digital annular ligament (proximal part); 18- Chondrocompedal ligament;
Vessels and nerves: 19- Palmar metacarpal artery (endings) and vein; 20- Medial proper digi-
tal artery; 21- Dorsal ramus of the proximal phalanx; 22- Dorsal ramus of the middle phalanx;
23- Medial proper digital vein; 24- Ergot ramus; 25- Dorsal ramus of the proximal phalanx;
26- Dorsal ramus of the middle phalanx; 27- Superficial ungular plexus; 28- Medial proper digital
nerve; 29- Ergot ramus; 30- Dorsal ramus; 31- Ramus of the digital torus;
Other structures: 32- Ergot ligament; 33- Medial ungular cartilage; 34- Lateral ungular
cartilage.
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Fig. F.20 Lateral aspect of the left distal thoracic limb.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis; 2- Fourth metacar-
pal bone (end); 3- Proximal phalanx, 3a- palmar eminence; 4- Middle phalanx, 4a- flexor tuber-
osity, 4b- condyle; 5- Distal phalanx, 5a- Parietal surface, 5b- solar margin, 5c- collateral fossa,
5d-lateral palmar process; 6- Distal sesamoid bone (lateral angle); 7- Dorsal capsule of the MPJ;
8- Lateral collateral ligament of the MPJ (superficial layer); 9- Lateral collateral sesamoidean liga-
ment of the MPJ; 10- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part); 11- Straight
sesamoidean ligament; 12- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament; 13- Lateral collateral ligament
of the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ); 14- Abaxial palmar ligament of the PIPJ (covered
by the proximal attachment of the distal digital annular ligament); 15- Collateral ligament of the
distal interphalangeal joint; 16- Lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons and associated structures: 17- Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 17a- distal enthe-
sis; 18- Lateral digital extensor tendon, 18a- distal enthesis; 19- Third interosseous muscle
(TIOM, suspensory ligament), 19a- lateral branch, 19b- lateral extensor branch; 20- Superficial
digital flexor tendon, 20a- manica flexoria, 20b- lateral branch; 21- Deep digital flexor tendon,
21a- fibrocartilaginous pad; 22- Palmar annular ligament; 23- Proximal digital annular ligament,
23a- proximal attachment, 23b- distal attachment; 24- Distal digital annular ligament, 24a- proxi-
mal attachment;
Superficial structures: 25- Hoof wall, 25a- bar; 26- Sole; 27- Frog; 28- Coronal corium and
cushion; 29- Parietal corium; 30- Corium of the sole; 31- Digital cushion; 32- Bulb of the medial
heel.
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Fig. F.21 Lateral aspect of the left metacarpophalangeal joint.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- condyle;
2- Fourth metacarpal bone (end); 3- Proximal phalanx, 3a- palmar eminence; 4- Lateral collateral
ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint, 4a- superficial layer, 4b- deep layer; 5- Collateral
sesamoidean ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 6- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament,
6a- suprasesamoidean part, 6b- sesamoidean part, 6c- metacarpointersesamoidean ligament;
7- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament; 8- Proximopalmar recess of the metacarpophalangeal
joint;
Tendons: 9- Dorsal digital extensor tendon; 10- Lateral digital extensor tendon (cut longitu-
dinally), 10a- distal enthesis; 11- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 11a- lateral
branch, 11b- lateral extensor branch (cut).
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Fig. F.22 Medial aspect of the right thoracic limb digital area.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone; 2- Proximal phalanx, 2a- body, 2b- medial palmar
eminence; 3- Middle phalanx, 3a- flexor tuberosity; 4- Distal phalanx, 4a- parietal surface, 4b- solar
margin, 4c- medial palmar process; 5- Dorsal capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 6- Medial
collateral ligament (superficial layer) of the MPJ; 7- Medial collateral sesamoidean ligament of the
MPJ; 8- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 9- Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament; 10- Collateral
ligament of the PIPJ; 11- Abaxial palmar ligament of the PIPJ (covered by the proximal attach-
ments of the distal digital annular ligament and chondrocompedal ligament); 12- Axial palmar
ligament of the PIPJ; 13- Collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint; 14- Collateral
sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons and associated structures: 15- Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 15a- distal enthesis;
16- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 16a- medial branch (enthesis), 16b- medial
extensor branch; 17- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 17a- medial branch (covered by the proxi-
mal digital annular ligament); 18- Deep digital flexor tendon; 19- Palmar annular ligament;
20- Proximal digital annular ligament, 20a- proximal attachment, 20b- distal attachment;
21- Distal digital annular ligament, 21a- proximal attachment;
Other foot structures: 22- Medial ungular cartilage; 23- Lateral ungular cartilage; 24- Digital
cushion; 25- Chondrocoronal ligament; 26- Chondrocompedal ligament.
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Fig. F.23 Palmaromedial aspect of the right digital area after removal of the flexor tendons.

Bones and joints: 1- Medial proximal sesamoid bone (palmar margin); 2- Proximal phalanx,
2a- body, 2b- medial palmar eminence; 3- Middle phalanx, 3a- body, 3b- flexor tuberosity;
4- Distal phalanx, 4a- parietal surface, 4b- solar margin, 4c- medial palmar process, 4d- lateral
palmar process; 5- Distal sesamoid bone; 6- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 7- Medial oblique
sesamoidean ligament; 8- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament; 9- Collateral ligament of the
PIPJ; 10- Middle scutum; 11- Abaxial palmar ligament of the PIPJ; 12- Axial palmar ligament of
the PIPJ; 13- Collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint; 14- Medial collateral sesa-
moidean ligament; 15- Lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament; 16- Proximal sesamoidean liga-
ment; 17- Distal sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons and associated structures: 18- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament),
medial extensor branch; 19- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 19a- medial branch (cut), 19b- lateral
branch (cut); 20- Deep digital flexor tendon (infrasesamoidean part); 21- Proximal attachment of
the distal digital annular ligament;
Ungular cartilages: 22- Proximal attachment of the chondrocompedal ligament; 23- Medial
ungular cartilage (cut); 24- Lateral ungular cartilage (cut).
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Fig. F.24 Palmarolateral aspect of the right digital area after removal of the flexor tendons and
straight sesamoidean ligament.

Bones and joints: 1- Lateral proximal sesamoid bone (body); 2- Proximal phalanx, 2a- body,
2b- lateral palmar eminence; 3- Middle phalanx, 3a- body, 3b- flexor tuberosity, 3c- condyle (pal-
mar margin); 4- Distal phalanx, 4a- parietal surface, 4b- solar margin, 4c- lateral palmar process,
4d- medial palmar process; 5- Distal sesamoid bone (flexor surface), 5a- sagittal crest; 6- Lateral
collateral ligament of the metacarpophalangeal joint (superficial layer); 7- Palmar (intersesamoi-
dean) ligament, 7a- sesamoidean part, 7b- suprasesamoidean part; 8- Lateral oblique sesamoid-
ean ligament; 9- Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament; 10- Intermediate sesamoidean ligament;
11- Cruciate sesamoidean ligament; 12- Collateral ligament of the PIPJ; 13- Middle scutum;
14- Abaxial palmar ligament of the PIPJ; 15- Axial palmar ligament of the PIPJ; 16- Lateral col-
lateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint; 17- Lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament;
18- Medial collateral sesamoidean ligament; 19- Proximal sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons and associated structures: 20- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 21- Third interosseous
muscle (suspensory ligament), 21a- lateral branch, 21b- lateral extensor branch; 22- Superficial
digital flexor tendon, 22a- lateral branch (cut), 22b- medial branch (cut);
Ungular cartilages: 23- Lateral ungular cartilage (cut); 24- Medial ungular cartilage (cut).
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Fig. F.25 Palmar aspect of the right digital area after removal of the flexor tendons as well as straight
and lateral oblique sesamoidean ligaments.

Bones and joints: 1- Proximal phalanx, 1a- body, 1b- medial palmar eminence, 1c- lateral palmar
eminence, 1d- trigonum; 2- Middle phalanx, 2a- body, 2b- flexor tuberosity, 2c- condyle (palmar
margin); 3- Distal sesamoid bone (flexor surface), 3a- sagittal crest, 3b- medial angle, 3c- lateral
angle; 4- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament, 4a- sesamoidean part, 4b- suprasesamoidean part;
5- Collateral sesamoidean ligament; 6- Straight sesamoidean ligament (origin, cut); 7- Medial
oblique sesamoidean ligament; 8- Cruciate sesamoidean ligament; 9- Short sesamoidean liga-
ment; 10- Middle scutum; 11- Abaxial palmar ligament of the PIPJ; 12- Axial palmar ligament
of the PIPJ; 13- Medial collateral sesamoidean ligament; 14- Lateral collateral sesamoidean liga-
ment; 15- Proximal sesamoidean ligament;
Tendons and associated structures: 16- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament),
medial extensor branch; 17- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 17a- medial branch (cut), 17b- lateral
branch (cut); 18- Deep digital flexor tendon (distal enthesis, cut);
Ungular cartilages: 19- Medial ungular cartilage (cut); 20- Lateral ungular cartilage (cut).
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F.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. F.26 Sagittal section of the thoracic limb digital area.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal bone, 1a- body, 1b- distal metaphysis, 1c- condyle;
2- Proximal phalanx, 2a- body, 2b- glenoid cavity, 2c- condyle; 3- Middle phalanx, 3a- glenoid cav-
ity, 3b- flexor tuberosity, 3c- condyle; 4- Distal phalanx, 4a- glenoid cavity, 4b- parietal surface,
4c- solar margin, 4d- flexor surface; 5- Distal sesamoid bone, 5a- flexor surface; 6- Dorsal capsule
of the MPJ, 6a- proximodorsal fibrosynovial plica; 7- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (proxi-
mal scutum), 7a- sesamoidean part, 7b- suprasesamoidean part; 8- Metacarpointersesamoidean
ligament; 9- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 10- Intermediate sesamoidean ligament; 11- Cruciate
sesamoidean ligament; 12- Dorsal recess of the MPJ; 13- Proximopalmar recess of the MPJ;
14- Distopalmar recess of the MPJ; 15- Middle scutum; 16- Dorsal recess of the PIPJ; 17- Palmar
recess of the PIPJ; 18- Proximal sesamoidean ligament; 19- Distal sesamoidean ligament;
20- Dorsal recess of the DIPJ; 21- Proximopalmar recess of the DIPJ; 22- Distopalmar recess of
the DIPJ;
Tendons and associated structures: 23- Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 23a- distal enthesis on
the extensor process of the distal phalanx; 24- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 24a- manica flexo-
ria; 25- Deep digital flexor tendon, 25a- fibrocartilaginous pad, 25b- distal enthesis; 26- Palmar
annular ligament; 27- Proximal digital annular ligament; 28- Distal digital annular ligament;
29- Digital sheath cavity;
Vessels and nerves: 30- Distal palmar anastomosis between the palmar metacarpal and digital
arteries); 31- Dorsal rami (artery and vein) of the middle phalanx; 32- Coronal vein and artery;
Superficial structures and skin: 33- Coronal corium and cushion; 34- Parietal corium; 35- Solar
corium; 36- Corium of the frog; 37- Digital cushion; 38- Hoof wall; 39- Sole; 40- Frog, 40a- body,
40b- branch; 41- Heel; 42- Ergot; 43- Skin.
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Fig. F.27 Sagittal section of the pastern and foot.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal condyle, 1a- subchondral bone of the sagittal ridge,
1b- articular cartilage; 2- Proximal phalanx, 2a- dorsal cortex, 2b- palmar cortex, 2c- medul-
lary cavity, 2d- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove, 2e- subchondral bone of the condyle;
3- Middle phalanx, 3a- dorsal compact bone, 3b- palmar compact bone, 3c- subchondral bone of
the glenoid cavity, 3d- compact bone of the flexor tuberosity, 3e- subchondral bone of the condyle;
4- Distal phalanx, 4a- extensor process, 4b- subchondral bone of the glenoid cavity, 4c- compact
bone of the flexor surface, 4d- spongy bone of the body; 5- Distal sesamoid bone, 5a- spongy bone,
5b- compact bone of the flexor surface; 6- Dorsal capsule of the MPJ; 7- Palmar (intersesamoid-
ean) ligament (sesamoidean part); 8- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 9- Intermediate sesamoidean
ligament; 10- Cruciate sesamoidean ligament; 11- Distopalmar recess of the MPJ; 12- Middle
scutum; 13- Dorsal recess of the PIPJ; 14- Palmar recess of the PIPJ; 15- Proximal sesamoidean
ligament; 16- Distal sesamoidean ligament; 17- Dorsal recess of the DIPJ; 18- Proximopalmar
recess of the DIPJ; 19- Distopalmar recess of the DIPJ, 19a- synovial fossa;
Tendons and associated structures: 20- Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 20a- enthesis on the
extensor process of the middle phalanx, 20b- distal enthesis on the extensor process of the dis-
tal phalanx; 21- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 22- Deep digital flexor tendon, 22a- fibrocar-
tilaginous pad, 22b- distal enthesis; 23- Palmar annular ligament; 24- Proximal digital annular
ligament; 25- Distal digital annular ligament; 26- Digital sheath cavity, 26a- distopalmar recess,
26b- distodorsal recess; 27- Podotrochlear bursa, 27a- proximal recess, 27b- distal recess;
Vessels and nerves: 28- Rami (artery and vein) of the proximal phalanx, 28a- palmar rami,
28b- dorsal rami; 29- Dorsal rami (artery and vein) of the middle phalanx; 30- Coronal vein and
artery; 31- Arteries of the transverse ligament;
Superficial structures and skin: 32- Perioplic and limbic corium; 33- Coronal corium and cush-
ion; 34- Parietal corium; 35- Corium of the frog; 36- Digital cushion; 37- Hoof wall, 38- Frog
(body and central sulcus); 39- Heel, 39a- bulb; 40- Rami (artery and vein) of the digital torus;
41- Ergot, 41a- ergot cushion; 42-Skin.
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Fig. F.28 Transverse section of the thoracic limb fetlock.

Bones and joints: 1- Metacarpal condyle, 1a- sagittal ridge, 1b-medial part (medial condyle),
1c- lateral part (lateral condyle), 1d- collateral fossa, 1e- subchondral bone and articular cartilage;
2- Medial proximal sesamoid bone (body), 2a- articular surface, 2b- flexor surface, 2c- interos-
seous surface; 3- Lateral proximal sesamoid bone (body), 3a- axial margin, 3b- abaxial margin,
3c- palmar margin; 4- Metacarposesamoidean joint space; 5- Dorsal capsule of MPJ; 6- Palmar
(intersesamoidean) ligament (sesamoidean part); 7- Medial collateral sesamoidean ligament;
8- Lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament; 9- Medial collateral ligament, 9a- superficial layer,
9b- deep layer; 10- Lateral collateral ligament, 10a- superficial layer, 10b- deep layer; 11- Dorsal
recess of the MPJ;
Tendons and associated structures: 12- Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 12a- subtendinous
bursa; 13- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 14- Accessory digital extensor tendon; 15- Third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 15a- medial extensor branch, 15b- lateral branch,
15c- lateral extensor branch; 16- Deep digital flexor tendon; 17- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
18- Palmar annular ligament; 19- Digital sheath cavity;
Vessels and nerves: 20- Medial proper digital artery; 21- Medial proper digital vein; 22- Medial
proper digital nerve, 22a- dorsal ramus; 23- Lateral proper digital artery; 24- Lateral proper digi-
tal vein; 25- Lateral proper digital nerve, 25a- dorsal ramus; 26- Lymphatic vessels;
Superficial structures and skin: 27- Dorsal metacarpophalangeal fascia; 28- Subcutaneous tis-
sue; 29- Skin.
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Fig. F.29 Transverse section of the thoracic limb pastern.

Bones and joints: 1- Proximal phalanx, 1a- dorsal cortex, 1b- palmar cortex, 1c- medial cortex,
1d- lateral cortex, 1e- spongy bone; 2- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 3- Medial oblique sesamoi-
dean ligament; 4- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament; 5- Intermediate sesamoidean ligament;
6- Dorsal recess of the proximal interphalangeal joint (injected with orange latex);
Tendons and associated structures: 7- Dorsal digital extensor tendon; 8- Third interosseous
muscle (suspensory ligament), 8a- medial extensor branch, 8b- lateral extensor branch; 9- Deep
digital flexor tendon, 9a- origin of the medial lobe, 9b- origin of the lateral lobe; 10- Superficial
digital flexor tendon, 10a- origin of the medial branch, 10b- origin of the lateral branch;
11- Proximal digital annular ligament; 12- Digital sheath cavity (injected with green latex),
12a- synovial plica, 12b- medial collateral digital recess, 12c- lateral collateral digital recess;
Vessels and nerves: 13- Medial proper digital artery; 14- Medial proper digital vein; 15- Medial
proper digital nerve; 16- Lateral proper digital artery; 17- Lateral proper digital vein; 18- Lateral
proper digital nerve; 19- Dorsal ramus (artery) of the proximal phalanx; 20- Palmar ramus (vein)
of the proximal phalanx;
Superficial structure and skin: 21- Subcutaneous tissue; 22- Skin.
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Fig. F.30 Transverse section of the thoracic limb foot.

Bones and joints: 1- Condyle of the middle phalanx, 1a- medial part; 1b- lateral part,
1c- medial collateral fossa, 1d- lateral collateral fossa, 1e- subchondral bone and articular cartilage;
2- Proximal articular margin of the distal sesamoid bone; 3- Medial collateral ligament of the
DIPJ; 4- Lateral collateral ligament of the DIPJ; 5- Proximal sesamoidean ligament; 6- Origin
of the medial collateral sesamoidean ligament; 7- Origin of the lateral collateral sesamoidean
ligament; 8- Medial chondrosesamoidean ligament; 9- Lateral chondrosesamoidean ligament;
10- Dorsal recess of the DIPJ; 11- Proximopalmar recess of the DIPJ; 12- Medial collateral recess
of the DIPJ; 13- Lateral collateral recess of the DIPJ;
Tendons and associated structures: 14- Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 14a- medial lobe,
14b- lateral lobe; 15- Deep digital flexor tendon, 15a- medial lobe, 15b- lateral lobe; 16- Distal
digital annular ligament; 17- Podotrochlear bursa, 17a- medial recess, 17b- lateral recess;
Vessels and nerves: 18- Medial proper digital artery; 19- Medial proper digital nerve; 20- Lateral
proper digital artery; 21- Lateral proper digital nerve; 22- Medial (venous) ungular plexus;
23- Lateral (venous) ungular plexus;
Ungular cartilages and superficial structures: 24- Medial ungular cartilage; 25- Lateral ungu-
lar cartilage; 26- Digital cushion, 26a- medial lobe, 26b- lateral lobe; 27- Coronal cushion and
corium; 28- Parietal corium; 29- Hoof wall, 29a- medial quarter, 29b- lateral quarter; 30- Bulb of
the medial heel; 31- Bulb of the lateral heel; 32- Skin.
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Fig. F.31 Frontal section of the thoracic limb digital area.

Bones and joints: 1- Third metacarpal condyle (sagittal ridge); 2- Proximal phalanx (medial pal-
mar eminence); 3-Medial proximal sesamoid bone, 3a- apex, 3b- base; 4- Lateral proximal sesa-
moid bone, 4a- interosseous surface, 4b- articular surface; 5- Medial palmar process of the distal
phalanx; 6- Lateral palmar process of the distal phalanx; 7- Metacarposesamoidean joint space;
8- Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part); 9- Cruciate sesamoidean liga-
ments; 10- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 11- Lateral short sesamoidean ligament; 12- Medial
oblique sesamoidean ligament; 13- Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament; 14- Proximopalmar
recess of the metacarpophalangeal joint; 15- Lateral collateropalmar recess of the MPJ;
Tendons and associated structures: 16- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament),
16a- medial branch, 16b- medial extensor branch, 16c- lateral branch, 16d- lateral extensor
branch; 17- Deep digital flexor tendon, 17a- medial lobe, 17b- lateral lobe; 18- Superficial digital
flexor tendon, 18a- medial branch, 18b- lateral branch; 19- Proximal digital annular ligament,
19a- medial proximal attachment, 19b- lateral proximal attachment; 20- Distal digital annular
ligament; 21- Digital sheath cavity, 21a- transverse synovial plica;
Vessels and nerves: 22- Distal palmar anastomosis between the palmar metacarpal and digital
veins; 23- Medial proper digital artery; 24- Medial proper digital vein, 24a- roots; 25- Medial
proper digital nerve; 26- Lateral proper digital artery; 27- Lateral proper digital vein, 27a- roots;
28- Lateral proper digital nerve; 29- Medial (venous) ungular superficial and deep plexi;
30- Lateral (venous) ungular superficial and deep plexi;
Ungular cartilages and superficial structures: 31- Medial ungular cartilage; 32- Lateral ungu-
lar cartilage; 33- Digital cushion, 33a- medial lobe, 33b- lateral lobe, 33c- body (cuneal part);
34- Coronal cushion and corium; 35- Parietal corium; 36- Solar corium; 37- Corium of the frog;
38- Hoof wall, 38a- medial quarter, 38b- lateral quarter; 38c- medial bar, 38d- lateral bar; 39- Sole,
39a- medial sole angle, 39b- lateral sole angle; 40- Frog (junction between body and branches),
40a- medial sulcus, 40b- lateral sulcus; 41- Skin.
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131

G.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. G.1 Physical aspect of the neck: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Nuchal region; 2- Atlas wing; 3- Parotid region; 4- Masseteric region; 5- Margin (angle) of the
mandible; 6- Throat (larynx region); 7- Dorsal cervical region (dorsal cervical muscles: extensor
muscles); 8- Vertebral axis; 9- Ventral cervical region (ventral cervical muscles: flexor muscles),
9a- brachiocephalicus muscle, 9b- jugular sulcus, 9c- sternocephalicus muscle; 10- Cranial mar-
gin of the shoulder; 11- Mane.
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G.2 NUCHAL AREA

G.2.1 Radiographic anatomy

Fig. G.2 Lateral radiographic view of the nuchal area.

Head: 1- Branch (ramus) of the mandible; 2- Condyle process of the mandible; 3- Hyoid (stylo-
hyoideum); 4- Guttural pouch; 5- Larynx; 6- Cerebral cavity; 7- Cerebellar cavity; 8- Petrosa
part of the temporal bone; 9- Sphenoid bone; 10- Occipital bone (basilar part); 11- Occipital con-
dyles; 12- Ventral condylar fossae; 13- Paracondylar process; 14- Foramen magnum opened at the
nuchal face of the occipital bone; 15- External occipital crest; 16- External occipital protuberance;
Atlas: 17- Dorsal arch; 18- Ventral arch; 19- Ventral tubercle; 20- Transverse process (atlas wing);
21- Cranial articular fossa; 22- Fovea dentis; 23- Vertebral canal; 24- Lateral vertebral foramen
(foramen intervertebral for the first cervical nerve); 25- Alar foramen;
Axis: 26- Spinous process; 27- Vertebral body; 28- Vertebral canal; 29- Dens; 30- Lateral expan-
sion; 31- Lateral vertebral (intervertebral) foramen; 32- Vertebral fossa; 33- Ventral crest of the
body; 34- Transverse processes.
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G.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

FIG. G.3 Lateral aspect of the nuchal and cranial cervical areas: superficial structures.

1- Parotid region; 2- Masseteric region; 3- Left ear; 4- Margin of the atlas wing; 5- Nuchal
ligament (funiculus); 6- Splenius muscle (cranial part, cut and reclined cranially); 7- Semispinalis
capitis muscle, 7a- dorsal part (biventer cervicis muscle), 7b- ventral part (complexus muscle),
7c- nuchal tendon; 8- Longissimus capitis muscle, 8a- muscle body, 8b- tendon; 9- Longissimus
atlantis muscle, 9a- muscle body, 9b- tendon; 10- Obliquus capitis caudalis muscle;
11- Obliquus capitis cranialis muscle; 12- Deep cervical fascia; 13- Omotransversarius muscle;
14- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 15- Ventral rami of the first and second cervical nerves; 16- Skin
of the mane.
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Fig. G.4 Dorsolateral aspect of the nuchal and cranial cervical areas: intermediate structures.

1- Parotid region; 2- Masseteric region; 3- Left ear; 4- Margin of the atlas wing; 5- Nuchal liga-
ment, 5a- funiculus, 5b- lamina; 6- Splenius muscle (cranial part, cut and removed); 7- Semispinalis
capitis muscle (cranial part, cut and reclined cranially); 8- Longissimus capitis muscle (cranial
part, cut and reclined cranially), 8a- muscle body, 8b- tendon; 9- Longissimus atlantis muscle,
9a- muscle body, 9b- tendon; 10- Obliquus capitis caudalis muscle; 11- Obliquus capitis crania-
lis muscle; 12- Rectus capitis dorsalis major muscle; 13- Rectus capitis dorsalis minor muscle;
14- Omotransversarius muscle; 15- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 16- Dorsal rami of the first cervi-
cal nerves; 17 - Ventral rami of the first and second cervical nerves; 18- Multifidus colli muscle;
19- Skin of the mane.
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Fig. G.5 Dorsal aspect of the nuchal area: deep structures.

Head: 1- Nuchal face of the occipital bone; 2- External occipital crest; 3- External occipital pro-
tuberance; 4- Nuchal crest; 5- Zygomatic arch; 6- Temporal muscle;
Atlas: 7- Dorsal arch; 8- Atlas wing, 8a- margin; 9- Cranial margin; 10- Lateral vertebral foramen
(foramen intervertebral for the first cervical nerve); 11- Alar foramen; 12- Transverse foramen;
Axis: 13- Spinous process; 14- Transverse process; 15- Lateral expansion of the cranial articular
surface; 16- Lateral vertebral (intervertebral) foramen;
Joint structures: 17- Dorsal atlantooccipital membrane; 18- Dorsal atlantoaxial membrane;
19- Dorsal atlantoaxial ligament.
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Fig. G.6 Dorsal aspect of the nuchal area: vertebral canal opened.

Occipital bone: 1- Nuchal face of the occipital bone; 2- Basilar part of the occipital bone;
3- Foramen magnum;
Atlas: 4- Dorsal arch (cut); 5- Atlas wing; 6- Lateral vertebral foramen (foramen intervertebral
for the first cervical nerve); 7- Alar foramen; 8- Transverse foramen; 9- Ventral arch; 10- Cranial
articular surface for the occipital condyle (ventral part); 11- Caudal articular surface for the axis;
12- Fovea dentis;
Axis: 13- Vertebral pedicle (cut to remove the arch); 14- Vertebral body; 15- Vertebral canal;
16- Dens; 17- Lateral expansion of the cranial articular surface;
Joint structures: 18- Dorsal longitudinal ligament; 19- Dentis longitudinal ligament;
19a- median part, 19b- lateral part.
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G.4 CROSS-SECTION

Fig. G.7 Transverse section of the nuchal area.

Bone and joints: 1- Occipital bone (squamous part); 2- Basilar part of the occipital bone;
3- Paracondylar process; 4- Ventral condylar fossa; 5- Foramen magnum; 6- Cranial margin of
the atlas, 6a- Atlantooccipital joint cavity; 7- Nuchal ligament (funiculus);
Muscles: 8- Splenius muscle (cranial aponeurosis); 9- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 10- Tendon of
the longissimus capitis muscle; 11- Tendon of the semispinalis capitis muscle; 12- Obliquus capi-
tis cranialis muscle; 13- Rectus capitis dorsalis major and rectus capitis dorsalis minor muscles;
14- Rectus capitis lateralis muscle; 15- Rectus capitis ventralis muscle; 16- Fat; 17- Digastric mus-
cle; 18- Cervicoauricular muscles; 19- Parotidoauricular muscle; 20- Parotid gland; 21- Occipital
vein; 22- Brain stem (medulla oblongata); 23- Vermis of the cerebrum; 24- Cerebellomedullaris
cistern; 25- Dura mater; 26- Basilar sinus (veins).
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G.5 MIDDLE AND CAUDAL CERVICAL AREAS

G.5.1 Radiographic anatomy

Fig. G.8 Lateral radiographic view of the middle cervical area (from the third cervical vertebra (C3)
to the fifth one (C5)).

C3- Third cervical vertebra; C4- Fourth cervical vertebra; C5- Fifth cervical vertebra;
1- Vertebral arch; 2- Vertebral body; 3- Vertebral head; 4- Vertebral fossa; 5- Vertebral canal;
6- Intervertebral foramen; 7- Cranial articular process; 8- Caudal articular process; 9- Transverse
process; 10- Shadow of the longus colli muscle; 11- Oesophagus; 12- Trachea; 13- Dorsal cervical
muscles.
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Fig. G.9 Lateral radiographic view of the fourth cervical vertebra (C4).

1- Vertebral arch, 1a- vertebral pedicule; 2- Vertebral body, 2a- ventral crest; 3- Vertebral foramen
(canal), 3a- intravertebral median diameter, 3b- intervertebral median diameter; 4- Vertebral head
(cranial extremity); 5- Vertebral fossa (caudal extremity); 6- Cranial vertebral incisura; 7- Caudal
vertebral incisura; 8- Intervertebral foramen; 9- Spinal process; 10- Cranial articular process;
11- Caudal articular process; 12- Transverse process, 12a- ventral tubercle, 12b- dorsal tubercle,
12c- Transverse foramen; 13- Articular process joint; 14- Vertebral symphysis with the inter-
vertebral disc; 15- Shadow of the longus colli muscle; 16- Oesophagus; 17- Trachea; 18- Dorsal
cervical muscles.
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Fig. G.10 Lateral radiographic view of the caudal cervical area (from the fifth cervical vertebra to the
first thoracic vertebra).

C6- Sixth cervical vertebra; C7- Seventh cervical vertebra; T1-First thoracic vertebra;
1- Vertebral arch, 1a- vertebral pedicule; 2- Vertebral body; 3- Vertebral foramen (vertebral
canal); 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity); 5- Vertebral fossa (caudal extremity), 5a- margin;
6- Cranial vertebral incisura; 7- Caudal vertebral incisura; 8- Intervertebral foramen; 9- Spinal
process of T1 (C7 does not have a spinal process on this horse); 10- Cranial articular process
(of T1); 11- Caudal articular process (of C7); 12- Transverse process, 12a- ventral lamina (C6),
12b- transverse foramen; 13- Articular process joint; 14- Vertebral symphysis with the interver-
tebral disc; 15- First rib; 16- Tuberculum supraglenoidale of the right scapula; 17- Shadow of the
longus colli muscle; 18-Trachea.
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G.5.2 Dissected specimen

Fig. G.11 Lateral aspect of the cervical area: superficial structures.

1- Branch (ramus) of the mandible; 2- Margin of the atlas wing; 3- Spine of the scapula; 4- Nuchal
ligament (funiculus); 5- Trapezius muscle (cervical part, cut and reclined); 6- Omotransversarius
muscle; 7- Rhomboideus cervicis muscle; 8- Serratus (ventralis) cervicis muscle; 9- Splenius
muscle, 9a- splenius cervicis muscle, 9b- splenius capitis muscle, 9c- cranial aponeurosis;
10- Semispinalis capitis muscle; 11- Longissimus capitis muscle, 11a- muscle body, 11b- tendon;
12- Longissimus atlantis muscle, 12a- muscle body, 12b- tendon; 13- Caudal obliquus capitis
muscle; 14- Brachiocephalicus muscle, 14a- cleidobrachialis muscle, 14b- cleidocervicalis muscle;
15- Sternocephalicus muscle; 16- Omohyoideus muscle; 17- Masseter muscle; 18- Suclavius mus-
cle; 19- Supraspinatus muscle; 20- Infraspinatus muscle; 21- Jugular vein; 22- Fat of the mane.
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Fig. G.12 Lateral aspect of the cervical area: intermediate structures.

1- Nuchal ligament (funiculus); 2- Dorsoscapular ligament; 3- Trapezius muscle (thoracic part);

4- Omotransversarius muscle (reclined); 5- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 6- Rhomboideus muscle,
6a- cervical part, 6b- thoracic part; 7- Serratus (ventralis) cervicis muscle (reclined); 8- Splenius
muscle, 8a- caudal aponeurosis, 8b- splenius cervicis, 8c- splenius capitis; 9- Semispinalis capi-
tis muscle; 10- Fat of the mane; 11- Sternocephalicus muscle; 12- Longissimus cervicis muscle;
13- Longissimus thoracis muscle; 14- Iliocostalis thoracis muscle; 15- Serratus dorsalis cranialis
muscle; 16- Thoracolumbar fascia; 17- Serratus ventralis thoracis muscle (cut), 17a- fibroelastic
aponeurosis; 18- Rib; 19- Intercostalis externus muscle.
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Fig. G.13 Lateral aspect of the cervical area: intermediate structures.

1- Nuchal ligament, 1a- funiculus, 1b- lamina; 2- Dorsoscapular ligament; 3- Rhomboideus

cervicis muscle; 4- Serratus cervicis (ventralis) muscle (reclined); 5- Splenius muscle, 5a- sple-
nius cervicis (reclined), 5b- splenius capitis; 6- Semispinalis capitis muscle (complexus muscle);
7- Longissimus capitis muscle; 8- Longissimus atlantis muscle; 9- Longissimus cervicis muscle;
10- Longissimus thoracis muscle; 11- Spinalis thoracis muscle; 12- Iliocostalis thoracis muscle;
13- Serratus ventralis thoracis muscle (cut), 13a- fibroelastic aponeurosis; 14- Rib; 15- Intercostalis
externus muscle.
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Fig. G.14 Lateral aspect of the cervical area: deep structures.

1- Nuchal ligament, 1a- funiculus, 1b- lamina; 2- Fat of the mane; 3- Rhomboideus cervicis mus-
cle; 4- Omotransversarius muscle (cut); 5- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 6- Sternocephalicus muscle;
7- Jugular vein; 8- Dorsoscapular ligament; 9- Spinalis thoracis muscle; 10- Longissimus thora-
cis muscle; 11- Iliocostalis thoracis muscle; 12- Longissimus cervicis muscle; 13- Longissimus
atlantis muscle; 14- Longissimus capitis muscle; 15- Iliocostalis cervicis muscle; 16- Multifidus
cervicis muscle; 17- Obliquus capitis caudalis muscle; 18- Scalenus ventralis muscle; 19- Scalenus
medius muscle; 20- Serratus ventralis thoracis muscle; 21- Rib; 22- Intercostalis externus muscle;
23- Ventral ramus of the sixth cervical nerve; 24- Root of the phrenic nerve; 25- Brachial plexus.
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Fig. G.15 Lateral aspect of the neck and thorax: deep structures.

1- Nuchal ligament, 1a- funiculus, 1b- lamina; 2- Supraspinal ligament, 2a- cranial thoracic
(elastic) part, 2b- lumbar (ligamentous) part; 3- Left ear; 4- Mandible; 5- Atlantooccipital joint;
6- Atlas (C1); 7- Axis (C2); 8- Fourth cervical vertebra (C4); 9- Seventh cervical vertebra (C7);
10- Fifth thoracic spinal process; 11- Interspinal ligament; 12- First rib (R1); 13- Thirteenth rib
(R13); 14- Intercostal muscle; 15- Costal arch; 16- Intercostal nerve.
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Fig. G.16 Brachial plexus: lateral aspect.

C6- Sixth cervical vertebra; C7- Seventh cervical vertebra; T1-First thoracic vertebra (spinal process);
T2- Second thoracic vertebra (spinal process); R1- First rib; R3- Third rib.
1- Ventral ramus of the fifth cervical nerve (contributing to the phrenic nerve); 2- Ventral ramus of
the sixth cervical nerve (contributing to the phrenic nerve and brachial plexus); 3- Ventral ramus
of the seventh cervical nerve; 4- Ventral ramus of the eighth cervical nerve; 5- Ventral ramus of the
first thoracic nerve; 6- Ventral ramus of the second thoracic nerve; 7- Brachial plexus; 8- Phrenic
nerve; 9- Subclavius nerve; 10- Thoracodorsal nerve; 11- Lateral thoracic nerve; 12- Cranial
pectoral nerves; 13- Caudal pectoral nerve (for the pectoralis profundus (ascendens) muscle);
14- Suprascapular nerve; 15- Subscapular nerves; 16- Axillary nerve; 17- Axillary ansa (loop)
(around the subclavia artery); 18- Musculocutaneus nerve; 19- Median nerve; 20- Ulnar nerve;
21- Radial nerve; 22- Subclavia artery; 23- Axillary artery.
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G.5.3 Cross-sections

Fig. G.17 Transverse section of the cervical area at the level of the C3– C4 intervertebral joint.

C3- Third cervical vertebra, C4- Fourth cervical vertebra.

Bones and joints: 1- Caudal articular process of C3; 2- Vertebral fossa (margin) of C3; 3- Cranial
articular process of C4; 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity) of C4; 5- Transverse process (ventral
tubercle) of C4; 6- Articular process joint, 6a- joint space, 6b- articular capsule; 7- Intervertebral
disc; 8- Vertebral foramen (canal); 9- Nuchal ligament, 9a- funiculus, 9b- lamina;
Nervous structures: 10- Dura mater; 11- Spinal cord; 12- Internal vertebral plexus (veins);
13- Fourth cervical nerve in the intervertebral foramen;
Muscles: 14- Rhomboideus cervicis muscle; 15- Omotransversarius muscle; 16- Splenius muscle;
17- Longissimus capitis muscle; 18- Longissimus atlantis muscle; 19- Longissimus cervicis muscle;
20- Semispinalis capitis muscle, 20a- biventer capitis muscle (dorsal part), 20b- complexus muscle
(ventral part); 21- Multifidus cervicis muscle; 22- Spinalis cervicis muscle; 23- Cutaneus colli
muscle; 24- Brachiocephalicus muscle; 25- Sternocephalicus muscle; *- Sternohyoideus and ster-
nothyroideus muscles; 26- Omohyoideus muscle; 27- Longus colli muscle; 28- Intertranversarii
muscles;
Other structures: 29- Oesophagus; 30- Trachea; 31- Common carotid artery; 32- External jugu-
lar vein; 33- Fat of the mane; 34- Skin.
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Fig. G.18 Transverse section of the cervical area at the level of the C3– C4 intervertebral joint.

C3- Third cervical vertebra, C4- Fourth cervical vertebra.

Bones and joints: 1- Caudal articular process of C3; 2- Vertebral fossa (margin) of C3; 3- Cranial
articular process of C4; 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity) of C4; 5- Transverse process of C4
(ventral tubercle); 6- Articular process joint, 6a- joint space, 6b- articular capsule; 7- Intervertebral
disc; 8- Nuchal ligament (lamina);
Muscles: 9- Semispinalis capitis muscle, 9a- biventer capitis muscle (dorsal part), 9b- complexus
muscle (ventral part); 10- Spinalis cervicis muscle; 11- Multifidus cervicis muscle; 12- Longissimus
atlantis muscle; 13-Longissimus cervicis muscle; 14- Longus colli muscle; 15- Intertranversarii
muscles;
Nervous structures and associated structures: 16- Vertebral foramen (canal); 17- Fourth cer-
vical nerve in the intervertebral foramen; 18- Vertebral artery and vein; 19- Dura mater separat-
ing the epidural space filled with fat and the subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 20- Spinal cord;
21- Internal vertebral plexus (veins).
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Fig. G.19 Transverse section of the cervical area at the level of the C3– C4 intervertebral joint
focused on the vertebral canal.

C3- Third cervical vertebra, C4- Fourth cervical vertebra.

Bones and joints: 1- Caudal articular process of C3, 1a- spongious bone, 1b- subchondral bone;
2- Cranial articular process of C4; 3- Vertebral head (cranial extremity) of C4; 4- Articular pro-
cess joint, 4a- joint space, 4b- articular cartilage, 4c- articular capsule, 4d- insertion (enthesis) of
the articular capsule; 5- Intervertebral disc;
Nervous structures and associated structures: 6- Spinal cord, 6a- dorsal horn of the grey
mater, 6b- ventral horn of the grey mater, 6c- dorsal funiculus of the white mater, 6d- lateral funic-
ulus of the white mater, 6c- ventral funiculus of the white mater; 7- Dura mater; 8- Arachnoid;
9- Pia mater; 10- Epidural space; 11- Subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 12- Flavum (interver-
tebral) ligament; 13- Vertebral foramen (canal); 14- Intervertebral foramen; 15- Fourth cervical
nerve; 16- Internal vertebral plexus (veins).
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 Chapter H

THE BACK (THORACOLUMBAR REGIONS)

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151

H.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. H.1 Lateral aspect of the equine back and pelvis: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Withers; 2- Thoracic area; 3- Lumbar area; 4- Point of the croup (tuber sacrale); 5- Angle of the
croup (tuber coxae); 6- Thorax (the ribs can be seen on this fit horse); 7- Costal arch; 8- Abdomen;
9- Trapezius muscle (thoracic part); 10- Latissimus dorsi muscle; 11- Serratus ventralis thoracis
muscle; 12- Triceps brachii muscle; 13- Pectoralis profundus (ascendens) muscle; 14- External
thoracic vein; 15- Xyphoid area; 16- Cutaneous trunci muscle, 16a- caudal attachment on the
thigh (stifle plica); 17- Flank (obliquus abdominis muscles); 18- Rectus abdominis muscle;
19- Cranial margin of the thigh (tensor fascia latae).
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H.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. H.2 Lateral radiographic view of the mid-thoracic area from the sixth thoracic vertebra (T6) to
the twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12) from the left side. Cranial is to the left.

1- Vertebral arch, 1a- vertebral pedicle; 2- Vertebral body, 2a- ventral crest; 3- Vertebral foramen
(canal); 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity); 5- Vertebral fossa (caudal extremity); 6- Cranial ver-
tebral notch; 7- Caudal vertebral notch; 8- Intervertebral foramen; 9- Spinal process; 10- Cranial
articular process; 11- Caudal articular process; 12- Articular process joint; 13- Mamillary process;
14- Transverse process (articulating with the corresponding rib); 15- Ninth rib; 16- Vertebral
symphysis with a thin intervertebral disc; 17- Lungs, 17a and 17b- dorsal margin of the left and
right lungs; 18- Border of the shadow of an aluminium filter used to compensate the thickness
difference between the narrow dorsal midline and the epaxial muscles ventrally.
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Fig. H.3 Lateral radiographic view of the caudal thoracic area from the twelfth thoracic vertebra
(T12) to the eighteenth thoracic vertebra (T18) from the left side. Cranial is to the left.

1- Vertebral arch, 1a- vertebral pedicle; 2- Vertebral body, 2a- ventral crest; 3- Vertebral fora-
men (canal); 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity); 5- Vertebral fossa (caudal extremity);
6- Intervertebral foramen; 7- Spinal process; 8- Interspinal space (syndesmosis); 9- Shadow of the
supraspinal ligament; 10- Cranial articular process; 11- Caudal articular process; 12- Articular
process joint; 13- Mamillary process; 14- Costal fovea (articulating with the corresponding rib);
15- Fifteenth ribs, 15L- left rib, 15R- right rib; 16- Vertebral symphysis with the interverte-
bral disc; 17- Lungs, 17L- dorsal margin of the left lung, 17R- dorsal margin of the right lung;
18- Shadow of the diaphragm and liver; 19- Border of the shadow of an aluminium filter used to
compensate the thickness difference between the dorsal and ventral parts of the epaxial muscles.
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Fig. H.4 Lateral radiographic view of the thoracolumbar junction and lumbar area from the seven-
teenth thoracic vertebra (T17) to the fourth lumbar vertebra (L4) from the left side. Cranial is to the
left.

1- Vertebral arch, 1a- vertebral pedicle; 2- Vertebral body, 2a- ventral crest; 3- Vertebral foramen
(canal); 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity); 5- Vertebral fossa (caudal extremity); 6- Cranial
vertebral notch; 7- Caudal vertebral notch; 8- Intervertebral foramen; 9- Spinal process of the
first lumbar vertebra; 10- Interspinal space (syndesmosis); 11- Cranial articular process, 11b- sub-
chondral bone; 12- Caudal articular process; 13- Articular process joint; 14- Mamillary process,
14a-crest; 15- Eighteenth ribs, 15L- left rib, 15R- right rib; 16- Transverse processes of the sec-
ond lumbar vertebra, 16L- left, 16R- right; 17- Vertebral symphysis with the intervertebral disc;
18- Lungs; 19- Shadow of the diaphragm and liver; 20- Base of the caecum; 21- Border of the
shadow of an aluminium filter used to compensate the thickness difference between the dorsal
and ventral parts of the epaxial muscles; 22- Radiopaque marker placed on the right tuber coxae.
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Fig. H.5 Lateral radiographic view of the thoracolumbar junction and lumbar area from the seven-
teenth thoracic vertebra (T17) to the fourth lumbar vertebra (L4) from the left side. The head of the
fifth lumbar vertebra is imaged on the right. Cranial is to the left.

1- Vertebral arch, 1a- vertebral pedicle; 2- Vertebral body, 2a- ventral crest; 3- Vertebral foramen
(canal); 4- Vertebral head (cranial extremity); 5- Vertebral fossa (caudal extremity); 6- Cranial
vertebral notch; 7- Caudal vertebral notch; 8- Intervertebral foramen; 9- Spinal process of the
third lumbar vertebra; 10- Interspinal space (syndesmosis); 11- Cranial articular process of the
second lumbar vertebra, 11b- subchondral bone; 12- Caudal articular process of the first lumbar
vertebra; 13- Articular process joint; 14- Mamillary process of the first lumbar vertebra, 14a-crest;
15- Eighteenth ribs, 15L- left rib, 15R- right rib; 16- Transverse processes of the first lumbar
vertebra, 16L- left, 16R- right; 17- Vertebral symphysis with the intervertebral disc; 18- Lungs;
19- Shadow of the diaphragm and liver; 20- Base of the caecum, 20a- semilunar plica, 20b- haus-
tra; 21- Radiopaque marker placed on the right tuber coxae.
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H.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. H.6 Lateral aspect of the dissected withers: superficial and intermediate structures. Cranial is to
the left.

1- Spine of the scapula; 2- Cartilage of the scapula; 3- Trapezius muscle, 3a- cervical part, 3b- tho-
racic part; 4- Rhomboideus cervicalis muscle; 5- Rhomboideus thoracis muscle; 6- Serratus ven-
tralis cervicis muscle; 7- Splenius muscle; 8- Omotransversarius muscle; 9- Thoracolumbar fascia
covering the thoracic spinalis and longissimus muscles; 10- Latissimus dorsi muscle attaching
to the thoracolumbar fascia; 11- Subclavius muscle; 12- Supraspinatus muscle; 13- Infraspinatus
muscle; 14- Deltoideus muscle, 14a- aponeurosis covering the infraspinatus muscle; 15- Triceps
brachii muscle (long head).

Fig. H.7 Dorsolateral aspect of the dissected back (thoracolumbar region): superficial structures.
Cranial is to the left.

1- Supraspinal ligament, 1a- wide, thin and elastic in the withers, 1b- mid-thoracic part; 2- Left
eighteenth rib; 3- Thoracolumbar fascia (reclined on the right side); 4- Erector spinae muscle,
4a- superficial aponeurosis; 5- Spinalis thoracis muscle; 6- Longissimus thoracis muscle;
7- Iliocostalis thoracis muscle; 8- Intercostal muscle; 9- Gluteus medius muscle, 9a- lumbar part;
10-Gluteal fascia; 11- Skin (on the right side).
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Fig. H.8 Lateral aspect of the thoracolumbar junction: superficial structures. Cranial is to the left.

1- Thoracolumbar fascia (reclined laterally and ventrally); 2- Erector spinae muscle, 2a- superfi-
cial aponeurosis; 3- Iliocostalis thoracis muscle; 4 and 5- Cutaneous branches of the lateral rami
of the dorsal rami of the last thoracic nerves going through the thoracolumbar fascia to reach the
skin.

Fig. H.9 Dorsolateral aspect of the thoracolumbar junction: deep structures. Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the last (eighteenth) thoracic vertebra (T18); 2- Caudal articular process of
T18; 3- Vertebral pedicle of T18; 4- Last (eighteenth) rib; 5- Seventeenth rib; 6- Spinal process
of the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 7- Cranial articular process of L1; 8- Transverse process of L1;
9- Supraspinal ligament; 10- Thoracolumbar interspinal ligament; 11- Thoracolumbar articu-
lar process joint; 12- Thoracolumbar fascia; 13- Erector spinae muscle, 13a- superficial aponeu-
rosis; 14- Multifidus muscle; 15- Intercostal muscles; 16- Intertransverse muscle and ligament;
17- Nerve ramus for the articular process joint.
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Fig. H.10 Lateral aspect of the thoracolumbar junction: deep structures. Cranial is to the left.

1- Left last (eighteenth) rib; 2- Articular process of the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 3- Transverse
process of L1; 4- Mamillary process of the second lumbar vertebra; 5- Spinal process of the third
lumbar vertebra (L3); 6- Transverse process of L3; 7- Supraspinal ligament; 8- Multifidus muscle
fasciculi; 9- Multifidus aponeuroses; 10- Multifidus fascia.

Fig. H.11 Lateral aspect of the cranial part of the lumbar vertebral column: articular structures.
Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 2- Spinal process of the second lumbar vertebra
(L2); 3- Spinal process of the third lumbar vertebra (L3); 4- Supraspinal ligament; 5- Interspinal
ligament; 6- Cranial articular process of L2; 7- Caudal articular process of L1; 8- Articular pro-
cess joint; 9- Transverse process of L2; 10- Transverse process of L3; 11- Vertebral body of L1;
12- Second lumbar intervertebral disc; 13- Intervertebral foramen.
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Fig. H.12 Lateral aspect of the cranial part of the lumbar vertebral column: articular structures.
Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 2- Spinal process of the second lumbar ver-
tebra (L2); 3- Interspinal ligament; 4- Cranial articular process of L2, 4a- crest; 5- Caudal
articular process of L1; 6- Joint capsule of the articular process joint; 7- Flavum (interarcual)
ligament; 8- Transverse process of L1; 9- Transverse process of L2; 10- Intertransverse ligament;
11- Multifidus muscle, 11a- section plane.

Fig. H.13 Ventrolateral aspect of the cranial part of the lumbar vertebral column: articular struc-
tures. Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 2- Spinal process of the second lumbar ver-
tebra (L2); 3- Cranial articular process of L2; 4- Caudal articular process of L1; 5- Transverse
process of L1; 6- Transverse process of L2; 7- Vertebral body of L1; 8- Vertebral body of L2;
9- Intervertebral foramen for the first lumbar artery, vein and nerve; 10- Intervertebral discs;
11- Ventral longitudinal ligament.
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Fig. H.14 Median section of the thoracolumbar vertebral column. Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the seventeenth thoracic vertebra (T17); 2- Spinal process of the eighteenth
thoracic vertebra (T18); 3- Spinal process of the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 4- Supraspinal liga-
ment; 5- Interspinal ligament; 6- Flavum (interarcual) ligament; 7- Vertebral body of T17;
8- Vertebral body of T18; 9- Vertebral body of L1; 10- Intervertebral discs; 11- Dorsal longitudi-
nal ligament; 12- Ventral longitudinal ligament; 13- Spinal cord; 14- Dura mater in the vertebral
canal; 15- Subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 16- Aorta; 17- Skin.
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Fig. H.15 Dorsolateral aspect of the dissected back (thoracolumbar region) and abdominal wall:
superficial structures. Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the first lumbar vertebra; 2- Last (eighteenth) rib; 3- Costal arch; 4- Tuber
coxae, 4a- cranial part; 4b- caudal part; 5- Supraspinal ligament; 6- Interspinal ligament;
7-Thoracolumbar fascia, 7a- connected to the latissimus dorsi muscle, 7b- connected to the ser-
ratus dorsalis caudalis muscle; 8- Latissimus dorsi muscle; 9- Serratus dorsalis caudalis muscle;
10- Gluteus medius muscle, 10a- lumbar part, 10b- gluteal fascia; 11- Erector spinae muscle,
11a- section plane, 11b- superficial aponeurosis; 12- Iliocostalis thoracis muscle; 13- Longissimus
thoracis muscle; 14- Multifidus muscle, 14a- multifidus fascia; 15- Obliquus externus abdomi-
nis muscle, 15a- section plane; 16- Obliquus internus abdominis muscle, 16a- aponeurosis;
17- Retractor costae muscle; 18- Tunica flava abdominis; 19- Intercostal muscles; 20- Tensor
fascia latae muscle.
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Fig. H.16 Ventrolateral aspect of the roof of the abdomen and pelvis. Cranial is to the left.

1- Left fifteenth rib; 2- Right fifteenth rib; 3- Right eighteenth rib; 4- Sixth lumbar vertebra
(body); 5- Left ilium, 5a- tuber coxae, 5b- neck, 5c- body; 6- Right ilium neck; 7- Left pubis,
7a- cranial branch, 7b- body; 8- Left ischium; 9- Left acetabulum, 9a- lunar surface, 9b- mar-
gin; 10- Left obturator foramen; 11- Right acetabular area (medial aspect); 12- Pelvic symphysis;
13- Right major ischiatic foramen; 14- Transverse processes of the first sacral vertebra (sacral
wing), 14a- left one, 14b- right one; 15- Right femur, 15a- body, 15b- head (in the right acetabulum),
15c- lesser trochanter; 16- Lumbosacral disc (L6 disc); 17- Left sacroiliac joint; 18- Membranous
part of the left dorsal sacroiliac ligament; 19- Left major psoas muscle (cut); 20- Right iliopsoas
muscle, 20a- major psoas muscle, 20b- iliac muscle (lateral part), 20c- iliac muscle (medial part);
21- Left minor psoas muscle, 21a- muscle body, 20b- tendon inserted on the tuberculum of
the minor psoas of the ilium neck; 22- Right minor psoas muscle, 22a- muscle body, 22b- ten-
don; 23- Iliac fascia; 24- Ventral longitudinal ligament covering the lumbar vertebral bodies;
25- Intercostal muscle; 26- Intercostal nerve; 27- Prepubic tendon (insertion of the rectus abdom-
inis on the pubis); 28- Obturator externus muscle; 29- Proximal tendon of the rectus femoris
muscle; 30- Left sciatic nerve; 31- Right sciatic nerve; 32- Right femoral nerve.
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Fig. H.17 Ventral aspect of the roof of the abdomen and pelvis. Cranial is to the left.

1- Left fifteenth rib; 2- Right fifteenth rib; 3- Left eighteenth rib; 4- Right eighteenth rib; 5- Sixth
lumbar vertebra (body); 6- Left ilium, 6a- tuber coxae, 6b- neck, 6c- body; 7- Right tuber coxae;
8- Left pubis (body); 9- Left ischium; 10- Left acetabulum; 11- Pelvic symphysis; 12- Sacrum;
13- First sacral vertebra (sacral wings), 13a- left transverse process, 13b- right transverse pro-
cess; 14- Right femur, 14a- body, 14b- head (in the right acetabulum*), 14c- lesser trochanter;
15- Lumbosacral disc (L6 disc); 16- Left sacroiliac joint; 17- Left sacrosciatic ligament; 18- Major
ischiatic foramen; 19- Iliocostal ligament; 20- Ventral longitudinal ligament covering the lum-
bar vertebral bodies; 21- Left major psoas muscle (cut); 22- Right iliopsoas muscle, 22a- major
psoas muscle, 22b- iliac muscle (lateral part), 22c- iliac muscle (medial part); 23- Left minor
psoas muscle, 23a- muscle body, 23b- tendon inserted on the tuberculum of the minor psoas of
the ilium neck; 24- Right minor psoas muscle, 24a- muscle body, 24b- tendon; 25- Iliac fascia;
26-Intercostal muscle; 27- Intercostal nerve; 28- Prepubic tendon (insertion of the rectus abdomi-
nis on the pubis); 29- Obturator externus muscle; 30- Left sciatic nerve; 31- Right sciatic nerve;
32- Right femoral nerve.
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H.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

H.4.1 Median and paramedian sections

Fig. H.18 Median section of the thoracolumbar vertebral column from the fifteenth thoracic vertebra
to the first lumbar vertebra. Cranial is to the left.

1- Spinal process of the fifteenth thoracic vertebra; 2- Spinal process of the seventeenth thoracic
vertebra, 2a- spongy bone, 2b- compact bone; 3- Spinal process of the first lumbar vertebra;
4- Caudal articular process of the sixteenth thoracic vertebra (T16); 5- Supraspinal ligament;
6- Interspinal ligament; 7- Flavum (interarcual) ligament; 8- Vertebral body of T16, 8a- vertebral
head, 8b- vertebral fossa, 8c- basivertebral vein; 9- Vertebral body of the eighteenth thoracic
vertebra, 9a- ventral crest; 10- Intervertebral disc; 11- Dorsal longitudinal ligament; 12- Ventral
longitudinal ligament; 13- Spinal cord, 13a- grey matter, 13b- white matter; 14- Dura mater in the
vertebral canal; 15- Subdural (subarachnoidean) space.
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Fig. H.19 Paramedian section of the thoracolumbar area. Cranial is to the left.

1- Vertebral body of the seventeenth thoracic vertebra (T17), 1a- head, 1b- compact bone of
the vertebral fossa; 2- Pedicle of T17; 3- Arch of T17; 4- Cranial articular process; 5- Caudal
articular process; 6- Cranial vertebral notch; 7- Caudal vertebral notch; 8- Intervertebral fora-
men; 9- Intervertebral discs; 10- Articular process joint; 11- Joint capsule of the articular process
joint; 12- Multifidus muscle; 13- Psoas minor muscle; 14- Aorta; 15- Dorsal intercostal artery;
16- Dorsal intercostal vein; 17- Spinal ramus (of the dorsal ramus of the dorsal intercostal artery);
18- Intervertebral vein; 19- Radices of the intervertebral thoracic nerve (in fat).
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H.4.2 Transverse sections

Fig. H.20 Transverse section of the thoracolumbar area between the last thoracic vertebra and the
first lumbar vertebra.

1- Vertebral arch of the eighteenth thoracic vertebra (T18); 2- Caudal articular process of T18;
3- Articular process joint between T18 and the first lumbar vertebra (L1); 4- Vertebral fossa
of T18; 5- Ventral crest of T18; 6- Vertebral head of L1; 7- Intervertebral disc between T18
and L1; 8- Eighteenth (last) rib; 9- Multifidus muscle; 10- Multifidus fascia; 11- Erector spi-
nae muscle, 11a- aponeurosis, 11b- iliocostalis lumborum muscle; 12- Thoracolumbar fascia;
13- Psoas minor muscle; 14- Psoas major muscle; 15- Costotransverse muscle; 16- Intercostal muscles;
17- Vertebral canal; 18- Spinal cord; 19- Internal vertebral plexus; 20- Intervertebral foramen;
21- Dorsal costoabdominal artery, vein and nerve; 22- Skin.
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Fig. H.21 Transverse section of the lumbar area between the second and third lumbar vertebrae.

1- Caudal articular process of the second lumbar vertebra (L2); 2- Vertebral fossa of L2; 3- Spinal
process of the third lumbar vertebra (L3); 4- Cranial articular process of L3, 4a- mamillary pro-
cess; 5- Vertebral head of L3; 6- Vertebral canal; 7- Intervertebral foramen; 8- Transverse process
of L3; 9- Supraspinal ligament; 10- Interspinal ligament; 11- Articular process joint between
L2 and L3, 11a- articular capsule; 12- Intervertebral disc; 13- Dorsal longitudinal ligament;
14- Ventral longitudinal ligament; 15- Multifidus muscle; 16- Multifidus fascia; 17- Erector spinae
muscle, 17a- superficial aponeurosis, 17b and 17c- intramuscular aponeuroses; 18- Gluteus medius
muscle; 19- Thoracolumbar fascia; 20- Gluteal fascia; 21- Psoas minor muscle; 22- Psoas major
muscle; 23- Intertransverse ligament and muscle; 24- Tendon (crus) of the diaphragm; 25- Aorta;
26- Spinal cord; 27- Dura mater and subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 28- Lumbar vein (ramus
spinals) and nerve (in the intervertebral foramen); 29- Skin.
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Fig. H.22 Transverse section of the lumbar area between the second and third lumbar vertebrae.

1- Caudal articular process of the second lumbar vertebra (L2); 2- Vertebral fossa of L2; 3- Spinal
process of the third lumbar vertebra (L3); 4- Cranial articular process of L3, 4a- mamillary pro-
cess; 5- Vertebral head of L3; 6- Vertebral canal and epidural fat; 7- Intervertebral foramen;
8- Supraspinal ligament; 9- Interspinal ligament; 10- Articular process joint between L2 and L3,
10a- articular capsule; 11- Intervertebral disc; 12- Dorsal longitudinal ligament; 13- Multifidus
muscle, 13a- fascicular aponeuroses; 14- Multifidus fascia; 15- Erector spinae muscle, 15a- intra-
muscular aponeurosis; 16- Psoas major muscle; 17- Spinal cord; 18- Dura mater; 19- Subdural
(subarachnoidean) space; 20- Internal vertebral (venous) plexus; 21- Lumbar vein (ramus spinals)
and nerve (in the intervertebral foramen).
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Fig. H.23 Transverse section of the lumbar area between the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae.

1- Caudal articular process of the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5); 2- Cranial articular process of the
sixth lumbar vertebra (L6); 3- Spinal process of L6; 4- Vertebral head of L6; 5- Intervertebral
foramen; 6- Transverse process of L6; 7- Intertransverse foramen; 8- Ilium; 9- Supraspinal liga-
ment; 10- Interspinal ligament; 11- Articular process joint between L5 and L6; 12- Intervertebral
disc; 13- Ventral longitudinal ligament; 14- Multifidus muscle; 15- Multifidus fascia; 16- Erector
spinae muscle, 16a- superficial aponeurosis, 16b- intramuscular aponeurosis; 17- Gluteus medius
muscle; 18- Gluteal fascia; 19- Psoas minor muscle; 20- Psoas major muscle; 21- Iliac muscle
(lateral part); 22- Aorta (collapsed); 23- Caudal vena cava (collapsed); 24- Spinal cord; 25- Dura
mater separating the epidural space and the subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 26- Internal
vertebral (venous) plexus; 27- Lumbar artery, vein and nerve (in the intertransverse foramen);
28- Medial iliac lymph nodes; 29- Skin.
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Fig. H.24 Transverse section of the lumbar area between the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae.

1- Caudal articular process of the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5); 2- Cranial articular process of the
sixth lumbar vertebra (L6); 3- Mamillary process; 4- Vertebral pedicle of L6; 5- Vertebral head of
L6; 6- Transverse process of L6; 7- Vertebral canal; 8- Intervertebral foramen; 9- Interspinal lig-
ament; 10- Flavum ligament in the interarcual space; 11- Articular process joint between L5 and
L6, 11a- articular capsule; 12- Fifth lumbar intervertebral disc; 13- Multifidus muscle; 14- Erector
spinae muscle, 15- Psoas minor muscle; 16- Psoas major muscle; 17- Spinal cord; 18- Dura mater;
19- Epidural space and fat; 20- Subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 21- Internal vertebral (venous)
plexus; 22- Lumbar artery; 23- Lumbar vein (in the intertransverse foramen); 24- Ventral ramus
of the fifth lumbar nerve (contributing to the femoral, obturator and sciatic nerves); 25- Dorsal
ramus of the fifth lumbar nerve.
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I.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. I.1 Caudolateral aspect of the equine pelvis. (A) Bones; (B) superficial aspect.

1- Sacral tuber; 2- Tuber coxae; 3a- Tuber ischiadicum, 3b- point of the croup; 4a- Greater
trochanter, 4b- Hip; 5- Third trochanter; 6- Gluteus medius muscle; 7- Gluteus superficia-
lis muscle; 8- Gluteofemoralis muscle; 9- Biceps femoris muscle; 10- Semitendinosus muscle;
11- Semimembranosus muscle; 12- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 13- Sacrum (median sacral crest);
14a- Caudal vertebrae, 14b- Tail.
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I.2 BONES

Fig. I.2 Dorsolateral aspect of the equine pelvic bones.

Ilium: 1- Sacral tuber; 2- Tuber coxae, 2a- dorsocranial cuspid, 2b- ventrocranial cuspid, 2c- dor-
socaudal cuspid, 2d-ventrocaudal cuspid; 3- Ilium wing, 3a- gluteal face, 3b- accessory gluteal line;
4- Ilium crest, 5- Ilium neck; 6- Psoas minor muscle tubercle; 7- Ilium body; 8- Lateral rectus
femoris muscle area; 9- Major sciatic incisura;
Ischium: 10- Ischium body; 11- Lateral (acetabular) ramus; 12- Medial ramus; 13- Ischium table;
14- Minor sciatic incisura; 15- Tuber ischiadicum (ischiatic tuberosity); 16- Ischiatic arch;
Pubis: 17- Cranial ramus; 18- Obturator sulcus;
Sacrum: 19- Median sacral crest (five spinal processes); 20- Lateral sacral crest (fused transverse
processes); 21- Dorsal sacral foramen;
Pelvis and connected bones: 22- Pelvic symphysis; 23- Obturator foramen; 24- Acetabulum,
24a- Acetabular margin; 25- Ischiatic spine (sciatic crest); 26- Spinal process of the sixth lum-
bar vertebra; 27- Fourth lumbar vertebra; 28- Intervertebral foramen; 29- First caudal vertebra;
30- Left femur, 30a- head, 30b- neck, 30c- major trochanter (caudal part); 30d- major trochanter
(cranial part); 31- Right femur; 32- Right tibia; 33- Sacroiliac joint.
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Fig. I.3 Ventral aspect of the equine pelvic bones.

Ilium: 1- Tuber coxae, 1a- dorsocranial cuspid, 1b- ventrocranial cuspid, 1c- ventrocaudal cuspid;
2- Ilium wing, 2a- iliac face, 2b- sacropelvic face (insertion of the interosseous sacroiliac liga-
ment); 3- Ilium crest; 4- Ilium neck; 5- Arch line; 6- Psoas minor muscle tubercle; 7- Ilium body;
8- Medial rectus femoris muscle area; 9- Major sciatic incisura;
Pubis: 10- Pubis body; 11- Cranial ramus; 12- Caudal ramus, 12a- symphysial face; 13- Pubis
pecten; 14- Accessory ligament sulcus;
Ischium: 15- Ischium body; 16- Lateral (acetabular) ramus; 17- Ischium table; 18- Medial ramus,
18a- symphysial face; 19- Tuber ischiadicum (ischiatic tuberosity); 20- Ischiatic arch;
Pelvis: 21- Pelvic symphysis; 22- Obturator foramen; 23- Acetabulum, 23a- acetabular margin,
23b- lunar surface, 23c- acetabular fossa, 23d- acetabular notch;
Sacrum: 24- First sacral vertebra; 25- Fourth sacral vertebra; 26- Sacral wing; 27- First ventral
(intervertebral) sacral foramen; 28- Third ventral (intervertebral) sacral foramen; 29- Promontory;
30- Sacroiliac joint;
Lumbar spine: 31- Sixth lumbar vertebra (L6); 32- Transverse process of the fifth lumbar ver-
tebra (L5, fused with L6); 33- Lumbar ventral intervertebral foramen; 34- Third lumbar ver-
tebra (L3, ventral crest); 35- Transverse process of L3; 36- Intertransverse lumbosacral joint;
37- Intertransverse synostosis between L5 and L6; 38- Intervertebral symphysis between L3
and L4.
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Fig. I.4 Dorsal aspect of the equine pelvic bones.

Ilium: 1- Tuber coxae, 1a- dorsocranial cuspid, 1b- dorsocaudal cuspid, 1c- ventrocaudal cuspid;
2- Sacral tuber; 3- Ilium wing; 4- Ilium crest; 5- Ilium neck; 6- Ilium body; 7- Major sciatic
incisura;
Ischium: 8- Ischium body; 9- Lateral (acetabular) ramus; 10- Ischium table; 11- Medial ramus,
11a- symphysial face; 12- Tuber ischiadicum (ischiatic tuberosity); 13- Ischiatic arch;
Pubis: 14- Cranial ramus; 15- Caudal ramus, 15a- symphysial face;
Pelvis: 16- Pelvic symphysis, 16a- cranial (pubic part), 16b- caudal (ischiatic) part; 17- Obturator
foramen; 18- Ischiatic spine (sciatic crest); 19- Acetabulum, 19a- acetabular margin;
Sacrum: 20- Median sacral crest; 21- Lateral sacral crest; 22- Transverse process of the first
sacral vertebra (sacral wing); 23- Right lumbosacral articular process joint; 24- Sacroiliac joint;
25- Third dorsal (intervertebral) sacral foramen; 26- Sacral canal (caudal opening); 27- First cau-
dal vertebra (vertebral body);
Lumbar spine: 28- Transverse process of the third lumbar vertebra (L3); 29- Transverse process
of the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5); 30- Right articular process joint between L3 and L4.
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Fig. I.5 Dorsal aspect of the equine sacrum.

1- Spinal process of the first sacral vertebra (S1); 2- Vertebral arch of S1; 3- Left cranial articular
process of S1; 4- Transverse process of the first sacral vertebra (sacral wing), 4a- auricular surface
(contributing to the sacroiliac joint), 4b- insertion surface of the interosseous sacroiliac ligament;
5- Articular surface of the intertransverse lumbosacral joint seen through the cranial interverte-
bral incisura; 6- Median sacral crest, 6a- spinal process of the second sacral vertebra, 6b- spinal
process of the fifth sacral vertebra; 7- First dorsal (intervertebral) sacral foramen; 8- Second dorsal
(intervertebral) sacral foramen; 9- Lateral sacral crest; 10- First caudal vertebra, 10a- vertebral
arch, 10b- vertebral body.
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Fig. I.6 Craniolaterodorsal aspect of the lumbosacroiliac area.

Coxal bones: 1- Sacral tuber of the left ilium; 2- Ilium wing of the left ilium; 3- Ilium crest of
the left ilium; 4- Sacral tuber of the right ilium; 5- Ilium crest of the right ilium; 6- Left ischium
(angle between ilium arch and pelvic symphysis); 7- Right ischium (angle between ilium arch and
pelvic symphysis); 8- Right tuber ischiadicum;
Sacrum: 9- Spinal process of the first sacral vertebra (S1); 10- (Cranial) articular process of S1;
11- Left transverse process of S1 (sacral wing); 12- Median sacral crest; 13- Lateral sacral crest;
14- Interarcual space between the last lumbar vertebra (L6) and S1;
Lumbar vertebrae and sacroiliac joints: 15- Spinal process of L6; 16- Caudal articular process
of L6; 17- Cranial articular process of L6; 18- Transverse process of L6 (fused with the trans-
verse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5)); 19- Left lumbosacral articular process joint;
20- Left lumbosacral intertransverse joint; 21- Left sacroiliac joint; 22- Right lumbosacral inter-
transverse joint; 23- Right sacroiliac joint; 24- Spinal process of the fourth lumbar vertebra (L4);
25- Caudal articular process of L4; 26- Cranial articular process of L4; 27- Mammillary process;
28- Transverse process of L4; 29- Left articular process joint between L3 and L4; 30- Left inter-
transverse joint between L4 and L5; 31- Dorsal lumbosacral intertransverse foramen; 32- Dorsal
intertransverse foramen between L4 and L5; 33- Left intervertebral foramen between L3 and L4;
34- Right cranial articular process of the third lumbar vertebra.
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I.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. I.7 Ventral aspect of the roof of the pelvis: bones and ligaments.

1- Body of the first sacral vertebra (S1); 2- Transverse process of S1 (sacral wing); 3- Body of the
third sacral vertebra (S3); 4- First ventral (intervertebral) sacral foramen; 5- Second ventral (inter-
vertebral) sacral foramen; 6- Ilium wing; 7- Ilium neck; 8- Sacroiliac joint covered by the ventral
sacroiliac ligament, 8a- caudomedial part, 8b- craniolateral part (covered by the iliopsoas muscle);
9- Lumbosacral intervertebral disc (sixth lumbar (L6) disc); 10- Lumbosacral intertransverse
joint, 10a- joint space, 10b- lumbosacral intertransverse ligament; 11- Ventral ramus of the sixth
lumbar nerve; 12- Body of the sixth lumbar vertebra (L6); 13- Transverse process of L6 (fused
with L5 transverse process); 14- Fifth lumbar intervertebral disc; 15- Body of the fifth lumbar
vertebra (L5); 16- Transverse process of L5 (fused with L6 transverse process); 17- Ventral inter-
transverse foramen between L5 and L6; 18- Intertransverse ligament; 19- Iliolumbar ligament.
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Fig. I.8 Cranial aspect of the equine pelvis: dorsal part.

1- Vertebral body of the first sacral vertebra (S1); 2- Transverse process of S1 (sacral wing),
2a- articular surface of the intertransverse lumbosacral joint; 3- Spinal process of S1; 4- Left
(cranial) articular process of S1, 4a- articular surface of the right articular process of S1; 5- Sacral
(vertebral) canal; 6- Lumbosacral intervertebral foramen, 6a- dorsal opening (dorsal intertrans-
verse foramen), 6b- ventral opening (ventral intertransverse foramen); 7- Iliac wing; 8- Right
sacral tuber; 9- Right iliac crest; 10- Iliac face; 11- Right tuber coxae, 11a- dorsocranial cuspid,
11b- ventrocranial cuspid, 11c- ventrocaudal cuspid; 12- Right ilium neck; 13- Interosseous sacro-
iliac ligament, 13a- caudomedial part, 13b- craniolateral part; 14- Sacroiliac fat.
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Fig. I.9 Cranial aspect of the lumbosacral and sacroiliac joints.

1- Vertebral body of the first sacral vertebra (S1); 2- Articular surface of the intertransverse lum-
bosacral joint; 3- Left cranial articular process of S1, 3a- articular surface of the right articular
process of S1; 4- Spinal process of S1; 5- Sacral (vertebral) canal; 6- Lumbosacral intervertebral
foramen, 6a- dorsal opening (dorsal intertransverse foramen), 6b- ventral opening (ventral inter-
transverse foramen); 7- Left sacral tuber; 8- Left iliac crest; 9- Right ilium neck; 10- Interosseous
sacroiliac ligament, 10a- craniolateral part, 10b- caudomedial part; 11- Sacroiliac fat; 12- Gluteus
muscle fibers.
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Fig. I.10 Medial aspect of the equine pelvis (left side with right coxal bone).

Right coxal bone: 1- Ilium wing; 2- Ilium neck; 3- Ilium body; 4- Psoas minor muscle tubercle;
5- Pubis body; 6- Cranial ramus of the pubis; 7- Pubis pecten; 8- Caudal ramus of the right pubis;
9- Ischium body; 10- Ischium table; 11- Medial ramus of the right ischium; 12- Tuber ischiadicum
(ischiatic tuberosity); 13- Right acetabulum (lunar surface); 14- Acetabular labrum;
Left coxal bone: 15- Cranial ramus of the left pubis; 16- Left tuber coxae, 16a- ventrocranial
cuspid, 16b- ventrocaudal cuspid;
Sacrum, lumbar spine and joints: 17- First sacral vertebra; 18- Right sacral wing; 19- Third
sacral vertebra; 20- Right sacrosciatic ligament; 21- Left sacrosciatic ligament; 22- Right sacro-
iliac joint; 23- Lumbosacral (L6) intervertebral disc and promontorium; 24- Right intertransverse
lumbosacral joint; 25- Sixth lumbar vertebra (L6); 26- Transverse process of L6 fused with the
transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5); 27- Transverse process of L5; 28- Third lum-
bar vertebra (L3); 29- Ventral longitudinal ligament;
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Muscles: 30- Psoas minor muscle, 30a- muscle body, 30b- tendon; 31- Psoas major muscle;
32- Iliac muscle, lateral part; 33- Iliac muscle, medial part; 34- Iliac fascia; 35- Left obturator inter-
nus muscle (iliac part); 36- Right obturator internus muscle, 36a- iliac part; 37- Gluteus medius
muscle (seen through the sacrosciatic ligament); 38- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 39- Quadriceps
femoris muscle; 40- Gracilis muscle; 41- Median aponeurosis between the left and right gracilis
muscles; 42- Pectineus muscle; 43- Sartorius muscle; 44- Semimembranosus muscle;
Vessels: 45- Aorta; 46- External iliac artery; 47- Deep circumflex iliac artery; 48- Internal iliac
artery; 49- Caudal gluteal artery and vein; 50- Cranial gluteal artery and vein (medial rami);
51- Obturator artery and vein; 52- Common iliac vein.

Fig. I.11 Lateral aspect of the pelvis: superficial structures. Cranial is to the left.

1- Tuber coxae, 1a- dorsocranial cuspid, 1b- ventrocranial cuspid, 1c- dorsocaudal cuspid, 1d- ven-
trocaudal cuspid; 2- Median sacral crest (spinal processes of the sacrum); 3- Patella; 4- Gluteus
medius muscle; 5- Gluteal fascia; 6- Thoracolumbar fascia; 7- Femoral fascia; 8- Gluteus superficia-
lis muscle, 8a- proximal (sacral) part, 8b- distal (iliac) part; 9- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 10- Fascia
latae; 11- Quadriceps femoris muscle (vastus lateralis); 12- Gluteofemoralis muscle, 12a- sacral part,
12b- distal tendon inserting on the patella; 13- Biceps femoris muscle, 13a- cranial head, 13b- caudal
head; 14- Semitendinosus muscle, 14a- supraischiatic part; 15- Semimembranosus muscle; 16- Tail.
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Fig. I.12 Ventral aspect of the equine pelvis: vessels and nerves.

1- First sacral vertebra (S1); 2- Third sacral vertebra; 3- Sixth lumbar vertebra (L6); 4- Lumbosacral
(L6) intervertebral disc and promontorium; 5- Right sacrosciatic ligament; 6- Psoas minor mus-
cle, 6a- muscle body, 6b- tendon; 7- Psoas major muscle; 8- Aorta, 8b- quadrifurcation; 9- Caudal
mesenteric artery; 10- Renal arteries; 11- External iliac artery; 12- Deep circumflex iliac artery
and vein; 13- Internal iliac artery; 14- Caudal gluteal artery and vein; 15- Cranial gluteal artery;
16- Obturator artery; 17- Common iliac vein; 18- Caudal vena cava; 19- Obturator nerve;
20- Ventral ramus of the sixth lumbar nerve; 21- Ventral ramus of the first sacral nerve; 22- Ventral
ramus of the second sacral nerve; 23- Ventral ramus of the third sacral nerve; 24- Lumbosacral
truncus, origin of the sciatic nerve.
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Fig. I.13 Medial aspect of the equine pelvis: vessels and nerves – Courtesy of the Fragonard Museum,
Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort; Anatomical plaster specimen made by E. Petitcolin (c. 1900).

1- Sacrum; 2- Lumbosacral intervertebral disc and promontorium; 3- Ventral longitudinal liga-

ment and lumbar spine; 4- Caudal vertebrae; 5- Left ilium neck; 6- Acetabular area; 7- Pubis
pecten; 8- Pelvic symphysis; 9- Ischiatic arch; 10- Left sacrosciatic ligament (cut); 11- Gluteus
medius muscle; 12- Caudal muscles; 13- Psoas minor muscle, 13a- muscle body, 13b- tendon;
14- Psoas major muscle, 14a- muscle body, 14b- tendon; 15- Iliac muscle, 15a- lateral part, 15b- medial
part; 16- Obliquus internus abdominis muscle; 17- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 18- Quadriceps
femoris muscle, 18a- rectus femoris muscle, 18b- vastus medialis muscle; 19- Semimembranosus
muscle; 20- Gracilis muscle; 21- Median aponeurosis; 22- Rectus abdominis muscle; 23- Prepubic
tendon; 24- Internal inguinal ring; 25- Aorta; 26- Lumbar artery; 27- Caudal mesenteric artery;
28- Right external iliac artery; 29- Left external iliac artery; 30- Deep circumflex iliac artery;
31- Deep femoral artery; 32- Medial femoral circumflex artery; 33- Pudendoepigastric trunk;
34- Internal pudendal artery; 35- Caudal epigastric artery; 36- Femoral artery; 37- Lateral femoral
circumflex artery; 38- Right internal iliac artery; 39- Right caudal gluteal artery; 40- Caudal arter-
ies; 41- Left internal iliac artery; 42- Left caudal gluteal artery; 43- Sacral artery; 44- Caudal arteries;
45- Cranial gluteal artery; 46- Iliolumbar artery; 47- Obturator artery; 48- Iliacofemoral artery;
49- Internal pudendal artery; 50- Umbilical artery; 51- Femoral nerve; 52- Saphenous nerve
(origin); 53- Obturator nerve; 54- Lumbosacral trunk; 55- Sciatic nerve; 56- Cranial gluteal nerve;
57- Caudal gluteal nerve; 58- Caudal femoral cutaneous nerve.
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Fig. I.14 Medial aspect of the equine pelvis: muscles and nerves.

1- First sacral vertebra, 1a- body, 1b- transverse process (sacral wing); 2- Body of the third
sacral vertebra; 3- Spinal process of the second sacral vertebra; 4- Sacral canal and cauda equina;
5- Lumbosacral intervertebral disc and promontorium; 6- Body of the sixth lumbar vertebra;
7- Body of the fourth lumbar vertebra; 8- Spinal process of the fifth lumbar vertebra; 9- Vertebral
canal; 10- Spinal cord in the vertebral canal; 11- Intervertebral disc between the third and fourth
lumbar vertebrae; 12- Ventral longitudinal ligament; 13- Left lumbosacral intertransverse joint;
14- Left sacroiliac joint; 15- Ilium neck (tubercle of the psoas minor muscle); 16- Acetabular area;
17- Pubis; 18- Pelvic symphysis (cut); 19- Left sacrosciatic ligament; 20- Gluteus medius muscle;
21- Obturator internus muscle, 21a- muscle body, 21b- iliac part; 22- Psoas minor muscle (ten-
don); 23- Psoas major muscle, 23a- muscle body, 23b- tendon; 24- Iliac muscle, 24a- lateral part,
24b- medial part; 25- Pectineus muscle; 26- Gracilis muscle; 27- Ventral ramus of the third lum-
bar nerve; 28- Ventral ramus of the fourth lumbar nerve; 29- Ventral ramus of the fifth lumbar
nerve; 30- Ventral ramus of the sixth lumbar nerve; 31- Ventral ramus of the first sacral nerve;
32- Ventral ramus of the second sacral nerve; 33- Muscle ramus of the ventral ramus of the third
lumbar nerve; 34- Femoral nerve; 35- Saphenous nerve (displaced cranially); 36- Obturator nerve;
37- Lumbosacral trunk; 38- Sciatic nerve; 39- Cranial gluteal nerve; 40- Caudal gluteal nerve;
41- Caudal femoral cutaneous nerve.
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I.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. I.15 Median section of the lumbosacral junction.

1- Body of the first sacral vertebra; 2- Spinal process of the first sacral vertebra; 3- Body of the
third sacral vertebra; 4- Spinal process of the third sacral vertebra; 5- Body of the sixth lumbar
vertebra (L6), 5a- vertebral head (with growing cartilage), 5b- vertebral fossa (with growing carti-
lage); 6- Spinal process of L6; 7- Body of the fifth lumbar vertebra; 8- Spinal process of the fourth
lumbar vertebra; 9- Vertebral canal (lumbar part); 10- Sacral canal; 11- Promontorium; 12- Sixth
(lumbosacral) intervertebral disc; 13- Fourth lumbar intervertebral disc; 14- Ventral longitudinal
ligament; 15- Dorsal longitudinal ligament; 16- Flavum (interarcual) ligament; 17- Interspinal
ligament; 18- Multifidus muscle; 19- Erector spinae muscle; 20- Spinal cord, 20a- grey matter;
20b- white matter, 20c- filum terminale; 21- Dura matter, 21a- filum of the spinal dura matter;
22- Subdural (subarachnoidean) space; 23- Cauda equina; 24- Right ilium neck; 25- Right tuber
coxae (ventral cuspids).
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Fig. I.16 Paramedian sections of the lumbosacral junction.

1- Transverse process of the first sacral vertebra (sacral wing), 1a- auricular surface, 1b- dorsal
surface (insertion of the interosseous sacroiliac ligament), 1c- articular surface of the lumbosa-
cral intertransverse joint, 1d- ventral surface; 2- Iliac wing, 2a- auricular surface; 2b- iliac crest,
2c- caudal border, 2d- gluteal face and compact bone, 2e- sacropelvic face and compact bone;
3- Transverse process of the sixth lumbar vertebra (L6), 3a- articular surface of the lumbosa-
cral intertransverse joint; 4- Transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra (fused with L6);
5- Sacroiliac joint, 5a- joint space, 5b- ventral sacroiliac ligament, 5c- interosseous sacroiliac liga-
ment, 5d- junction between the ventral and interosseous sacroiliac ligaments; 6- Lumbosacral
intertransverse joint, 6a- ventral lumbosacral intertransverse ligament; 7- Gluteus medius muscle;
8- Erector spinae muscle; 9- Psoas major muscle (lateral part); 10- Psoas major muscle (medial
part); 11- Obturator internus muscle (sacroiliac part); 12- Obturator artery; 13- Cranial gluteal
artery and veins; 14- Iliolumbar artery and vein; 15- Fat.
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Fig. I.17 Transverse section of the lumbosacroiliac junction passing through the body of the sixth
lumbar vertebra (L6).

1- Sixth lumbar vertebra (L6), 1a- body, 1b- transverse process, 1c- caudal articular process;
2- First sacral vertebra (S1), 2a- transverse process, 2b- cranial articular process; 3- Iliac wing,
3a- base of the sacral tuber; 4- Lumbosacral intertransverse joint, 4a- joint space, 4b- ventral
lumbosacral intertransverse ligament; 5- Sacroiliac joint, 5a- joint space, 5b- ventral sacroiliac
ligament, 5c- interosseous sacroiliac ligament; 6- Multifidus muscle; 7- Dorsolateral sacrocaudal
muscle; 8- Gluteus medius muscle; 9- Psoas minor muscle and tendon; 10- Psoas major mus-
cle; 11- Lateral part of the iliac muscle; 12- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 13- Internal iliac artery;
14- Common iliac vein; 15- Iliolumbar artery and vein; 16- Sacral canal with end of the spinal
cord, dural cone and origin of the cauda equina; 17- Dorsal ramus of the sixth lumbar nerve;
18- Ventral ramus of the fifth lumbar nerve.
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Fig. I.18 Transverse section of the lumbosacroiliac junction passing through the body of the first
sacral vertebra (S1).

1- First sacral vertebra (S1), 1a- vertebral body, 1b-transverse process (sacral wing), 1c- sacral
canal; 2- Iliac wing, 2a- sacral tuber; 3- Sacroiliac joint, 3a- joint space, 3b- ventral sacroiliac liga-
ment, 3c- interosseous sacroiliac ligament, 3d- dorsal sacroiliac ligament; 4- Multifidus muscle;
5- Dorsolateral sacrocaudal muscle; 6- Gluteus medius muscle; 7- Gluteus accessorius muscle;
8- Psoas minor muscle and tendon; 9- Psoas major muscle; 10- Iliac muscle, 10a- medial part,
10b- lateral part; 11- Obturator internus muscle (sacroiliac part); 12- Tensor fascia latae muscle;
13- Caudal gluteal artery; 14- Cranial gluteal artery; 15- Branch coming from the ventral ramus
of the fifth lumbar nerve; 16- Common iliac vein; 17- Origin of the cauda equina; 18- Ventral
ramus of the sixth lumbar nerve.
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THE HIP AND THIGH

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189

J.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. J.1 Superficial anatomy of the equine pelvic limb: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Croup (pelvis), 1a- croup angle (sacral tuber), 1b- hip angle (tuber coxae), 1c- point of the croup
(tuber ischiadicum), 1d- gluteal muscles; 2- Hip (coxofemoral joint); 3- Thigh (femoral region),
3a- cranial femoral muscles, 3b- caudal femoral muscles; 4- Stifle (femorotibiopatellar joint),
4a- patella, 4b- tibial tuberosity, 4c- head of the fibula; 5- Crus (tibial area), 5a- cranial tibial
muscles, 5b- caudal tibial muscles, 5c- common calcanean tendon; 6- Hock (tarsus), 6a- point of
the hock, 6b- lateral malleolus (distal end of the fibula), 6c- lateral trochlear ridge of the talus,
6d- head of the fourth metatarsal bone, 6e- medial malleolus (tibia), 6f- chestnut; 7- Metatarsus,
7a- cannon bone (third metatarsal bone), 7b- fourth metatarsal bone, 7c- second metatarsal bone,
7d- suspensory ligament (third interosseous muscle), 7e- digital flexor tendons; 8- Fetlock, 8a- lateral
collateral ligament, 8b- base of the proximal sesamoid bone, 8c- ergot; 9- Pastern, 9a- extensor
branch of the suspensory ligament, 9b- digital flexor tendons; 10- Coronet, 11- Foot.
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J.2 SUPERFICIAL STRUCTURES

Fig. J.2 Lateral and medial aspects of the pelvic limb: superficial anatomical structures.

1- Tuber coxae; 2- Femur; 3- Patella; 4- Talus; 5- Calcaneus; 6- Third metatarsal bone; 7- Gluteus
medius, 7a- lumbar part; 8- Gluteus superficialis; 9- Gluteal fascia; 10- Tensor fascia latae muscle;
11- Lata fascia; 12- Gluteofemoralis muscle, 12a- Supraischiatic part, 12b- Tendon inserting on
the patella; 13- Biceps femoris (with two heads); 14- Semitendinosus muscle, 14a- Supraischiatic
part; 15- Long digital extensor muscle, 15a- distal tendon; 16- Lateral digital extensor muscle,
16a- tendon; 17- Peroneus tertius muscle; 18- Tibialis cranialis muscle (tendon); 19- Lateral digi-
tal flexor muscle, 19a- tendon; 20- Medial digital flexor muscle, 20a- tendon; 21- Gastrocnemius
muscle (medial head); 22- Soleus muscle; 23- Gastrocnemius tendon; 24- Superficial digital flexor
tendon, 24a- calcanean cap; 25- Common calcanean tendon; 26- Deep digital flexor tendon;
27- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 28- Third interosseous muscle (suspen-
sory ligament); 29- Manica flexoria; 30- Plantar annular ligament; 31- Proximal digital annu-
lar ligament; 32- Distal digital annular ligament; 33- Extensor branch of the third interosseous
muscle.
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J.3 THE HIP (COXOFEMORAL REGION) AND THIGH

J.3.1 Physical aspect

Fig. J.3 Caudolateral aspect of the proximal pelvic limb: superficial anatomical structures.

1- Tuber coxae; 2- Sacral tuber; 3- Point of the croup (tuber ischiadicum); 4- Patella; 5- Gluteus medius;
6- Gluteus superficialis; 7- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 8- Quadriceps femoris; 9- Gluteofemoralis
muscle; 10- Biceps femoris (with two heads); 11- Semitendinosus muscle; 12- Semimembranosus
muscle; 13- Intermuscular sulcus; 14- Origin of the common calcanean tendon.

J.3.2 Radiographic anatomy

Fig. J.4 Distomedial radiographic view of the coxofemoral joint (horse lying under general
anesthesia).

1- Ilium neck; 2- Ilium body; 3- Pubis; 4- Cranial ramus of the pubis; 5- Ischium table; 6- (Medial)
ramus of the ischium; 7- Lateral (acetabular) ramus of the ischium; 8- Body of the ischium;
9- Acetabulum, 9a- acetabular margin, 9b- lunar surface, 9c- acetabular fossa, 9d- incisura
(ventral); 10- Femoral head, 10a- fovea capitis; 11- Femoral neck; 12- Major trochanter (top);
13- Trochanteric fossa; 14- Body of the femur; 15- Obturator foramen.
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J.3.3 Dissected specimen

Fig. J.5 Lateral aspect of the coxofemoral joint: deep structures.

1- Ilium, 1a- wing, 1b- neck, 1c-body; 2- Acetabulum, 2a- lunar surface; 3- Femoral head;
4- Femoral neck; 5- Major trochanter, 5a- caudal part (top), 5b- trochanteric notch, 5c- cranial part
(convexity); 6- Body of the femur; 7- Ischium; 8- Sacrosciatic ligament; 9- Acetabular labrum;
10- Articular capsule of the coxofemoral joint; 11- Rectus femoris muscle (sagittal head of the
quadriceps femoris muscle); 12- Iliacus muscle (lateral part), 12a- tendon; 13- Tendon of the
gluteus accessorius muscle; 14- Trochanteric bursa (opened); 15- Obturator internus muscle;
16- Iliacofemoral artery and vein; 17- Lumbosacral truncus; 18- Sciatic nerve.
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Fig. J.6 Cranial aspect of the coxofemoral joint: deep structures.

1- Ilium, 1a- neck, 1b-body; 2- Pubis, 2a- cranial ramus, 2b- body; 3- Ischium (partly covered
by the obturator externus muscle; 4- Femoral head (covered by the articular capsule of the coxo-
femoral joint); 5- Femoral neck; 6- Body of the femur; 7- Greater trochanter, 7a- caudal part
(top), 7b- trochanteric notch, 7c- cranial part (convexity); 8- Lesser trochanter; 9- Third trochan-
ter; 10- Articular capsule of the coxofemoral joint; 11- Accessory ligament; 12- Prepubic tendon;
13- Rectus abdominis muscle; 14- Pectineus muscle; 15- Rectus femoris (sagittal head of the quad-
riceps femoris): proximal insertion (cut).
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Fig. J.7 Distomedial aspect of the coxofemoral joint.

1- Right ischium; 2- Left ischium, 2a- tuber ischiadicum, 2b- lateral (acetabular) ramus; 3- Pelvic
symphysis; 4- Obturator foramen; 5- Femur, 5a- greater trochanter, 5b- lesser trochanter,
5c- trochanteric fossa, 5d- femoral head covered by the articular capsule of the coxofemoral
joint; 6- Articular capsule of the coxofemoral joint; 7- Transverse ligament of the acetabulum;
8- Accessory ligament of the femur; 9- Prepubic tendon; 10- Rectus abdominis muscle (cut);
11- Pectineus muscle (cut); 12- Iliac muscle (medial part); 13- Iliac muscle (lateral part); 14- Psoas
major muscle; 15- Psoas minor muscle; 16- Iliac fascia; 17- Medial head of the quadriceps femoris
muscle; 18- Rectus femoris muscle (sagittal head of the quadriceps femoris muscle); 19- External
iliac artery; 20- External iliac vein; 21- Deep circumflex iliac artery; 22- Medial iliac lymph nodes;
23- Femoral nerve, 23a- ramus for the iliopsoas muscle; 24- Obturator internus and gemelli
muscles.
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Fig. J.8 Distomedial aspect of the coxofemoral joint: deep structures.

1- Left ilium, 1a- neck, 1b- body; 2- Left pubis, 2a- cranial ramus, 2b- body, 2c- caudal ramus;
3- Left ischium, 3a- tuber ischiadicum, 3b- lateral (acetabular) ramus, 3c- body, 3d- (medial)
ramus; 4- Pelvic symphysis; 5- Femoral head, 5a- fovea capitis; 6- Femoral neck; 7- Lesser tro-
chanter; 8- Greater trochanter; 9- Trochanteric fossa; 10- Body of the femur; 11- Transverse
ligament of the acetabulum; 12- Capitis ligament (of the femur); 13- Accessory ligament (of the
femur); 14- Pectineus muscle; 15- Obturator muscles in the obturator foramen; 16- Sacroiliac
part of the obturator internus muscle; 17- Rectus femoris muscle (sagittal head of the quadriceps
femoris muscle), proximal insertion (cut).

Fig. J.9 Lateral aspect of the pelvis and femoral region (thigh): superficial structures. Cranial is to
the left.

1- Tuber coxae; 2- Median sacral crest (spinous processes of the sacrum); 3- Patella; 4- Tibial
tuberosity; 5- Gluteus medius muscle; 6- Thoracolumbar fascia; 7- Gluteal fascia; 8- Gluteus
superficialis muscle, 8a- proximal (sacral) part, 8b- distal part; 9- Tensor fascia latae muscle;
10- Lata fascia; 11- Vastus lateralis of the quadriceps femoris muscle; 12- Gluteofemoralis muscle,
12a- sacral part, 12b- distal tendon inserting on the patella; 13- Femoral fascia; 14- Biceps femo-
ris muscle, 14a- cranial head, 14b- caudal head; 15- Crural fascia; 16- Semitendinosus muscle,
16a- supraischiatic part; 17- Semimembranosus muscle, 17a- supraischiatic part; 18- Common
calcanean tendon; 19- Skin; 20- Tail.
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Fig. J.10 Lateral aspect of the pelvis and femoral region (thigh): intermediate structures. Cranial is
to the left.

1- Tuber coxae, 1a- cranial cuspids, 1b- caudal cuspids; 2- Ischium; 3- Greater trochanter of
the femur; 4- Third trochanter of the femur; 5- Patella; 6- Gluteus medius muscle, 6a- post-
trochanteric part; 7- Thoracolumbar fascia; 8- Gluteus superficialis muscle, 8a- proximal (sacral)
part, 8b- distal part, 8c- tendon; 9- Gluteal fascia; 10- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 11- Fascia
lata; 12- Vastus lateralis of the quadriceps femoris muscle; 13- Gluteofemoralis muscle (cut),
13a- proximal part (reclined), 13b- distal part (reclined); 14- Biceps femoris muscle (cut and
reclined), 14a- cranial head, 14b- caudal head; 15- Semitendinosus muscle, 15a- supraischiatic
part; 16- Semimembranosus muscle; 17- Adductor magnus muscle; 18- Tibial nerve; 19- Common
fibular nerve; 20- Muscle rami (for the caudal femoral and deep pelvic muscles) of the sciatic
nerve; 21- Common calcanean tendon; 22- Tail.
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Fig. J.11 Lateral aspect of the pelvis and femoral region (thigh): deep structures. Cranial is to
the left.

1- Sacral tuber; 2- Tuber coxae, 2a- cranial cuspids, 2b- caudal cuspids; 3- Ischium; 4- Sacrum;
5- Greater trochanter of the femur; 6- Third trochanter of the femur; 7- Supracondylar fossa of the
femur; 8- Femoral condyles; 9- Femoral trochlea; 10- Patella; 11- Tibia; 12- Fibula; 13- Calcaneus;
14- Talus; 15- Fourth lumbar vertebra; 16- Sacrosciatic ligament; 17- Gluteus accessorius mus-
cle, 17a- tendon; 18- Gluteus profundus muscle; 19- Quadriceps femoris muscle, 19a- rectus
femoris muscle, 19b- vastus lateralis muscle; 20- Gluteofemoralis muscle (proximal part, cut);
21- Semitendinosus muscle, 21a- supraischiatic part, 21b- ischiatic origin; 22- Adductor magnus
muscle; 23- Quadratus femoris muscle; 24- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 25- Peroneus tertius muscle;
26- Gastrocnemius muscle (profile); 27- Superficial digital flexor muscle; 28- Common calcanean
tendon.
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Fig. J.12 Medial aspect of the left pelvis and femoral region (thigh). Cranial is to the right.

1- Fifth lumbar vertebra; 2- Second sacral vertebra; 3- Lumbosacral intervertebral disc; 4- Tuber
coxae, 4a- cranial cupids, 4b- caudal cupids; 5- Ilium (body); 6- Right pubis; 7- Pelvic symphy-
sis; 8- Patella; 9- Psoas minor muscle; 10- Psoas major muscle; 11- Iliac muscle (lateral part);
12- Iliac muscle (medial part); 13- Iliac fascia; 14- Tensor fascia latae muscle; 15- Quadriceps
femoris muscle (rectus femoris muscle); 16- Quadriceps femoris muscle (vastus medialis muscle);
17- Sartorius muscle; 18- Gracilis muscle; 19- Pectineus muscle; 20- Aorta; 21- External iliac
artery; 22- Internal iliac artery; 23- Deep circumflex iliac artery; 24- Obturator nerve; 25- Lateral
cutaneous femoral nerve; 26- Saphenous artery, vein and nerve; 27- Penis (cut).
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J.3.4 Cross-sections

Fig. J.13 Transverse section of the femoral area (thigh). Cranial is to the top, lateral is to the left.

1- Femur, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- cortex, 1c- base of the third trochanter; 2- Quadriceps femoris
muscle, 2a- rectus femoris muscle, 2b- vastus lateralis muscle, 2c- vastus medialis muscle, 2d- vas-
tus intermedius muscle; 3- Gluteofemoralis muscle; 4- Biceps femoris muscle, 4a- cranial head,
4b- caudal head; 5- Semitendinosus muscle; 6- Semimembranosus muscle; 7- Sartorius muscle;
8- Gracilis muscle; 9- Pectineus muscle; 10- Adductor brevis muscle; 11- Adductor magnus mus-
cle; 12- Femoral artery and vein; 13- Tibial nerve; 14- Common fibular nerve; 15- Saphenous vein
and nerve; 16- Lata fascia; 17- Lateral femoral septum; 18- Femoral fascia; 19- Skin.
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 Chapter K

THE STIFLE
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201

K.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. K.1 Cranial physical aspect of the right stifle: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Patella; 2- Tibial tuberosity, 2a- distal part, 2b- lateral branch, 2c- medial branch; 3- Lateral
patellar ligament over the lateral ridge of the femoral trochlea; 4- Medial patellar ligament;
5- Tuberculum of the femoral trochlea; 6- Quadriceps femoris muscle; 7- Tibia; 8- Cranial crural
muscles.
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K.2 BONE AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. K.2 Proximal aspect of the left tibial plateau.

1- Tibial tuberosity, 1a- lateral branch, 1b- sulcus, 1c- medial branch; 2- Medial tibial condyle;
3- Lateral tibial condyle; 4- Extensor sulcus; 5- Popliteal notch; 6- Tubercle of the caudal cru-
ciate ligament; 7- Intercondylar eminence (tibial spine), 7a- medial intercondylar tubercle,
7b- lateral intercondylar tubercle, 7c- central intercondylar area (insertion of the cranial cruciate
ligament); 8- Cranial intercondylar area; 9- Caudal intercondylar area; 10- Insertion surfaces for
the medial meniscus, 10a- craniomedial meniscotibial ligament, 10b- caudomedial meniscotibial
ligament; 11- Insertion surfaces for the lateral meniscus, 11a- craniolateral meniscotibial liga-
ment, 11b- caudolateral meniscotibial ligament.
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FIG. K.3 Lateromedial radiographic view of the left stifle.

Patella: 1- Base, 2- Apex; 3- Cranial face; 4- Articular surface, 4a- proximomedial part; 4b- disto-
medial part; 4c- lateral part; 4d- sagittal ridge, 4e- proximal margin, 4f- spongy bone.
Femur: 5- Cranial cortex; 6- Caudal cortex; 7- Supracondylar fossa; 8- Distal metaphysis;
9- Popliteal face; 10- Femoral trochlea, 10a- medial trochlear ridge, 10b- tubercle; 10c- lateral
trochlear ridge, 10d- trochlea groove; 11- Extensor fossa, 11a- bottom; 12- Medial femoral con-
dyle, 12a- caudal margin; 13- Lateral femoral condyle, 13a- caudal margin; 14- Intercondylar
fossa, 14a- bottom; 15- Intercondylar line;
Tibia: 16- Tibial tuberosity, 16a- lateral branch, 16b- medial branch, 16c- sulcus; 17- Medial
tibial condyle, 17a- caudal margin; 18- Lateral tibial condyle, 18a- caudal margin; 18b- cranio-
distal profile; 19- Insertion tubercle of the caudal cruciate ligament; 20- Intercondylar eminence,
20a- medial intercondylar tubercle, 20b- lateral intercondylar tubercle, 20c- central intercon-
dylar area; 21- Cranial intercondylar area; 22- Caudal intercondylar area; 23- Popliteal notch;
24- Extensor sulcus; 25- Extensor fossa; 26- Tibial crest; 27- Caudal cortex, 27a- caudolateral
cortex (irregular on this horse), 27b- caudomedial cortex;
Fibula: 28- Head, 29- Body; 30- Fibrous non-union gap;
Soft tissues: 31- Shadow of the medial and lateral patellar ligaments; 32- Infrapatellar fat pad;
33- Shadow of the menisci.
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Fig. K.4 Caudocranial radiographic view of the left stifle.

A- Patella: 1- Base, 2- Apex; 3- Medial angle;

B- Femur: 4- Medial trochlear ridge; 5- Lateral trochlear ridge, 5a- distal profile; 6- Extensor
fossa (bottom); 7- Medial femoral condyle, 7a- subchondral bone, 7b- spongy bone, 7c- medial
margin; 8- Medial femoral epicondyle; 9- Lateral femoral condyle; 10- Lateral femoral epicon-
dyle; 11- Intercondylar fossa;
C- Tibia: 12- Tibial tuberosity; 13- Medial tibial condyle, 13a- medial margin, 13b- subchondral
bone, 13c- spongy bone; 14- Lateral tibial condyle, 14a- lateral margin; 15- Medial intercondylar
tubercle; 16- Lateral intercondylar tubercle; 17- Central intercondylar area; 18- Caudal and cra-
nial intercondylar areas (superimposed); 19- Extensor sulcus; 20- Extensor fossa, 20a- bottom;
D- Fibula: 21- Tibiofibular joint; 22- Head of the fibula; 23- Body of the fibula;
Soft tissues: 24- Shadow of the medial meniscus; 25- Shadow of the lateral meniscus.
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Fig. K.5 Caudocranial radiographic view of the left stifle: zoom on the intercondylar structures.

Femur: 1- Medial femoral condyle, 1a- axial margin; 2- Lateral femoral condyle, 2a- axial margin;
3- Intercondylar fossa, 3a- bottom with dense bone; 4- Lateral trochlea ridge, 4a- distal profile;
Tibia: 5- Medial tibial condyle (subchondral bone); 6- Lateral tibial condyle; 7- Medial intercon-
dylar tubercle; 8- Lateral intercondylar tubercle, 8a caudal margin; 9- Central intercondylar area
(insertion of the cranial cruciate ligament); 10- Caudal intercondylar area (insertion of the caudo-
medial meniscotibial ligament); 11- Cranial intercondylar area, 11a- insertion of the craniomedial
meniscotibial ligament, 11b- insertion of the craniolateral meniscotibial ligament.
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Fig. K.6 Lateromedial radiographic view of the flexed left stifle.

Patella: 1- Base; 2- Apex; 3- Cranial face; 4- Articular surface, 4a- proximomedial part, 4b- disto-
medial part, 4c- lateral part, 4d- sagittal ridge, 4e- proximal margin;
Femur: 5- Femoral trochlea, 5a- medial trochlear ridge, 5b- tubercle, 5c- lateral trochlear ridge,
5d- groove; 6- Medial femoral condyle, 6a- caudal margin; 7- Lateral femoral condyle, 7a- caudal
margin; 8- Intercondylar fossa, 8a- bottom with dense bone; 9- Intercondylar line; 10- Extensor
fossa, 10a- bottom with dense bone;
Tibia: 11- Tibial tuberosity, 11a- lateral branch, 11b- medial branch, 11c- sulcus; 12- Tibial crest;
13- Extensor sulcus; 14- Extensor fossa; 15- Medial tibial condyle, 15a- caudal margin; 16- Lateral
tibial condyle, 16a- caudal margin, 16b- craniodistal profile; 17- Insertion tubercle of the caudal
cruciate ligament; 18- Intercondylar eminence, 18a- medial intercondylar tubercle, 18b- lateral
intercondylar tubercle, 18c- central intercondylar area; 19- Cranial intercondylar area; 20- Caudal
intercondylar area;
Fibula: 21- Head;
Soft tissues: 22- Shadow of the lateral and medial patellar ligament; 23- Infrapatellar fat pad.
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Fig. K.7 Proximodistal radiographic view of the flexed right stifle.

Patella: 1- Cranial surface; 2- Articular surface, 2a- proximomedial part, 2b- distomedial part,
2c- subchondral bone, 2d- lateral part, 2e- sagittal ridge; 3- Medial angle; 4- Lateral aspect;
5- Apex;
Femur: 6- Medial trochlear ridge; 7- Lateral trochlear ridge; 8- Femoral trochlear groove;
9- Medial femoral condyle; 10- Lateral femoral condyle; 11- Extensor fossa; 12- Collateral fossa;
Femoropatellar joint: 13- Medial part; 14- Lateral part.
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Fig. K.8 Caudolateral radiographic view of the left stifle.

Patella: 1- Base; 2- Apex; 3- Cranial face, 3a- compact bone; 4- Spongy bone; 5- Articular surface,
5a- proximomedial part, 5b- distomedial part, 5c- lateral part, 5d- sagittal ridge, 5e- proximome-
dial margin, 5f- proximolateral margin;
Femur: 6- Craniolateral cortex; 7- Caudomedial cortex; 8- Supracondylar fossa; 9- Distal
metaphysis; 10- Popliteal face; 11- Femoral trochlea, 11a- medial trochlear ridge, 11b- tubercle,
11c- lateral trochlear ridge, 11d- trochlea groove; 12- Extensor fossa; 13- Medial femoral con-
dyle, 13a- axial margin, 13b- caudal margin; 14- Lateral femoral condyle; 15- Intercondylar fossa,
15a- bottom;
Tibia: 16- Tibial tuberosity, 16a- lateral branch, 16b- medial branch, 16c- sulcus; 17- Medial tibial
condyle, 17a- caudomedial margin; 18- Lateral tibial condyle, 18a- caudal margin; 18b- craniodis-
tal margin; 19- Insertion tubercle of the caudal cruciate ligament; 20- Intercondylar eminence,
20a- medial intercondylar tubercle, 20b- lateral intercondylar tubercle, 20c- central intercon-
dylar area; 21- Cranial intercondylar area; 22- Caudal intercondylar area; 23- Popliteal notch;
24- Extensor sulcus; 25- Extensor fossa; 26- Tibial crest; 27- Caudomedial cortex; 28- Caudolateral
cortex;
Fibula: 29- Head; 30- Body;
Soft tissues: 31- Shadow of the lateral patellar ligament; 32- Shadow of the medial meniscus.
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Fig. K.9 Caudomedial radiographic view of the left stifle.

Patella: 1- Base; 2- Apex; 3- Medial angle;

Femur: 4- Craniomedial cortex; 5- Caudolateral cortex; 6- Supracondylar fossa; 7- Popliteal
face; 8- Femoral trochlea, 8a- medial trochlear ridge, 8b- tubercle, 8c- lateral trochlear ridge;
9- Medial femoral condyle, 9a- medial margin; 10- Lateral femoral condyle, 10a- collateral fossa,
10b- popliteal fossa, 10c- axial margin; 11- Intercondylar fossa; 12- Intercondylar line;
Tibia: 13- Medial tibial condyle, 13a- subchondral bone, 13b- craniomedial margin; 14- Lateral
tibial condyle, 14a- subchondral bone, 14b- caudolateral margin; 15- Intercondylar eminence,
15a- medial intercondylar tubercle, 15b- lateral intercondylar tubercle, 15c- central intercon-
dylar area; 16- Cranial intercondylar area; 17- Caudal intercondylar area; 18- Tibial tuberosity
and crest; 19- Extensor sulcus (bottom); 20- Extensor fossa (bottom); 21- Craniomedial cortex;
22- Caudolateral cortex; 23- Vascular channels, 23a- common location, 23b- unusual location;
Fibula: 24- Head; 25- Body; 26- Fibrous non-union gap;
Soft tissues and joints: 27- Shadow of the lateral meniscus; 28- Shadow of the medial meniscus;
29- Tibiofibular joint.
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K.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. K.10 Cranial aspect of the dissected stifle.

1- Patella, 1a- apex, 1b- medial angle, 1c- dorsal face; 2- Femoral trochlea, 2a- medial trochlear
ridge, 2b- lateral trochlear ridge, 2c- groove, 2d- tubercle; 3- Medial femoral condyle; 4- Medial
femoral epicondyle; 5- Tibial tuberosity, 5a- distal part, 5b- medial branch, 5c- lateral branch;
6- Medial tibial condyle; 7- Lateral tibial condyle; 8- Fibula; 9- Medial parapatellar fibrocartilage;
10- Medial patellar ligament; 11- Intermediate patellar ligament; 12- Lateral patellar ligament;
13- Medial meniscus; 14- Medial collateral ligament; 15- Lateral meniscus; 16- Lateral collateral
ligament.

Fig. K.11 Caudal aspect of the isolated patellar apparatus.

1- Articular surface of the patella, 1a- proximomedial part, 1b- distomedial part, 1c- lateral part;
2- Base of the patella; 3- Apex of the patella; 4- Medial angle of the patella; 5- Medial parapa-
tellar fibrocartilage; 6- Lateral parapatellar fibrocartilage; 7- Medial femoropatellar ligament;
8- Medial patellar ligament; 9- Intermediate patellar ligament; 10- Lateral patellar ligament;
11- Lateral femoropatellar ligament; 12- Distal tendon of the gluteofemoral muscle.
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Fig. K.12 Medial aspect of the dissected stifle.

A- Patellar apparatus: 1- Base; 2- Articular surface; 3- Medial parapatellar fibrocartilage;

4- Medial patellar ligament; 5- Medial femoropatellar ligament; 6- Intermediate patellar ligament;
B- Femur: 7- Medial trochlear ridge; 8- Tubercle of the femoral trochlea; 9- Medial femoral
condyle; 10- Medial femoral epicondyle;
C- Tibia: 11- Medial tibial condyle; 12- Lateral tibial condyle; 13- Tibial tuberosity (medial
branch); 14- Tibial tuberosity (distal part); 15- Tibial crest;
D- Fibula;
E- Medial femorotibial joint: 16- Medial collateral ligament; 17- Medial meniscus, 17a- cranial
horn, 17b- caudal horn.
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Fig. K.13 Lateral aspect of the dissected stifle: superficial structures.

1- Patella; 2- Infrapatellar fat pad; 3- Gluteofemoralis tendon; 4- Lateral patellar ligament;

5- Lateral femoropatellar ligament; 6- Femur; 7- Lateral femoral condyle; 8- Lateral femoral epi-
condyle; 9- Extensor fossa of the femur; 10- Lateral tibial condyle; 11- Tibial tuberosity (lateral
branch); 12- Extensor sulcus of the tibia; 13- Fibula; 14- Lateral collateral ligament; 15- Lateral
meniscus (cranial horn); 16- Common proximal tendon of the long digital extensor and pero-
neus tertius muscles; 17- Long digital extensor muscle; 18- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 19- Lateral
digital extensor muscle; 20- Lateral digital flexor muscle; 21- Popliteus muscle, 21a- muscle body;
21b- tendon; 22- Gastrocnemius muscle (lateral head), 22a- muscle body, 22b- Common calca-
nean tendon.
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Fig. K.14 Lateral aspect of the dissected stifle: deep structures.

A- Femur: 1- Lateral trochlea ridge; 2- Medial trochlea ridge; 3- Tubercle of the femoral troch-
lea; 4- Groove of the femoral trochlea; 5- Lateral femoral condyle; 6- Lateral femoral epicondyle;
7- Supracondylar fossa of the femur; 8- Extensor fossa of the femur;
B- Tibia: 9- Lateral tibial condyle; 10- Tibial tuberosity (lateral branch); 11- Extensor sulcus of
the tibia; 12- Extensor fossa of the tibia;
C- Fibula;
D- Lateral femorotibial joint: 13- Lateral collateral ligament; 14- Lateral meniscus, 14a-cranial
horn, 14b- craniolateral meniscotibial ligament; 15- Popliteus muscle, 15a- body (proximal part),
15b- tendon (inserted in the popliteal fossa of the femur); 16- Tibiofibular joint.
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Fig. K.15 Caudal aspect of the dissected stifle placed in extension.

A- Femur: 1- Body (diaphysis); 2- Supracondylar fossa of the femur; 3- Medial femoral condyle;
4- Medial femoral epicondyle; 5- Lateral femoral condyle;
B- Tibia: 6- Medial tibial condyle; 7- Lateral tibial condyle; 8a- Popliteal notch, 8b- Insertion
surface of the popliteus muscle;
C- Menisci and ligaments: 9- Medial meniscus, 9a- caudal horn, 9b- caudomedial menisco-
tibial ligament; 10- Lateral meniscus, 10a- caudal horn, 10b- meniscofemoral ligament, 10c- cau-
dolateral meniscotibial ligament; 11- Medial collateral ligament; 12- Lateral collateral ligament;
13- Caudal cruciate ligament, 13a- tibial tubercle; 14- Cranial cruciate ligament;
D- Patella: 15- Articular surface (lateral part); 16- Base; 17- Lateral patellar ligament;
E- Fibula: 18- Tibiofibular joint;
F- Muscle: 19- Popliteus tendon (cut).
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Fig. K.16 Cranial aspect of the flexed stifle.

A- Femur: 1- Femoral trochlea, 1a- medial trochlear ridge, 1b- groove, 1c- lateral trochlear ridge;
2- Medial femoral condyle; 3- Lateral femoral condyle; 4- Intercondylar fossa; 5- Extensor fossa
of the femur; 6- Popliteal fossa;
B- Tibia: 7- Tibial tuberosity, 7a- medial branch, 7b- sulcus, 7c- lateral branch; 8- Medial tibial
condyle; 9- Lateral tibial condyle; 10- Extensor sulcus of the tibia; 11- Medial intercondylar tuber-
cle; 12- Lateral intercondylar tubercle;
C- Menisci and ligaments: 13- Medial meniscus, 13a- cranial horn, 13b- craniomedial menis-
cotibial ligament; 14- Lateral meniscus, 14a- cranial horn, 14b- craniolateral meniscotibial liga-
ment; 15- Cranial cruciate ligament; 16- Caudal cruciate ligament;
D- Fibula;
E- Muscle: 17- Popliteus tendon (cut).
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Fig. K.17 Caudomedial aspect of the dissected stifle after resection of the medial femoral condyle.

A- Femur: 1- Medial femoral condyle (cut); 2- Lateral femoral condyle; 3- Intercondylar line;
4- Intercondylar fossa; 5- Medial trochlear ridge (cut distally);
B- Tibia: 6- Medial tibial condyle; 7- Lateral tibial condyle; 8- Popliteal notch; 9- Insertion sur-
face of the popliteus muscle; 10- Tubercle of the caudal cruciate ligament; 11- Medial intercondy-
lar tubercle; 12- Lateral intercondylar tubercle;
C- Menisci and ligaments: 13- Medial meniscus, 13a- cranial horn, 13b- body, 13c- caudal horn;
14- Lateral meniscus, 14a- caudal horn, 14b- caudolateral meniscotibial ligament, 14c- menisco-
femoral ligament; 15- Caudal cruciate ligament; 16- Cranial cruciate ligament;
D- Fibula;
E- Muscle: 17- Popliteus tendon (cut).

Fig. K.18 Proximal aspect of the femorotibial joint.

1- Tibial tuberosity; 2- Medial tibial condyle; 3- Lateral tibial condyle; 4- Medial intercondylar
tubercle; 5- Lateral intercondylar tubercle; 6- Medial meniscus, 6a- craniomedial meniscotibial
ligament, 6b- cranial horn, 6c- body, 6d- caudal horn, 6e- caudomedial meniscotibial ligament;
7- Lateral meniscus, 7a- craniolateral meniscotibial ligament, 7b- cranial horn, 7c- body, 7d- cau-
dal horn; 8- Meniscofemoral ligament; 9- Cranial cruciate ligament; 10- Caudal cruciate ligament.
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K.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. K.19 Medial parasagittal section of the stifle.

1- Femur; 2- Tubercle of the femoral trochlea; 3- Medial trochlear ridge; 4- Medial femoral
condyle; 5- Tibial tuberosity (medial branch); 6- Base of the medial intercondylar tubercle;
7- Caudal intercondylar area; 8- Medial parapatellar fibrocartilage; 9- Medial patellar liga-
ment; 10- Infrapatellar fat pad; 11 Patellar fascia; 12- Synovial cavity of the femoropatellar joint;
13- Craniomedial meniscotibial ligament; 14- Caudal horn of the medial meniscus; 15- Medial
recess of the medial femorotibial joint (distended); 16- Caudal recess of the medial femorotibial
joint; 17- Quadriceps femoris muscle, 17a- rectus femoris muscle, 17b- vastus medialis muscle;
18- Medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle; 19- Popliteus muscle; 20- Skin.
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Fig. K.20 Lateral parasagittal section of the stifle.

1- Patella; 2- Femur; 3- Lateral ridge of the femoral trochlea; 4- Lateral femoral condyle; 5- Tibial
tuberosity (lateral branch); 6- Lateral tibial condyle; 7- Extensor sulcus of the tibia; 8- Patellar
fascia; 9- Infrapatellar fat pad; 10- Lateral patellar ligament (origin); 11- Lateral patellar liga-
ment (end); 12- Synovial cavity of the femoropatellar joint; 13- Junction between the cranial horn
of the lateral meniscus and craniolateral meniscotibial ligament; 14- Caudal horn of the lateral
meniscus; 15- Subextensor recess; 16- Subpopliteal recess; 17- Cranial recess of the lateral femo-
rotibial joint; 18- Caudal recess of the lateral femorotibial joint; 19- Common proximal tendon
of the long digital extensor and peroneus tertius muscles; 20- Long digital extensor muscle body;
21- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 22- Lateral digital flexor muscle; 23- Popliteus tendon and muscle;
24- Gastrocnemius muscle (lateral head); 25- Superficial digital flexor muscle (fibrous); 26- Skin.

Fig. K.21 Transverse section of the stifle proximal to the apex of the patella.

1- Patella; 2- Femur, 2a- medial trochlear ridge, 2b- lateral trochlear ridge, 2c- groove of the
femoral trochlea; 3- Patellar fascia; 4- Infrapatellar fat pad; 5- Medial patellar ligament;
6- Intermediate patellar ligament; 7- Lateral recess of the femoropatellar joint; 8- Medial recess
of the femoropatellar joint; 9- Tendon of the gluteofemoral muscle; 10- Biceps femoris muscle;
11- Femoral fascia; 12- Skin.
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Fig. K.22 Transverse section of the stifle passing through the intercondylar fossa of the femur.

1- Medial ridge of the femoral trochlea; 2- Lateral ridge of the femoral trochlea; 3- Medial fem-
oral condyle; 4- Lateral femoral condyle; 5- Extensor fossa; 6- Medial intercondylar tubercle;
7- Patellar fascia; 8- Infrapatellar fat pad; 9- Medial patellar ligament; 10- Intermediate patellar
ligament; 11- Lateral patellar ligament; 12- Medial collateral ligament; *- Caudal femorotibial
membrane and caudal recess of the medial femorotibial joint; 13- Lateral collateral ligament;
14- Meniscofemoral ligament; 15- Caudal cruciate ligament; 16- Cranial cruciate ligament;
17- Subextensor recess; 18- Common proximal tendon of the long digital extensor and peroneus
tertius muscles; 19- Popliteus muscle, 19a- tendon, 19b- muscle body, 19c- subpopliteal recess;
20- Gastrocnemius muscle, 20a- lateral head, 20b- medial head; 21- Superficial digital flexor mus-
cle (fibrous); 22- Biceps femoris muscle; 23- Gracilis muscle; 24- Popliteal artery; 25- Popliteal
vein; 26- Middle genu artery; 27- Saphenous vein; 28- Tibial nerve with the caudal femoral artery
and vein; 29- Skin.
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Fig. K.23 Frontal section of the stifle passing through the intercondylar fossa of the femur.

1- Femur; 2- Medial femoral condyle; 3- Lateral femoral condyle; 4- Lateral femoral epicondyle;
5- Intercondylar fossa; 6- Tibia; 7- Medial tibial condyle; 8- Lateral tibial condyle; 9- Caudal
intercondylar area; 10- Medial meniscus; 11- Lateral meniscus; 12- Lateral collateral ligament;
13- Cranial cruciate ligament; 14- Caudal cruciate ligament; 15- Semimembranosus muscle,
15a- muscle body, 15b- femoral insertion; 16- Adductor magnus muscle; 17- Vastus lateralis mus-
cle; 18- Gluteofemoralis muscle; 19- Biceps femoris muscle; 20- Gastrocnemius muscle (lateral
head); 21- Long digital extensor muscle; 22- Peroneus tertius muscle; 23- Tibialis cranialis muscle;
24- Crural fascia; 25- Genu middle artery; 26- Genu lateral proximal artery; 27- Saphenous artery
(ramus); 28- Skin.

Fig. K.24 Frontal section of the stifle passing through the femoral condyles.

1- Medial femoral condyle; 2- Lateral femoral condyle; 3- Intercondylar line; 4- Medial tibial
condyle; 5- Lateral tibial condyle; 6- Caudal intercondylar area; 6- Medial meniscus, 6a- caudal
horn, 6b- caudomedial meniscotibial ligament; 7- Lateral meniscus, 7a- body, 7b- caudal horn;
8- Meniscofemoral ligament; 9- Cranial cruciate ligament; 10- Caudal cruciate ligament;
11- Lateral collateral ligament; 12- Biceps femoris; 13- Gastrocnemius muscle, 13a- lateral head,
13b- medial head; 14- Semimembranosus muscle; 15- Long digital extensor muscle; 16- Lateral
digital flexor muscle; 17- Popliteus muscle; 18- Crural fascia; 19- Popliteal artery; 20- Popliteal
vein; 21- Genu lateral proximal artery and vein; 22- Middle genu artery; 23- Skin.
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L.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. L.1 Caudolateral (right hind limb) and caudomedial (left hind limb) aspects of the crus.

1- Tibia; 2- Cranial tibial area; 3- Caudal tibial area; 4- Gastrocnemius muscle body (distal
part); 5- Common calcanean tendon; 6- Lateral sulcus of the hock; 7- Medial sulcus of the hock;
8- Saphenous vein.
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L.2 BONE ANATOMY

Fig. L.2 Lateral (A) and caudomedial (B) aspects of the tibia and fibula.

1- Lateral femoral condyle; 2- Medial femoral condyle; 3- Body of the tibia; 4- Lateral tibial con-
dyle; 5- Medial tibial condyle; 6- Tibial tuberosity (lateral branch); 7- Extensor sulcus; 8- Lateral
face; 9- Medial face; 10- Caudal face; 11- Popliteal line; 12- Tibial cochlea; 13- Lateral malleolus;
14- Medial malleolus; 15- Fibula (body), 15a- head of the fibula; 16- Tibiofibular joint; 17- Talus;
18- Calcaneus.
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L.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. L.3 Lateral aspect of the dissected crus: superficial structures.

1- Distal femur; 2- Lateral tibial condyle; 3- Calcaneus; 4- Long digital extensor muscle, 4a- muscle
body, 4b- distal tendon; 5- Common proximal tendon of the long digital extensor and peroneus
tertius muscles; 6- Lateral digital extensor muscle, 6a- muscle body, 6b- tendon; 7- Lateral digi-
tal flexor muscle, 7a- muscle body, 7b- tendon; 8- Crural fascia (deep layer); 9- Popliteus muscle;
10- Gastrocnemius muscle (lateral head); 11- Crural fascia (superficial layer, most of it having been
removed); 12- Common calcanean tendon; 13- Calcanean cap of the superficial digital flexor tendon.

Fig. L.4 Lateral aspect of the dissected crus: deep structures.

1- Distal femur; 2- Tibia; 3- Patella; 4- Calcaneus; 5- Third metatarsal bone; 6- Quadriceps

femoris muscle; 7- Long digital extensor muscle, 7a- muscle body, 7b- common proximal tendon
 224 Chapter L
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of the long digital extensor and peroneus tertius muscles, 7c- distal tendon; 8- Peroneus tertius
muscle; 9- Proximal (tibial) extensor retinaculum; 10- Intermediate (tarsal) extensor retinacu-
lum; 11- Distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum; 12- Lateral digital extensor muscle, 12a- mus-
cle body, 12b- tendon; 13- Lateral digital flexor muscle; 14- Superficial digital flexor muscle,
14a- muscle body (atrophied), 14b- proximal tendon, 14c- distal tendon, 14d- calcanean cap;
15- Gastrocnemius tendon and femoral tendon of the biceps femoris muscle (cut).

Fig. L.5 Cranial aspect of the right dissected crus. Lateral is to the left.

1- Tibial tuberosity, 1a- lateral branch, 1b- medial branch, 1c distal part; 2- Lateral tibial con-
dyle; 3- Body of the tibia, 3a- tibial crest; 4- Medial malleolus; 5- Lateral malleolus; 6- Femoral
trochlea; 7- Third metatarsal bone; 8- Long digital extensor muscle, 8a- muscle body, 8b- com-
mon proximal tendon of the long digital extensor and peroneus tertius muscles, 8c- distal tendon;
9- Peroneus tertius muscle; 10- Cranial tibial muscle, 10a- body, 10b- distal tendons; 11- Lateral
digital extensor muscle, 11a- muscle body, 11b- distal tendon; 12- Proximal (tibial) extensor reti-
naculum; 13- Intermediate (tarsal) extensor retinaculum; 14- Distal (metatarsal) extensor retinac-
ulum; 15- Short digital extensor muscle; 16- Lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle; 17- Medial
head of the gastrocnemius muscle; 18- Distal part of the semitendinosus muscle body.
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Fig. L.6 Medial aspect of the dissected crus: superficial structures.

1- Tibia; 2- Semitendinosus muscle, 2a- tibial tendon, 2b, calcanean tendon; 3- Crural fascia,
3a- superficial layer, 3b- deep layer, 3c- dorsal part, 3d- proper layer (around the common calca-
nean tendon); 4- Gastrocnemius muscle (medial head), 4a- tendon; 5- Superficial digital flexor ten-
don, 5a- calcanean cap; 6- Lateral digital flexor muscle; 7- Medial digital flexor muscle, 7a- tendon
covered by the crural fascia; 8- Long digital extensor muscle; 9- Caudal root of the saphenous vein,
9a- anastomosis with the caudal femoral vein; 10- Tibial nerve; 11- Origin of the plantar nerves.
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Fig. L.7 Lateral aspect of the dissected crus: fibular nerves.

1- Tibial tuberosity; 2- Lateral collateral ligament of the femorotibial joint; 3- Lateral malleo-
lus (distal end of the fibula); 4- Point of the hock; 5- Long digital extensor muscle, 5a- muscle
body, 5b- distal tendon; 6- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 7- Lateral digital extensor muscle, 7a- muscle
body, 7b- tendon (covered by the crural fascia); 8- Lateral digital flexor muscle; 9- Gastrocnemius
muscle (lateral head); 10- Common calcanean tendon; 11- Tibial (proximal) extensor retinaculum
(cut and reclined); 12- Cranial tibial vein; 13- Lateral saphenous vein; 14- Common fibular (pero-
neal) nerve; 15- Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve, 15a- muscle rami; 16- Superficial fibular (peroneal)
nerve, 16a- muscle ramus.
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L.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. L.8 Transverse section of the crus at mid-tibia.

Bones: 1- Tibia, 1a- medial cortex and face, 1b- cranial cortex and face, 1c- caudal cortex and face,
1d- lateral cortex and border, 1e- medullary cavity; 2- Fibula;
Muscles and associated structures: 3- Long digital extensor muscle; 4- Peroneus tertius muscle
(fibrous); 5- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 6- Lateral digital extensor muscle; 7- Lateral digital flexor
muscle, 7a- striated muscle fibres, 7b- intramuscular aponeuroses; 8- Tibialis caudalis muscle;
9- Medial digital flexor tendon; 10- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 11- Gastrocnemius ten-
don, medial head; 12- Gastrocnemius tendon, lateral head; 13- Common calcanean tendon of the
biceps femoris and semitendinosus muscles; 14- Crural fascia, superficial layer; 15- Crural fascia,
deep layer; 16- Cranial crural septum; 17- Caudal crural septum; 18- Crural fascia, proper layer
(around the common calcanean tendon);
Vessels and nerves: 19- Cranial tibial artery and veins; 20- Caudal tibial artery and vein;
21- Medial saphenous vein (cranial root); 22- Caudal root of the medial saphenous vein commu-
nicating to the caudal femoral vein; 23- Lateral saphenous vein; 24- Tibial nerve; 25- Superficial
fibular (peroneal) nerve; 26- Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve; 27- Skin.
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Fig. L.9 Transverse section of the crus at the distal third of the tibia.

Bones: 1- Tibia, 1a- medial cortex and face, 1b- cranial cortex and face, 1c- caudal cortex and face,
1d- lateral cortex and border, 1e- medullary cavity; 2- Fibula (fibrous);
Muscles and associated structures: 3- Long digital extensor muscle; 4- Peroneus tertius muscle
(fibrous); 5- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 6- Lateral digital extensor muscle; 7- Lateral digital flexor
muscle, 7a- striated muscle fibres, 7b- intramuscular aponeuroses; 8- Tibialis caudalis muscle;
9- Medial digital flexor tendon; 10- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 11- Gastrocnemius ten-
don, medial head; 12- Gastrocnemius tendon, lateral head; 13- Common calcanean tendon of the
biceps femoris and semitendinosus muscles; 14- Soleus muscle; 15- Crural fascia, 15a- superficial
layer, 15b- deep layer; 16- Cranial crural septum;
Vessels and nerves: 17- Caudal crural septum; 18- Crural fascia, proper layer (around the com-
mon calcanean tendon); 19- Cranial tibial artery (satellite veins are empty); 20- Caudal tibial
artery (satellite vein is empty); 21- Medial saphenous vein (cranial root); 22- Caudal root of the
medial saphenous vein communicating to the caudal femoral vein; 23- Tibial nerve; 24- Superficial
fibular (peroneal) nerve; 25- Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve; 26- Skin.
 Chapter M

THE TARSUS
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229

M.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. M.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the equine hock: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Common calcanean tendon; 2- Point of the hock; 3- Digital flexor tendons; 4- Lateral mal-
leolus (distal part of the fibula); 5- Lateral ridge of the trochlea of the talus; 6- Tarsometatarsal
junction, 6a- head of the lateral splint bone (fourth metatarsal bone); 7- Proximal plica of the hock
(tibial retinaculum); 8- Tendons of the tarsal flexor muscles (peroneus tertius and tibialis cranialis
muscles) over the medial ridge of the trochlea of the talus; 9- Distal plica of the hock (metatar-
sal retinaculum); 10- Medial malleolus of the tibia; 11- Dorsal recess of the tarsocrural joint;
12- Sustentaculum tali and lateral digital flexor tendon; 13- Distal tarsus; 14- Distomedial sulcus
of the hock (over the proximal insertion of the suspensory ligament); 15- Chestnut.
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Fig. M.2 Dorsal aspect of the equine hock: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Point of the hock; 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula); 3- Lateral ridge of the trochlea
of the talus; 4- Medial malleolus of the tibia; 5- Dorsal recess of the tarsocrural joint (the dorsal
root of the saphenous vein is empty); 6- Distal tarsus; 7- Proximal plica of the hock (tibial retinac-
ulum); 8- Tendons of the tarsal flexor muscles (peroneus tertius and tibialis cranialis muscles) over
the medial ridge of the trochlea of the talus; 9- Distal plica of the hock (metatarsal retinaculum).

Fig. M.3 Plantarolateral and plantaromedial aspects of the equine hock: palpable anatomical
structures.

1- Common calcanean tendon; 2- Point of the hock; 3- Digital flexor tendons; 4- Lateral digital
extensor tendon; 5- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula); 6- Lateral ridge of the trochlea of
the talus; 7- Head of the lateral splint bone (fourth metatarsal bone); 8- Medial malleolus of the tibia;
9- Medial collateral ligament; 10- Distal tarsus; 11- Dorsal root of the saphenous vein; 12- Chestnut.
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M.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. M.4 Lateromedial radiographic view of the left tarsus.

Tibia: 1- Medial malleolus; 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula), 2a- caudal lobe;
3- Tibial cochlea, 3a- grooves, 3b- intermediate ridge, 3c- dorsal extremity of the intermediate
ridge, 3d- plantar extremity of the intermediate ridge; 4- subchondral bone;
Talus: 5- Trochlea of the talus, 5a- medial trochlear ridge, 5b- lateral trochlear ridge, 5c- inter-
mediate groove; 6- Distal tubercle; 7- Proximal tubercle; 8- Head of the talus; 9- Body of the
talus;
Calcaneus: 10- Tuber calcanei, 10a- dorsal lobe, 10b- plantar lobe; 11- Coracoid process;
12- Sustentaculum tali;
Distal tarsus: 13- Central tarsal bone; 14- First tarsal bone; 15- Second tarsal bone; 16- Third
tarsal bone; 17- Fourth tarsal bone, 17a- plantar tubercle;
Metatarsus: 18- Second metatarsal bone; 19- Third metatarsal bone, 19a- dorsal cortex,
19b- plantar cortex; 20- Fourth metatarsal bone;
Joints: 21- Tarsocrural joint; 22- Talocalcaneal joint, 22a- lateral part, 22b- medial part,
22c- tarsal sinus; 22d- lateral talocalcaneal joint space; 23- Proximal intertarsal (mediotarsal) joint;
24- Distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint; 25- Tarsometatarsal joint.
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Fig. M.5 Dorsoplantar radiographic view of the left tarsus.

Tibia: 1- Medial malleolus; 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula), 2a- cranial lobe,
2b- caudal lobe; 3- Tibial cochlea, 3a- medial groove, 3b- lateral groove, 3c- intermediate ridge,
3d- dorsal extremity of the intermediate ridge; 4- subchondral bone;
Talus: 5- Trochlea of the talus, 5a- medial trochlear ridge, 5b- lateral trochlear ridge, 5c- inter-
mediate groove; 6- Distal tubercle; 7- Proximal tubercle; 8- Head of the talus;
Calcaneus: 9- Tuber calcanei; 10- Sustentaculum tali; 11- Gliding surface for the lateral digital
flexor tendon;
Distal tarsus: 12- Central tarsal bone; 13- First tarsal bone; 14- Second tarsal bone; 15- Third
tarsal bone; 16- Fourth tarsal bone;
Metatarsus: 17- Second metatarsal bone; 18- Third metatarsal bone; 19- Fourth metatarsal bone;
Joints: 20- Tarsocrural joint; 21- Proximal intertarsal (mediotarsal) joint, 21a- talocentral joint,
21b- calcaneoquartal joint; 22- Distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint; 23- Tarsometatarsal joint.
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Fig. M.6 Dorsoplantar radiographic view of the left distal tarsus.

Talus: 1- Trochlea of the talus, 1a- medial trochlear ridge, 1b- lateral trochlear ridge, 1c- inter-
mediate groove; 2- Distal tubercle; 3- Head of the talus;
Calcaneus: 4- distolateral part;
Distal tarsus: 5- Central tarsal bone, 5a- plantaromedial elevation, 5b- plantar margin, 5c- plan-
tar tubercle; 6- First tarsal bone, 6a- proximomedial margin, 6b- plantar lobe; 7- Second tarsal
bone; 8- Third tarsal bone, 8a- medial tubercle; 8b- plantar tubercle; 9- Fourth tarsal bone,
9a- spongy bone, 9b- compact bone;
Metatarsus: 10- Second metatarsal bone, 10a- head, 10b- body; 11- Third metatarsal bone,
11a- medial border, 11b- lateral border; 12- Fourth metatarsal bone, 12a- head, 12b- body;
Joints: 13- Proximal intertarsal (mediotarsal) joint, 13a- talocentral joint, 13b- calcaneoquartal
joint; 14- Distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint, 14a- interosseous fossa; 15- Tarsometatarsal joint,
15a- interosseous fossa.
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Fig. M.7 Dorsomedial radiographic view of the right tarsus.

Tibia: 1- Medial malleolus, 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula); 3- Tibial cochlea,
3a- medial groove, 3b- lateral groove, 3c- intermediate ridge, 3d- dorsal extremity of the interme-
diate ridge, 3e- plantar extremity of the intermediate ridge; 4- subchondral bone;
Talus: 5- Trochlea of the talus, 5a- medial trochlear ridge, 5b- lateral trochlear ridge, 5c- inter-
mediate groove; 6- Distal tubercle; 7- Proximal tubercle; 8- Head of the talus;
Calcaneus: 9- Tuber calcanei; 10- Sustentaculum tali; 11- Coracoid process;
Distal tarsus: 12- Central tarsal bone; 13- First tarsal bone; 14- Second tarsal bone; 15- Third
tarsal bone; 16- Fourth tarsal bone;
Metatarsus: 17- Second metatarsal bone; 18- Third metatarsal bone; 19- Fourth metatarsal bone;
Joints: 20- Tarsocrural joint; 21- Proximal intertarsal (talocentral and calcaneoquartal) joint;
22- Distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint; 23- Tarsometatarsal joint.
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Fig. M.8 Dorsolateral radiographic view of the left tarsus.

Tibia: 1- Medial malleolus; 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula), 2a- cranial lobe,
2b-caudal lobe; 3- Tibial cochlea, 3a- medial groove, 3b- lateral groove, 3c- intermediate ridge,
3d- dorsal extremity of the intermediate ridge, 3e- plantar extremity of the intermediate ridge;
4- subchondral bone;
Talus: 5- Trochlea of the talus, 5a- medial trochlear ridge, 5b- lateral trochlear ridge, 5c- inter-
mediate groove; 6- Distal tubercle; 7- Medial articular margin of the medial trochlear ridge;
8- Lateral profile of the talus;
Calcaneus: 9- Tuber calcanei; 10- Sustentaculum tali; 11- Coracoid process;
Distal tarsus: 12- Central tarsal bone; 13- First tarsal bone; 14- Second tarsal bone; 15- Third
tarsal bone; 16- Fourth tarsal bone; 17- Tarsal canal;
Metatarsus: 18- Second metatarsal bone; 19- Third metatarsal bone; 20- Fourth metatarsal bone;
Joints: 21- Tarsocrural joint; 22- Talocalcaneal joint; 23- Tarsal sinus; 24- Proximal intertar-
sal (mediotarsal) joint, 24a- talocentral joint, 24b- calcaneoquartal joint; 25- Distal intertarsal
(centrodistal) joint, 25a- interosseous fossa; 26- Tarsometatarsal joint; 27- Intermetatarsal joint,
27a- intermetatarsal syndesmosis.
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Fig. M.9 Lateromedial radiographic view of the flexed left tarsus.

Tibia: 1- Medial malleolus; 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula); 3- Tibial cochlea,
3a- grooves, 3b- intermediate ridge, 3c- dorsal extremity of the intermediate ridge, 3d- plantar
extremity of the intermediate ridge; 4- subchondral bone;
Talus: 5- Trochlea of the talus, 5a- medial trochlear ridge, 5b- lateral trochlear ridge, 5c- inter-
mediate groove; 6- Distal tubercle; 7- Proximal tubercle; 8- Head of the talus; 9- Body of the
talus;
Calcaneus: 10- Tuber calcanei, 10a- dorsal lobe, 10b- plantar lobe; 11- Coracoid process;
12- Sustentaculum tali;
Distal tarsus: 13- Central tarsal bone; 14- First tarsal bone; 15- Second tarsal bone; 16- Third
tarsal bone; 17- Fourth tarsal bone, 17a- plantar tubercle;
Metatarsus: 18- Second metatarsal bone; 19- Third metatarsal bone; 20- Fourth metatarsal bone;
Joints: 21- Tarsocrural joint; 22- Talocalcaneal joint, 22a- lateral part, 22b- medial part,
22c- tarsal sinus, 22d- lateral talocalcaneal joint space; 23- Proximal intertarsal (mediotarsal) joint;
24- Distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint; 25- Tarsometatarsal joint.
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Fig. M.10 Proximodistal radiographic view of the flexed left tarsus.

Calcaneus: 1- Tuber calcanei; 2- Sustentaculum tali; 3- Sulcus of the lateral digital flexor tendon;
4- Insertion surface of the medial attachment of the superficial digital flexor tendon cap (medial
tenocalcaneal ligament);
Talus: 5- Medial trochlear ridge; 6- Lateral trochlear ridge; 7- Intermediate groove; 8- Proximal
tubercle; 9- Distal tubercle;
Talocalcaneal joint: 10- Joint space, 10a- lateral part, 10b- medial part; 11- Interosseous space
communicating with the tarsal sinus;
Tibia and fibula: 12- Lateral malleolus;
Distal tarsus: 13- Fourth tarsal bone.
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M.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. M.11 Dorsal aspect of the dissected tarsus: superficial structures.

1- Tibia (body); 2- Medial malleolus of the tibia; 3- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula);
4- Medial trochlea ridge of the talus; 5- Lateral trochlea ridge of the talus; 6- Third metatarsal
bone; 7- Fourth metatarsal bone (lateral splint bone); 8- Point of the hock (tuber calcanei covered
by the cap of the superficial digital flexor tendon); 9- Long digital extensor muscle, 9a- muscle
body, 9b- distal tendon; 10- Peroneus tertius muscle, 10a- fibrous muscle body, 10b- opening
of distal tendon for the tibialis cranialis tendon, 10c- metatarsal branch; 11- Tibialis cranialis
muscle, 11a- muscle body, 11b- tarsal (cunean) branch, 11c- metatarsal branch; 12- Lateral dig-
ital extensor muscle, 12a- muscle body, 12b- distal tendon; 13- Short digital extensor muscle;
14- Proximal (tibial) extensor retinaculum; 15- Intermediate (tarsal) extensor retinaculum;
16- distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum; 17- Medial collateral ligament; 18- Lateral collateral
ligament.
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Fig. M.12 Dorsal aspect of the dissected tarsus: intermediate structures.

1- Tibia (body); 2- Medial malleolus of the tibia; 3- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula);
4- Third metatarsal bone; 5- Peroneus tertius muscle, 5a- fibrous muscle body, 5b- opening of
distal tendon for the tibialis cranialis tendon, 5c- metatarsal branch, 5d tarsal (quartal) branch;
6- Intermediate (tarsal) extensor retinaculum; 7- Tibialis cranialis muscle, 7a- muscle body,
7b- metatarsal branch, 7c- tarsal (cunean) branch; 8- Dorsal capsule of the tarsocrural joint,
8a- over the dorsomedial recess of the joint (opened), 8b- over the lateral trochlea ridge of the
talus; 9- Medial collateral ligament; 10- Lateral collateral ligament.
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Fig. M.13 Dorsal aspect of the dissected tarsus: deep structures.

1- Tibia (body); 2- Medial malleolus of the tibia; 3- Tibial cochlea, 3a- medial groove, 3b- inter-
mediate ridge, 3c- lateral groove; 4- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula); 5- Trochlea of
the talus, 5a- groove, 5b- medial ridge, 5c- lateral ridge; 6- Body of the talus; 7- distal tubercle of
the talus; 8- Tuber calcanei; 9- Central tarsal bone; 10- Third tarsal bone; 11- Third metatarsal
bone; 12- Long medial collateral ligament; 13- Short medial collateral ligament; 14- Long lateral
collateral ligament; 15- Short lateral collateral ligament; 16- Talometatarsal (talocentrodistometa-
tarsal) ligament.
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Fig. M.14 Lateral aspect of the dissected tarsus: superficial structures.

1- Tibia (distal metaphysis); 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula); 3- Lateral troch-
lear ridge of the talus (covered by the articular capsule of the tarsocrural joint); 4- Calcaneus,
4a- tuber calcanei; 5- Third metatarsal bone; 6- Fourth metatarsal bone (lateral splint bone),
6a-head; 7- Long lateral collateral ligament; 8- Short lateral collateral ligament; 9- Long plantar
ligament; 10- Syndesmosis between the third and fourth metatarsal bones; 11- Long digital exten-
sor muscle, 11a- muscle body, 11b- distal tendon; 12- Peroneus tertius muscle, 12a- fibrous muscle
body, 12b- opening of the distal tendon for the tibialis cranialis tendon, 12c- tarsal (quartal)
branch; 13- Tibialis cranialis muscle, 13a- muscle body, 13b- metatarsal branch; 14- Lateral digi-
tal extensor muscle, 14a- muscle body, 14b- distal tendon, 14c- tendon sheath; 15- Short digital
extensor muscle; 16- Lateral digital flexor muscle (main origin of the deep digital flexor tendon);
17- Common calcanean tendon; 18- Calcaneal tendon of the femoral muscles; 19- Superficial
digital flexor tendon, 19a- cap of the superficial digital flexor tendon, 19b- lateral attachment
(lateral tenocalcaneal ligament); 20- Deep digital flexor tendon; 21- Third interosseous mus-
cle (suspensory ligament); 22- Plantar tarsal fascia; 23- Proximal (tibial) extensor retinaculum;
24- Intermediate (tarsal) extensor retinaculum; 25- distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum.
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Fig. M.15 Lateral aspect of the dissected tarsus: deep structures.

1- Tibia (body); 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula), 2a- cranial lobe, 2b- caudal lobe,
2c- groove of the lateral digital extensor tendon; 3- Talus, 3a- lateral trochlear ridge, 3b- medial
trochlear ridge, 3c- head; 4- Calcaneus, 4a- dorsal lobe of the tuber calcanei, 4b- plantar lobe of
the tuber calcanei; 5- Central tarsal bone; 6- Third tarsal bone; 7- Tarsal canal; 8- Third meta-
tarsal bone; 9- Fourth metatarsal bone (lateral splint bone), 9a-head; 10- Long lateral collateral
ligament; 11- Short lateral collateral ligament; 12- Long plantar ligament.
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Fig. M.16 Lateral aspect of the flexed tarsus: deep structures.

1- Tibia (body), 1a- tibial cochlea; 2- Lateral malleolus (distal part of the fibula), 2a- cranial lobe,
2b- caudal lobe, 2c- groove of the lateral digital extensor tendon; 3- Talus, 3a- lateral troch-
lear ridge; 4- Calcaneus, 4a- coracoid process; 5- Central tarsal bone; 6- Third tarsal bone;
7- Third metatarsal bone; 8- Fourth metatarsal bone (lateral splint bone), 8a- head; 9- Tarsal canal;
10- Long lateral collateral ligament; 11- Short lateral collateral ligament, 11a- talean fasciculus,
11b- calcaneal fasciculus; 12- Long plantar ligament; 13- Talometatarsal (talocentrodistometatar-
sal) ligament; 14- Proximal talocalcaneal ligament.
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Fig. M.17 Medial aspect of the dissected tarsus: superficial structures.

1- Tibia (medial surface of the body), 1a- medial malleolus; 2- Tuber calcanei; 3- Third metatar-
sal bone; 4- Second metatarsal bone (medial splint bone); 5- Articular capsule of the tarsocrural
joint; 6- Long medial collateral ligament; 7- Long digital extensor muscle; 8- Tibialis cranialis
muscle, 8a- muscle body, 8b- tarsal (cunean) branch; 9- Peroneus tertius muscle, 9a- fibrous mus-
cle body, 9b- opening of the distal tendon for the tibialis cranialis tendon, 9c- metatarsal branch;
10- Proximal (tibial) extensor retinaculum; 11- Gastrocnemius tendon; 12- Calcaneal tendon of
the femoral muscles contributing to the common calcanean tendon; 13- Superficial digital flexor
tendon; 14- Cap of the superficial digital flexor tendon, 14a- medial calcaneal attachment (medial
tenocalcaneal ligament); 15- Lateral digital flexor muscle, 15a- muscle body, 15b- tendon (main
origin of the deep digital flexor tendon); *- Tibialis caudalis muscle; 16- Medial digital flexor
muscle, 16a- muscle body, 16b- tendon in its sheath; 17- Deep digital flexor tendon; 18- Flexor
retinaculum; 19- Plantar metatarsal fascia.
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Fig. M.18 Medial aspect of the dissected tarsus: deep structures.

1- Tibia (medial surface of the body), 1a- medial malleolus, 1b- tibial cochlea; 2- Talus, 2a- medial
trochlear ridge, 2b- proximal tubercle, 2c- distal tubercle; 3- Calcaneus, 3a- dorsal lobe of the
tuber calcanei, 3b- plantar lobe of the tuber calcanei with distal insertion of the gastrocnemius
tendon; 4- First tarsal bone; 5- Third metatarsal bone; 6- Second metatarsal bone (medial splint
bone), 6a- head; 7- Long medial collateral ligament; 8- Short medial collateral ligament, 8a- cal-
caneal fasciculus, 8b- talean fasciculus; 9- Long plantar ligament; 10- Distal plantar ligament;
11- Proximomedial talocalcaneal ligament.
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Fig. M.19 Medial aspect of the flexed tarsus: deep structures.

1- Tibia (medial surface of the body), 1a- medial malleolus, 1b- tibial cochlea, 1c- interme-
diate ridge (caudal extremity); 2- Talus, 2a- medial trochlear ridge, 2b- proximal tubercle;
3- Calcaneus, 3a- dorsal lobe of the tuber calcanei, 3b- plantar lobe of the tuber calcanei with
distal insertion of the gastrocnemius tendon; 4- First tarsal bone; 5- Third metatarsal bone;
6- Second metatarsal bone (medial splint bone), 6a- head; 7- Long medial collateral ligament;
8- Short medial collateral ligament, 8a- calcaneal fasciculus, 8b- talean fasciculus; 9- Long
plantar ligament; 10- Distal plantar ligament; 11- Proximomedial talocalcaneal ligament;
12- Talocalcaneal joint space.
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Fig. M.20 Plantaromedial aspect of the dissected tarsus: superficial structures.

1- Tibia (medial surface of the body); 2- Medial malleolus; 3- Tuber calcanei; 4- Third metatar-
sal bone; 5- Second metatarsal bone (medial splint bone); 6- Long medial collateral ligament;
7- Superficial digital flexor muscle, 7a- cap, 7b- medial attachment (tenocalcaneal ligament);
8- Common calcanean tendon; 9- Tibialis caudalis muscle and tendon; 10- Lateral digital
flexor muscle, 10a- muscle body, 10b- tendon (main origin of the deep digital flexor tendon);
11- Medial digital flexor muscle, 11a- muscle body, 11b- tendon in its sheath; 12- Deep digital
flexor tendon; 13- Flexor retinaculum; 14- Plantar tarsal sheath (opened); 15- Plantar meta-
tarsal fascia; 16- Tibialis cranialis muscle; 17- Tarsal (cunean) branch of the tibialis cranialis
muscle.
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Fig. M.21 Medial aspect of the point of the hock: common calcanean tendon.

1- Calcaneus; 2- Tuber calcanei, 2a- dorsal lobe, 2b- plantar lobe; 3- Medial malleolus of the tibia;
4- Lateral digital flexor tendon; 5- Gastrocnemius tendon; 6- Calcaneal tendon of the femo-
ral muscles contributing to the common calcanean tendon; 7- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
8- Cap of the superficial digital flexor tendon, 8a- medial calcaneal attachment (medial tenocalca-
neal ligament).
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Fig. M.22 Plantar aspect of the dissected tarsus: deep structures.

1- Caudal surface of the tibia; 2- Medial surface of the tibia; 3- Medial malleolus, 4- Tibial
cochlea; 5- Sulcus of the medial digital flexor muscle; 6- Calcaneus (plantar lobe of the tuber
calcanei); 7- Sustentaculum tali, 7a- groove for the lateral digital flexor muscle, 7b- medial mar-
gin; 8- Proximal tubercle of the talus; 9- Second metatarsal bone (medial splint bone); 10- Third
metatarsal bone; 11- Fourth metatarsal bone (lateral splint bone); 12- Long medial collateral
ligament; 13- Short medial collateral ligament, 13a- talean fasciculus, 13b- calcaneal fascicu-
lus; 14- Long plantar ligament; 15- Distal plantar ligament, 15a- lateral part continuing in the
third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 15b- medial part fusing with the long medial
collateral ligament; 16- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 16a- tarsal origin,
16b- metatarsal origin.
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Fig. M.23 Plantar aspect of the dissected tarsus: plantar nerves.

1- Tibia (medial malleolus); 2- Second metatarsal bone (medial splint bone), 2a- head, 2b- body;
3- Third metatarsal bone; 4- Fourth metatarsal bone, 4a- head, 4b- body; 5- Long medial collat-
eral ligament; 6- Long lateral collateral ligament; 7- Long plantar ligament; 8- Superficial digital
flexor tendon (reclined), 8a- cap; 9- Lateral digital flexor tendon; 10- Medial digital flexor tendon;
11- Deep digital flexor tendon; 12- Flexor retinaculum; 13- Medial plantar nerve; 14- Lateral
plantar nerve; 15- Medial (II) plantar common digital nerve; 16- Lateral (III) plantar common
digital nerve.
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Fig. M.24 Plantarolateral aspect of the dissected tarsus: lateral plantar nerve.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Fourth metatarsal bone, 2a- head, 2b- body; 3- Long lateral collat-
eral ligament; 4- Long plantar ligament; 5- Long digital extensor tendon; 6- Lateral digital exten-
sor tendon; 7- Intermediate (tarsal) retinaculum; 8- Distal (metatarsal) retinaculum; 9- Superficial
digital flexor tendon (reclined); 10- Lateral digital flexor tendon; 11- Deep digital flexor tendon
and accessory ligament; 12- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament); 13- Flexor retinac-
ulum (cut and open); 14- Plantar tarsal sheath (membrane and cavity); 15- Lateral plantar nerve;
16- Deep ramus; 17- Lateral (III) plantar common digital nerve.
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M.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. M.25 Sagittal section of the tarsus.

1- Tibial cochlea (distal epiphysis); 2- Talus, 2a- medial trochlea ridge, 2b- head; 3- Calcaneus,
3a- tuber calcanei, 3b- sustentaculum tali; 4- Central tarsal bone; 5- Third tarsal bone; 6- Fourth
tarsal bone; 7- Third metatarsal bone, 7a- dorsal cortex, 7b- plantar cortex; 8- Dorsal capsule
of the tarsocrural joint; 9- Distodorsal recess of the tarsocrural joint; 10- Talometatarsal (talo-
centrodistometatarsal) ligament; 11- Proximomedial talocalcaneal ligament; 12- Proximal plan-
tar ligament of the tarsus; 13- Distal plantar ligament of the tarsus; 14- Long plantar ligament
(origin); 15- Proximoplantar recess of the tarsocrural joint; 16- Tarsocrural joint; 17- Medial
talocalcaneal joint; 18- Interosseous ligament of the proximal intertarsal (talocentral) joint;
19- Interosseous ligament of the distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint; 20- Interosseous ligament
of the tarsometatarsal joint; 21- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 22- Lateral digital flexor tendon;
23- Deep digital flexor tendon; 24- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 25- Third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 25a- tarsal origin, 25b- metatarsal origin; 26- Plantar
tarsal fascia; 27- Skin.
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Fig. M.26 Transverse section of the proximal tarsus. Dorsal is to the top; lateral is to the left.

1- Talus (body); 2- Trochlea of the talus, 2a- groove, 2b- medial trochlea ridge, 2c- lateral troch-
lea ridge; 3- Medial articular margin of the talus articular surface; 4- Proximal tubercle of the
talus; 5- Calcaneus (body); 6- Sustentaculum tali; 7- Tuber calcanei (base); 8- Long medial collat-
eral ligament; 9- Short medial collateral ligament, 9a- talean fasciculus, 9b- calcaneal fasciculus;
10- Long lateral collateral ligament; 11- Short lateral collateral ligament, 11a- talean fasciculus,
11b- calcanean fasciculus; 12- Dorsal capsule of the tarsocrural joint; 13- Dorsomedial recess
of the tarsocrural joint; 14- Lateral talocalcaneal joint; 15- Interosseous talocalcaneal liga-
ment (proximal part); 16- Proximomedial talocalcaneal ligament; 17- Tibialis cranialis tendon;
18- Peroneus tertius tendon, 18a- metatarsal branch, 18b- tarsal (quartal) branch; 19- Long digital
extensor tendon; 20- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 21- Lateral digital flexor tendon (in the tar-
sal sheath); 22- Medial digital flexor tendon; 23- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 24- Long plantar
ligament; 25- Flexor retinaculum; 26- Dorsal pedal artery; 27- Dorsal pedal veins; 28- Medial
saphenous vein (cranial root); 29- Lateral saphenous vein; 30- Plantar arteries, vein and nerves;
31- Subcutaneous tissue (swollen); 32- Skin.
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Fig. M.27 Transverse section of the proximal tarsus; zoom on the plantar tarsal sheath. Dorsal is to
the left; medial is on the top.

1- Sustentaculum tali, 1a- groove for the lateral digital flexor tendon, 1b- medial margin,
1c- fibrocartilage; 2- calcaneus (body); 3- Long plantar ligament, 3a- dorsal layer, 3b- plantar
layer; 4- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 5- Lateral digital flexor tendon (in the tarsal sheath);
6- Flexor retinaculum; 7- Tarsal sheath cavity and synovial membrane; 8- Plantar artery;
9- Plantar vein; 10- Medial plantar nerve; 11- Lateral plantar nerve; 12- Subcutaneous tissue
(swollen); 13- Skin.
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Fig. M.28 Transverse section of the distal tarsus. Dorsal is on the top; lateral is to the left.

1- Central tarsal bone; 2- First tarsal bone; 3- Third tarsal bone; 4- Fourth tarsal bone; 5- Proximal
intertarsal (centrodistal) joint; 6- Talometatarsal (talocentrodistometatarsal) ligament; 7- Long
medial collateral ligament; 8- Long lateral collateral ligament; 9- Long plantar ligament; 10- Distal
plantar ligament; 11- Tibialis cranialis tendon, 11a- tarsal (cunean) branch, 11b- metatarsal branch;
12- Peroneus tertius distal tendon, 12a- tarsal (quartal) branch, 12b- metatarsal branch; 13- Long
digital extensor tendon; 14- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 15- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
16- Lateral digital flexor tendon (in the tarsal sheath); 17- Medial digital flexor tendon; 18- Short
digital extensor tendon; 19- Dorsal pedal artery; 20- Medial saphenous vein (cranial root);
21- Perforating tarsal vein; 22- Medial plantar artery and nerve; 23- Lateral plantar artery, vein and
nerve; 24- Dorsal tarsal fascia; 25- Plantar tarsal fascia; 26- Skin; 27- Chestnut.
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N.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. N.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the metatarsus: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Lateral metatarsal (lateral splint) bone (head), 2a- distal end;
3- Medial metatarsal bone, 3a- distal end; 4- Distomedial sulcus of the hock; 5- Flexor tendons;
6- Suspensory ligament (lateral margin of the body and lateral branch); 7- Suspensory ligament
(medial margin of the body and medial branch).
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N.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. N.2 Dorsolateral radiographic view of the metatarsus.

Tarsus: 1- Central tarsal bone; 2- First tarsal bone; 3- Second tarsal bone; 4- Third tarsal bone;
5- Fourth tarsal bone;
Metatarsus – Third metatarsal bone: 6- Dorsomedial cortex; 7- Plantarolateral cortex;
8- Medullary cavity; 9- Vascular canal; 10- Insertion surface of the peroneus tertius tendon
(metatarsal branch); Fourth metatarsal bone: 11- Head (insertion of the long lateral collateral
ligament and long plantar ligament); 12- Body; 13- Distal extremity; 14- Third (lateral) inter-
metatarsal syndesmosis; 15- Synovial lateral intermetatarsal joint; Second metatarsal bone:
16- Head; 17- Body; 18- Distal extremity.
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Fig. N.3 Dorsomedial radiographic view of the metatarsus.

Tarsus: 1- Central tarsal bone; 2- First tarsal bone; 3- Second tarsal bone; 4- Third tarsal bone;
5- Fourth tarsal bone;
Metatarsus – Third metatarsal bone: 6- Dorsolateral cortex; 7- Plantaromedial cortex;
8- Medullary cavity; 9- Vascular canal; 10- Vascular sulcus of the third dorsal metatarsal artery;
Second metatarsal bone: 11- Head (insertion of the long medial collateral ligament); 12- Body;
13- Distal extremity; 14- Second (medial) intermetatarsal syndesmosis; Fourth metatarsal bone:
15- Head; 16- Body; 17- Distal extremity.
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N.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. N.4 Lateral aspect of the distal pelvic limb.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Fourth metatarsal bone (body), 2a- head, 2b- distal extremity;
3- Third (lateral) intermetatarsal syndesmosis; 4- Long digital extensor tendon; 5- Lateral digital
extensor tendon; 6- Short digital extensor muscle; 7- Common tendon for the three digital exten-
sor structures; 8- Distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum; 9- Superficial digital flexor tendon,
9a- manica flexoria; 10- Deep digital flexor tendon, 11- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory
ligament) bifurcation; 12- Plantar annular ligament.
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Fig. N.5 Lateral aspect of the metatarsus.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Fourth metatarsal bone (body), 2a- head, 2b- distal extremity;
3- Third (lateral) intermetatarsal syndesmosis; 4- Long digital extensor tendon; 5- Lateral digital
extensor tendon; 6- Short digital extensor muscle; 7- Common tendon for the three digital exten-
sor structures; 8- Distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum; 9- Superficial digital flexor tendon;
10- Deep digital flexor tendon, 11- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 11a- body,
11b- bifurcation; 12- Third dorsal metatarsal artery; 13- Lateral (fourth) plantar metatarsal vein
(empty); 14- Lateral (fourth) plantar metatarsal nerve; 15- Plantar metatarsal fascia.
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Fig. N.6 Plantaromedial aspect of the metatarsus.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Second metatarsal bone (body), 2a- head, 2b- distal extremity;
3- Second (medial) intermetatarsal syndesmosis; 4- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 5- Lateral
digital flexor tendon; 6- Medial digital flexor tendon; 7- Deep digital flexor tendon; 8- Third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 8a- body, 8b- bifurcation, 8c- medial branch;
9- Plantar tarsal fascia.
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Fig. N.7 Plantaromedial aspect of the suspensory apparatus.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Second metatarsal bone (body), 2a- head, 2b- distal extremity;
3- Lateral metatarsal bone (body), 3a- head; 4- Medial plantar eminence of the proximal phalanx;
5- Distal plantar ligament of the tarsus; 6- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon
(origin); 7- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 7a- origin, 7b- body, 7c- bifurcation,
7d- lateral branch, 7e- medial branch, 7f- distal enthesis over the medial proximal sesamoid bone,
7g- medial extensor branch; 8- Plantar (intersesamoidean) ligament; 9- Interosseoplantar liga-
ment; 10- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 11- Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament; 12- Lateral
oblique sesamoidean ligament; 13- Deep plantar metatarsal (interosseous) fascia.
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N.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. N.8 Sagittal section of the metatarsus. Proximal is to the left.

1- Third metatarsal bone, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- dorsal cortex, 1c- plantar cortex, 1d- vascular
foramen, 1e- spongy bone, 1f- metatarsal condyle; 2- Third tarsal bone; 3- Central tarsal bone;
4- Fourth tarsal bone; 5- Talometatarsal ligament and tibialis cranialis muscle distal insertion;
6- Long digital extensor tendon; 7- Dorsal capsule of the metatarsophalangeal joint; 8- Plantar
(intersesamoidean) ligament (of the metatarsophalangeal joint); 9- Proximoplantar recess of
the metatarsophalangeal joint; 10- Plantarolateral recess of the tarsometatarsal joint; 11- Distal
plantar ligament of the tarsus; 12- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 12a- tar-
sal component, 12b- metatarsal origin, 12c- body, 12d- bifurcation; 13- Accessory ligament of
the deep digital flexor tendon; 14- Lateral digital flexor tendon; 15- Deep digital flexor tendon;
16- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 17- Manica flexoria; 18- Digital sheath cavity; 19- Plantar
annular ligament; 20- Plantar metatarsal fascia; 21- Distal part of the third dorsal metatarsal
artery; 22- Skin.
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Fig. N.9 Sagittal section of the proximal metatarsus. Proximal is to the left.

1- Third metatarsal bone, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- plantar cortex, 1c- spongy bone, 1d- subchon-
dral bone; 2- Third tarsal bone; 3- Central tarsal bone; 4- Fourth tarsal bone; 5- Interosseous
ligament of the tarsometatarsal joint; 6- Plantarolateral recess of the tarsometatarsal joint;
7- Distal plantar ligament of the tarsus; 8- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament),
8a- tarsal component, 8b- metatarsal origin, 8c- body; 9- Accessory ligament of the deep digital
flexor tendon; 10- Lateral digital flexor tendon; 11- Deep digital flexor tendon; 12- Superficial
digital flexor tendon; 13- Plantar metatarsal fascia; 14- Skin.

Fig. N.10 Transverse section of the proximal metatarsus. Dorsal is to the top; lateral is to the left.

1- Third metatarsal bone, 1a- spongy bone, 1b- dorsal cortex, 1c- plantar cortex; 2- Second meta-
tarsal bone; 3- Fourth metatarsal bone; 4- Second metatarsal syndesmosis; 5- Third metatar-
sal syndesmosis; 6- Long digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor tendon; 8- Short
digital extensor muscle; 9- Dorsal metatarsal fascia and distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum;
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10- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament, proximal part of the body); 11- Lateral digi-
tal flexor tendon; 12- Medial digital flexor tendon; 13- Distal recess of the tarsal sheath and acces-
sory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 14- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 15- Long
plantar ligament (distal part); 16- Plantar (superficial) metatarsal fascia; 17- Deep plantar meta-
tarsal (interosseous) fascia; 18- Third dorsal metatarsal artery; 19- Medial saphenous vein (cranial
root); 20- Lateral common digital artery, vein and nerve; 21-Medial common digital artery and
nerve; 22- Medial plantar metatarsal artery and vein; 23- Lateral plantar metatarsal vein; 24- Skin.

Fig. N.11 Transverse section of the proximal metatarsus focused on the plantar structures. Dorsal is
to the top; lateral is to the left.

1- Third metatarsal bone, 1a- spongy bone, 1b- plantar cortex; 2- Second metatarsal bone; 3- Fourth
metatarsal bone; 4- Second metatarsal syndesmosis; 5- Third metatarsal syndesmosis; 6- Third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament, proximal part of the body), 6a- sagittal part, 6b- medial
part, 6c- plantar part, 6d- lateral part, 6e- medial fat bundle (with striated muscle fibres),
6f- lateral fat bundle (with striated muscle fibres); 7- Vestigial lateral (fourth) interosseous muscle;
8- Vestigial medial (second) interosseous muscle; *- adipose connective tissue in the interosseous
compartment; 9- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 10- Lateral digital flexor tendon; 11- Medial
digital flexor tendon; 12- Accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon; 13- Distal recess
of the tarsal sheath; 14- Long plantar ligament (distal part); 15- Plantar (superficial) metatar-
sal fascia; 16- Deep plantar metatarsal (interosseous) fascia; 17- Lateral common digital artery;
18- Lateral common digital vein; 19- Lateral common digital nerve; 20- Medial common digital
artery; 21- Medial common digital nerve; 22- Medial plantar metatarsal artery; 23- Medial plantar
metatarsal vein; 24- Lateral plantar metatarsal vein; 25- Subcutaneous connective tissue; 26- Skin.
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Fig. N.12 Transverse section in the middle metatarsus. Dorsal is to the top; lateral is to the left.

1- Third metatarsal bone, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- dorsomedial cortex, 1c- periosteum; 2- Second
metatarsal bone; 3- Fourth metatarsal bone; 4- Second metatarsal syndesmosis; 5- Third meta-
tarsal syndesmosis; 6- Long digital extensor tendon; 7- Lateral digital extensor tendon (fused
with the long); 8- Dorsal metatarsal fascia; 9- Superficial digital flexor tendon; 10- Deep digital
flexor tendon (having incorporated its accessory ligament); 11- Intertendinous connective tissue;
12- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament, distal part of the body); 13- Third dor-
sal metatarsal artery; 14- Medial common digital vein (providing the cranial root of the medial
saphenous vein); 15- Medial common digital artery and nerve; 16- Lateral common digital artery
(vein) and nerve; 17- Plantar metatarsal vein; 18- Medial plantar metatarsal artery; 19- Lateral
plantar metatarsal artery; 20- Plantar (superficial) metatarsal fascia; 21- Skin.
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Fig. N.13 Transverse section in the distal third of the metatarsus. Dorsal is to the top; lateral is to
the left.

1- Third metatarsal bone, 1a- medullary cavity, 1b- dorsomedial cortex, 1c- periosteum; 2- Second
metatarsal bone; 3- Fourth metatarsal bone; 4- Long digital extensor tendon; 5- Lateral digital
extensor tendon (fused with the long); 6- Dorsal metatarsal fascia; 7- Superficial digital flexor ten-
don; 8- Deep digital flexor tendon (having incorporated its accessory ligament); 9- Intertendinous
connective tissue; 10- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 10a- medial branch,
10b- lateral branch; 11- Medial common digital vein (providing the cranial root of the medial
saphenous vein); 12- Medial common digital nerve; 13- Lateral common digital artery (vein) and
nerve; 14- Third dorsal metatarsal artery (joining the metatarsal arteries); 15- Plantar metatarsal
artery; 16- Plantar metatarsal vein; 17- Plantar (superficial) metatarsal fascia; 18- Skin.
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O.1 PHYSICAL ASPECT

Fig. O.1 Lateral and medial aspects of the pelvic digital area: palpable anatomical structures.

1- Dorsal aspect of the fetlock; 2- Collateral ligament of the fetlock; 3- Plantaroproximal recess
of the fetlock joint; 4- Branch of the suspensory ligament; 5- Plantar aspect of the fetlock;
6- Dorsal aspect of the pastern; 7- Extensor branch of the suspensory ligament; 8- Neurovascular
fasciculus; 9- Flexor tuberosity of the middle phalanx; 10- Flexor tendons; 11- Dorsal aspect of
the coronet; 12- Dorsocollateral aspect (collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint);
13- Ungular cartilage; 14- Bulb of the heel; 15- Toe; 16- Quarter; 17- Heel.
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O.2 RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY

Fig. O.2 Lateromedial radiographic view of the pelvic digital area.

Metatarsus: 1- Distal metaphysis; 2- Metatarsal condyle; 2a- Sagittal ridge, 2b- collateral parts;
Proximal sesamoid bones: 3- Apex; 4- Body; 5- Base; 6- Articular surface; 7- Plantar margin;
Proximal phalanx: 8- Glenoid cavity, 8a- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove; 9- Medullary
cavity; 10- Dorsal cortex; 11- Plantar cortex; 12- Apex of the trigonum (insertion of the
oblique sesamoidean ligaments); 13- Condyle, 13a- subchondral bone of the sagittal groove;
14- Supracondylar fossa for insertion of the scutocompedal ligament (attachment of the scutum
medium and through it, superficial digital flexor tendon);
Middle phalanx: 15- Glenoid cavity, 15a- subchondral bone, 15b- sagittal ridge (plantar end);
16- Extensor process; 17- Dorsal compact bone; 18- Insertion fossa of the collateral ligament of
the distal interphalangeal joint; 19- Flexor tuberosity; 20- Plantar compact bone; 21- Condyle,
21a- dorsal margin of the articular surface, 21b- plantar margin of the articular surface, 21c- sub-
chondral bone of the sagittal groove;
Distal phalanx: 22- Glenoid cavity, 22a- subchondral bone, 22b- sagittal ridge; 23- Extensor
process; 24- Parietal surface; 25- Solar surface, 25a- cutaneous plane, 25b- flexor surface,
25c- semilunar line; 26- Plantar process; 27- Body of the distal phalanx, 27a- semilunar sinus;
Distal sesamoid bone: 28- Articular surface; 29- Flexor surface; 30- Plantar compact bone;
31- Spongy bone;
Joints: 32- Metatarsophalangeal joint; 33- Proximal interphalangeal joint; 34- Distal interpha-
langeal joint.
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O.3 DISSECTED SPECIMEN

Fig. O.3 Lateral aspect of the digital regions of the pelvic limb: superficial structures.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Fourth metatarsal bone (extremity); 3- Proximal phalanx; 4- Middle
phalanx (flexor tuberosity); 5- Dorsal capsule of metatarsophalangeal joint; 6- Collateral ligament
of the metatarsophalangeal joint; 7- Plantar (intersesamoidean) ligament (suprasesamoidean part),
7a- metatarsointersesamoidean ligament; 8- Oblique sesamoidean ligament; 9- Intermediate (obl-
iquorectum) sesamoidean ligament; 10- Collateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal (PIP)
joint; 11- Ungular cartilage; 12- Long digital extensor tendon; 13- Lateral branch of the third
interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 13a- distal enthesis; 14- Lateral extensor branch of
the third interosseous muscle; 15- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 15a- (distal) branch; 16- Deep
digital flexor tendon; 17- lumbrical muscle; 18- Plantar annular ligament; 19- Proximal digital
annular ligament, 19a- proximal attachment, 19b- distal attachment; 20- Distal digital annular
ligament, 20a- proximal attachment; 21- Periopleum; 22- Hoof wall; 23- Digital cushion.
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Fig. O.4 Dorsal aspect of the digital regions of the pelvic limb: superficial structures.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Proximal phalanx; 3- Middle phalanx; 4- Distal phalanx; 5- Dorsal
capsule of metatarsophalangeal joint; 6- Dorsal metatarsophalangeal fascia; 7- Collateral liga-
ment of the metatarsophalangeal joint; 8- Collateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal
joint; 9- Collateral sesamoidean ligament; 10- Chondrocoronal ligament; 11- Distal inter-
phalangeal joint space; 12- Long digital extensor tendon; 12a- medial lobe, 12b- lateral lobe;
13- Extensor branches of the third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 13a- medial exten-
sor branch, 13b- lateral extensor branch; 14- Medial ungular cartilage; 15- Lateral ungular car-
tilage; 16- Collateral fossa of the distal phalanx (insertion of the lateral collateral ligament of the
distal interphalangeal joint).
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Fig. O.5 Plantarolateral aspect of the digital area of the pelvic limb.

1- Third metatarsal bone; 2- Proximal phalanx; 3- Middle phalanx, 3a- flexor tuberosity; 4- Distal
phalanx, 4a- cutaneous plane, 4b- semilunar line, 4c- palmar process; 5- Oblique sesamoidean
ligament; 6- Collateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal joint; 7- Collateral sesamoidean
ligament; 8- Ungular cartilage; 9- Superficial digital flexor tendon, 9a- lateral branch, 9b- medial
branch; 10- Deep digital flexor tendon, 10a- lateral lobe, suprasesamoidean part, 10b- lateral
lobe, infrasesamoidean part; 11- Third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 11a- branch,
11b- extensor branch; 12- Plantar annular ligament; 13- Proximal digital annular ligament,
13a- proximal attachment, 13b- distal attachment covering the branch of the superficial digital flexor
tendon; 14- Distal digital annular ligament (cut to show the lateral lobe of the deep digital flexor
tendon), 14a- proximal attachment; 15- Digital cushion, 15a- collateral part, 15b- sagittal (cuneal)
part; 16- Ungular cartilage; 17- Parietal corium of the inflex part of the hoof wall (bar); 18- Solar
corium; 19- Corium of the frog.
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Fig. O.6 Plantarolateral aspect of the hind pastern: sesamoidean ligaments.

1- Proximal phalanx, 1a- lateral plantar eminence, 1b- medial plantar eminence, 1c- trigonum of
the proximal phalanx (medial margin); 2- Middle phalanx, 2a- sagittal part of the flexor tuberos-
ity, 2b- Collateral part of the flexor tuberosity; 3- Plantar (intersesamoidean) ligament (sesamoid-
ean part); 4- Insertion of the plantar annular ligament (cut); 5- Collateral sesamoidean ligament;
6- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 7- Oblique sesamoidean ligament; 8- Intermediate (obliquo-
rectum) sesamoidean ligament; 9- Middle scutum, 9a- scutocompedal ligament; 10- Axial palmar
ligament of the proximal interphalangeal joint; 11- Abaxial palmar ligament of the proximal inter-
phalangeal joint; 12- Lateral branch of the superficial digital flexor tendon; 13- Medial branch of
the superficial digital flexor tendon; 14- Lateral branch of the third interosseous muscle (suspen-
sory ligament); 15- Lateral extensor branch of the third interosseous muscle.
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Fig. O.7 Plantar aspect of the pelvic foot.

1- Proximal phalanx; 2- Middle phalanx, 2a- sagittal part of the flexor tuberosity, 2b- lateral col-
lateral part of the flexor tuberosity, 2c- medial collateral part of the flexor tuberosity; 3- Distal ses-
amoid bone, 3a- sagittal ridge of the flexor surface, 3b- Lateral angle, 3c- medial angle; 4- Distal
phalanx, 4a- flexor surface, 4b- cutaneous plane, 4c- semilunar line, 4d- solar border, 4e- lateral
palmar process, 4f- medial palmar process; 5- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 6- Oblique sesa-
moidean ligament; 7- Intermediate (obliquorectum) sesamoidean ligament; 8- Middle scutum;
9- Palmar ligaments of the proximal interphalangeal joint, 9a- axial, 9b- abaxial (covered by the
proximal attachment of the distal digital annular ligament); 10- Proximal sesamoidean ligament;
11- Lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament; 12- Medial collateral sesamoidean ligament; 13- Distal
(impar) sesamoidean ligament; 14- Extensor branch of the third interosseous muscle (suspensory
ligament); 15- Lateral branch of the superficial digital flexor tendon; 16- Medial branch of the
superficial digital flexor tendon; 17- Lateral ungular cartilage (cut); 18- Medial ungular cartilage
(cut); 19- Proper digital artery entering the solar canal.
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Fig. O.8 Lateral aspect of the pelvic foot.

1- Distal phalanx, 1a- parietal surface, 1b- extensor process, 1c- solar border, 1d- plantar process,
1e- collateral fossa for the collateral ligament, 1f- parietal sulcus; 2- Distal sesamoid bone; 3- Middle
phalanx, 3a- condyle, 3b- flexor tuberosity; 4- Distal interphalangeal joint; 5- Collateral ligament
of the distal interphalangeal joint, 5a- proximal insertion, 5b- distal insertion; 6- Collateral sesa-
moidean ligament; 7- Collateral ligament of the proximal interphalangeal joint; 8- Long digital
extensor tendon; 9- Deep digital flexor tendon; 10- Distal digital annular ligament; 11- Digital
cushion; 12- Ungular cartilage (with an open window in it, arrowhead), 12a- chondrocoronal liga-
ment, 12b- chondroungular junction (ligament).
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O.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

Fig. O.9 Sagittal section of the digital areas of the pelvic limb.

1-Metatarsal distal metaphysis; 2- Metatarsal condyle, 2a- spongy bone, 2b- subchondral bone of
the sagittal ridge; 3- Proximal phalanx, 3a- medullary cavity, 3b- dorsal cortex, 3c- plantar cor-
tex, 3d- trigonum of the proximal phalanx (distal limit), 3e- spongy bone, 3f- subchondral bone,
3g- sagittal groove of the glenoid cavity, 3h- condyle; 4- Middle phalanx, 4a- spongy bone, 4b- dorsal
compact bone, 4c- plantar compact bone, 4d- subchondral bone of the glenoid cavity, 4e- flexor
tuberosity, 4f- extensor process, 4g- condyle; 5- Distal phalanx, 5a- spongy bone, 5b- dorsal com-
pact bone of the parietal surface, 5c- compact bone of the cutaneous plane, 5d- compact bone
of the flexor surface, 5e- semilunar line, 5f- subchondral bone of the glenoid cavity, 5g- exten-
sor process; 6- Distal sesamoid bone, 6a- spongy bone, 6b- compact bone of the flexor surface;
7- Metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ); 8- Dorsal capsule of the MTPJ; 9- Plantar (intersesamoid-
ean) ligament; 10- Cruciate sesamoidean ligaments; 11- Oblique sesamoidean ligaments (fused in
the sagittal plane); 12- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 13- Proximoplantar recess of the MTPJ;
14- Distoplantar recess of the MTPJ; 15- Proximal interphalangeal joint; 16- Middle scutum;
17- Plantar recess of the proximal interphalangeal joint; 18- Distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ);
19- Proximal sesamoidean ligament; 20- Distal sesamoidean ligament; 21- Proximoplantar recess
of the DIPJ; 22- Dorsal recess of the DIPJ; 23- Long digital extensor tendon; 24- Superficial digi-
tal flexor tendon; 25- Manica flexoria; 26- Deep digital flexor tendon, 26a- suprasesamoidean part,
26b- sesamoidean part, 26c- infrasesamoidean part; 27- Plantar annular ligament; 28- Proximal
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digital annular ligament; 29- Distal digital annular ligament; 30- Digital sheath synovial cavity,
30a- distodorsal recess; 31- Podotrochlear bursa; 32- Transverse ligament; 33- Ergot cushion;
34- Digital cushion; 35- Skin; 36- Parietal corium; 37- Solar corium; 38- Corium of the frog;
39- Hoof wall; 40- Sole; 41- Frog; 42- Bulb of the heels; 43- Ergot.

Fig. O.10 Transverse section of the pastern of the pelvic limb at the proximal third of the proximal
phalanx.

1- Proximal phalanx, 1a- margins of the trigonum; 2- Straight sesamoidean ligament; 3- Oblique
sesamoidean ligament; 4-Intermediate (obliquorectum) sesamoidean ligament; 5- Superficial dig-
ital flexor tendon; 6- Deep digital flexor tendon; 7- Proximal digital annular ligament; 8- Digital
sheath cavity, 8a- collateral recess; 9- Proper digital artery; 10- Proper digital vein (collapsed);
11- Proper digital nerve; 12- Ergot ligament; 13- Connective tissue (swollen); 14- Skin.
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279

Abdomen, 151, 162, 163 Antebrachial bones, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57
Accessoriocarpoulnar interosseous ligament, 72 Antebrachial cephalic vein, 35
Accessoriocarpoulnar joint, 52, 53, 56 Antebrachial fascia
Accessoriocarpoulnar ligament, 64, 85 antebrachium, 40, 45, 46, 47
Accessoriometacarpal ligament, 44, 63, 64, 66, 73, 76, 80, carpus, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 76
84, 85, 87 elbow, 25, 32
Accessorioquartal interosseous ligament, 73 and brachium, 26, 28
Accessorioquartal ligament, 64 shoulder and brachium, 7, 8, 10, 11
Accessoriosuperficial fibers, 80, 88, 90 Antebrachial interosseous space, 2, 21, 23, 29
Accessorioulnar joint, 52, 53, 56 Antebrachial muscle, 7, 10, 11, 32
Accessorioulnar ligament, 64 Antebrachial radioulnar syndesmosis, 29
Accessory carpal bone Antebrachiocarpal joint, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 71,
antebrachium, 35, 38, 39, 42, 44 74, 75
carpus, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62, 63, 64, Antebrachioradial ligament, 71, 72, 74, 75
68, 72 Antebrachium, 19, 35, 38, 39, 40, 45, 46, 47
and adjacent areas, 60, 65, 67 and carpus, 42, 43, 44
anatomical structures, 74, 75, 76 and distal thoracic limb, 37
joint structures, 66 on flexed limb, 36
metacarpus, 80, 84, 85 in flexion, 41
Accessory digital extensor tendon lateral sulcus of, 36
carpus, 59, 60, 62, 73 Aorta, 160, 165, 167, 169, 180, 181, 182, 183, 198
metacarpus, 80, 81, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 Aponeurosis, 8
thoracic limb fetlock, 126 Arachnoid, 149
Accessory ligament, 193 Articular process joint
coxofemoral joint, 193 caudal cervical area, 140
deep digital flexor tendon caudal thoracic area from T12 to T18, 153
antebrachium, 43 cervical area at level of C3–C4 intervertebral joint,
carpus, 49, 62, 65, 66, 67, 74, 75 147, 148, 149
distal limb, 77 cranial part of lumbar vertebral column, 158, 159
interosseous metacarpal enthesis, 89 fourth cervical vertebra, 139
metacarpus, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 95, lumbar area
96, 97, 98, 264, 265, 266 between fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae, 169, 170
pelvic limb, 190 between second and third lumbar vertebrae,
suspensory apparatus, 263 167, 168
tarsus, 252 mid-thoracic area from T6 to T12, 152
femur, 194, 195 thoracolumbar area, 165, 166
lateral digital extensor tendon, 44 thoracolumbar junction, 157
superficial digital flexor tendon and lumbar area from T17 to L4, 154, 155
antebrachium, 43, 44, 47 Articular surface, 102, 206
carpus, 68, 70, 71, 76 Atlantooccipital joint, 137, 145
metacarpus, 83 Atlas wing, 131, 135, 136
Accessory ligament sulcus, in pubis, 173 Axial margin, 103, 104, 105
Acetabular area, 183, 184 Axillary ansa, 146
Acetabular labrum, 180, 192 Axillary artery, 10, 11, 12, 16, 146
Acetabulum, 172, 173, 174, 191, 192 Axillary nerve, 16, 146
Adductor brevis muscle, 199 Axillary vein, 16
Adductor magnus muscle, 196, 197, 199, 220
Alar foramen, 132, 135, 136 Back and pelvis, 151
Anconeus muscle, 39, 42 Basilar sinus, 137
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Biceps brachii muscle dorsal capsule of, 95, 96

antebrachium, 39, 40 joint structures, 66
and carpus, 42 lateral collateral ligament of, 35, 39, 84, 85, 87
elbow, 27, 31, 32 medial collateral ligament of, 83, 84, 85, 87
and brachium, 19, 20, 26, 28, 30 palpable anatomical structures, 49
proximal forelimb, 1 Cauda equina, 184, 185, 187, 188
scapulohumeral joint, 5 Caudal angle, 3, 11
shoulder, 9 Caudal antebrachial interosseous artery, 46
and brachium, 8, 11 Caudal antebrachial interosseous vein, 46
joints, 12, 14 Caudal arteries, 183
Biceps femoris muscle, 190, 191, 223, 224, 227, 228 Caudal articular process, 138, 139, 152, 153, 154, 165
pelvis, 171, 181, 195, 196 Caudal cervical area, 140
femoral area (thigh), 199 Caudal circumflex artery, 16
stifle, 218, 219, 220 Caudal circumflex vein, 16
Bicipital bursa, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 26 Caudal cortex
Biventer capitis muscle, 147, 148 femur, 203
Brachial artery, 10, 11, 12, 39, 42 humerus, 4, 23
(humeral) artery, 28 radius, 23, 46, 52, 56, 74, 75
Brachial fascia, 7, 8, 32 tibia, 203, 227, 228
Brachialis muscle, 1, 7, 8, 11, 16, 17, 25, 26, 30, 32, 35, 40 ulna, 23
Brachial muscle(s), 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 19, 20, 28, 32 Caudal cruciate ligament, 202, 203, 206, 208, 214, 215,
Brachial plexus, 144, 146 216, 219, 220
Brachial sulcus, 2, 37 Caudal crural septum, 227, 228
Brachiocephalicus muscle, 1, 7, 14, 17, 19, 20, 131, 133, Caudal epigastric artery, 183
134, 137, 141, 142, 144, 147 Caudal femoral artery, 219
Brachium, 7 Caudal femoral cutaneous nerve, 183, 184
and elbow, 19, 20, 26, 28, 30 Caudal femoral muscles, 189, 196
Brain stem (medulla oblongata), 137 Caudal femoral vein, 219, 225, 227, 228
Caudal femorotibial membrane, 219
Caecum, 154, 155 Caudal gluteal artery, 180, 181, 182, 188
Calcaneal fasciculus, 243, 245, 246, 249, 253 Caudal gluteal nerve, 183, 184
Calcaneal tendon, 241, 244, 248 Caudal gluteal vein, 180, 181, 182
Calcanean cap, 190, 223, 224, 225 Caudal horn, 211, 214, 216, 217, 218, 220
Calcanean fasciculus, 253 Caudal humeral circumflex vein, 14
Calcaneoquartal joint, 232, 233, 234, 235 Caudal intercondylar area, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208,
Calcaneus 209, 217, 220
dissected crus, 223 Caudal margin
dissected tarsus, 241, 242, 245, 249 of femur, 203, 206, 208
fibula, 222 of radius, 51
flexed tarsus, 243, 246 of scapula, 3, 14, 15
left tarsus, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237 of tibia, 203, 205, 206, 208
pelvic limb, 190 of ulna, 23
pelvis and femoral region, 197 Caudal mesenteric artery, 182, 183
point of the hock, 248 Caudal muscles, 1, 183
proximal tarsus, 253, 254 Caudal obliquus capitis muscle, 141
tarsus, 252 Caudal pectoral nerve, 146
right tarsus, 234 Caudal ramus, of pubis, 173, 174, 180, 195
tibia, 222 Caudal thoracic area, from T12 to T18, 153
Capitis ligament, 195 Caudal tibial area, 221
Carina, 2 Caudal tibial artery, 227, 228
Carpal bone(s), see individual carpal bones Caudal tibial vein, 227
Carpal canal, 35, 49, 50, 70, 71, 72, 73, 88 Caudal vena cava, 169, 182
Carpal canal sheath cavity, 74, 75, 76, 87, 88 Caudal vertebrae, 171, 183
Carpal sheath, 47, 63 Caudal vertebral incisura, 139, 140
Carpometacarpal joint, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, Caudal vertebral notch, 152, 154, 155, 165
74, 75, 78, 79, 86, 87, 96, 97 Caudolateral cortex
Carpus, 47, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80 of femur, 209
and adjacent areas, 59, 60, 65, 67 of radius, 57
common palmar ligament of, 83, 85, 96, 97 of tibia, 203, 208, 209
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Caudolateral margin, of tibia, 209 Coronet, 77, 99, 114, 115, 189, 269
Caudolateral meniscotibial ligament, 202, 214, 216 Coronoid fossa, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31
Caudomedial cortex Costal arch, 145, 151, 161
of femur, 208 Costal cartilage, 2
of tibia, 203, 208 Costal fovea, 153
Caudomedial margin, of tibia, 208 Costotransverse muscle, 166
Caudomedial meniscotibial ligament, 202, 214, 216, 220 Coxal bones, 176
Central intercondylar area, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209 Coxofemoral joint, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195
Central tarsal bone, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 240, 242, Cranial angle, 3
243, 252, 255, 258, 259, 264, 265 Cranial antebrachial interosseous artery, 46
Centrodistal joint, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 252, 255 Cranial antebrachial interosseous vein, 46
Cephalic vein, 14, 20, 32, 46, 47, 49, 65, 68, 71, 72, 73, Cranial articular fossa, 132
76, 84 Cranial articular process, 138, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 165
Cephalic vein pathway, 67 Cranial articular surface, 135, 136
Cerebellar cavity, 132 Cranial border, 4, 17
Cerebellomedullaris cistern, 137 Cranial cervical areas, 133, 134
Cerebral cavity, 132 Cranial cortex, 4, 203
Cerebrum, vermis of, 137 Cranial cruciate ligament, 214, 215, 216, 219, 220
Cervical area Cranial crural muscles, 201
at C3–C4 intervertebral joint, 147, 148, 149 Cranial crural septum, 227, 228
deep structures, 144 Cranial face
intermediate structures, 142, 143 patella, 203, 206, 208
superficial structures, 141 ulna, 23
Cervical muscles, 7, 131, 138, 139 Cranial femoral muscles, 189
Cervical superficial artery, 7 Cranial gluteal artery, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 188
Cervical vertebral column, 4, 5 Cranial gluteal nerve, 183, 184
Cervicoauricular muscles, 137 Cranial gluteal vein, 180, 181, 186
Chestnut, 35, 49, 189, 229, 230, 255 Cranial horn, 211, 213, 215, 216
Chondrocompedal ligament, 117, 120, 121 Cranial humeral circumflex artery, 11, 12, 14, 28
Chondrocoronal ligament, 120, 272, 276 Cranial intercondylar area, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209
Chondroungular junction, 276 Cranial intervertebral incisura, 175
Cleidobrachialis muscle, 7, 141 Cranial margin
Cleidocephalicus muscle, 7, 141 of atlas, 135, 137
Collateral fossa, 207, 209 of scapula, 3, 131
Collateral sesamoidean ligament, 117, 118, 120, 123, 272, of thigh, 151
273, 274, 276 Cranial pectoral nerves, 146
Collateral ulnar artery, 32, 42, 46, 47, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76 Cranial ramus, 172, 173, 174
Collateral ulnar vein, 32, 46, 47, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 96, 97 Cranial tibial area, 221
Common calcanean tendon, 190, 191, 195, 196, 197, 212, Cranial tibial artery, 227, 228
221, 223, 226, 229, 230, 241, 247 Cranial tibial muscle, 224
Common carotid artery, 147 Cranial tibial vein, 226, 227
Common fibular nerve, 196, 199, 226 Cranial vertebral incisura, 139, 140
Common iliac vein, 180, 181, 182, 187, 188 Cranial vertebral notch, 152, 154, 155, 165
Common proximal tendon, 212, 218, 223 Craniolateral cortex, of femur, 208
Compact bone, 233 Craniolateral meniscotibial ligament, 202, 213, 215, 216, 218
Complexus muscle, 133, 143, 147, 148 Craniomedial meniscotibial ligament, 202, 215, 216, 217
Condyle, 102, 103, 111, 115, 270 Croup, 151, 171, 189, 191
Connective tissue, 64, 278 Cruciate sesamoidean ligament, 122, 123, 124, 125, 129, 277
adipose, 90, 96, 97, 98, 266 Crural fascia, 195, 220, 223, 225, 227, 228
intertendinous, 267, 268 Crus, 189, 221, 227, 228
sagittal, 90 Cutaneous muscles, 31, 32
subcutaneous, 266 Cutaneous omobrachialis muscle, 1, 13, 16, 19, 32
Coracobrachialis muscle, 11, 12, 16, 17, 28 Cutaneous trunci muscle, 13, 151
Coracobrachialis proximal tendon, 16 Cutaneous veins, 35
Coracoid process, 3, 4, 5, 6, 30, 231, 234, 235, 236 Cutaneus colli muscle, 147
Coronal artery, 124, 125
Coronal corium, 10, 114, 115, 116, 118, 124, 125, 128, 129 Deep brachial artery, 11, 14, 28
Coronal cushion, 115, 116, 118, 124, 125, 128, 129 Deep brachial veins, 14
Coronal vein, 124, 125 Deep cervical fascia, 133
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Deep circumflex iliac artery, 180, 181, 182, 183, 194, 198 Distal extremity, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263
Deep circumflex iliac vein, 182 Distal femur, 223
Deep digital flexor muscle, 7, 8, 25, 26, 32, 36, 37, 38, 41, Distal (impar) sesamoidean ligament, 275
42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 60, 63, 69, 74, 75, 76 Distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ), 108, 109, 110, 111,
Deep digital flexor musculotendinous junction, 71 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 269, 270, 272, 276
Deep digital flexor tendon, 43, 66, 85, 100, 261, 263, 265, collateral ligament of, 118, 120, 121
266, 276 distopalmar recess of, 124, 125
carpus, 49, 62, 65, 67, 71, 72, 73 dorsal recess of, 109, 124, 125, 128, 277
dissected tarsus, 241, 244, 247, 250, 251, 252 insertion fossa
distal limb, 77, 99 of lateral collateral ligament, 111
left distal interphalangeal joint, 111 of medial collateral ligament, 111
left distal sesamoid bone, 112 joint space, 272
left distal thoracic limb, 118 lateral collateral fossa, 116
left fetlock, 99 lateral collateral ligament of, 122, 128
left foot, 108, 109 lateral collateral recess of, 128
left forelimb, 80, 81 medial collateral fossa, 116
metacarpophalangeal joint, 101, 102 medial collateral ligament of, 128
metacarpus, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 medial collateral recess of, 128
metatarsus, 260, 262, 264, 265, 267, 268 proximopalmar recess of, 124, 125, 128, 277
pastern and foot, 125 Distal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint, 231, 232, 233, 234,
pelvic limb, 190, 260, 271, 273, 277, 278 235, 236, 252
right digital area, 121, 123 Distal limb, palpable anatomical structures, 77, 99
right forelimb, 82, 83 Distal metacarpus, 94, 95, 98
right thoracic limb digital area, 117, 120 Distal metaphysis, 106, 203, 208, 270
thoracic limb, 126, 127, 128 Distal (metatarsal) extensor retinaculum, 223, 224, 238,
digital area, 124 241, 251, 260, 261, 265
Deep femoral artery, 183 Distal palmar anastomosis, 93, 96, 98, 124, 129
Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve, 226, 227, 228 Distal pastern fossa, 99
Deep palmar arch, 88, 89, 96, 97 Distal pelvic limb, 260
Deep plantar metatarsal (interosseous) fascia, 263, 265, 266 Distal phalanx, 37, 38, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,
Deep ramus 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 270, 272, 273,
of radial nerve, 26, 32, 39 275, 276, 277
of tarsus, 251 collateral fossa of, 272
of ulnar nerve, 84 lateral palmar process of, 129
Deltoid muscle, 8 medial palmar process, 129
Deltoid tuberosity, 1, 2, 3, 4, 19, 26, 30 Distal plantar ligament, 245, 246, 249, 252, 255, 263,
Deltoideus muscle, 1, 7, 13, 16, 19, 20, 25, 156 264, 265
Dens, 132, 136 Distal radial artery, 42, 47, 65, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 76, 84,
Dentis longitudinal ligament, 136 87, 88
Diaphragm, 153, 154, 155, 167 Distal ramus communicans, 84
Digastric muscle, 137 Distal sesamoid bone, 37, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,
Digital cushion, 38, 108, 109, 113, 118, 120, 124, 125, 128, 115, 116, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 270, 275, 276, 277
129, 271, 273, 276, 277, 278 proximal articular margin of, 128
Digital flexor muscles, 22, 29 Distal sesamoidean ligament, 121, 124, 125, 277
Digital flexor tendons, 189, 229, 230 Distal tarsus, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237,
Digital flexor tendon sheath, 93, 94, 95, 98 255
Digital sheath cavity, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 264, 278 Distal thoracic limb, 37, 38, 41, 118
Digital sheath synovial cavity, 277, 278 Distal tubercle, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237
Digital torus, ramus of, 117, 125 Distomedial sulcus, 229, 257
DIPJ, see Distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) Dorsal antebrachial interosseous artery, 61, 63
Dissected back, 156, 161 Dorsal arch, 132, 135, 136
Dissected crus, 223, 225, 226 Dorsal atlantoaxial ligament, 135
Dissected stifle, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216 Dorsal atlantoaxial membrane, 135
Dissected tarsus, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244, 245, 247, Dorsal atlantooccipital membrane, 135
249, 250, 251 Dorsal capsule, 26, 27, 32
Dissected withers, 156 Dorsal cervical muscles, 138, 139
Distal articular margin, 110, 116 Dorsal cervical region, 131
Distal digital annular ligament, 41, 117, 118, 120, 121, Dorsal (common) digital extensor muscle, 7, 8, 19, 20, 25,
124, 125, 128, 129, 190, 271, 273, 275, 276, 277, 278 26, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 46, 49, 59, 60
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Dorsal (common) digital extensor sheath, 71, 72, 73, 87 Ergot, 77, 99, 100, 101, 102, 114, 115, 124, 125, 189, 277, 278
Dorsal (common) digital extensor tendon, 41, 47, 62, 63, Ergot cushion, 125, 277, 278
65, 70, 71, 72, 73, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, Ergot ligament, 117, 278
94, 95, 96 Ergot ramus, 117
Dorsal compact bone, 270 Extensor carpi obliquus muscle, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 46, 59,
Dorsal cortex, 101, 102, 107, 270 60, 62
Dorsal costoabdominal artery, 166 Extensor carpi obliquus tendon, 41, 42, 43, 47, 65, 66, 67,
Dorsal costoabdominal nerve, 166 69, 70, 71, 72, 83
Dorsal costoabdominal vein, 166 Extensor carpi radialis enthesis, 87
Dorsal digital extensor muscle, 1, 32, 46 Extensor carpi radialis muscle, 1, 7, 8, 10, 11, 19, 20, 25,
Dorsal digital extensor tendon, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 46, 49
125, 126, 127, 128, 99 Extensor carpi radialis sheath, 71, 72, 73
Dorsal hoof wall, 108, 109 Extensor carpi radialis tendon, 39, 47, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,
Dorsal intercostal artery, 165 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 96
Dorsal intercostal vein, 165 Extensor fossa, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 219
Dorsal intermedioulnar ligament, 61 Extensor retinaculum, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47, 59, 60, 62, 63,
Dorsal intertransverse foramen, 176, 178 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 80, 87
Dorsal longitudinal ligament, 136, 160, 164, 167, 168, 185 Extensor sulcus, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 222
Dorsal lumbosacral intertransverse foramen, 176 External iliac artery, 180, 181, 182, 194, 198
Dorsal metacarpal fascia, 88, 92, 93 External iliac vein, 194
Dorsal metacarpophalangeal fascia, 94, 95, 126 External jugular vein, 147
Dorsal metatarsal fascia, 265, 267, 268 External occipital crest, 132, 135
Dorsal metatarsophalangeal fascia, 272 External occipital protuberance, 132, 135
Dorsal pedal artery, 253, 255 External thoracic artery, 10
Dorsal pedal veins, 253 External thoracic vein, 151
Dorsal radiointermediate ligament, 61
Dorsal sacroiliac ligament, 162, 188 Fascia latae, 181, 196
Dorsal scapular artery, 10 Fascicular aponeuroses, 168
Dorsal secondotertius ligament, 61 Fat of mane, 141, 142, 144, 147
Dorsal supracondylar fossa, 101, 102 Fat pad, 15; see also Infrapatellar fat pad
Dorsal tarsal fascia, 255 Femoral area (thigh), 199
Dorsal tertioquartal ligament, 61 Femoral artery, 183, 199
Dorsocaudal cuspid, 172, 174, 181 Femoral condyles, 197
Dorsocollateral aspect, 269 Femoral fascia, 181, 195, 199, 218
Dorsocranial cuspid, 172, 174, 178, 181 Femoral head, 191, 192, 193, 195
Dorsolateral carpal fascia, 62 Femoral neck, 191, 192, 193, 195
Dorsolateral cortex, 115, 259 Femoral nerve, 183, 184, 194
Dorsolateral sacrocaudal muscle, 187, 188 Femoral region, 189, 195, 196, 197, 198
Dorsomedial cortex, 258 Femoral trochlea, 197, 201, 203, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211,
Dorsoscapular ligament, 142, 143, 144 213, 215, 217, 218, 219, 224
Dura mater, 137, 147, 148, 149, 160, 164, 167, 168, 169, Femoral trochlear groove, 207
170, 185 Femoral vein, 199
Femoropatellar joint, 207, 217, 218, 218
Eighteenth rib, 154, 155, 158, 161, 166 Femorotibial joint, 216
Eighteenth thoracic vertebra (T18), 153, 157, 160, 164, 166 lateral collateral ligament of, 226
Elbow, 1, 31 Femorotibiopatellar joint, 189
lateral aspect of, 27 Femur, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 199, 203, 204,
medial aspect of, 29 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 216, 217, 218, 220
median vein of, 32 accessory ligament of, 194
sulcus of, 19, 20, 35, 36 extensor fossa of, 212, 213, 215
Elbow bones, 21 supracondylar fossa of, 213, 214
Elbow joint, 32, 39, 40 Fetlock, 114, 115, 189
dorsal capsule and recess, 41 collateral ligament of, 269
lateral collateral ligament of, 25, 36 dorsal aspects of, 269
medial collateral ligament of, 28, 41 dorsal capsule of, 99
Epidural fat, 168, 170 lateral collateral ligament of, 77, 99
Epidural space, 148, 149, 169, 170 medial collateral ligament of, 99
Erector spinae muscle, 156, 157, 161, 166, 167, 168, 169, plantar aspect of, 269
170, 185, 186 plantaroproximal recess of, 269
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dorsal capsule of, 80, 82, 83, 100 and carpus, 42, 43
and extensor tendons, 100, 101, 102 and distal thoracic limb, 37, 38, 41
lateral collateral ligament of, 80, 81 equine carpus and adjacent areas, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66,
medial collateral ligament of, 82, 83 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76
Fibrocartilaginous pad, 118, 124 metacarpus, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 90, 91, 96, 97
Fibroelastic aponeurosis, 142, 143 Flexor tendons, 103, 257, 269
Fibrous non-union gap, 203, 209 Flexor tuberosity, 103, 115, 269, 270, 273, 274, 275
Fibula, 197, 203, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, Foot, 114, 115, 189
215, 216, 222, 227, 228, 237 Foramen magnum, 132, 136, 137
lateral malleolus, 238, 239, 240 Fourth cervical nerve, 147, 148, 149
Fifteenth ribs, 153 Fourth cervical vertebra (C4), 138, 139, 145, 147,
Fifteenth thoracic vertebra, 164 148, 149
Fifth cervical vertebra (C5), 2, 138 cranial articular process of, 147, 148, 149
Fifth lumbar intervertebral disc, 170 transverse process of, 147, 148
Fifth lumbar nerve, 170, 184, 188 vertebral head of, 147, 148, 149
ventral ramus of, 187 Fourth lumbar intervertebral disc, 185
Fifth lumbar vertebra (L5), 169, 170, 173, 174, 176, 177, Fourth lumbar nerve, 184
180, 184, 185, 186, 198 Fourth lumbar vertebra (L4), 154, 155, 172, 176, 184,
Fifth sacral vertebra, 175 185, 197
Fifth thoracic spinal process, 145 Fourth metacarpal bone
Filum terminale, 185 antebrachium and distal thoracic limb, 37, 38
First caudal vertebra, 172, 174, 175 carpus, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
First cervical nerves 62, 64, 65, 66
dorsal rami of, 134 distal limb, 77, 99
ventral rami of, 134 flexed metacarpophalangeal joint, 102
First dorsal (intervertebral) sacral foramen, 175 left distal thoracic limb, 118
First lumbar vertebra (L1), 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, left fetlock and pastern, 100, 103, 106
164, 166 left metacarpophalangeal joint, 119
spinal process of, 154 metacarpus, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91,
First rib (R1), 140, 145, 147 92, 93, 94
First sacral nerve, 182, 184 Fourth sacral vertebra, 173
First sacral vertebra (S1), 162, 163, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, Fourth tarsal bone, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 252,
178, 179, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 255, 258, 259, 264, 265
First tarsal bone, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 245, 246, Fovea capitis, 21, 22, 191
255, 258, 259 Fovea dentis, 132, 136
First thoracic vertebra, 140, 147 Frog, 38, 108, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 124, 125, 277, 278
First ventral (intervertebral) sacral foramen, 173, 177 corium of, 124, 125, 129, 273, 277, 278
Flank, 151 sulcus of, 109, 114, 115
Flavum (interarcual) ligament, 149, 159, 160, 164, 170, 185
Flexed carpus, deep structures, 61 Gastrocnemius muscle, 190, 197, 212, 217, 218, 219, 220,
Flexed fetlock, 105 221, 223, 224, 225, 226
Flexed left carpus, 57, 58 Gastrocnemius tendon, 190, 223, 224, 227, 228, 244, 245,
Flexed left stifle, 206 246, 248
Flexed left tarsus, 236, 237 Gemelli muscle, 194
Flexed metacarpophalangeal joint, 102 Genu lateral proximal artery, 220
Flexed right carpus, 56 Genu lateral proximal vein, 220
Flexed right stifle, 207 Genu middle artery, 220
Flexed stifle, 215 Glenohumeral fascicules, 14, 15
Flexed tarsus, deep structures, 243, 246 Glenoid cavity, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, 17, 101, 102, 103, 104,
Flexor carpi radialis distal tendon, 42 105, 106, 270
Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 11, 20, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 41, Glenoid incisura, 3, 5
42, 43, 46, 49, 67, 68, 69, 76 Glenoid labrum, 15, 17
Flexor carpi radialis origin, 32 Gluteal fascia, 156, 167, 169, 181, 190, 195, 196
Flexor carpi radialis tendon, 44, 47, 66, 71, 72, 73, 83, 85, 87 Gluteofemoralis muscle, 171, 181, 190, 191, 195, 196, 197,
Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, 1, 11, 28, 29, 32, 35, 37, 38, 199, 220
41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 49, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71 Gluteofemoralis tendon, 212
Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon, 72, 83 Gluteofemoral muscle, 210, 218
Flexor retinaculum, 244, 247, 250, 251, 253, 254 Gluteus accessorius muscle, 188, 192, 197
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Gluteus medius muscle, 156, 161, 167, 169, 171, 180, 181, Intercondylar eminence, 202, 203, 206, 208, 209
183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 190, 191, 195, 196 Intercondylar fossa, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 215, 216, 220
Gluteus muscle fibers, 179 Intercondylar line, 203, 206, 209, 216, 220
Gluteus profundus muscle, 197 Intercondylar tubercle, 202
Gluteus superficialis muscle, 171, 181, 190, 191, 195, 196 Intercostalis externus muscle, 142, 143, 144
Gracilis muscle, 180, 181, 183, 184, 198, 199, 219 Intercostal muscle(s), 145, 156, 157, 161, 162, 163, 166
Greater trochanter, 171, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197 Intercostal nerve, 145, 162, 163
Grey matter, 164, 185 Intermediate carpal bone, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
Guttural pouch, 132 61, 72, 74, 75
Intermediate groove, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237
Haustra, 155 Intermediate (obliquorectum) sesamoidean ligament, 271,
Heel, 108, 124, 125, 269 274, 275, 278
bulb of, 110, 269, 277, 278 Intermediate patellar ligament, 210, 211, 218, 219
Hind pastern, sesamoidean ligaments, 274 Intermediate sesamoidean ligament, 122, 124, 125, 127
Hip, 171, 189 Intermediate (tarsal) extensor retinaculum, 223, 224, 238,
Hock, 189, 221, 229, 230, 248, 257 239, 241, 251
Hoof, 114, 115, 116 Intermediate tuberculum, 5, 6
Hoof wall, 37, 38, 41, 77, 99, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, Intermedioulnar interosseous ligaments, 72
124, 125, 128, 129, 271, 277, 278 Intermedioulnar joint, 58
Humeral condyle, 2, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 31 Intermetacarpal syndesmosis
Humeral trochlea, 24 fourth, 79
Humeroantebrachial joint, 24 second, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 67, 78, 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90,
Humeroantebrachial joint space, 21, 29, 32 91, 92, 93, 94
Humerus, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 14, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 32, 37, third, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57, 59, 60, 62, 64, 80, 81, 86, 87,
38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94
Hyoid, 132 Intermetatarsal joint, 235, 258
Intermuscular sulcus, 191
Iliac face, 173, 178 Internal iliac artery, 180, 181, 182, 187, 198
Iliac fascia, 162, 163, 180, 181, 194, 198 Internal inguinal ring, 183
Iliac muscle, 162, 169, 180, 181, 183, 184, 187, 188, 194, 198 Internal pudendal artery, 183
Iliac wing, 178, 186, 187, 188 Internal vertebral plexus, 147, 148, 149, 166, 168, 169, 170
Iliacofemoral artery, 183, 192 Interosseopalmar ligament, 98, 263
Iliacofemoral vein, 192 Interosseous face, 103, 104, 105, 114
Iliacus muscle, 192 Interosseous fascia, 91, 92, 233, 235
Iliocostalis cervicis muscle, 144 Interosseous muscle, 65, 66, 74, 75, 77, 82, 83, 84, 86,
Iliocostalis lumborum muscle, 166 87, 88
Iliocostalis thoracis muscle, 142, 143, 144, 156, 157, 161 Interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament), 64, 67, 80,
Iliocostal ligament, 163 81, 85
Iliolumbar artery, 183, 186, 187 Interosseous muscle (vestigial), 88
Iliolumbar ligament, 177 Interosseous sacroiliac ligament, 175, 178, 179, 186,
Iliolumbar vein, 186, 187 187, 188
Iliopsoas muscle, ramus for, 194 Interosseous space, 21, 237
Ilium, 169, 172, 173, 174, 192, 193, 198 Interosseous talocalcaneal ligament, 253
Ilium body, 172, 173, 174, 180, 191 Intersesamoidean space, 105
Ilium crest, 172, 173, 174 Interspinal ligament, 145, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 167,
Ilium neck, 172, 173, 174, 177, 180, 184, 191 168, 169, 170, 185
Ilium wing, 172, 173, 174, 177, 180 Interspinal space, 153, 154, 155
Infrapatellar fat pad, 203, 206, 212, 217, 218, 219 Intertendinous connective tissue, 267, 268
Infraspinatus fossa, 2, 3, 9, 13 Intertransverse foramen, 169
Infraspinatus muscle, 1, 7, 8, 13, 16, 17, 141, 156 Intertransverse ligament, 157, 159, 167
Infraspinatus tendon, 16, 26 Intertransverse lumbosacral joint, 173, 175, 178, 179
Insertion fossa Intertransverse muscle, 157, 167
of collateral ligaments of distal interphalangeal joint, Intertransverse synostosis, 173
108, 109, 110, 270 Intertranversarii muscles, 147, 148
of lateral collateral ligament, 21, 24, 111, 113, 114, 115 Intertubercular sulcus, 14, 30
of medial collateral ligament, 24, 111, 114, 116 Intervertebral disc(s), 140, 147, 148, 149, 154, 155, 164,
of scutocompedal ligament, 115 166, 167, 168, 169, 184, 159, 160, 165
Insertion tuberosity, 3 Intervertebral foramen, 138, 139, 140, 148, 149, 152, 153,
Interarcual space, 170, 176 154, 155, 158, 159, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172
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Intervertebral symphysis, 173 Lateral epicondyle, 2, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 37, 103, 115
Intervertebral thoracic nerve, 165 Lateral femoral circumflex artery, 183
Intervertebral vein, 165 Lateral femoral condyle, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209,
Intramuscular aponeuroses, 167, 228, 168, 169 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 222
Ischiatic arch, 172, 173, 174, 183 Lateral femoral epicondyle, 204, 212, 213, 220
Ischiatic spine, 172, 174 Lateral femoral septum, 199
Ischium, 172, 173, 174, 191, 192, 193, 196, 197 Lateral femoropatellar ligament, 210, 212
Ischium body, 172, 173, 174, 180 Lateral femorotibial joint, 213, 218
Ischium table, 172, 173, 174, 180, 191 Lateral (fourth) plantar metatarsal nerve, 261
Isolated patellar apparatus, 210 Lateral (fourth) plantar metatarsal vein, 261
Lateral heel, 116
Joint capsule, 14 bulb of, 128
Joint cavity, 15, 17 coronal corium, 116
Jugular sulcus, 131 Lateral intercondylar tubercle, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209,
Jugular vein, 141, 144 215, 216
Lateral malleolus, 222, 224, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234,
Lacertus fibrosus, 11, 32, 40 235, 236, 237, 241, 242, 243
Larynx, 132 Lateral meniscus, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 220
Lata fascia, 190, 195, 199 Lateral meniscus ligament, 218
Lateral (acetabular) ramus, 172, 173, 174 Lateral metacarposesamoidean ligament, 95
Lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve, 25 Lateral metatarsal bone, 257, 263
Lateral chondrosesamoidean ligament, 128 Lateral oblique sesamoidean ligament, 80, 85, 118, 119,
Lateral collateral fossa, 103, 104, 105, 110, 114, 115, 116 121, 122, 127, 129, 263
Lateral collateral ligament, 22, 35, 118, 210, 212, 213, 214, Lateral palmar common digital artery, 76, 88, 90, 91,
219, 220, 238, 239 92, 93
of carpus, 39, 44, 49, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 71, Lateral palmar common digital nerve, 84, 88, 90, 91, 92,
72, 73, 80, 84, 85, 87 93, 94
of elbow joint, 7, 8, 9, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 36, 39 Lateral palmar common digital vein, 76, 88, 90, 91, 92,
of femorotibial joint, 226 93, 94
of fetlock joint, 77, 80, 81, 99, 126 Lateral palmar eminence, 104, 105, 106, 107
of interphalangeal joint, 103, 114, 115, 122, 128 Lateral palmar metacarpal artery, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93
of metacarpophalangeal joint, 95, 103, 104, 105, 114, Lateral palmar metacarpal vein, 88, 89, 90
115, 119, 122 Lateral palmar process, 114, 115
Lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament, 121, 122, 123, Lateral parapatellar fibrocartilage, 210
126, 128, 275 Lateral patellar ligament, 201, 203, 206, 208, 210, 212,
Lateral common digital artery, 265, 266, 267, 268 214, 218, 219
Lateral common digital nerve, 265, 266, 267, 268 Lateral plantar artery, 255
Lateral common digital vein, 265, 266, 267, 268 Lateral plantar metatarsal artery, 267
Lateral compact bone, 111 Lateral plantar metatarsal vein, 265, 266
Lateral cortex, 103, 104, 105 Lateral plantar nerve, 250, 251, 254, 255
Lateral cutaneous femoral nerve, 198 Lateral plantar vein, 255
Lateral digital extensor muscle, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 46, Lateral proper digital artery, 84, 126, 127, 128, 129
49, 59, 60, 190, 212, 223, 224, 227, 228, 238, 241 Lateral proper digital nerve, 84, 126, 127, 128, 129
Lateral digital extensor tendon Lateral proper digital vein, 126, 127, 129
antebrachium, 47 Lateral proper palmar digital artery, 95, 96, 98
carpus, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 71, 72, 73 Lateral proper palmar digital nerve, 95
distal limb, 99, 118 Lateral proper palmar digital vein, 95
hock, 230 Lateral proper palmar digital vessels, 99
metacarpus, 80, 81, 84, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 Lateral proximal sesamoid bone, 85, 99, 104, 105, 106,
metatarsus, 261, 265, 267, 268 107, 122, 126, 129
pelvic limb, 260 Lateral rectus femoris muscle area, 172
right digital area, 122 Lateral sacral crest, 174, 175, 176
tarsus, 251, 253, 255 Lateral saphenous vein, 226, 227, 253
thoracic limb fetlock, 126 Lateral short sesamoidean ligament, 129
Lateral digital flexor muscle, 190, 212, 218, 220, 223, 224, Lateral solar canal, 116
225, 226, 227, 228, 241, 244, 247, 249 Lateral styloid process, 60, 63, 64
Lateral digital flexor tendon, 229, 232, 237, 248, 250, 251, Lateral talocalcaneal joint, 253
252, 253, 254, 255, 262, 264, 265, 266 Lateral (III) plantar common digital nerve, 250, 251
Lateral dorsal metacarpal artery, 87, 88 Lateral thoracic nerve, 146
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Lateral thoracic vein, 1 Limbic corium, 125

Lateral tibial condyle Liver, 153, 154, 155
dissected crus, 223, 224 Long digital extensor muscle, 190, 212, 218, 219, 220, 223,
dissected stifle, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 218, 220 224 225, 226, 227, 228, 238, 241
femorotibial joint, 216 Long digital extensor muscle body, 218
fibula, 222 Long digital extensor tendon, 251, 253, 255, 260, 261, 264,
flexed stifle, 215 265, 267, 268, 271, 272, 276, 277
left stifle, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209 Longissimus atlantis muscle, 133, 134, 141, 143, 144,
left tibial plateau, 202 147, 148
tibia, 222 Longissimus capitis muscle, 133, 134, 137, 141, 143,
Lateral trochlear ridge, 204, 207, 208, 213, 215, 218, 237 144, 147
Lateral tuberosity, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27 Longissimus cervicis muscle, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148
Lateral ungular cartilage, 99, 117, 120, 121, 122, 123, 128, Longissimus muscles, 156
129, 272, 275 Longissimus thoracis muscle, 142, 143, 144, 156, 161
Lateral (venous) ungular plexus, 128, 129 Long lateral collateral ligament, 240, 241, 242, 243, 250,
Lateral vertebral foramen, 132, 135, 136 251, 253, 255
Latissimus dorsi muscle, 1, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 151, 156, 161 Long medial collateral ligament, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247,
Left acetabulum, 162, 163 249, 250, 253, 255
Left caudal gluteal artery, 183 Long plantar ligament, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246, 249, 250,
Left coxal bone, 180 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 265, 266
Left distal interphalangeal joint, 111 Longus colli muscle, 138, 139, 140, 147, 148
Left distal sesamoid bone, 112, 113 Lumbar area, 151, 154, 155
Left distal tarsus, 233 between fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae, 169, 170
Left distal thoracic limb, 118 between second and third lumbar vertebrae, 167, 168
Left ear, 133, 134, 145 Lumbar artery, 169, 170, 183
Left eighteenth rib, 156, 163 Lumbar nerve, 167, 168, 169
Left equine carpus, 50, 51, 54, 55 Lumbar spine, 173, 174, 180, 180, 183
Left external iliac artery, 183 Lumbar vein, 167, 168, 169, 170
Left femoral region (thigh), 198 Lumbar ventral intervertebral foramen, 173
Left femur, 172 Lumbar vertebrae, 176; see also individual lumbar
Left fetlock, 104, 107 vertebra
and pastern, 100, 103, 106 Lumbar vertebral bodies, 162, 163
Left fifteenth rib, 162, 163 Lumbar vertebral column, 158, 159
Left foot, 108, 109, 110 Lumbosacral disc (L6 disc), 162, 163
Left iliac crest, 179 Lumbosacral intertransverse joint, 177, 186, 187
Left ilium, 162, 163, 176, 195 Lumbosacral intertransverse ligament, 177
Left ilium neck, 183 Lumbosacral intervertebral disc, 177, 180, 182, 183,
Left internal iliac artery, 183 184, 198
Left ischium, 162, 163, 176, 194, 195 Lumbosacral intervertebral foramen, 178, 179
Left lumbosacral articular process joint, 176 Lumbosacral junction, 185, 186
Left lumbosacral intertransverse joint, 176, 184 Lumbosacral truncus, 182, 192
Left major psoas muscle, 162, 163 Lumbosacral trunk, 183, 184
Left metacarpophalangeal joint, 101, 119 Lumbosacroiliac area, 176
Left minor psoas muscle, 162, 163 Lumbosacroiliac junction
Left obturator foramen, 162 passing through first sacral vertebra (S1), 188
Left obturator internus muscle, 180, 181 passing through sixth lumbar vertebra (L6), 187
Left pelvis, 198 Lungs, 152, 153, 154, 155
Left pubis, 162, 163, 195 Lymphatic vessels, 126
cranial ramus of, 180
Left sacral tuber, 179 Major ischiatic foramen, 163
Left sacroiliac joint, 162, 163, 176, 184 Major psoas muscle, 162
Left sacrosciatic ligament, 163, 180, 183, 184 Major sciatic incisura, 172, 173, 174
Left sciatic nerve, 162, 163 Major trochanter, 191, 192
Left stifle, 203, 204, 205, 208, 209 Major tuberculum, 1, 5, 6, 8, 16, 17, 26, 30
Left tarsus, 231, 232, 235 Mamillary process, 152, 153, 154, 167, 170, 176
Left tibial plateau, 202 Mandible, 131, 132, 141, 145
Left tuber coxae, 180 Mane, 131
Left weight-bearing foot, 116 fat of, 141, 142, 144, 147
Lesser trochanter, 193, 195 skin of, 133, 134
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Manica flexoria, 38, 41, 83, 95, 96, 98, 118, 124, 190, 260, Medial palmar metacarpal vein, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93
264, 277 Medial palmar process, 114, 115, 116
Manubrium, 2, 20 Medial parapatellar fibrocartilage, 210, 211, 217
Masseteric region, 131, 133, 134 Medial patellar ligament, 201, 203, 206, 210, 211, 217,
Masseter muscle, 141 218, 219
Medial angle, 207 Medial plantar artery, 255
Medial chondrosesamoidean ligament, 128 Medial plantar metatarsal artery, 265, 266, 267
Medial collateral fossa, 103, 104, 105, 106, 114, 115, 116 Medial plantar metatarsal vein, 265, 266
Medial collateral ligament Medial plantar nerve, 250, 254, 255
of carpus, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, Medial proper digital artery, 84, 117, 126, 127, 128, 129
71, 72, 73, 83, 84, 85, 87 Medial proper digital nerve, 84, 117, 126, 127, 128, 129
of dissected stifle, 210, 211, 214, 219 Medial proper digital vein, 117, 126, 127, 129
of distal interphalangeal joint, 128 Medial proper palmar digital artery, 95
of elbow joint, 22, 29, 31, 32, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 Medial proper palmar digital nerve, 95
and brachium, 28, 30 Medial proper palmar digital vein, 95
of fetlock joint, 82, 83, 99, 126 Medial proper palmar digital vessels, 99
of hock, 230 Medial proximal sesamoid bone, 78, 79, 83, 85, 99, 104,
of metacarpophalangeal joint, 95, 103, 104, 105, 114, 105, 106, 107, 121, 126, 129, 263
115, 120 Medial radioulnar ligament, 29, 32
of proximal interphalangeal joint, 114, 115 Medial ramus, 172, 173, 174
of shoulder and brachium, 11 Medial rectus femoris muscle area, 173
of tarsus, 238, 239 Medial saphenous vein, 227, 228, 253, 255, 265, 266,
Medial collateral sesamoidean ligament, 121, 122, 123, 267, 268
126, 128, 275 Medial solar canal, 114, 116
Medial common digital artery, 265, 266, 267 Medial talocalcaneal joint, 252
Medial common digital nerve, 265, 266, 267, 268 Medial tenocalcaneal ligament, 237, 244, 248
Medial common digital vein, 267, 268 Medial tibial condyle, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209,
Medial compact bone, 111 210, 211, 214, 215, 216, 220, 222
Medial cortex, 103, 104, 105 Medial trochlear ridge, 204, 207, 208, 211, 213, 215, 216,
Medial digital flexor muscle, 190, 225, 244, 247, 249 217, 218, 235, 237
Medial digital flexor tendon, 227, 228, 250, 253, 255, 262, Medial (II) plantar common digital nerve, 250
265, 266 Medial ungular cartilage, 41, 99, 117, 120, 121, 122, 123,
Medial dorsal metacarpal artery, 87, 88 128, 129, 272, 275
Medial epicondyle, 2, 21, 23, 24, 29, 103, 115 Medial (venous) ungular plexus, 128, 129
Medial femoral circumflex artery, 183 Median aponeurosis, 180, 181, 183
Medial femoral condyle, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, Median artery, 11, 28, 32, 39, 40, 42, 46, 47, 68, 71, 72,
211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 222 73, 76
Medial femoral epicondyle, 204, 210, 211, 214 Median nerve, 11, 12, 16, 28, 32, 39, 42, 46, 47, 68, 71, 72,
Medial femoropatellar ligament, 210, 211 73, 146
Medial femorotibial joint, 211, 217, 219 Median sacral crest, 174, 175, 176, 181, 195
Medial heel, bulb of, 118, 128 Median vein, 32, 40, 42, 46, 47, 68, 71
Medial iliac lymph nodes, 169, 194 Mediocarpal joint, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 74, 75,
Medial intercondylar tubercle, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 78, 79
215, 216, 217, 219 palmarolateral recess of, 63
Medial malleolus, 222, 224, 229, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, Mediotarsal joint, 235
244, 245, 246, 247, 249, 250 Medullary cavity, 102, 103, 115, 258, 259, 270
Medial meniscus, 20, 202, 208, 210, 211, 214, 215, 216, Menisci (meniscus), 203, 204, 209
217, 220 Meniscofemoral ligament, 214, 216, 219, 220
Medial metacarposesamoidean ligament, 95 Metacarpal bones, see individual metacarpal bones
Medial metatarsal bone, 257 Metacarpal condyle, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 114, 126
Medial oblique sesamoidean ligament, 41, 82, 83, 85, 120, Metacarpointersesamoidean ligament, 119, 124
121, 122, 123, 127, 129, 263 Metacarpophalangeal fascia, 117
Medial palmar common digital artery, 84, 88, 90, 91, 92, Metacarpophalangeal joint (MPJ), 94, 95, 100, 101, 102,
93, 94 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 117, 119
Medial palmar common digital nerve, 84, 88, 90, 91, 92, collateral ligament of, 117
93, 94 collateral sesamoidean ligament of, 119
Medial palmar common digital vein, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 distopalmar recess of, 124, 125
Medial palmar eminence, 104, 105 dorsal capsule of, 94, 96, 118, 120, 124, 125, 126
Medial palmar metacarpal artery, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 dorsal network of, 95
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dorsal recess of, 117, 124, 126 Neurovascular fasciculus, 269

joint capsule of, 106 Ninth rib, 152
lateral collateral ligament of, 95, 103, 104, 105, 114, Nuchal area, 132, 133, 134, 137
115, 118, 119, 122 deep structures, 135
lateral collateropalmar recess of, 129 vertebral canal opened, 136
medial collateral ligament of, 95, 103, 104, 105, 114, Nuchal crest, 135
115, 120 Nuchal ligament, 133, 134, 137, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145,
medial collateral sesamoidean ligament, 120 147, 148
palmar network of, 95 Nuchal region, 131
proximopalmar recess of, 94, 95, 96, 98, 117, 119,
124, 129 Oblique sesamoidean ligament(s), 270, 271, 273, 274, 275,
Metacarposesamoidean joint, 100, 101, 102 277, 278
Metacarposesamoidean joint space, 126, 129 Obliquus capitis caudalis muscle, 133, 134, 144
Metacarposesamoidean ligament, 94 Obliquus capitis cranialis muscle, 133, 134, 137
Metacarpus, 100 Obliquus externus abdominis muscle, 161
and adjacent areas, 83 Obliquus internus abdominis muscle, 161, 183
distal third, 93 Obturator artery, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186
left forelimb, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85 Obturator externus muscle, 162, 163
middle third, 91, 92 Obturator foramen, 172, 173, 174, 191, 194
right forelimb, 82, 83 Obturator internus muscle, 184, 186, 188, 192, 194, 195
sagittal section of, 96 Obturator muscles, 195
Metaphysis, spongy bone of, 101, 102, 104 Obturator nerve, 182, 183, 184, 198
Metatarsal condyle, 270, 277 Obturator sulcus, 172
Metatarsal distal metaphysis, 277 Obturator vein, 180, 181
Metatarsal retinaculum, 229, 230 Occipital bone, 132, 136, 137
Metatarsointersesamoidean ligament, 271 basilar part of, 136, 137
Metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ), 264, 270, 271, 272, 277 nuchal face of, 135, 136
collateral ligament of, 271, 272 Occipital condyles, 132, 136
distoplantar recess of, 277 Occipital vein, 137
dorsal capsule of, 277 Oesophagus, 138, 139, 147
proximoplantar recess of, 277 Olecranon, 2, 7, 8, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36
Metatarsus, 189, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 258, 259, Olecranon fossa, 2, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 37
261, 262, 264, 270 Olecranon recess, 32
distal third of, 268 Olecranon tuberosity, 25, 27, 29
palpable anatomical structures, 257 Omohyoideus muscle, 141, 147
Middle cervical area, 138 Omotransversarius muscle, 7, 13, 16, 17, 133, 134, 141,
Middle genu artery, 219, 220 142, 144, 147, 156
Middle metatarsus, 267
Middle phalanx, 271 Pad, 114, 115
Middle scutum, 122, 123, 124, 125, 274, 275, 277 Palmar (intersesamoidean) ligament, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85,
Minor sciatic incisura, 172 95, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 118, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125,
Minor tuberculum, 5, 6, 12, 17, 30 126, 129
MPJ, see Metacarpophalangeal joint (MPJ) Palmar annular ligament, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 96, 98, 117,
MTPJ, see Metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) 118, 120, 124, 125, 126
Multifidus aponeuroses, 158 Palmar common digital artery, 73
Multifidus cervicis muscle, 144, 147, 148 Palmar common digital vein, 73
Multifidus colli muscle, 134 Palmar compact bone, 111, 112, 113
Multifidus fascia, 158, 161, 166, 167, 168, 169 Palmar cortex, 101, 102, 107
Multifidus muscle, 157, 159, 161, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, Palmar eminence, 101, 102
170, 185, 187, 188 sagittal fossa between, 101
Multifidus muscle fasciculi, 158 Palmar fetlock, 113
Muscle ramus, 16, 26, 184 Palmar ligament, 37, 38, 41
Musculocutaneus nerve, 146 Palmar margin, 102, 103, 104, 105
Palmar metacarpal artery, 74, 75, 94, 95, 96, 98, 117
Neck Palmar metacarpal fascia, 62, 65, 67, 76, 80, 81, 82, 83, 88,
palpable anatomical structures, 131 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97
and thorax, deep structures, 145 Palmar metacarpal vein(s), 74, 75, 94, 95, 96, 98, 117
Nerve ramus, 157 Palmarolateral recess, 73
Neurovascular anastomosis, 99 Palmaromedial cortex, 78, 115
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Palmarosagittal recess, 71 Plantar nerve, 225, 253

Palmar supracondylar fossa, 101, 102, 106 Plantar (superficial) metatarsal fascia, 265, 266, 267
Parietal corium, 108, 109, 113, 114, 115, 115, 116, 118, Plantarolateral cortex, 258
124, 125, 128, 129, 273, 277, 278 Plantaromedial cortex, 259
Parotid gland, 137 Plantar tarsal fascia, 241, 252, 255, 262
Parotidoauricular muscle, 137 Plantar tarsal sheath, 247, 251
Parotid region, 131, 133, 134 Plantar tubercle, 236
Pastern, 114, 115, 189 Plantar vein, 253, 254
and foot, 125 Podotrochlear bursa, 125, 128, 277, 278
of pelvic limb, 278 Popliteal artery, 219, 220
dorsal aspect of, 269 Popliteal face, 203, 208, 209
Patella, 181, 190, 191, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 203, 204, Popliteal fossa, 209, 215
206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214, 218, 223 Popliteal line, 222
Patellar apparatus, 211 Popliteal notch, 202, 203, 208, 214, 216
Patellar fascia, 217, 218, 219 Popliteal vein, 219, 220
Patellar ligaments, 203 Popliteus muscle, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 223
Pectineus muscle, 180, 181, 184, 193, 194, 195, 198, 199 Popliteus tendon, 214, 215, 216, 218
Pectoralis ascendens muscle, 1 Prepubic tendon, 162, 163, 183, 193, 194
Pectoralis descendens muscle, 1, 7, 14, 19, 20, 25 Promontorium, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185
Pectoralis profundus (ascendens) muscle, 7, 10, 12, 16, 17, Promontory, 173
19, 151 Proper digital artery, 278
Pectoralis transversus muscle, 7, 10, 20, 32, 46 Proper digital nerve, 278
Pectoral muscles, 31, 32 Proper digital vein, 278
Pelvic bones, 172, 173, 174 Proximal (tibial) extensor retinaculum, 223, 224, 238,
Pelvic digital area, 270 241, 244
palpable anatomical structures, 269 Proximal articular margin, 116
Pelvic foot, 275, 276 Proximal brachium, 15
Pelvic limb, 190, 273, 277 Proximal deep palmar arch, 74, 75
palpable anatomical structures, 189 Proximal digital annular ligament, 80, 82, 83, 117, 118,
superficial structures, 271, 272 120, 124, 125, 127, 129, 190, 271, 273, 277–278
Pelvic symphysis, 162, 163, 172, 173, 174, 183, 184, 194, Proximal epiphysis, 22
195, 198 Proximal forelimb, 1, 2
Pelvis, 163, 171, 173, 174, 180, 189 Proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ), 100, 103, 106, 108,
and connected bones, 172 109, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 270, 274, 275, 276, 277
dorsal part, 178 abaxial palmar ligament of, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123
and femoral region (thigh), 195, 196, 197 axial palmar ligament of, 120, 121, 122, 123
muscles and nerves, 184 collateral ligament of, 120, 121, 122, 271, 272, 273
superficial structures, 181 dorsal recess of, 124, 125, 127
vessels and nerves, 182, 183 lateral collateral ligament of, 103, 114, 115, 118
Penis, 198 medial collateral ligament of, 103, 114, 115
Perforating tarsal vein, 255 palmar recess of, 124, 125
Periopleum, 271 Proximal intertarsal (centrodistal) joint, 255
Perioplic corium, 125 Proximal intertarsal (mediotarsal) joint, 231, 232, 233,
Periosteum, 268 234, 235, 236
Peroneus tertius distal tendon, 255 Proximal intertarsal (talocentral) joint, 252
Peroneus tertius muscle(s), 190, 197, 212, 218, 219, 220, Proximal metacarpus, 86, 87, 88, 90, 97
223, 224, 227, 228, 229, 230, 238, 239, 241, 244 Proximal metaphysis, 12, 21, 23, 24, 30, 265
Peroneus tertius tendon, 253, 258 Proximal metatarsus, plantar structures, 266
Phrenic nerve, 144, 146 Proximal pelvic limb, superficial anatomical structures, 191
Pie mater, 149 Proximal sesamoid bone(s), 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 100, 101,
PIPJ, see Proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ) 102, 103, 114, 189, 270
Plantar annular ligament, 190, 260, 264, 271, 273, 274, 277 Proximal sesamoidean ligament, 109, 111, 112, 121, 122,
Plantar artery, 253, 254 123, 124, 125, 128, 275, 277
Plantar compact bone, 270 Proximal sesamoid ligament, 108
Plantar cortex, 270 Proximal talocalcaneal ligament, 243
Plantar (intersesamoidean) ligament, 263, 264, 271, 274, 277 Proximal tarsus, 253, 254
Plantar metatarsal artery, 268 Proximal tubercle, 231, 232, 234, 236, 237
Plantar metatarsal fascia, 244, 247, 261, 264, 265, 268 Proximomedial talocalcaneal ligament, 245, 246, 252, 253
Plantar metatarsal vein, 267, 268 Proximopalmarolateral recess, 71
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Psoas major muscle, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 180, 181, 182, Right acetabulum, 180
183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 194, 198 Right articular process, 178
Psoas minor muscle, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 180, 181, 182, Right articular process joint, 174
183, 184, 187, 188, 194, 198 Right caudal gluteal artery, 183
Psoas minor muscle tubercle, 172, 173, 180 Right coxal bone, 180
Psoas minor tendon, 187, 188 Right digital area, after removal of flexor tendons, 121
Pubis, 172, 173, 174, 180, 184, 191, 193 and straight sesamoidean ligament, 122
Pubis body, 173, 180 and straight and lateral oblique sesamoidean
Pubis pecten, 173, 180, 183 ligaments, 123
Pudendoepigastric trunk, 183 Right dissected crus, 224
Pulvinus, 101, 102 Right eighteenth rib, 162, 163
Right equine carpus, 52, 53
Quadratus femoris muscle, 197 Right external iliac artery, 183
Quadriceps femoris muscle, 180, 181, 183, 191, 194, 197, Right femoral nerve, 162, 163
198, 199, 201, 217, 223 Right femur, 162, 163, 172
vastus lateralis of, 195, 196 Right fifteenth rib, 162, 163
Quarter, 269 Right iliac crest, 178
Right iliopsoas muscle, 162, 163
Radial (antebrachial) condyle, 50, 51 Right ilium, 162, 176
Radial carpal bone, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 72 Right ilium neck, 178, 179, 185
Radial nerve, 14, 16, 146 Right internal iliac artery, 183
deep ramus of, 26, 32, 39 Right intertransverse lumbosacral joint, 180
Radial styloid process, 50, 51 Right ischium, 176, 194
Radial tuberosity, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27 medial ramus of, 180
Radiointermediate interosseous ligaments, 72, 74, 75 Right lumbosacral articular process joint, 174
Radiointermediate interosseous space, 51 Right lumbosacral intertransverse joint, 176
Radiointermediate joint, 58 Right major ischiatic foramen, 162
Radiolucent space, 103 Right minor psoas muscle, 162, 163
Radioulnar interosseous space, 43 Right obturator internus muscle, 180, 181
Radioulnar joint, 21, 23 Right pubis, 198
Radioulnar joint space, 22, 32 caudal ramus of, 180
Radioulnar space, 23 Right sacral tuber, 178
Radioulnar syndesmosis, 27, 43 Right sacral wing, 180
Radioulnar synostosis, 46, 50, 54 Right sacroiliac joint, 176, 180
Radius, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 40, 41, 42, 57, 59, 71, 74, 75 Right sacrosciatic ligament, 180, 182
distal metaphysis, 47, 53, 54, 55, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, Right scapulohumeral joint, 4
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 83 Right sciatic nerve, 162, 163
lateral tuberosity, 25, 37, 38, 39 Right stifle, palpable anatomical structures, 201
proximal epiphysis of, 29, 44 Right tarsus, 234
proximal metaphysis, 43 Right thoracic limb digital area, 117, 120
proximolateral tuberosity of, 19, 35, 36 Right tibia, 172
radial tuberosity, 41 Right tuber coxae, 155, 178, 185
styloid process, 65, 69 Right tuber ischiadicum, 176
Ramus communicans, 68, 71 Roof
Rectus abdominis muscle, 151, 183, 193, 194 of abdomen and pelvis, 162
Rectus capitis dorsalis major muscle, 134, 137 of pelvis, bones and ligaments, 177
Rectus capitis dorsalis minor muscle, 134, 137
Rectus capitis lateralis muscle, 137 Sacral (vertebral) canal, 178, 179
Rectus capitis ventralis muscle, 137 Sacral artery, 183
Rectus femoris muscle, 162, 183, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, Sacral canal, 174, 184, 185, 187
198, 199, 217 Sacral crest, 172
Renal arteries, 182 Sacral foramen, 172
Retractor costae muscle, 161 Sacral tuber, 171, 172, 174, 187, 191, 197
Rhomboideus cervicalis muscle, 10, 156 Sacral wing, 173
Rhomboideus cervicis muscle, 7, 141, 143, 144, 147 Sacroiliac fat, 178, 179
Rhomboideus muscle, 142 Sacroiliac joint, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 186, 187, 188
Rhomboideus thoracis muscle, 7, 10, 156 Sacroiliac ligament, 177
Rib, 142, 143, 144 Sacrosciatic ligament, 192, 197
Right acetabular area, 162 Sacrum, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 180, 183, 197
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Sagittal fossa, 51 Short digital extensor tendon, 255

Sagittal groove, 101, 102, 103 Short lateral collateral ligament, 240, 241, 242, 243, 253
Saphenous artery, 198, 220 Short medial collateral ligament, 240, 245, 246, 249, 253
Saphenous nerve, 183, 184, 198, 199 Short sesamoidean ligament, 123
Saphenous vein, 198, 199, 219, 221, 225, 230 Shoulder, 7, 13
Sartorius muscle, 180, 181, 198, 199 cranial margin of, 131
Satellite arterial ramus, 25 Shoulder joint, 14, 17, 18
Scalenus medius muscle, 144 Shoulder joint area, 12
Scalenus ventralis muscle, 144 Shoulder muscles, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13
Scapula, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 30, 156 Sixteenth thoracic vertebra (T16), 164
spine of, 2, 141 Sixth cervical vertebra (C6), 4, 5, 140, 144, 146
Scapular circumflex vein, 14 ventral ramus of, 144
Scapulohumeral joint, 3, 4, 5 Sixth intervertebral disc, 185
Sciatic nerve, 183, 184, 192 Sixth lumbar nerve (L6), 162, 163, 169, 170, 172, 173, 176,
muscle rami of, 196 177, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187
Scutocompedal ligament, 115, 270, 274 dorsal ramus of, 187
Scutum, 102 ventral ramus of, 188
Second (medial) intermetatarsal syndesmosis, 259, 262 Sixth thoracic vertebra (T6), mid-thoracic area from, 152
Second cervical nerve, ventral rami of, 134 Skin folds, 102
Second dorsal (intervertebral) sacral foramen, 175 Skin, mane of, 133, 134
Second intermetacarpal syndesmosis, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90, Soft tissue(s), 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109,
91, 92, 93, 94 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 203, 204, 208
Second lumbar intervertebral disc, 158 Solar canal, 111, 275
Second lumbar vertebra (L2), 154, 155, 158, 159, 167, 168 Solar corium, 124, 129, 273, 277, 278
Second metacarpal bone, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 99, Solar margin, 109, 110, 115, 116
100, 103, 106, 189, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 244, Sole, 38, 108, 109, 114, 115, 116, 118, 124, 129, 277, 278
245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 258, 259, 262, 263, 265, 266, corium of, 118
267, 268 Soleus muscle, 190, 228
Second metatarsal syndesmosis, 265, 266, 267 Sphenoid bone, 132
Secondometacarpal ligament, 86 Spinal cord, 147, 148, 149, 160, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169,
Secondotercer interosseous space, 55 170, 184, 185
Secondotertius interosseous ligaments, 73 Spinal process, 139, 152, 153
Secondotertius interosseous spaces, 73 Spinal ramus, 165
Secondotertius joint, 58 Spinalis cervicis muscle, 147, 148
Second sacral nerve, 182, 184 Spinalis thoracis muscle, 143, 144, 156
Second sacral vertebra, 184, 198 Splenius muscle, 133, 134, 137, 141, 142, 143, 147, 156
Second tarsal bone, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 258, 259 Spongy bone, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112,
Second thoracic vertebra, 147 113, 114, 115, 204, 233, 265, 266, 270
Second ventral (intervertebral) sacral foramen, 177 Sternocephalicus muscle, 131, 141, 142, 144, 147
Semilunar plica, 155 Sternohyoideus muscle, 147
Semilunar sinus, 116, 270 Sternothyroideus muscle, 147
Semimembranosus muscle, 171, 180, 181, 183, 191, 195, Sternum, 2
196, 199, 220 manubrium of, 20
Semispinalis capitis muscle, 133, 134, 137, 141, 142, 143, Stifle, 189, 217, 218
147, 148 passing through femoral condyles, 220
Semitendinosus muscle, 171, 181, 190, 191, 195, 196, 197, passing through intercondylar fossa of femur, 219, 220
199, 225, 227, 228 Stifle plica, 151
Semitendinosus muscle body, 224 Stifle proximal to patella, 218
Serratus dorsalis caudalis muscle, 161 Straight sesamoidean ligament, 80, 82, 83, 85, 108, 118,
Serratus dorsalis cranialis muscle, 142 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 127, 129, 263, 274, 275, 277, 278
Serratus ventralis cervicis muscle, 10, 156, 141, 142, 143 Striated muscle fibres, 228
Serratus ventralis thoracis muscle, 1, 10, 142, 143, 144, 151 Stylohyoideum, 132
Sesamoidean ligaments, 100, 101, 102 Subchondral bone, 112, 113, 154, 204, 207, 209, 231, 236,
Sesamoidophalangeal space, 104, 105, 106, 107 265, 270
Seventeenth rib, 157 Subclavia artery, 146
Seventeenth thoracic vertebra (T17), 154, 155, 160, 164, 165 Subclavius muscle, 1, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 156
Seventh cervical vertebra (C7), 2, 4, 5, 140, 145, 146 Subclavius nerve, 146
Shoe, 114, 115 Subcutaneous connective tissue, 266
Short digital extensor muscle, 224, 238, 241, 260, 261, 265 Subcutaneous tissue, 127, 253, 254
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Subdural (subarachnoidean) space, 149, 160, 164, 167, Tarsal sheath cavity, 254
168, 170, 185 Tarsal sinus, 235, 237
Subextensor recess, 218, 219 Tarsocrural joint, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 239,
Subpopliteal recess, 218, 219 244, 252, 253
Subscapular artery, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 Tarsometatarsal joint, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 252,
Subscapular fossa, 5, 13 264, 265
Subscapularis muscle, 11 Tarsometatarsal junction, 229
Subscapular muscle, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17 Tarsus, 189, 252, 258, 259
Subscapular nerves, 146 distal plantar ligament of, 252, 263, 264, 265
Subscapular vein, 13, 16 proximal plantar ligament of, 252
Suclavius muscle, 141 Temporal bone, 132
Sulcus intertubercularis, 3, 4, 5, 5, 16 Temporal muscle, 135
Superficial aponeurosis, 156, 157, 161, 167, 169 Tenocalcaneal ligament, 247
Superficial digital flexor muscle, 27, 32, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, Tensor fascia latae muscle, 151, 161, 171, 180, 181, 183,
69, 74, 75, 197, 218, 219, 223, 224, 247 187, 188, 190, 191, 195, 196, 198
Superficial digital flexor musculotendinous junction, Tensor fasciae antebrachii muscle, 10, 11, 16, 28, 32
47, 71 Teres major muscle, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 26, 28
Superficial digital flexor tendon cap, 237 Teres minor muscle, 8, 9, 16, 17
Superficial fibular (peroneal) nerve, 226, 227, 228 Teres minor proximal tendon, 13
Superficial ungular plexus, 117 Tertioquartal interosseous ligament, 73
Supracondylar crest, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 37 Tertioquartal interosseous space, 73
Supracondylar fossa, 197, 203, 208, 209, 270 Tertioquartal joint, 58
Suprascapular artery, 10, 17 Thigh, 151, 189
Suprascapular nerve, 8, 17, 146 Third carpal bone, 96, 97
Suprascapular rami, 16 Third cervical vertebra (C3), 138, 147, 148, 149
Suprascapular vein, 17 caudal articular process of, 147, 148, 149
Supraspinal ligament, 145, 153, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, vertebral fossa of, 147, 148
164, 167, 168, 169 Third dorsal (intervertebral) sacral foramen, 174
Supraspinatus fossa, 2, 3, 8, 13 Third dorsal metatarsal artery, 259, 261, 264, 265, 266,
Supraspinatus muscle, 1, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 267, 268
141, 156 Third intermetacarpal syndesmosis, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,
Suspensory apparatus, 263 93, 94
Suspensory ligament, 257, 269 Third intermetatarsal syndesmosis, 258, 260, 261
extensor branch of, 269 Third interosseous metacarpal enthesis, 89
Sustentaculum tali, 229, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 249, Third interosseous muscle (TIOM), 84, 87, 88, 106, 114,
252, 253, 254 115, 129, 189, 272, 273, 274, 275
Symphysial face, 173 distal limb, 99
Synovial fossa(e), 22,109 left fetlock, 104, 105, 126
Synovial lateral intermetatarsal joint, 258 and pastern, 100, 103, 127
Synovial membrane, 254 left metacarpophalangeal joint, 101, 102, 119
Synovial space, 3, 4, 5, 6 muscle body, 91, 92
Synovial sulcus, 112 muscle branches, 101, 102
metacarpus, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98
Tail, 171, 181, 195, 196 metatarsus, 261, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268
Talean fasciculus, 243, 245, 246, 249, 253 pelvic limb, 190, 260, 273
Talocalcaneal joint, 231, 235, 236, 237 right digital area, 121, 122, 123, 129
Talocalcaneal joint space, 246 tarsus, 240, 249, 251, 252
Talocentral joint, 233, 234, 235 thoracic limb, 117, 118, 120
Talocentrodistometatarsal ligament, 240, 243, 252, 255 suspensory apparatus, 263
Talometatarsal ligament, 240, 243, 252, 255, 264 (suspensory ligament), 37, 38, 41, 43, 49, 64, 65, 66, 67,
Talus, 190, 197, 222, 237, 242, 243, 245, 246, 252, 253 75, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86
lateral trochlea ridge of, 238, 241 Third lumbar nerve, 184
medial articular margin of, 253 Third lumbar vertebra (L3), 155, 158, 167, 168, 173,
medial trochlea ridge of, 238 174, 176
proximal tubercle of, 249, 253 Third metacarpal bone, 37, 38, 40, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,
trochlea of, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
240, 253 107, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124
Tarsal canal, 235, 242, 243 palmar recess of, 97
Tarsal flexor muscles, 229, 230 Third metacarpal condyle, 125, 129
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Third metatarsal bone, 189, 190, 223, 224, 231, 232, 233, Tibiofibular joint, 204, 209, 213, 214, 222
234, 235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, TIOM, see Third interosseous muscle (TIOM)
246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, Toe, 269
262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273 Trachea, 138, 139, 140, 147
Third metatarsal syndesmosis, 265, 266, 267 Transverse cubital artery, 32, 39
Third rib, 147 Transverse cubital vein, 32
Third sacral nerve, 182 Transverse foramen, 135, 136, 139
Third sacral vertebra (S3), 177, 182, 180, 184, 185 Transverse ligament, 277, 278
Third tarsal bone, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 240, 242, Transverse process, 138, 152
243, 252, 255, 258, 259, 264, 265 Trapezius muscle, 1, 7, 141, 142, 151, 156
Third trochanter, 171, 193 Triceps brachii muscle, 1, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19,
Third ventral (intervertebral) sacral foramen, 173 20, 25, 26, 28, 32, 35, 36, 151, 156
Thirteenth rib (R13), 145 Tricipital line, 2, 5, 26
Thoracic area, 151 Trigonum, 102, 278
Thoracic limb digital area, 124, 129 Trochanteric bursa, 192
Thoracic limb fetlock, 126 Trochanteric fossa, 191, 195
Thoracic limb foot, 128 Trochlea groove, 208
Thoracic limb pastern, 127 Trochlear incisura, 22, 23
Thoracic muscles, 7, 10 Tuber calcanei, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 240, 244,
Thoracic spinalis, 156 247, 248, 252, 253
Thoracic structures, 4, 5 Tubercle, 206
Thoracic vertebra, 2 Tuber coxae, 151, 161, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 181, 190,
Thoracodorsal artery, 10, 11, 12, 16 191, 195, 196, 197, 198
Thoracodorsal nerve, 146 Tuberculum supraglenoidale, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14, 30, 140
Thoracodorsal vein, 16 Tuber ischiadicum (ischiatic tuberosity), 171, 172, 173,
Thoracolumbar area, 165 174, 180, 191
between last thoracic vertebra and first lumbar Tuber olecrani, 2
vertebra, 166 Tuber sacrale, 151
Thoracolumbar articular process joint, 157 Tunica flava abdominis, 161
Thoracolumbar fascia, 142, 156, 157, 161, 166, 167, 181, Twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12), 152, 153
195, 196
Thoracolumbar interspinal ligament, 157 Ulna, 2, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 32, 38, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44,
Thoracolumbar junction, 154, 155, 157, 158 46, 54, 55, 57, 61
Thoracolumbar vertebral column, 160, 164 distal epiphysis of, 50, 52, 53, 56
Thorax, 2, 3, 151 styloid process of, 49
Throat, 131 Ulnar carpal bone, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 72
Tibia, 197, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 211, 213, Ulnar collateral artery, 11, 16, 28
214, 215, 216, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 227, 228, 231, Ulnar collateral vein, 16
232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, Ulnaris lateralis distal tendon, 66
247, 250 Ulnaris lateralis long tendon, 76
caudal surface of, 249 Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 1, 7, 8, 9, 19, 22, 25, 26, 32, 35,
extensor fossa of, 213 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 46, 49, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 74, 75
extensor sulcus of, 212, 213, 218 Ulnaris lateralis muscle body, 29
medial malleolus of, 230, 238, 239, 240, 248 Ulnaris lateralis musculotendinous junction, 47, 70–71
medial surface of, 249 Ulnaris lateralis tendons, 72
Tibial cochlea, 222, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 240, 245, 246, Ulnaris lateralis, 27
249, 252 Ulnar nerve, 11, 16, 28, 32, 42, 46, 47, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75,
Tibial crest, 203, 206, 208, 209, 211 76, 146
Tibial nerve, 196, 199, 219, 225, 227, 228 deep ramus of, 84
Tibial (proximal) extensor retinaculum, 226 palmar ramus of, 76, 84, 97
Tibial retinaculum, 229, 230 Ulnar styloid process, 50, 51
Tibial tubercle, 214 Umbilical artery, 183
Tibial tuberosity, 195, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, Ungular cartilage(s), 77, 121, 122, 123, 128, 129, 269, 271,
210, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 222, 224, 226 273, 276
Tibialis caudalis muscle, 227, 228, 244, 247
Tibialis caudalis tendon, 247 Vascular canal, 258, 259
Tibialis cranialis muscle, 190, 197, 212, 218, 220, 226, 227, Vascular channels, 116, 209
228, 229, 230, 238, 239, 241, 244, 247, 264 Vascular foramen, 78
Tibialis cranialis tendon, 238, 239, 241, 244, 253, 255 Vascular sulcus, 259
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Vastus intermedius muscle, 199 Vertebral artery, 148

Vastus lateralis muscle, 181, 197, 199, 220 Vertebral axis, 131
Vastus medialis muscle, 183, 198, 199, 217 Vertebral body, 136, 138, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 155
Ventral arch, 132, 136 Vertebral canal, 132, 136, 138, 166, 167, 168, 170, 184, 185
Ventral cervical region, 131 Vertebral column, 2
Ventral condylar fossa, 132, 137 Vertebral foramen, 139, 140, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153,
Ventral crest, 132 154, 155
Ventral intertransverse foramen, 177, 178 Vertebral fossa, 132, 138, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 155
Ventral longitudinal ligament, 159, 160, 163, 164, 167, Vertebral head, 138, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 155
169, 180, 183, 184, 185 Vertebral pedicle, 136
Ventral lumbosacral intertransverse ligament, 187 Vertebral symphysis, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 155
Ventral ramus, 133, 170, 184 Vertebral vein, 148
eighth cervical nerve, 146 Vestigial lateral (fourth) interosseous muscle, 266
fifth cervical nerve, 146 Vestigial medial (second) interosseous muscle, 266
first thoracic nerve, 146
second thoracic nerve, 146 Weight-bearing left distal limb, 114, 115
seventh cervical nerve, 146 White matter, 185
sixth cervical nerve, 146 Withers, 151
Ventral sacroiliac ligament, 186, 187, 188
Ventral tubercle, 132 Xiphoid process, 2
Ventrocaudal cuspid, 172, 174, 178, 180, 181, 172, 178, Xyphoid area, 151
180, 181
Vertebral arch, 138, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 155 Zygomatic arch, 135
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