Geodesy and Geodynamics 13 (2022) 247e253

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Geodesy and Geodynamics

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/geog

Geodetic characterization of active Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) of Central

Mainland Kachchh, western India
Donupudi Suribabu a, c, *, Rakesh K. Dumka a, Joydeep Paikray a, Girish Ch. Kothyari a,
Mahesh Thakkar b, Kandadai V. Swamy c, Ajay K. Taloor d, Sandip Prajapati a
a
Institute of Seismological Research, Raysan, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382009, India
b
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, KSKV University, Bhuj, Kachchh, India
c
Adikavi Nannaya University, RajahMundary, A.P, India
d
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, University of Jammu, Jammu, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: After the M7.7 earthquake in 2001, the Kachchh rift basin became the focus of various geological and
Received 19 February 2021 geophysical researches on the western Indian plate. As an essential technology, the Global Navigation
Accepted 11 May 2021 Satellite System (GNSS) has been utilized to study the deformation pattern in the central mainland
Available online 24 December 2021
Kachchh. We select the east-west striking Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) as the study area and analyze the crustal
deformation pattern using the datasets from 2014 to 2019. The geodetic results along the KHF reveal a
Keywords:
mean deformation of about 2.1 mm per year, which is higher in the eastern part and lower in the central
Geodesy
and western parts. The investigation of deformation and derived strain reveals the segmented behavior
GNSS
Deformation
of KHF, while the dominance of compressive strain (maximum 22 nanostrain/yr) in the eastern segment
Strain makes it the most active segment of the KHF. A higher deformation rate along the eastern KHF can be
Indian plate considered significant in terms of seismic hazard for this part of the Indian plate.
© 2021 Editorial office of Geodesy and Geodynamics. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of
KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Nagar Parkar Fault (NPF) in the north and the north-dipping North
Kathiawar Fault (NKF) in the south [3,6]. There are east-west faults
The splitting of eastern Gondwanaland in Mesozoic created in the basin, namely the Island Belt Fault (IBF), Kachchh Mainland
Kachchh, Cambay, and Narmada rift basins in western India [1e4]. Fault (KMF), South Wagad Fault (SWF), Katrol Hill Fault (KHF), Gedi
From north to south are the Kachchh and Narmada rifts, which are Fault (GF), North Wagad Fault (NWF), and Vigodi Fault (VF), which
sub-parallel EeW trending rifts intersected by the NNWdSSE in- had experienced persistent seismic activities in the region [3,6e10].
clined rift of Cambay (Fig. 1). This part of the Indian plate began to In the last two centuries, major earthquakes such as M7.8 Allah
be compressed after colliding with the Eurasian plate [5,6]. The Bund (1819), M7.0 Western Kachchh-Sunda (1845), M6.0 Anjar
reversal of the stress state from extension to compression resulted (1956), and M7.7 Bhuj (2001) earthquakes as well as several low to
in the reactivation of the faults in Kachchh [3]. This basin is moderate earthquakes after 2001 have occurred [11e19]. Earth-
bordered by two main east-west trending faults: the south-dipping quakes in the Kachchh region are mainly caused by the accumu-
lated strain from the continuous collision between the Indian and
Eurasian plates [3]. It is believed that after the 2001 M7.7 earth-
* Corresponding author. Institute of Seismological Research, Raysan, Gan- quake, the faults towards N and NE Kachchh became more active
dhinagar, Gujarat, 382009, India. and were responsible for the current enhanced seismicity [19e28].
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Suribabu). Hence, it is necessary to study the ongoing deformation process of
Peer review under responsibility of Institute of Seismology, China Earthquake
Administration.
individual faults in the Kachchh basin. Geodetic research using the
continuous mode of GPS datasets is useful for precise measure-
ments of deformation patterns. A study along the IBF in the
north of Kachchh using GPS measurements indicates the defor-
Production and Hosting by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi mation of 2.9 mm/yr and assesses the possibility of a maximum 6.0

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geog.2021.05.003
1674-9847/© 2021 Editorial office of Geodesy and Geodynamics. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
D. Suribabu, R.K. Dumka, J. Paikray et al. Geodesy and Geodynamics 13 (2022) 247e253

Fig. 1. The study area (rectangle) located in western India. The small blue circles along KHF indicate the location of GPS sites (refer to Table 1 for details). The locations of major
earthquakes during the last two centuries are represented by red stars along with the magnitude and year of occurrence.

magnitude earthquake [29]. Similarly, PSInSAR measurements in in this area is marked by KHF [42e44], which is defined as reverse
the eastern part of KHF show a maximum Line of Sight (LoS) fault [41]. The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) study defines the
displacement of 4.3 mm/yr [30]. And another research performed KHF as a south-dipping fault that is steep near the surface and ver-
using the ALOS-PALSAR dataset suggests the deformation of tical at depth [43,45]. The fault overlapping offsets in the quaternary
1.2e3.5 mm/yr along KMF [31]. sediments display the periodic reactivation of KHF, and three reac-
In order to measure the deformation after the 2001 Bhuj tivation events of Late Quaternary were acknowledged by the study
earthquake, the campaign mode GPS measurements and a few based on GPR and geomorphology as well as the paleo-seismological
continuous mode studies were carried out in the Kachchh. After trench investigation [46,47]. The optically stimulated luminescence
this earthquake, the measured horizontal deformation was 12 mm/ (OSL) dating along Khari River in the vicinity of KHF identified three
yr and then decreased to 6 mm/yr, 3 mm/yr, 4 mm/yr [32e39]. As tectonic episodes and provided a slip rate of 0.23 mm/yr [48]. The
an intraplate region with low deformation, it is required to monitor electron spin resonance (ESR) technique recognized the reactivation
the deformation pattern of various faults. In 2009, we started to of KHF at ~70 ka [49] and ~56 ka by improving the Alpha Efficiency
deploy continuous mode GPS stations in the study area, and the calculation [50]. The segmented behavior represents active tectonic
results obtained so far indicate low deformation (up to activities in different periods along the KHF [51]. KHF is laterally
3.0 ± 0.5 mm/year) and long-standing compression (z4 mm/yr) displaced at several places by northwest-southeast, northeast-
[39,40]. The strain tensor analysis based on GPS data sets from 2009 southwest directed transverse faults [43,44,52], and an annual
to 2015 reveals the domination of N-S compression in Kachchh deformation rate measured in the eastern segment of the KHF is
[32]. Since a few earthquakes of magnitude <4.0 occurred along the greater than 4.0 mm [30,31].
KHF after the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, and considering the apparent
displacement in Quaternary alluvial formation in the KHF zone, we 3. Methodology and GNSS data processing
focused the continuous mode GPS research on the faults crossing
the Kachchh mainland. The GPS data were processed and analyzed A total of eleven GPS stations (six continuous and five
in terms of deformation and strain rate to study the kinematic campaign modes) were established to observe the deformation
characteristics along KHF. Then we correlated the results with along the KHF, in which the nine stations are equipped with Leica
existing seismicity and available InSAR results to identify the zone 1200 receivers and two stations are equipped with Topcon re-
of maximum deformation in the area. ceivers. The continuous mode sites generate GPS data for all days
of the year, while semi-continuous mode (campaign) sites
2. Study area generate GPS data for at least 100 days of the year. The antenna
platform of each site was fixed on the Reinforced Cement Concrete
The study area is dominated by an east-west trending intra- (RCC) monument. The data observation rate of 30 s and the cut-off
basinal Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) passing from the middle of main- elevation mask angle of 15
were fixed to the entire local GPS
land Kachchh (Fig. 1). KHF divides the mainland Kachchh into two network. Continuous GPS stations measured 2e6 years of data,
geographic domains, one sloping to the north and the other inclining and semi-continuous stations (with an interval of 6 months be-
to the south [41]. The boundary of Cretaceous and Jurassic formation tween each epoch) measured 2e3 years of data.

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D. Suribabu, R.K. Dumka, J. Paikray et al. Geodesy and Geodynamics 13 (2022) 247e253

In GPS data processing, the pre-processing part was accom- segments highlights the segmented characteristics of KHF and a
plished by the Translation, Editing and Quality Check (TEQC), variable amount of slip component along the fault (Fig. 4).
which is provided by University NAVSTAR Consortium (UNAVCO)
[53]. After selecting sessions over 12 h and eliminating cycle slip 4.2. Strain results
data, all the generated raw data were transformed into the
Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) format. The post- The strain analysis conducted using the grid_strain program
processing of data was accomplished by GAMIT/GLOBK software [63,64] provides the domination of compressive strain and an
10.7 [54,55]. To generate a solution in the International Terrestrial almost equal amount of extensional strain in the study area
Reference Frame (ITRF), about 21 International GNSS Services (Table 1). Further, the eastern segment of KHF accumulates higher
(IGS) sites were used [56]. The monument instability error was compressive strain compared to the middle and western segments.
eliminated by the inclusion of 0.75 mm/yr1/2 random-walk noise An average of 22 nanostrain/yr is observed in the eastern segment
to the positions of all the stations. The involvement of ocean tides along the KHF, while the central and western segments reveal the
eradicated by model FES2004 and GPT2 was applied as a local average of 18 and 12 nanostrain/yr, respectively (Figs. 5 and 6).
meteorological model, while the IERS2003 model was used for the The segmented behavior of faults is associated with the indi-
solid earth displacement correction [57e61]. And all these models vidual faults in the Kachchh basin, i.e., the IBF, SWF, KMF, and KHF
have been applied during post-processing. Finally, the time series [4,9,24,29,51]. The geodetic study along the IBF identified three
were generated according to the expected steps of velocity esti- different segments of the fault and presented variable slip associ-
mation [54,55]. It is worth noting that the MOTH, KUKM, and NIGL ations along the Pachchham, Khadir, and Bela segments [29]. The
sites showed a large number of movements, so we did not segmented behavior based on the detailed geomorphological
consider the results of these three sites in the result interpreta- investigation highlighted the presence of double and single fault
tion. The ITRF frame was utilized for velocity estimation. Then the zones along the South Wagad Fault [9]. Similarly, KMF is also
angular velocity and rotational pole (Wx ¼ 0.335613 ± 0.0030, recognized as a segmented fault based on the paleo-seismological
Wy ¼ 0.070437 ± 0.0114, and Wz ¼ 0.434185 ± 0.0036) [62] were investigation [24].
utilized to estimate deformation of the study area (Table 1). Additionally, the distribution of earthquake epicenters (https://
isr.gujarat.gov.in) (Fig. 6) towards the hanging-wall side proves the
4. Results and discussion active nature of the fault, which can be directly linked with the
south-dipping KHF. An InSAR study indicated the active nature of
This study is the first geodetic survey along the KHF to the KHF and estimated the maximum deformation of 4.0e5.0 mm/yr
central part of the Kachchh mainland. The results based on the (LoS) in the east Kachchh [37,39,65]. Similarly, another study using
dense network of the 11 GPS sites show that the average ITRF ve- ALOS PALSAR data from 2007 to 2010 showed that the vertical
locity along KHF is 49.68 ± 1.0 mm/yr with an uncertainty of a deformation of this part was 6e7 mm/yr [65]. It can be seen that
sigma (Fig. 2 and Table 1). The average northward and eastward the deformation is continuously declining after the M7.7 earth-
ITRF velocities are 34.60 ± 1.0 mm/yr and 35.90 ± 1.0 mm/yr, quake in the Kachchh region. The GPS studies in Kachchh revealed
respectively (Table 1). 12 mm/yr of horizontal motion after the six months of the 2001
Bhuj earthquake and subsequently reduced to 6, 4, and 3 mm/yr
4.1. Deformation results [30,32,33,35e37,39].
The average deformation of about 2 ± 1 mm/yr in the current
The investigation of time series after removing the plate motion study area (Fig. 3 and Table 1) is low compared to the plate
[62] indicates a significant amount of deformation in this part of the boundary region but may be significant for this part of the Indian
Kachchh. The component-wise analysis illustrates the dominance plate [62,66e75]. The geodetic investigation based on the GPS
of NE e NNW directed movement along the KHF (Fig. 3). According dataset from 2009 to 2015 revealed an average annual deformation
to the results of sites ADIP, ANJA, STPR, and NAG1, the eastern rate of 3.0 ± 0.5 mm in the Kachchh [39]. Similar studies based on
segment of the KHF yields an average displacement of SAR technology in the different parts of Kachchh showed that the
2.1 ± 0.4 mm/yr northward and 0.98 ± 0.4 mm/yr westward (Fig. 4). annual displacement was up to 4.0 mm [30,31,76]. Therefore, the
The BHUJ, BALA, SAMT, and KROH sites located in the middle and results of the present study are comparable in the Kachchh region.
western segment of the KHF show an average displacement of Based on the GPS-derived results of the central mainland Kachchh,
1.08 ± 0.3 mm/yr northward and 1.46 ± 0.3 mm/yr westward, it can be concluded that the eastern segment of KHF is more active
respectively. The variation among the eastern, middle, and western than the central and western parts. The derived strain implies the

Table 1
The ITRF14 and Indian plate velocities of sites with the values of compressive and extensional strain.

Site Long. Lat. Velocity (ITRF14) (mm/yr) Velocity (Indian plate) (mm/yr) correlation Compression Extension
coefficient (Rho) (nanostrain/yr) (nanostrain/yr)
E N E N

ADIP 70.10 23.07 34.85 34.33 1.82 ± 0.23 1.89 ± 0.21 0.03 18.39 ± 4.20 9.27 ± 4.20
ANJA 70.03 23.11 36.15 34.73 0.48 ± 0.05 2.31 ± 0.04 0.04 19.78 ± 4.80 9.55 ± 4.70
STPR 70.05 23.16 37.88 33.70 1.28 ± 0.06 1.28 ± 0.05 0.00 20.99 ± 4.90 9.71 ± 4.60
NAG1 69.99 23.11 35.95 35.14 0.67 ± 0.14 2.74 ± 0.12 0.06 19.76 ± 5.00 9.24 ± 5.60
BHUJ 69.66 23.21 33.84 34.89 2.63 ± 0.12 2.60 ± 0.10 0.00 15.04 ± 5.90 9.11 ± 5.30
BALA 69.61 23.10 36.49 32.35 0.05 ± 0.12 0.08 ± 0.10 0.01 11.79 ± 6.50 7.95 ± 5.40
SAMT 69.50 23.19 34.37 32.96 2.08 ± 0.31 0.73 ± 0.28 0.03 11.98 ± 5.50 8.28 ± 5.19
KROH 69.24 23.15 35.60 33.05 0.83 ± 0.09 0.91 ± 0.08 0.02 9.23 ± 5.00 7.99 ± 4.90

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D. Suribabu, R.K. Dumka, J. Paikray et al. Geodesy and Geodynamics 13 (2022) 247e253

Fig. 2. The network of the 11 GPS sites and the ITRF velocities (blue arrows) along the KHF with one sigma uncertainty.

Fig. 3. The deformation and strain rate along the KHF are quantified with reference to the site motion estimated by the Euler pole [62]. The average motion of GPS sites is
2.1 ± 1.0 mm/yr, which is considered significant in the intraplate region.

Fig. 4. The histogram of northward and eastward displacement of GPS stations. The sites located in the east indicate more N-S motion compared to the central and western parts of
KHF. Similarly, the EeW motion is more in the sites of central and western parts compared to the sites of the eastern part. This kind of motion highlights the segmented behavior of
KHF.

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D. Suribabu, R.K. Dumka, J. Paikray et al. Geodesy and Geodynamics 13 (2022) 247e253

Fig. 5. The longitudinal distribution of strain tensors. The red and blue columns indicate the compression and extension, respectively. The relative analysis of strain tensors suggests
the domination of compressive strain and an almost equal amount of extensional strain in the study area. For strain magnitude, please refer to Table 1.

Fig. 6. The distribution of earthquake epicenters in the study area. The measured strain tensor at each GPS site indicates the compression (red line) and extension (blue line).

presence of almost N-S compression with maximum strain accu- Kachchh, western India” assures that the results are original and
mulation towards the eastern part of KHF. derived based on fieldwork, followed by data analysis and inter-
pretation. All of us nominate the corresponding author and approve
5. Conclusions the submission of the manuscript to the journal of “Geodesy and
Geodynamics”. The present manuscript is part of the Ph.D. thesis
Based on the GPS derived deformation and strain analysis in the work of Mr. D Suribabu.
central part of mainland Kachchh, the following conclusions can be
drawn: the geodetic study in the central mainland Kachchh shows
Conflicts of interest
the ITRF velocity of 49.6 ± 1.0 mm/yr; the maximum deformation
along the south-dipping EeW trending KHF is estimated to be
The authors declare that they have no known competing
2.1 ± 1.0 mm/yr; the variable north-south and comparable east-west
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
geodetic displacements along the strike highlight the segmented
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
character of the KHF zone, and the dominance of compressive strain
makes the eastern segment the most active part along the KHF; a
maximum of 22 nanostrain/yr is calculated in the eastern segment of Acknowledgements
KHF, which is reflected in the form of current seismicity.
We are grateful to the Director-General, ISR & DST- Govt. of
Author statement Gujarat, for the necessary support to carry out the research work.
The study is part of Active Fault mapping of the Kachchh region, and
All the authors of the manuscript entitled “Geodetic character- for that RKD is thankful to MoES-New Delhi for the grant via
ization of active Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) of Central Mainland Seismo-1/270/AFM/2015.
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D. Suribabu, R.K. Dumka, J. Paikray et al. Geodesy and Geodynamics 13 (2022) 247e253

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Solut. 13 (2009) 249e261, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10291-009-0118-3. Donupudi Suribabu received the MSc (Tech) post-
[65] P. Narain, R.K. Dumka, K. Malik, Crustal deformation study using GPS and graduation on Geophysics (2011e2014), Andhra Univer-
InSAR techniques in Kachchh, western India, theme: seismotectonics, paleo- sity. Presently he is pursuing the Ph.D. in Institute of Seis-
seismology, geodesy & Geophysics, in: National Conference and Field Work- mological Research, Gandhinagar, India and Adikavi
shop on “Recent Studies on the Geology of Kachch Basin” 31st Dec, 2018, Bhuj, Nannaya University, Rajahmundry, India (2018-still).
Kachchh, 2018. From March 2015 to March 2017, he was a Project
[66] R.K. Dumka, B.S. Kotlia, G.C. Kothyari, J. Paikray, S. Dimri, Detection of high and Assistant-II with the CSIR-Fourth Paradigm Institute, Ban-
moderate crustal strain zones in Uttarakhand Himalaya, India, Acta Geophys. galore, India. He currently works with the Geodesy and
(2018b), https://doi.org/10.1007/s40328-018-0226-z. Remote Sensing techniques. His research interests include
[67] R.K. Dumka, P. Chodhury, V.K. Gahalaut, K. Gahalaut, R. Yadav, GPS mea- GNSS data processing, Total Electron Content studies, SAR
surements of deformation caused by seasonal filling and emptying cycles of big data processing (PS-InSAR), and shell-scripting.

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