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The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2 is available as a Whiteboard
eTextbook and Student eTextbook.

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 The City & Guilds textbook
Plastering
LEVEL 1 DIPLOMA (6708)
LEVEL 2 DIPLOMA (6708)
LEVEL 2 TECHNICAL CERTIFICATE (7908)

Mike Gashe
Kevin Byrne
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 Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently
overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first
opportunity.
Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going
to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned
in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the
home page for a website in the URL window of your browser.
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You can also order through our website: www.hoddereducation.co.uk
ISBN: 978 1 3983 0647 9
 The City & Guilds of London Institute and Hodder & Stoughton Limited 2020
First published in 2020 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House
50 Victoria Embankment
London EC4Y 0DZ
www.hoddereducation.co.uk
Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2024 2023 2022 2021 2020
The moral right of the authors has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this
publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from
the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic
reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, www.cla.co.uk
Cover photo © ahavelaar - stock.adobe.com
City & Guilds and the City & Guilds logo are trademarks of The City and Guilds of London
Institute. City & Guilds Logo © City & Guilds 2020
Illustrations by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd
Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India
Printed in Slovenia
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

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 Contents
Acknowledgements v
About the authors vi
Picture credits viii
How to use this book xi

1 Principles of construction 1
Understand the construction industry 2
Understand construction information 6
Building substructure 8
Building superstructure 12
Interpret building information 35
Setting up and securing work areas 44
Communication 47
Sustainability 52

2 Health and safety in construction 61

Health and safety roles and responsibilities 62
Health and safety legislation 63
Construction site health and safety inductions 77
Accidents and emergencies 79
Fire safety 80
Safety signs and signals 82
Welfare at work 84
First aid 86

3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining 90

Tools and equipment 91
Prepare the background for plastering 103
Prepare to fix plasterboard 111
Fix plasterboard by direct bond 119
Prepare loose plastering materials for mixing 123
Apply plastering systems 127

4 Applying external plain rendering 155

What is external rendering? 155
Interpret information 161
Select materials, tools and equipment 165
Apply render to external backgrounds 174

5 Floor screed systems 198

Interpret information 199
Select materials and components 202
Types of screeded floor 211
Lay sand and cement screeds 214

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 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing 228
Fibrous plaster mouldings 228
Select materials, components and equipment 235
Plaster reverse moulds 242
Cast from a reverse mould 257
Fix and finish plaster mouldings 268

7 Metal frame systems 280

Benefits of using metal frame systems 280
Information sources for using metal frame systems 281
Set out metal frame systems 281
Metal stud partitions 282
Metal wall lining systems 291
Metal furring ceiling systems 298

Test your knowledge answers 305

Glossary 307
Index 313

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 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements
This book draws on several earlier books that were published by City & Guilds, and we acknowledge and thank the
writers of those books:
● Mike Gashe

● Michael Mann

● Colin Fearn

● Martin Burdfield

We would also like to thank everyone who has contributed to City & Guilds photoshoots. In particular, thanks to:
Andrew Buckle (photographer), Mike Gashe and the staff and students at Grŵp Llandrillo Menai, Michael Mann and
the staff and students at South and City College Birmingham.
Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.

From the authors

My contribution to this book is dedicated to my wife Gail Byrne, who has supported me throughout this process,
and to my recently late daughter, Nicola Ann Byrne, who would have been immensely proud of my efforts.
Kevin Byrne
Thanks to Emma and Matt and the rest of the team at Hodder Education for allowing me the opportunity to
develop the new Plastering textbook. Thanks also to City & Guilds for the material in the previous editions, and
to British Gypsum for the use of their literature and images.
Mike Gashe

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

About the authors

Kevin Byrne
I was born and brought up in Oldham, Lancashire, where I have lived and worked
all my life. I come from a family of plasterers: grandfather, great uncle, father,
brother, myself and my son, so was essentially born into the trade. I worked
my school holidays from thirteen years old helping my father and brother. In
1977, I left school at the age of fifteen and got an apprenticeship in plastering
at Oldham Council. I didn`t enjoy this because I was working mainly on small
repairs to tenanted houses, however, I soon went to work with my father and
brother on housing and commercial work, which was tough, but I enjoyed it
immensely. My brother and I worked together for five years from 1982 before
I started my own successful business, sometimes employing up to 50 people
depending on the size of the contracts. Although for a large amount of that
time I had no formal qualifications I became a competent solid plasterer and
businessman. In 2007, I was asked to help out at The Oldham College teaching
practical plastering to adults. While teaching at The Oldham College I gained my
L2 and 3 NVQ in solid plastering and also gained my teaching qualifications: PTLLS 7303, Certificate in Education,
Assessor Awards and BA in Education and Professional Development. I stayed at The Oldham College teaching
on a part-time basis until 2011 and continued to run a scaled-down version of my plastering business, employing
myself and two operatives. In 2013, I was offered an opportunity to teach plastering full time at Kirklees College,
which I took and am currently still there. While there I gained my Internal Verification Awards. I am a member of
the National Association of Plastering Lecturers and an Associate APL of the Worshipful Company of Plaisterers.
I currently do consultancy work for City & Guilds developing plastering qualifications. I find my current roles
in teaching and developing immensely satisfying and take great pride in influencing and developing the next
generation of plasterers in this brilliant trade, which is a highly skilful and tough environment to work in but has
given me the opportunity to earn a good living and enabled me to support my family throughout my working life.
In my spare time I have always kept fit and when younger played Rugby League and Squash to a good amateur
competitive level. I am also a keen cyclist, both road and mountain biking, when time allows, and avidly follow all
these sports live and on TV.

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 About the authors

Mike Gashe
I was brought up in a small village in the Snowdonia National Park, North Wales
where I continue to live with my family. My plastering career started at the age
of 16, attending Bangor Technical College under a three-year apprentice scheme.
During my time as a student at the college I won the Blue Circle Apprentice
Award as well as the British Gypsum Young Apprentice Plasterer Award.
Following my time at the college I went on to work as a self-employed
commercial and private plastering contractor for a number of years, and today
I continue to practise those traditional and modern skills and techniques on a
smaller scale.
For the past 26 years I have been a lecturer and programme leader in the
plastering section at Grwp Llandrillo Menai. I’m proud and honoured that during
my time at the college many of our learners, including the plastering department, have been successful in achieving
Regional and National awards.
During the last 9 years I’ve also worked closely with City & Guilds, developing and writing new qualifications and
assessment material, including developing smart screen teaching resources and training manuals for plastering and
dry lining to support teaching staff. I have recently become a Principal Moderator and chief examiner for City &
Guilds technical qualifications.
Publishing this book has given me the opportunity to reflect on my own plastering experiences and be able to pass
on this knowledge to other learners to help them achieve their future aims.
Kevin and Mike would like to add that if you talk the talk and walk the walk success and rewards will come your way.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Picture credits
All step-by-step sequences © City & Guilds 2020, p.52 © Chokniti/stock.adobe.com; p.53 t © JeanLuc/
unless otherwise credited. stock.adobe.com; m © R_Yosha/stock.adobe.com; b ©
Christian Schittich/Alamy Stock Photo; p.54 t © David
p.6 t © Ewelina Wachala/Shutterstock.com, m ©
Stone; b © Idmanjoe/stock.adobe.com; p.55 t © Franco
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lucato/stock.adobe.com; b © FluxFactory/E+/Getty
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Images; p.56 t © Hansenn/stock.adobe.com; p.57 t ©
Fig 1.3 © Andrey Demkin/Shutterstock.com; Fig 1.5 ©
Alan/stock.adobe.com; m © Alexandr Mitiuc/stock.
Cheng Wei/Shutterstock.com; Fig 1.7 © Mr.Arthid
adobe.com; b © Dantok/stock.adobe.com; p.58 t ©
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Metals Ltd; Fig 1.29 © OneClic/stock.adobe.com;
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2nd © Peeradontax/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © Oleksii/
m © James Hughes/Alamy Stock Photo, b Reprinted
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courtesy of Engineering News-Record, copyright BNP
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© Dorling Kindersley ltd/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 2.8 ©
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 Picture credits

adobe.com; p.93 1st © City & Guilds, 2nd © City & com, 6th © 2020 Screwfix Direct Limited; p.114 1st ©
Guilds, 3rd © © Studio Harmony/stock.adobe.com, 5th David Desoer/123 RF.com, 2nd © Panupong/stock.
© ZOM ZOM/stock.adobe.com, 6th © Mike Gashe; adobe.com, 3rd © Stanley Black and Decker; Fig 3.56
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Ltd, UK; Fig 6.17 © City & Guilds; Fig 6.18 © City & adobe.com; p.288 Steps 1–7 © British Gypsum; Fig 7.5
Guilds; Fig 6.19 © City & Guilds; p.238 table 1st © © Trusted Media Brands; Fig 7.11 t © Serge Vo/
Bumi100/123RF.com, 2nd © Simone_n/stock.adobe. Shutterstock.com, b © Sound Service (Oxford) Ltd;
com, 3rd © Alexander/stock.adobe.com, 5th © City & p.292 2nd © British Gypsum, 3rd © British Gypsum;
Guilds; Fig 6.20 © City & Guilds; p.239 table 2 2nd © p.293 2nd © British Gypsum, 3rd © British Gypsum,
2020 Screwfix Direct Limited, 3rd © Flower Studio/ 4th © British Gypsum, 5th © Annymax/stock.adobe.
Shutterstock.com, 4th © Axminster Tool Centre; p.240 com, 6th © British Gypsum; p.294 t © British Gypsum;
1st © Axminster Tool Centre, 3rd © Art_zzz/stock. p.295 Steps 1–11 © British Gypsum; p.297 Steps 1–5
adobe.com, 5th © Patpitchaya/stock.adobe.com, 6th © British Gypsum; Fig 7.18 Courtesy of The Family
© City & Guilds; p.241 3rd © Fibre Hand Shop, 4th © Handyman. Used by permission. All rights reserved;
Pixelrobot/stock.adobe.com, 5th © City & Guilds; p.299 all © British Gypsum; p.300 1st, 2nd © British
6th © MidoSemsem/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.21 © Gypsum, Steps 1–9 © British Gypsum; Fig 7.20 ©
Saint-Gobain Formula; Fig 6.22 © Saint-Gobain Khan3145/Shutterstock.com.
Formula; p.244 1st © City & Guilds, 2nd © Achim

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How to use this book

Throughout this book you will see the following Activities help to test your understanding and
features. encourage you to learn from your colleagues’
experiences.
Industry tips are particularly useful pieces of advice
that can assist you in your workplace or help you
remember something important. ACTIVITY
What would motivate you to improve your work?
Make a note and discuss with your team to see what
INDUSTRY TIP motivates them.

In the apprenticeship training period of your career, you will

Improve your maths features provide opportunities
be paid an agreed amount per week. When fully competent,
plasterers are usually paid per square metre of materials to practise or improve your maths skills.
applied to surfaces. Improve your English features provide opportunities
to practise or improve your English skills.
Key terms in bold purple in the text are explained in
At the end of each chapter there are some Test your
the margin to aid your understanding. (They are also
knowledge questions. These are designed to identify
explained in the Glossary at the back of the book.)
any areas where you might need further training or
revision.
KEY TERM
The apprenticeship only icon identifies content
Corrosion: any process involving the deterioration
or degradation of metal components, where that is relevant to apprenticeship learners only.
the metal’s molecular structure breaks down
irreparably.

Health and safety boxes flag important points to keep

yourself, colleagues and clients safe in the workplace.
They also link to sections in the health and safety
chapter for you to recap learning.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

A fire extinguisher should always be available when
using any form of soldering equipment.

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 CHAPTER 1
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
There is much more to work in the construction sector than just individual trade areas. There are many generic
areas which fit into all parts of the construction process. For the work to be of a good standard and cost-effective,
it needs to be well-organised and efficient.
The construction industry covers many different areas such as domestic new build houses and commercial new
build such as hospitals, schools, factories, roads, bridges, prisons and train lines. There is also the renovation of
dilapidated buildings, including heritage work on listed buildings, and facilities work such as the upkeep and
repair of existing buildings.
To work in construction, you will need to be able to read and interpret construction drawings. You need to have
a good understanding of maths to work out calculations and quantities of materials and you must be able to
communicate positively. By reading this chapter you will gain knowledge of:
1 how to understand the construction industry
2 different types of construction information
3 building substructure: foundation construction
4 building superstructure: floor, wall and roof construction, with internal finishes
5 how to interpret building information
6 good practice for setting up the site
7 how to communicate at all levels of the process
8 how to understand and be aware of current environmental good practice within the construction process.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.
Level 1 Diploma in Level 2 Diploma in Level 2 Technical
Plastering (6708-13) Plastering (6708-23) Certificate in Plastering
Chapter section Unit 101/501 Unit 202/602 (7908-20) Unit 201
Understand the construction Topics 1.1, 1.2
industry
Understand construction Topic 2.1
information
Building substructure Learning outcome 3 Learning outcome 12 Topics 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
Building superstructure Learning outcomes 4, 5, 6 Learning outcomes 13, 14, 15 Topics 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
Interpret building information Learning outcome 1 Learning outcome 10 Topics 2.2, 2.3
Setting up and securing work Topics 2.4, 3.1, 3.2
areas
Communication Learning outcome 7 Learning outcome 16 Topic 1.3
Sustainability Learning outcome 2 Learning outcome 11

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

1 UNDERSTAND THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Areas of construction work and types of organisation
There are many different areas of construction work, which are explained in this table.

Types of construction Definition

New build New construction, rather than renovation or refurbishment of existing structures. New build can
include all types of construction such as houses, apartments, office blocks, hospitals and stadiums.
Renovation Improvements to a broken, damaged or outdated building. Usually this will be commercial or
residential property. It could be described as bringing something back to life, perhaps to be used for a
different purpose, such as an old cinema changed to a restaurant/leisure facility.
Maintenance Making sure buildings continue to look good and operate at optimum efficiency. If a building is not
properly maintained, it can become inefficient. This will make it more expensive to operate and might
affect the health and safety of users.
A good example of maintaining a building is changing all light bulbs to energy-saving efficient ones.
Restoration The process of returning a historic building to its former state. The aim will be to accurately recreate
the building’s form, features and character as they appeared at a particular time.
Traditional materials and techniques might be used to reflect the time period that the restoration is
aiming to recreate.
Domestic Projects involving extensions, repairs and refurbishment work on the homes of domestic clients.
These are usually undertaken by small building contractors.
Commercial Building projects such as offices, industrial factories and business establishments.
Industrial Buildings for larger businesses: steel-erected industrial buildings, such as warehouses and
manufacturing plants.

Many different types of organisation are involved in the construction process.

Organisation Definition
Building contractors Contractors co-ordinate the resources needed to carry out different types of construction work. This
might include contracting a number of trades needed to carry out the works, such as plasterers,
bricklayers, joiners, plumbers and electricians.
Manufacturers An organisation or business that makes goods to sell. Manufacturers take raw materials or
components from different sources, assemblies and other materials and turn them into finished
products which can then be sold to customers. British Gypsum is an example of a business that
manufactures and supplies gypsum-based materials for plasterers to use in construction.
Suppliers Suppliers provide products or services to others. They often receive products directly from the
manufacturers and then distribute them to other entities at a profit. For example, builders’ merchants
obtain materials from manufacturers and then sell and supply to their own customers for a percentage
profit.
Local authorities Local authorities provide housing in a particular area and are also responsible for property
maintenance. They need to assess the housing needs for the area and build, buy and lease dwellings
to match those needs. They might also provide loans for repairing and improving dwellings.
Legislative bodies These bodies prepare and enact laws that have been passed by Parliament. Bodies such as the
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and Building Control ensure the construction industry is upholding
the law.

HEALTH AND SAFETY IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

The HSE governs health and safety law, quality and ‘Optimum’ means ‘best’. Can you construct a
standards. For more on the HSE, see Chapter 2. plastering-related sentence using the word ‘optimum’?

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

The construction industry is made up of many ways to restore and maintain old buildings. Architects
companies and types of business offering different will be involved throughout a building project from the
services, such as plumbing and electrical. Companies initial planning stage until the work is completed.
can be small (1–49 employees), medium (50–249
employees) or large (250 employees and above).
Structural engineer
Depending on the client, these companies work in two Structural engineers ensure buildings and structures are
different sectors. designed safely and existing buildings are structurally
1 Public: schools, hospitals, libraries and public secure so they can withstand the different elements
buildings are generally financed by government/ to which they will be exposed. Their work can include
public funding. designing and working out calculations for steel
2 Private: individuals or groups of people/consortiums structures. Their work is essential for obtaining planning
fund work, from a small extension to a huge private permission and building regulations approval.
housing development.
Surveyor
Surveyors offer advice on many aspects of design
ACTIVITY
and construction, including maintenance, repair,
1 Work with a partner to find examples of all three
refurbishment and restoration of proposed and existing
categories of different-sized company.
buildings. They offer quality assessments and report
2 Find examples of a construction company with
only one employee (sole trader). on defects in or ways of improving all kinds of building.
They perform searches for types of land and its
suitability for building upon.

Roles of team members and Service engineer

career progression Service engineers give advice on the design, installation
and maintenance of buildings’ services such as water,
Jobs and roles in the construction industry are defined
lighting, heating, air conditioning, lifts and telecoms/
in four different sectors.
Wi-Fi. They will look for the most cost-effective and
1 Building: physical construction/making of a building,
energy-efficient systems.
including maintenance, restoration and refurbishment.
2 Civil engineering: the construction and maintenance
of roads, railways, bridges and sewers.
Technicians
3 Electrical engineering: installation and maintenance Technicians link professional workers with craft workers.
of electrical systems including lights, power sockets There are many different types of technician.
and appliances.
Architectural technician
4 Mechanical engineering: installation and
maintenance of heating, ventilation and lift systems. The role of an architectural technician is to provide
architectural design services and to work closely with
Employment within construction is in four areas: building professionals on construction projects. They
● professionals
assess the needs of clients and users and agree the
● technicians
project brief.
● building craft workers

● building operatives.
KEY TERM
Professionals Sole trader: a self-employed person who owns and
runs their own business. The business does not
Professionals are usually educated to degree level.
have a legal identity separate to its owner, so that
Architect person is the business.

Architects design new buildings and the redevelopment Project brief: a summary of a project’s ideas; it
shows what work needs to be done.
of existing buildings. They are also involved in finding

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Building technician diagrams. They perform general electrical maintenance

A building technician supports construction managers, and inspect transformers, circuit breakers and other
surveyors, architects and other workers on construction electrical components.
sites. Their job involves estimating material costs,
Plumber
negotiating the price of and buying materials and
checking the quality of suppliers. Plumbers work with gas and water systems,
mapping the layout for pipes, drainage systems and
Quantity surveyor other plumbing materials, based on the building
A quantity surveyor manages the costs of a project, specifications. They install pipes, sinks, toilets, baths,
making sure it is completed within the planned budget. showers and any other fixtures related to the plumbing
They are responsible for the contractual and financial of the structure.
side of the work.
Slater and tiler
Building craft workers Slaters and tilers ensure the roof system is watertight.
Craft workers are skilled people who work with This might include work on flat roofs and pitched roofs
materials to physically construct buildings. There are (see page 27). They use different methods for slating
many different types of craft worker. and tiling, sometimes using traditional methods for
restoration work, or synthetic slates/tiles, felt sheets,
Plasterer waterproof bitumen or liquid fibreglass systems for
modern buildings.
A plasterer applies layers of plaster and plasterboard
to internal and external walls and ceilings, to provide
Woodwork machinist
a protective surface ready for decoration.
A woodwork machinist cuts and prepares timber
Carpenter/Joiner for builder’s merchants, DIY stores and for use
in furniture-making and construction industries.
A carpenter or joiner works with wood to create
The timber that they prepare might be used for
different fixtures, fittings and constructions. Joiners
floorboards, staircases, kitchen units, bars and
usually work in a workshop setting (such as making
cabinets. To cut and shape the timber, they use lathes,
windows and staircases), while carpenters usually
bench saws, planers and sanders.
install materials on a construction site (such as fixing
architraves and skirting boards).
Building operatives
Bricklayer There are two types of operative in construction.
A bricklayer constructs the first shell of a building using
Specialist building operative
bricks, blocks and mortar. They set out the buildings in
line with approved construction plans. This type of operative carries out specialist activities
such as dry walling, asphalting, scaffolding, floor and
Painter and decorator wall tiling and window fitting.
These craft workers prepare and decorate internal
General building operative
and external surfaces to match the client’s wishes.
They need to be able to work on a variety of surfaces, This type of operative is commonly known as
including metal, wood, plaster and render, and use a ground worker and carries out non-specialist
materials such as paint, varnish and wallpaper. operations such as kerb laying, concreting, path/
flag laying and drainage work, supported by general
Electrician labourers. They might be involved in digging and
Electricians install, maintain and repair electrical laying foundations, using plant and machinery such
control, wiring and lighting systems and read technical as digger’s drills and pumps.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Figure 1.1 shows the different people who make up a building team.

Client
Person who requires the building or refurbishment. Most
important in the building team as they finance the project
and without the client there is no work. Can be a single
person or an organisation.

Architect
Works closely with the client, interpreting their wishes to
produce the design and contract documents that allow the
client’s instructions to be achieved.

Local authority Quantity surveyor

Responsible for making sure Works with architect and client
construction projects meet when costing for the project. In
planning and building regulations. charge of daily/weekly costs
Planning and Building Control and payments. Prepares and
inspect and approve the work. signs off all final accounts.

Specialist engineers
Assist the architect in specialist
areas, e.g. civil engineering,
structural engineering and
service engineering.

Clerk of works
Selected by the architect or client to oversee
the building process and monitor quality or
workmanship.

Building contractor
Agrees to carry out building work on behalf of
the client, employing the required workforce.
Estimator
Works with the building
contractor on costing out
Site agent
the building contract,
Works for the building contractor and is
listing items through the
responsible for running the site.
bill of quantities.
Calculates the overall
finishing costs.
General foreman Craft operatives
Works for the site Skilled
agent, co-ordinating the tradespersons,
work of the operatives such as
Subcontractors and subcontractors. carpenters,
Perform all or part of the principal Responsible for hiring plasterers and
contractor’s duties. Responsible the workforce. bricklayers.
for providing own materials and
equipment as agreed.
Building operatives
General building
personnel, responsible
for groundworks,
unloading materials
and general
housekeeping.

p Figure 1.1 The building team

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Career opportunities ● residential: where people live, such as houses, flats

Progression and continuing professional development and bungalows
(CPD) are encouraged in construction. It is not unusual ● commercial: where people shop and purchase items,
for an operative to start as a construction labourer and such as supermarkets, shopping centres and cinemas
then go on to gain experience and qualifications to ● industrial: where people go to work, such
become a site manager. as factories, warehouses, showrooms and
manufacturing plants.
KEY TERM These types of buildings can be categorised as:
Site manager: responsible for the completion of a 1 low-rise buildings, which have only a few storeys
building project effectively, safely and on time. and are defined as an enclosed structure below 35 m
height which is divided into regular floor levels
2 medium-rise buildings, which are between four

2 UNDERSTAND and eleven storeys high and are typically office

developments, although some are built for
CONSTRUCTION residential use
3 high-rise buildings, which are tall as opposed to low
INFORMATION and are defined in terms of height depending on
any local planning laws. These are mainly hotel and
Types of buildings office developments but sometimes residential.
As we have seen, the main types of buildings in For residential construction, this table shows the
construction are: different categories of building.

Type of building Explanation

Detached A stand-alone property. It is a free-standing residential construction, referred to as a
single family home.

Semi-detached property Shares one common wall with the next house. It is a single family home.

Terraced property A row of attached dwellings sharing dividing walls. This is medium-density housing, but
each property is a single family home.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Building requirements is governed by building control regulations. If planning

permission is required, there is a four-stage process:
All buildings must meet minimum requirements under
1 A planning application is submitted to the local
building regulations to ensure that developments are
council.
safe and healthy. These regulations are enforceable by
2 The planning authority publicises the application, in
law. A minimum standard of building work must be
the press and online.
completed to adhere to these regulations and materials
3 The public has a number of weeks to comment and
must be fit for purpose.
challenge the application.
Regulations are continually revised and updated and 4 A decision is made on the application, usually within
workers in the construction industry need to be aware eight weeks of the application being submitted.
of new regulations. The most recent update was the
Building Regulations 2010 legislation. Different parts of a building
Key considerations for a good building: A construction has two different parts:
1 Security: doors and windows should meet safety 1 The substructure: the part of the building which is
and security requirements regarding locking and constructed below ground level. The substructure
safe opening. passes the compressive load of the building to the
2 Safety: safe exit procedures around fire safety and soil below.
fire protection. 2 The superstructure: the part of the building above
3 Privacy: considerations for neighbouring properties ground level where the activities for which the building
in terms of acoustic/noise travel and viewing into was designed are usually carried out. This part of the
property. building is the load that is carried by the substructure.
4 Warmth: up-to-date insulation installed in properties. The make-up of the substructure and superstructure
5 Light: well-structured windows and openings, letting are defined by different parts, as shown in this table.
in natural light. Type of component Explanation
6 Ventilation: good system to facilitate supply of
Primary components Parts of the building that provide
fresh air, air movement/change, temperature of air, support, floor access, breaking up of
humidity and purity of air. space and protection, e.g. foundations,
floors, walls, stairs and roofs.
A well-designed building will meet the minimum
Secondary Non-load-bearing parts that are
standards (or above) of all current building regulations, components used to close off openings or to
in line with legal and environmental requirements. provide a finish, e.g. skirting boards,
architraves, doors and windows.
Finishing Plastering, facing brickwork,
INDUSTRY TIP components rendering and decoration all deemed
to be superficial and to add to the
You must check if you need approval before you construct or décor and finish of a building.
change buildings in any way. Service components All electrical, Wi-Fi, plumbing,
sewerage and mechanical services.
Some works in construction do not need approval from
building control, such as:
● most repairs, replacements and maintenance work
KEY TERM
● new power and lighting points Building regulations: rules enforced by the building
● like-for-like replacements of baths, showers, basins
control departments of local councils to ensure all
buildings are safe and fit to live and work in. These
and sinks. regulations contain the minimum standards for
Planning permission refers to the approval needed for design, construction and alterations to buildings.
construction or expansion and sometimes demolition. Compressive load: a weight which tends to shorten
It is usually given in the form of a building permit and or ‘squash’ a structure.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

3 BUILDING KEY TERMS

SUBSTRUCTURE Bearing capacity: the ability of soil to support
loads applied to the ground, so as not to produce
shear failure.
Buildings vary in types, appearance and the method by
Shear failure: occurs when there is not enough
which they are built. However, they also have common resistance between materials, so structures can
design features. For example, in the substructure, all move and flex; this leads to structural weakness
buildings have some sort of foundations and the type and cracking.
of foundation chosen will depend on these factors: Seismic forces: forces which act on a building to
● type of building design (timber frame and masonry represent the effect of an earthquake.
construction require different foundations) Topographic survey: a survey that gathers data
● type of ground being built on (bedrock, clay and about elevation points on a piece of land and
shale require different foundations) presents them as contour lines on the plot. It gives
information about the natural and human-made
● adequate depth to prevent frost damage
features of the land, such as natural streams or
● bearing capacity failure existing groundworks.
● quality
Bore hole: a narrow shaft bored (drilled) in the ground
● adequate strength vertically or horizontally, to test soil conditions.
● adverse soil changes

● seismic forces.

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

Horizontal means lying flat (like the horizon),
Different types of foundations ●
from left to right or right to left.
Foundations must be able to resist movement in the ● Vertical means standing or hanging upright,
ground (adverse soil changes), as ground conditions from top to bottom or bottom to top.
can be very different from one corner of a building to ● Parallel lines never intersect (cross).
another. When carrying out a topographic survey, It is important you learn what these terms mean, as
samples of soil are taken from bore holes drilled on they are often used in the industry.
the site and the samples sent away for testing. The soil
analysis will show:
● the condition of the soil (clay or sandy)

● the depth of the soil

● the depth of the water table

Vertical The vertical pencils
● any contamination of the soil.
are parallel
This table shows the different types of foundations
and whether they are used for shallow or deep
foundations.
Foundation Shallow Deep
Strip ✓
Horizontal
Wide strip ✓
Pad ✓ ✓
Pile ✓
Raft ✓

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

p Figure 1.2 Pad, pile, strip and raft foundations

Strip foundation
This type of foundation is used where the soil is of good
bearing capacity. It is a shallow foundation used to
provide a continuous level (sometimes stepped) strip of p Figure 1.3 Strip foundation trench
support to a linear structure (such as a wall or a closely
spaced row of columns) built centrally above the strip.
Ground
Strip foundations can be filled in two ways: floor bed
Ground
1 Lay a thin strip of concrete with a minimum depth level
of 150 mm and then build up to ground-level damp
proof course (DPC) level with common bricks.
2 Mass fill: fill the majority of the trench with concrete
and build to ground-level DPC with trench blocks.
Both types of strip can be strengthened by the addition
of steel in the foundation.

KEY TERMS Wall

Shallow foundations: a type of foundation that

transfers building loads to the earth very near to
the surface.
Deep foundations: a type of foundation that
transfers building loads to a subsurface layer or a
range of depths. Strip
foundation
Damp proof course (DPC): a layer or strip of
watertight material placed in a joint of a wall to
prevent the passage of water. Fixed at a minimum p Figure 1.4 Cross-section of strip foundation
of 150 mm above finished ground level.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Wide strip foundation

Brick pier
This is used where the soil is soft or of a low bearing
capacity, to spread the load over a larger area.
Pad
This type of foundation is generally considered for
deep foundations, as the loads are transferred to Earth
deeper layers with a higher bearing capacity. Wide strip Stable earth
foundations are reinforced with steel so the loading per
m3 is reduced.
p Figure 1.6 Pad foundation
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Concrete is measured in cubic metres, m3. See Pile foundation
page 43 for volume calculations. This is a series of columns constructed or inserted
What volume of concrete will be required for a floor into the ground to transmit loads to a lower level of
43 m2 area with a depth of 65 mm?
subsoil. A pile is a long cylinder of strong material, such
as concrete. Piles transfer the loads from structures to
Pad foundation hard strata, rocks or soil with high bearing capacity.
This is generally a shallow foundation but can be deep
depending on the ground conditions. It is a spread KEY TERM
foundation formed by rectangular, square or sometimes Subsoil: the layer of soil under the topsoil on the
circular concrete pads that support single point loads surface of the ground. It is composed of a variable
such as structural columns, groups of columns or mixture of small particles such as sand, silt and
clay, but with a much lower percentage of organic
framed structures. The load is then spread by the pad matter and humus (a dark, organic material that
to the bearing layer of soil or rock below. forms in soil from plant and animal matter decay).

p Figure 1.7 Pile foundation

p Figure 1.5 Pad foundation with steel reinforcement

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Sub-floor
Beam rests
supported by
on the concrete
floor joists
Secured 10” concrete pier column
with galvanised sonotube
metal strap formed pier
Depth of pier
is 24” below Concrete pier is
existing grade reinforced with
#3 rebar, forming
24” × 24” × 2” a steel cage
concrete pad
Concrete pad is
reinforced with
#4 rebar
#3 ties used if length of concrete pier exceeds 24”

p Figure 1.8 Cross-section of pile foundation

Raft foundation Plasterboard

This is a thick reinforced continuous slab resting on Screed
Skirting
the soil that extends over the entire footprint of the
building. It thereby supports the building and transfers
Vapour control
its load to the ground, providing support for several layer (VCL)
columns and load-bearing walls.
Insulation

Concrete
slab

Damp proof
membrane (DPM)

Sand
blinding

Inner wall Hardcore

p Figure 1.9 Raft foundation p Figure 1.10 Cross-section of raft foundation

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

The table shows the different elements of raft

foundation.
4 BUILDING
Elements of raft SUPERSTRUCTURE
foundation Description
Hardcore Sub-base of crushed stone,
Once foundations are built, the next phase of the
mechanically compacted. build is the superstructure. This incorporates four main
Sand blinding Provides a clean, level and dry working activities, shown in this table.
surface around 50 mm in depth to
make sure the hardcore does not Type of superstructure Materials used
puncture the DPM. Floors Stone, wood, concrete
Damp proof Polyethylene type material applied to Walls Brick, block, concrete
membrane (DPM) prevent moisture seeping through to the Roofs Timber, metal, thatch
concrete slab.
Internal finishes Plaster, decoration
Concrete slab Supports a number of columns and
load-bearing walls.
Information on finishes is included in the following
Insulation Protects against energy loss and helps
to control moisture permeation. sections on floors, walls and roofs.
Vapour control Protects from consequences of
layer condensation: blocks the passage of Floors
warm moist air entering the structure.
In flooring structures, there is always a ground floor:
Made of a plastic-type material.
the floor of a building which is level with the ground.
Screed Flat level floor made with sharp sand
and cement to enable choice of floor Any floors above ground level are numerically ordered,
finish. such as first floor, second floor and so on.
There are two types of floor – solid and suspended:
Services ● Solid flooring is constructed from hardcore, sand,

When planning foundations, it is often important to DPM, concrete, insulation, VCL and screed. Solid
consider the type of services which will be installed in floors are substantial structures.
● Suspended flooring has a void underneath the
a building, as these services have to be incorporated
within the foundation structure. structure. The floor can be formed using timber
joists, with precast concrete panels using the beam
Types of services in buildings include the following: and block system (precast concrete beams are laid
1 Electricity: ducting is laid in the foundation to allow and then infilled with concrete blocks) or cast in
for electric cable, at a minimum depth of 240 mm. situ with reinforced concrete. The floor structure
It is identified by black and yellow tape. is supported by external and internal load-bearing
2 Gas: this is not allowed under a concrete slab. It is walls.
good practice to run a gas pipe around a slab for
service. It is identified by yellow sleeving. IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
3 Water: mains water is facilitated by ducting and The word ‘numerical’ relates to numbers. A
brought into the building from the roadside. It is numerical sentence includes only numbers, such as:
identified by blue sleeving. 4+5=9
4 Drainage: combined system to collect rainwater and
domestic sewage in the same pipe and send it to
treatment facilities. The pipe can be clay or plastic.
5 Communication networks: cables used to connect
and transfer data and information between
computers, routers and switches. They are usually
identified with purple sleeving/ducting.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

p Figure 1.11 Suspended concrete floor

p Figure 1.12 Suspended timber floor

Exterior wall

Bituminous paint must be

applied to all joist ends

DPC
Air brick

Solid wall DPC Joist hanger

230 mm thick

Ground level
150 mm Minimum 50 mm lean concrete
mix over 1000 gauge visqueen

200 mm Ground must be treated with

weed killer and cleared of all
450 mm vegetation.

p Figure 1.13 Cross-section of suspended floor

p Figure 1.14 In situ concrete slab floating floor

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

pipes to be fitted into the system. A sleeper wall is

constructed when a suspended floor is required due to
bearing conditions or ground water presence.
Concrete floor
(beam and block
or in situ concrete) KEY TERM
Sleeper wall: a short wall used to support floor
joists, beam and block or hollowcore/concrete
slabs at ground level.

Structural
blockwork

p Figure 1.15 In situ concrete slab

Some suspended floors are structured from metal and

timber, such as the Posi-Joist system. This uses metal
web joists which are combined with timber, so the
materials are lightweight but have additional strength. p Figure 1.16 Posi-Joists
This system also allows larger services such as soil

External top Intermediate top chord Intermediate simple span

chord bearing bearing Cut top chord after
Block installation
between Span A Span B Span A Span B
trusses

Optional Cut botton chord

after installation
Bottom chord bearing – Bottom chord bearing – Top chord bearing –
external frame masonry wall masonry wall
Block
Brick between
veneer trusses
2×4
ledger Bottom 2×8
chord plate
bearing

Continous span: special Composite

Trimmable up to 12“ truss
engineering may be required

Strap floor truss hanger

p Figure 1.17 Cross-section of Posi-Joists

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Also common in suspended floor systems are I-Joists. Upper floors

These are engineered wood joists which have greater The style of construction of upper floors has not
strength than conventional wood joists, so they can changed significantly over a long period of time. It
carry heavier loads and are less likely to bow, crown, is a series of joists supporting a floor covering, with
twist or split. A disadvantage is that they fail quickly a finish on the underside. This chapter describes
when directly exposed to fire, reducing the time for the systems used in most buildings, whether in a
someone to get out of a building where they have domestic or commercial build. Depending on the type
been used. of floor to be installed, there will be a requirement for
Timber floors will typically be finished with a variety of beam and block, concrete or timber and screed. The
coverings such as chipboard or solid timber floor boards. specification will usually require insulation or steel
reinforcement, but there will probably be no DPM in
upper floors.

Walls
There are two types of wall structure:
● external – forms the external enclosure of a building

● internal – forms walls that divide rooms.

A wall can be a structure that defines an area, carries

a load, provides security, shelter or soundproofing
and can be decorative. There are many kinds of walls
in buildings that form a fundamental part of the
superstructure or separate interior rooms.
p Figure 1.18 I-Joists fixed in position This table describes the different types of wall.

Type of wall Description

Load-bearing Transfers loads all the way to the foundation or other
suitable frame members. Load-bearing walls support
beams, slabs and walls on higher floors.
A wall will be called a load-bearing wall if it is placed
directly below a beam to carry the vertical load of the
beam.

Load-
bearing
walls

p Figure 1.19 Load-bearing wall structure

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Type of wall Description

Non-load-bearing Walls inside a property that do not support any
Cripple structural weight other than their own.
They are sometimes referred to as curtain walls and
are usually used as room dividers.

Header

King Jack stud

stud

p Figure 1.20 Non-load-bearing stud wall (can also be formed in metal stud)
Cavity wall Cavity walls consist of two walls separated by a hollow
space (the cavity). The walls are made using masonry
such as brick or block, which is absorbent and so will
draw rainwater or humidity into the wall. The cavity
wall allows the moisture from outside to evaporate
and does not allow it to enter the building.
Cavity walls give better thermal insulation because
the space between the walls traps air and reduces
heat transmission into the building.

p Figure 1.21 Cavity wall with insulation

Shear wall A structural system composed of braced panels
to counter the effects of lateral load acting on a
structure.
Column
Wind and seismic loads are the most common loads
that a shear wall is designed to carry.

Slab
Beam

Reinforced concrete
shear wall
Foundation

p Figure 1.22 Shear wall construction

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Type of wall Description

Partition wall A wall or division made up of bricks, studding wood/
metal or glass to divide one room or space from
another.
Head plate Door head

Stud

Door casing

End stud

Plasterboard

Noggin Sole plate

Joist

p Figure 1.23 Partition wall construction in timber

p Figure 1.24 Partition wall construction in metal frame

KEY TERMS
Frame members: studs/partitions, wall plates and Lateral load: typical lateral loads include wind
lintels. blowing against a facade, an earthquake, or ocean
Vertical load: loads in addition to the weight of the movement on beach-front properties.
structure; this can include the weight of floors, Seismic load: relates to forces caused by ground
roofs, beams and columns all pushing down movement such as earthquakes, which will cause
compressively. movement and possible collapse of structures.
Braced panels: critical elements of a wood-/metal-
framed structure which resist forces that act along
the wall plane (mainly to resist lateral wind forces).

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Type of wall Description

Panel wall Structural system that consists of planar wall and
slab elements which form an enclosed space. Panels
can be made from steel, timber, concrete or masonry.

p Figure 1.25 Panel walling in construction

p Figure 1.26 Timber frame panel construction

KEY TERM
Planar wall: a flat wall.

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Type of wall Description

Veneered wall A wall with a facing brick or similar weather-resistant
non-combustible material that is securely attached
Sill Plumb cut
to the backing but not bonded to it, mainly used as a
extension Flashing (optional) decorative finish/feature.
Sheathing
Wall tie
Chalk line
marks brick
course
Felt paper

Weep
hole

Flashing

Concrete footing

p Figure 1.27 Veneered wall construction

Brick anchors
fastened through
to sheathing
Drywall
Fibreglass insulation
Air flow

Oriented strand
board sheathing Anchor sits
Builder’s felt flat on brick

3/8” rigid foam

insulation

Weep holes
1-2” air
space
Mortar net
Flashing

p Figure 1.28 Weather-resistant veneer walling system

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Type of wall Description

Faced wall A wall where the masonry facing is bonded to the backing
material, so the two sections exert common action under
load. This means they act together to resist the stresses and
strains of any weight above the wall.

p Figure 1.29 Faced brick wall construction

p Figure 1.30 Fair-faced wall construction

Stone wall Traditional building material used in construction for
many years. Early stone walls were solid, but in more
recent times stone is used as an external facing for
cavity walls.
Dry stone walls are built as a feature for perimeter
walls in rural areas.

p Figure 1.31 Traditional stone house construction

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

The main reasons for external walling systems are to: External wall finishes
● protect from weather conditions
Faced and fair-faced finishes will be used for the final
● achieve an aesthetic appearance
décor, while concrete block walls are often given a
● fit in well with the existing surroundings.
rendered finish to give either a traditional or modern
look (for more details about rendering, see Chapter 4).
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH Faced brick can be made to look aesthetically pleasing
The word ‘aesthetic’ means to appreciate beauty, by using different types of bond.
which can be created and affected by the order,
uniformity, alignment and symmetry of a building.
KEY TERMS
This table describes some common materials used in Faced/Fair-faced: these bricks are durable and
graded on a scale to match the building material
walling.
required by the project. Cosmetic face bricks
are made to face the world with a smooth look,
Materials used whereas common bricks/blocks do not have
in walling Description smooth sides.
Bricks A building material used to make walls Portland Cement: also known as Ordinary Portland
and other elements in construction. A Cement (OPC), this is the most commonly used
brick is usually a rectangular unit, made
cement. It is named after stone quarried on the
from a mixture of clay-bearing soil, sand
and lime or concrete materials.
Isle of Portland off the British coast, as it is similar
in colour.
Blocks Made from cast concrete (Portland
Cement, aggregate and sand) for high- High-density block: durable and resilient, high in
density blocks. Low-density blocks might strength and with good acoustic rating, generally
use industrial waste such as fly ash or used for structural purposes.
bottom ash as an aggregate. Low-density block: extremely versatile and can be
Stone Hard, solid, non-metallic mineral matter used in standard wall construction.
(rock is made from stone), which is a Bond [in masonry]: the arrangement of bricks or
traditional and natural building material. A other building units when building a wall to make
combination of heat and pressure creates
sure it is stable and strong. Different types of
blocks of natural stone.
bond can be used to give a decorative effect.
Mortar Made from a mix of sand, cement/lime
and water. It is used to fill the gaps when
laying bricks, blocks or other materials
used to construct a structure. It sets to a
hard consistency.

This table describes some common types of brick bond.

Type of brick bond Description

Stretcher bond The long narrow face of the brick is called the stretcher and
a stretcher bond is when bricks are laid with the stretcher
side showing, the bricks overlapping midway with the bricks
in the courses above and below.

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Type of brick bond Description

Header bond The header is the shorter square face of the brick. A header
bond is created by placing the header of the bricks of each
course on the faces of walls. The overlap should be half the
width of the brick.

English bond Alternating courses of stretcher and header bonds. Headers

are laid centred on the stretchers in the course below. The
stretcher rows and header rows should align with each other.

Flemish bond Headers and stretchers alternate in each course. The next
course of brick is laid so that the header is placed in the
middle of the stretcher in the course below.

This table describes some types of external wall finish.

Type of external wall finish Description

Exterior paint Silicone paint can be used to seal the outside of the structure
or can refresh the outer of a building when it is being
renovated.

p Figure 1.32 Silicone exterior paint application

Rendering A coating applied to external facades of buildings to provide
a protective and decorative coating which helps to prevent
rain penetration (see Chapter 4).

p Figure 1.33 Traditional sand and cement render

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Type of external wall finish Description

Special coatings Modern render systems apply thin coat finish, monocouche
finish and thermal cork finish.

p Figure 1.34 Modern render system, monocouche finish

External wall insulation (EWI) Thermally insulated protection often finished with thin coat
render system (see Chapter 4).

Existing external wall

FPO
Adhesive
Insulation board

Fixing anchors
Reinforcing mesh

Render basecoat
Render finishing coat

p Figure 1.35 External wall insulation specification

p Figure 1.36 External wall insulation applied to the front of a

building
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Type of external wall finish Description

Cladding A layer of material that covers another material for protective,
thermal and decorative purposes, e.g. insulation, cement
carrier boards, timber, metal, brick slips or blended cements.

p Figure 1.37 External wall cladding applied on top of facade

Modern render systems

● Monocouche finish, which translates to ‘one coat’
finish, is a scraped texture finish. It is used to give a
consistent colour waterproof finish.
● Thin coat finish is a spray- or hand-applied acrylic
finish. It is applied over an ordinary render to give a
coloured decorative waterproof finish.
● Thermal cork finish is applied by spray. It is an
eco-friendly decorative finish applied over ordinary
render to give a coloured decorative waterproof
finish.

Internal wall finishes p Figure 1.38 Spray cork finish

Internal walls are mainly finished with gypsum plasters

and decorated with paint/paper finishes and tile finishes IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
in wet areas. The word ‘facade’ is used to describe the principal
front of a building that faces on to a street or open
space.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

This table describes some types of internal wall finish.

Type of internal wall finish Description

Plaster float and skim/set Traditional style of plastering: a backing/undercoat is applied
and finished with a skim/set coat for a flat uniform finish, ready
for application of décor (see Chapter 3).

p Figure 1.39 Applying a backing/floating coat

p Figure 1.40 Applying a skim/set coat

Plasterboard direct bond and skim/set Method of producing a flat wall surface. Sheets of plasterboard
are secured to the background surface by application of drywall
adhesive to the substrate, leaving air space between board and
background. Can be finished for décor purposes by skim/set or
tape/joint (see Chapter 3).

p Figure 1.41 Fixing plasterboard with direct bond

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Type of internal wall finish Description

Venetian and Microcement finish High-end decorative finishes. Trowel applied for feature walls
and wet areas.

p Figure 1.42 Microcement finishes in wet area

Emulsion paint finish Widely used to decorate walls after new plaster application.

p Figure 1.43 Emulsion paint finish

Decorative wallpaper finish Decorative finish for walls, sold in rolls. It is applied with glue/
paste to decorate after new plaster application.

p Figure 1.44 Art deco wallpaper

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Roofs Pitched roof

The roof is the structure forming the upper covering of This is a roof with a sloping surface or surfaces. Its
a building. The purpose of any roof is to provide shelter angle is usually more than 20°; some can be more
from the elements. specific, requiring a pitch of more than 10°. The pitch is
measured by the vertical rise of the roof divided by its
Although there are many different designs of roofs, horizontal span and is a measure of its steepness.
there are two basic categories: flat and pitched.
There are two types of pitched roof system:
Flat roof 1 Traditional hand cut: each section is individually
This will be almost level but must have a slope of up cut and assembled on site. A traditional cut roof is
to 10° to help water run away. Flat roofs are more designed to make sure the load of the roof is evenly
common in countries with warmer, arid climates, where transmitted among all of the walls below the roof.
there is less need for water to run off the roof. Flat The rafters are the main load-bearing elements of
roofs can also be used as a living space. the roof.

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

The word ‘arid’ means having little or no rain, too
dry or barren.

Lead flashing
Cavity tray Structural deck Ceiling joists

p Figure 1.47 Traditional roof structure

Chippings
Insulation Plasterboard Vapour control layer Bitumen felt
2 Trussed: timber trusses are manufactured off-
site and then delivered to be fitted. A truss is a
p Figure 1.45 Components of a flat roof system structural framework of timbers which supports
the roof. Trusses usually occur at regular intervals
and are individual members of the structure, linked
by longitudinal timbers such as purlins. The space
between adjacent trusses is known as a bay.

KEY TERMS
Longitudinal: running lengthwise rather than
across.
Purlins: roof-framing members that span parallel
to the building eaves and support the roofing
materials.

p Figure 1.46 Typical modern flat roof

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p Figure 1.48 Trussed roof structure

Apex (peak)

Nail plate

Webs Top chord (rafter)

Purlins

Heel
Web
BC
runners
runner

Wall plate Bottom chord Brandering Splice Joints

(bearing) (tie beam) (nodes)

Overhang
Clear span
(plumb cut)

Nominal span

p Figure 1.49 Components of an engineered truss

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Valley-jack rafter
Ridgeboard Collar tie
Ladder
King common rafter
Fly rafter

Header

Trimmer rafter

Rake
(area
under
gable
Valley overhang)
Gable-end stud
Plate Purlin
Valley rafter
Gable end
Cripple-jack rafter Fascia Eave (area
Common rafter
Frieze block under rafter
Hip rafter tails)
Hip-jack rafter
Hip

p Figure 1.50 Components of a traditional roof

The table shows the many different types of materials used in traditional and trussed roof systems.
Types of material for
traditional and trussed roofs Description
Timber Cut and manufactured timber from saw mills, using wood from seasoned fir, red cedar and
yellow pine.
Lead Used for flashing coverings and full roof covering, lead has excellent malleability and a low
melting point. Can be moulded to any shape and is highly resistant to corrosion and fire.
Slate This type of rock is used as a roof covering due to its durability, fire-resistance, mould-
resistance and low absorption of water. It has an attractive appearance, so might be chosen
for decorative purposes.
Tile Tiles were traditionally made from terracotta or slate, but are now more usually made from
durable materials such as concrete and clay.
Felt Used in waterproof sheeting to cover roofs as an underlay beneath slates or tiles. Felt is an
added layer of protection from severe weather. Modern felt is breathable and waterproof.
Sheet Often corrugated metal sheets made from aluminium, copper, tin, lead.
Synthetic Steep slope roofing materials such as shingles are synthetic. They are made from different
materials such as wood, slate, flagstone, metal, asphalt, plastic and composite materials,
or recycled rubber. Asphalt is the most popular as it is easy to install and available in many
colours.
Plastic tile A much lighter type of tile, resistant to ultraviolet radiation. Plastic tiles are more flexible than
tiles made of other materials, which allows for complex configuration. Plastic tiles might be
used in areas which have extreme weather or temperature changes.
Thatch Dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge, rushes, heather or palm branches, layered to
shed water away from the inner roof. Thatch also acts as a good insulator.

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ACTIVITY
Find out what the term ‘metamorphism’ means.

Building elements
Once the shell construction of the superstructure has
been built, there are two phases for fitting out the
inside of the building.
1 First fix: comprises all work needed before putting
plaster on the internal walls, including carpentry,
plumbing and electrical.
2 Second fix: comprises all the finishing work done
p Figure 1.51 Lead flashing on a roof to prevent the passage of after the internal walls are plastered, including
water into the building from where the roof joins the structure carpentry, plumbing and electrical.

First fix
This table describes the main first fix elements.
First fix elements Description
Partitions Stud work to divide the room spaces and accept services. May
be made of timber or metal.

p Figure 1.52 First fix timber studding and stairs installation

Door frames/casings Linings to receive finished doors.

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First fix elements Description

Windows Fitted to seal building openings and to line the reveals, ready
for plaster.a

p Figure 1.53 Installation of windows

p Figure 1.54 First fix windows with electric cables and back
boxes and plasterboard reveal linings
Stairs Fitted for access to upper floors.
Plumbing Pipe work for heating, water supply and waste water.

p Figure 1.55 Installation of first fix plumbing

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First fix elements Description

Electrical All electrical wiring and back boxes, not yet connected to mains
electricity.

p Figure 1.56 Installation of first fix electrics

Networks All network cabling, not yet connected to an external network
system.

p Figure 1.57 Installation of network cabling

Second fix
This table describes the main second fix elements.
Second fix elements Description
Carpentry Fitting of skirting boards, architraves, finished doors, trims and
beading.

p Figure 1.58 Second fix skirting boards

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Second fix elements Description

p Figure 1.59 Second fix internal finished doors

Kitchens Fitted kitchen units and worktops.

p Figure 1.60 Installation of fitted kitchen

Bathrooms Baths, showers and tiling.

p Figure 1.61 Installation of fitted bathroom and sanitary ware

and tiling
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Second fix elements Description

Electrical Connection of cables to mains and fitting of all box connection
fronts and light drops.

p Figure 1.62 Connection of second fix electrics

Plumbing Connection of all pipes to mains and sewerage connections.
Fitting of showers and all sanitary components and taps.

p Figure 1.63 Connection of second fix plumbing

Networks Connections of all network cabling to mains and supplies.

KEY TERMS
Skirting board: a decorative moulding often made
from timber (sometimes plaster) that is fitted at
the bottom of a wall to hide the gap between wall
and floor and to protect the bottom of a wall from
foot traffic.
Architrave: a decorative moulding often made from
timber (sometimes plaster) that is fitted around
doors and windows to hide the gaps between frames
and walls. It also provides a decorative feature.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

5 INTERPRET BUILDING Information documents

INFORMATION used in construction
This table describes the main information documents
Within construction you need to be able to interpret used in construction.
information from many types of document, such as
drawings, specifications and schedules. You also need
to calculate quantities from drawings and understand
drawing scales, symbols and abbreviations.
Type of document Description
Specifications These are prepared before
construction begins and describe
how building work or tasks should
be carried out by contractors and
subcontractors. They provide
descriptions that go beyond what
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PLASTER photos and videos can explain and
contain a high level of detail.
a) Siporex walls should generally be plastered on both sides in two coats. Internal walls in
industrial buildings may be left unplastered if so desired and joints should be properly
finished.
b) Block walls should be wetted sparingly before plaster.
c) Method of plaster is similar to that of plaster on brick/concrete walls.
d) Internal plaster should be carried out in 2 coats with cement mortar 1:3 (one part
Portland cement to 3 parts screened and washed sand). First coat may be 4 to 6 mm
thickness, plus a second coat (finishing coat).
e) External plaster should be carried out in 2 coats with cement mortar 1:3 (one part
Portland cement to 3 parts screened and washed sand.) First coat may be 8 to 10 mm
thickness and the second coat (finishing coat) may be about 10 mm thick.
f) Plastered surfaces should be watered for at least one week.

p Figure 1.64 Example of a plaster specification

Drawings These form part of the production
information that is incorporated first
into tender documentation and then
into the contract documents for the
construction work. They provide a
graphic representation of what is to
be built.
Schedule A document that lists the works
required on a project. The schedule
references the requirements of the
<Wall Material TakeOff> specifications and contract drawings
A B C D
plus any additional builder’s work or
Family and Type Material area Material:As paint Material:Name fixing extras.

Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 800 SF Yes Carpet(1)

Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 480 SF Yes Carpet(1)
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 1600 SF No Gypsum Wall Board
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 960 SF No Gypsum Wall Board
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 1600 SF No Gypsum Wall Board
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 960 SF No Gypsum Wall Board
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 800 SF No Metal stud layer
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 480 SF No Metal stud layer
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 800 SF No Metal stud layer
Basic wall: interior-4 7/8”partition (1 hr) 480 SF No Metal stud layer

p Figure 1.65 Example of a schedule

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Type of document Description

Bill of quantities A document prepared by the quantity
A B C D E F G surveyor that provides project-
1 Takeoff Report specific quantities of the items of
2 Description Bill Reference Quantity Unit Rate Markup% Total
3 work identified by the drawings
4 Wall Lining Quants
5 WT1 - 1 layer 13 mm plasterboard lining - Nominal 105 mm wall thickness 978.23 m2 and specifications in the tender
6
7
WT2 - 2 layer 13 mm plasterboard lining - Nominal 115 mm wall thickness
WT3 - 2 layer 13 mm plasterboard lining - Nominal 130 mm wall thickness 230.74
m2
m2 documentation.
8 WT4 - 2 layer 13 mm fire rated plasterboard lining - Nominal 145 mm wall thickness 206.14 m2
9 WT5 - 2 layer 13 mm fire rated plasterboard lining - Nominal 200 mm wall thickness 278.74 m2
10 WT6 - 1 layer 13 mm plasterboard lining - Nominal 90 mm wall thickness 36.33 m2
11 WT6 - 1 layer 13 mm plasterboard lining - Nominal 175 mm wall thickness m2
12 S&I fibreglass insulation 865.00 m2
13 Total for Wall Lining Quants
14 Ceiling Lining Quants
15 Ceiling type 1 - 13 mm thick perforated flush plasterboard ceiling on furring channel system suspended 566.54 m2
16 Ceiling type 2 - 13 mm thick flush plasterboard feiling on furring channel system suspended 84.26 m2
17 Ceiling type 3 - 1200 × 600 mineral fibre ceiling tiles in 2-way exposed aluminium T-bar suspension system 59.06 m2
18 Ceiling type 4 - 1 layer 50 thick acoustic panels direct fixed to surface of Fyrchek plasterboard; 2 layers
13 thick Fyrchek plasterboard ceiling fixed to underside of ceiling joist 175.60 m2
19 Ceiling type 5 - 6 thick Versilux lining with 10 mm expressed joints where shown on furring channel
suspended. m2
20 Ceiling type 6 - new acoustic absorption ceiling tiles in existing grid armstrong 1200 × 600 × 19 911.50 m2
21 Celing type 7 - 1 layer 13 thick perforated flush plasterboard ceiling fixed to underside of
ceiling joist; 2 layers 13 thick Fyrchek plasterboard fixed to top of ceiling joists 75 mm R1.5 fibreglass 145.12 m2
22 Ceiling type EX - Existing mineral fibre tile ceiling replace damaged tiles as required 176.25 m2
23 Total for Ceiling Lining Quants
24 Cost to removal existing ceiling 176.25 m2
25 Extra allowance for access 1.00 each
26
27 Total

p Figure 1.66 Example of a bill of quantities

Programme of works A reference point for how work will be
HODDER PROJECTS – CARMELITE HOUSE PROJECT MANAGEMENT - MACRO LEVEL carried out in specific ways and by
Start Date Jun 1, 2015 End Date Oct 31, 2016
specific times.
1 Jun 15 Jun 1 Jul 15 Jul 1 Aug 15 Aug 1 Sep 15 Sep 1 Oct 15 Oct 1 Nov 15 Nov 1 Dec 15 Dec 1 Jan 15 Jan 1 Feb 15 Feb 1 Mar 15 Mar 1 Apr 15 Apr 1 May 15 May 1 Jun 15 Jun 1 Jul 15 Jul 1 Aug 15 Aug 1 Sep 15 Sep 1 Oct 15 Oct 1 Nov 15 Nov
Month
2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016

Foundation Work

Phase
Basement Work
One
(Foundation
& Slabs) First Slab

Running 5 Slabs (By March 2nd week)

Wood Work - Door Frames

Block Work - 5 floors

Electrical Work - Pipe Lines

Phase
5 Floors - Flats Inside Plastering Work
Two
(Brickwork
& Plastering) RCC Cupboards Work - 5 floors

PoP Ceiling Work

BUFFER PERIOD

Outside Plastering Work

Compound Wall & Overhead Water Tanks

Plumbing Work - in Bathrooms

Wood Work - Shutters

Internal Painting - Initial Coating - Flats

Phase Tiles - in Flats & Common Area

Three
(Electrical,
Plumbing, Electrical Wiring, Switches - in Flats & Common Area
Tiles,
Paints) Wood Shutters & UPVC Windows - Fitting

Plumbing - Fitting Sanitaryware Items

Painting - Final Coating

Final Pending Works

p Figure 1.67 A typical programme of works Gantt chart

Building information modelling (BIM) An intelligent 3D model-based process
that gives architecture, engineering
and construction professionals the
insight and tools to efficiently plan,
design, construct and manage
buildings and infrastructure.

p Figure 1.68 Example of BIM

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Type of document Description

Tender documentation Project- and asset-owners use
these documents to invite vendors
5. TENDER DOCUMENTS
Tender documents are prepared to seek tenders (offers). Tender documents also help to maintain and protect the
(contractors, subcontractors,
relationship between client and contractor. suppliers) to bid on projects. By
Document of Tender
submitting these documents, vendors
1. Invitation for bid are volunteering to work on a project.
2. Instruction to bidder
3. Standard forms
4. Condition of contract
5. Form of tender
6. Bidding data
7. Contract data
8. Specifications / general and special
9. Bills of quantities (BOQ) with pricing preambles
10. Drawings
11. Schedules of additional information
Sample copy of letter of acceptance
Sample copy of bank guarantee for performance bond
Schedule of day work rates
Sample copy of bank guarantee for advance payment
Subsoil investigation report
Special/particular specifications
Notice to Tenderers
This document contains a Project Summary, a listing of Tender Documents, key dates, validity period, contact
details, number of copies required and details of tender submission location and timing.
Conditions of Tendering
This document details the overall tender process, including the delivery method, probity issues, communication
issues, the criteria for selection and the evaluation process.

p Figure 1.69 Information likely to be in tender documents

Technical information
Many different types of drawing are used for
construction purposes:
1 Working drawings are scale drawings with
information on plans, elevations, section details and
location of developments. Location drawings are
block plans and site plans, usually giving a bird’s
eye view of the proposed development with layout
of roads, services and drainage.
2 Component range drawings show the range and p Figure 1.70 A working drawing
sizes of components produced by the manufacturer, All drawings must have a title panel, usually in the
such as kitchen units. bottom left corner of the drawing. This panel will
3 Assembly or detail drawings contain information on contain the:
how components are put together, such as flat pack ● title
shelving. ● scale used

● name of person who

KEY TERMS did the drawing
Subcontractor: a tradesperson who is not directly ● drawing number/
employed by a company but is employed for short project
periods to complete some aspects of the work. They ● company name
are paid for the completed work at a set price.
● project title
Block plan: drawing that shows the proposed
● date
development in relation to the surrounding properties.
● revision notes
Site plan: shows the plot in more detail, with drain
● projection type.
runs, road layouts and size and position of existing
buildings.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

An elevation drawing shows the finished appearance of

a given side of a structure. Four elevations are drawn,
one for each side.

p Figure 1.73 Example of an elevation drawing

A detail drawing shows specific details of construction,

p Figure 1.71 This floor plan shows the position of walls, size of
rooms and other elements such as staircase position usually as a cross-section. This provides a detailed
description of the geometric form of part of an object.
A section through drawing shows a view of a structure Detail drawings are large-scale drawings that show
as though it has been sliced in half. This enables the in great detail parts included in less detail on other
viewer to visualise the whole structure, including the drawings. They provide clear, accurate information,
positioning of rooms, windows and doors. such as showing how beads for a render project meet
at corner and soffit profiles.

p Figure 1.72 Example of a section through drawing

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

p Figure 1.74 Example of a detail drawing

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS Drawing scales

The word ‘geometric’ is related to geometry. A A drawing that shows a real object with accurate sizes
geometric shape might be a triangle, square or
reduced or enlarged is called a scale drawing.
pentagon.
The scale is a ratio of the size of the drawing to the size
of the object being drawn. This may be referred to as a
Drawing symbols and scale ratio. For example:
hatchings ● If the scale is 1 cm : 3 cm, then a length of 1 cm in the

drawing represents 3 cm in real life (or original size).

Hatchings are used as symbols so that different types
● The scale is written as the length in the drawing,
of material, object and space can be easily identified
then a colon (:), then the matching length on the
on a drawing. The hatchings used are standardised so
real thing.
everyone looking at the drawing will know what they
● A scale of 1 cm to 3 cm is written 1 : 3.
stand for. When possible the hatchings should be drawn
to scale and they should be consistent for the whole set The metric scale uses the millimetre as its base
of drawings. Hatchings take up less space on a drawing measurement, so for example 1 : 50 on the metric scale
than writing all the details in text. equals one-fiftieth (1/50) of the full size, or 1 millimetre
on the drawing equals 50 millimetres in reality.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

p Figure 1.75 Hatchings/symbols

KEY TERMS This table shows scales in common use.

Scale ratio: the ratio of the size of a drawing to the Scale Use
size of the object being drawn. 1:1 Full size
Metric scale: a system of measurement in 1 : 2, 1 : 5, 1 : 10 Building details
millimetres.
1 : 20, 1 : 50, 1 : 100, 1 : 200 Plans, elevations and sections
1 : 200, 1 : 500, 1 : 1250 Site plans
A small object can be enlarged. For example, if a
1 : 1250, 1 : 2500 Location plans
drawing of an object is twice the size of the object,
the scale is 2 : 1.
A scale ruler is used to determine the actual dimensions IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
of a distance on a scaled drawing. On a metric ruler, 5 mm to a scale of 1 : 10 = 50 mm
the numbers represent centimetres and the individual 5 × 10 = 50
lines in between represent millimetres. Each millimetre
is one-tenth of a centimetre, so ten millimetres equals
one centimetre. Methods of producing
working construction
drawings
There are two methods of producing working
p Figure 1.76 A scale ruler
construction drawings:
1 by hand and drawn to scale by an architect
INDUSTRY TIP 2 using computer-aided design (CAD) – a computer
software system creates precision drawings or
When measuring, make sure that one end of the object is technical illustrations to create two-dimensional
lined up with the 0 cm mark on the ruler. (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) models.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Common types of drawing produced are:

● orthographic: an object is depicted using parallel
Calculating quantities when
lines to project its outline onto a plane; this is a ordering materials
means of representing three-dimensional objects in When working in construction, at some stage you will
two dimensions need to calculate:
● isometric: a picture of an object in which all three ● quantities of materials needed for projects, such as

dimensions are drawn to full scale rather than plasterboard, bags of plaster, floor screed, beads and
foreshortening them to the true projection; trims
isometric projections are used to visually represent ● the costs of the products

3D objects in 2D technical drawings. ● how many hours/days it will take per person to

complete a project.
KEY TERM Without these calculations, a plasterer cannot work
Foreshortening: shows an object or view as closer out prices and tender for projects. Even if you always
than it is; dramatically reduces an object in scale. work for another contractor, you will need these
calculation skills. Plasterers are usually paid per square
metre of materials they apply, so you need to be able
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH to calculate your weekly wages to make sure you are
The term ‘three-dimensional’ is used to describe an being paid correctly.
image which appears to have length, breadth and
depth. INDUSTRY TIP
In the apprenticeship training period of your career, you will
be paid an agreed amount per week. When fully competent,
plasterers are usually paid per square metre of materials
applied to surfaces.
It is important to allow 12% extra when ordering materials
in bulk to allow for wastage. Otherwise, there may be a loss
of profit if extra time and materials are needed to complete
a project.
Decimalisation is the conversion of a system of currency
and weights and measures to the metric system. This
happened in the UK during February 1971.
● Sheet plywood is still measured in imperial units and
sold in units of 8 foot × 3 foot.
● Sheet plasterboard is measured in metric units and is
p Figure 1.77 Example of an orthographic drawing sold in units of 2400 mm × 1200 mm.

Points to remember when ordering materials for a

project:
1 If possible, buy all the materials for a project at once
(this is cheaper than buying in split loads).
2 Ensure there is enough space on site for bulk
deliveries (if not, you will have to buy split loads).
3 Make sure you have safe and dry storage to protect
materials from damage.
4 Try to order in bulk so that materials are from the
same batch to maintain uniformity.
p Figure 1.78 Example of an isometric drawing 5 Allow for 12% wastage when ordering in bulk.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Subtraction
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
The word ‘uniformity’ means the state or quality of
The subtraction of one number from another number
being uniform, the same. It is important for materials involves finding the difference between the numbers.
to have a uniform appearance. It is shown by the minus symbol (–).
Examples of subtraction:
The UK construction industry uses metric
4 – 1 = 3 15 – 10 = 5
measurements to do most calculations. However,
imperial measurements are occasionally used. 60 – 20 = 40 170 – 60 = 110
● Metric measurements: units such as metre,

centimetre, millimetre, litre and gram are used to Applied to the job:
measure length, liquid volume and weight. A wall to be plastered is 22 m2. However, there is a
● Imperial measurements: units such as yard, foot, window opening in the wall which is 4 m2. What is the
inch, pint, pound and ounce are used to measure area to be plastered?
length, liquid volume and weight.
22 – 4 = 18 m2
These tables explain the correct units for measurement.
Metric measurement Units
Multiplication
Length Millimetre (mm) For multiplication, a number is added to itself a
Liquid volume Millilitre (ml)
specified number of times. It is shown by the times
symbol (×).
Weight Gram (g) (weight is measured
in kg or g) Examples:
4 × 3 = 12 10 × 4 = 40
Imperial
measurement Quantities Example 25 × 10 = 250 120 × 160 = 19 200
Length 1000 mm = 1 m 3 mm × 1000 = 3 m
Applied to the job:
Liquid volume 1000 ml = 1 l 3 ml × 1000 = 3 l
Weight 1000 g = 1 kg 3 g × 1000 = 3 kg A wall to be plastered measures 4 m by 2 m. To work
out the area, we multiply the two numbers together:
Calculations in standard maths 4 m × 2 m = 8 m2

Addition
Division
The addition of two whole numbers involves finding the
We divide or share numbers to find a value. Division is
total amount. It is shown by the plus symbol (+).
signified by the obelus symbol (÷).
Examples of addition:
Examples of division:
1 + 2 = 3 5+4=9
12 ÷ 3 = 4 40 ÷ 5 = 8
10 + 40 = 50 125 + 200 = 325
250 ÷ 10 = 25 1500 ÷ 300 = 5
Applied to the job:
Applied to the job:
An area to be plastered will need 10 bags of Thistle
A wall to be plasterboarded is 30 m2. The area of
MultiFinish and 7 bags of Thistle Board Finish.
one plasterboard is 2.88 m2. To work out how many
10 + 7 = 17 bags in total plasterboards are required, we divide the wall area by
the plasterboard area:
30 ÷ 2.88 = 10.42

Therefore 11 plasterboards will be required.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Working out calculations An irregular shape including a gable end can be split
● For angle beads or trims, calculations have to into two shapes to work out the area. You will have to
be made by linear measurement – this means make calculations for one rectangle and one triangle.
measuring in a straight line, end to end. Linear To work out the area of a triangle, you have to divide
length is used when measuring all the sides of a the base by two and multiply by the height.
room (perimeter).
● To work out the perimeter of a room, add all the
sides together. For example, the perimeter of the 1.2 m
room in Figure 1.83 is:
3.7 + 2.3 + 3.7 + 2.3 = 12 m
● To work out the area of a square or rectangular
room, multiply the length by the width. For
example, the area of the room in Figure 1.83 is:
5.2 m
3.7 × 2.3 = 8.51 m2

2.3 m
4.3 m

p Figure 1.81 Calculating the area of a gable end

3.7 m IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Can you work out the area of the gable end in
p Figure 1.79 Dimensions of a regular room
Figure 1.85?
When a room is an irregular shape, it is easier to:
● split the room into two different sections
Measuring volume
● work out each section
To calculate volume, we multiply the length by the
● add the sections together to find the area of the
width by the height.
irregular shape.

Section 1

Height

Width

Length

p Figure 1.82 Length, width and height of a cuboid

Section 2
Volume is measured in cube units: mm3, cm3, m3.
p Figure 1.80 Splitting an irregular room The volume of the cube in Figure 1.87 is 1 cm3, or:
10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = 1000 mm3
For example, to find the area of the room in Figure 1.84,
calculate the area of each rectangular section, then add Remember that:
these two areas together.
1 cm3 = 1000 mm3

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

1 cm (w)
ACTIVITY
A floor has a surface area of 22 m2. The agreed
Volume = 1 cm3 price for screeding is £18.75 per m2 for labour only.
1 cm (h) The payment for this project will be:
18.75 × 22 = £412.50
To calculate materials for this floor screed:
1 cm (l) The floor area is 22 m2 and the screed will be
applied to a depth of 65 mm. We cannot multiply
p Figure 1.83 Calculating the volume of a cube metres by millimetres so we write 65 mm as 0.065 m
(move the decimal point two places to the left).
Calculating percentages The volume can then be calculated:
Area, volume and percentages are important to 22 m2 × 0.065 m = 1.43 m3
understand in plastering. As an operative you will You need to order 1.5 m3 of screed to complete the
have to do various calculations as your development floor.
progresses. To calculate for a floor screeding project, Screed costs £16 per m3. Calculate the total cost of
you will have to work out the area of floor to be the screed, including VAT at 20%.
screeded and the amount of material required for the
project. When calculating costs, you will need to use
percentages to calculate wastage and to work out the
value added tax (VAT) on the cost of materials.
6 SETTING UP AND
There will be VAT on all materials purchased; in 2020, SECURING WORK
the rate is 20%. One way to work out a percentage is
to divide the number by 100 and then multiply it by
AREAS
the percentage required. For example: £200 materials
plus VAT @ 20%: Planning the site layout
200 ÷ 100 = 2 When setting up a construction site, there are five key
points to consider:
2 × 20 = 40 1 Create a secure perimeter fence to limit access and
VAT on materials = £40 protect the public.
2 Establish a workflow in line with health and safety
Total cost of materials including VAT = £240 rules.
3 Have all paperwork and documentation in order.
INDUSTRY TIP 4 Get equipment needed for the work and staff.
5 Sort out necessary storage, office space and welfare
Value added tax (VAT) is a type of consumption tax that is facilities.
applied to most purchases of goods or services.
The purpose of planning the infrastructure of site
facilities is to make sure that the positions of, and
routes between, temporary site structures (such as
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS storage cabins, welfare facilities and site offices) are
Work out VAT on materials costing: carefully planned so as not to impact the actual build.
1 £50
A well-planned site layout should provide safe and
2 £80
clean conditions for working. All site access and egress
3 £140
and pedestrian and vehicular routes should be clearly
4 £180.
signposted and kept clear at all times, so that the
construction work is not obstructed. If the layout is

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

not planned effectively at the beginning of the project, Planning

it can be expensive to reorganise facilities after the site layout Description
build has begun. Neighbouring It is important to ensure residents or users
properties of nearby properties will not be disturbed, in
terms of noise, people talking (e.g. loud or
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH offensive language) and start and finish times.
The word ‘egress’ means the action of leaving a
Parking Safe parking on site is required, with a
place. reverse parking policy in place. Consider
nearby properties and any parking
restrictions near the site.
Waste There must be an effective waste
management management programme, with facilities for
and recycling recycling, safe disposal of contaminated
waste and separate skips for different types
of waste.
Protection of Protect any natural habitat such as
the natural protected wildlife or trees with preservation
environment orders in place.
Access/ Safe access/egress to and from the site for
egress vehicles and pedestrians is essential
Plant The safe movement and storage of plant is
necessary.

p Figure 1.84 Typical entry into a construction site compound

Town square

Offices and canteen

Hospital buildings

facilities (2-storey)

Fire assembly
point

One-way
First aid Storage/facilities
vehicle and Pedestrian station (Phase 1)
plant route access only
p Figure 1.86 Typical construction plant
p Figure 1.85 Typical site layout

This table describes and explains the essential elements ACTIVITY

of the site layout. Use a suitable search engine to find out what a tree
preservation order (TPO) is.
Planning
site layout Description
Material Deliveries should:
deliveries ● be checked in at the access gate
KEY TERM
● follow the vehicular route Plant: machinery, equipment and apparatus
● be safely unloaded, either manually or
used for an industrial activity. In construction,
with mechanical handling techniques
plant refers to heavy machinery and equipment
● be signed for.
used during construction works such as diggers,
Material Adequate storage facilities and space are dumpers and cranes.
storage required to keep materials safe and dry.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Welfare considerations of workers. The provision of toilets, a supply of hot and

cold water for washing, changing facilities, drinking
A well-planned site will observe the welfare
water and somewhere to eat and rest are basic
considerations explained in this table.
expectations in modern construction.
Welfare It is important when setting up sites to consider the
considerations Description
public, employees, materials and tools and equipment.
Toilets Male and female and disabled facilities
The purpose of a perimeter fence around a construction
Washing facilities ● Hot and cold water washing facilities site is to protect the public and to provide security for the
● Hand sanitiser
● Three-stage skin protection station site. Essential public access must be by appointment and
Storage of Clothes/coat pegs, lockers
visitors must complete an induction process and then sign
personal items in and out when attending. This system also applies to
Canteen area Clean eating and drinking area employees: all employees should complete an induction
Drying room Room for drying clothes that become wet when they first start working on site and they should sign
during works operations in and out whenever they enter or leave the site.
There must be secure storage for materials, tools and
equipment. Locked cabins are usually used for this
purpose.

ACTIVITY
Use a suitable search engine to find a construction
company’s induction process.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

It is very important to be safe when working
in construction. When you first set foot on a
construction site, you will have a health and safety
induction before you are allowed to carry out any
p Figure 1.87 Three-stage skin protection station before type of work. A good health and safety induction will
commencement of work, after completion of work activities cover these points:
and to restore and moisturise skin after washing 1 Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA)
2 Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)
3 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
(COSHH) Regulations
4 Construction (Design and Management)
(CDM) Regulations
5 Provision and Use of Work Equipment
Regulations (PUWER)
6 Manual Handling Operations (MHO)
7 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
8 working at height
9 control of noise
p Figure 1.88 Typical drying room with personal storage lockers 10 welfare facilities
and clothes/coat pegs 11 toolbox talks.
You can read more about health and safety
Welfare provision on any size of construction site is requirements and legislation in Chapter 2.
fundamental in safeguarding the health and well-being

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

7 COMMUNICATION ● notes: informal short messages, usually sent as a

reminder
Communication within all industry is very important ● drawings: important documentation regarding
to achieve work of high standards, on time and in building works.
budget. Put simply, communication means passing on There is physical proof of written communication
information from person to person. Employees at all and these messages can easily be shared and reread
levels need good communication skills: without these to gain an understanding. However, some forms of
skills and clear communication lines, businesses cannot written communication can take longer to reach their
function properly. The essence of communication is the destination, can be lost and can be misunderstood if
ability to share thoughts, information and ideas in a the writing is not legible.
clear way that will not be misunderstood.
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
Positive and negative The word ‘legible’ means clear enough to read.

communication
Communication can be positive or negative. Verbal communication
Verbal communication means using words and speech
Positive communication to share information, such as:
Positive communication elicits good responses and ● advising others on a course of action
actions from the intended audience. It has the power ● expressing agreement
to convert negative feelings into positive ones and ● offering feedback constructively
helps create an upbeat atmosphere for everyone. Good ● giving praise
practice for positive communication is to: ● reasoning and countering in conversation.
● be brief

● be specific
This is the most common method of communication
● be positive
and can be face to face or electronic (via video
● offer to help.
or walkie-talkie). Communication is instant and
misunderstandings can be quickly explained. However,
Negative communication unless it is recorded, verbal communication can easily be
forgotten or changed when passed on to other people.
This is a style of communication in which information
is communicated in an unnecessarily negative or harsh
way. It is bad practice: Body language
● to lead with the problem Body language is a physical form of communication.
● not to let go of mistakes We communicate attitudes and feelings by our
● to deal with another person angrily. conscious and unconscious movements and postures.
These include:
Written communication ● a shake of the head

● different forms of facial expression such as a frown

There are many different kinds of written
or smile
communication, such as:
● hand movements/gestures
● electronic (email, SMS): sent via computers or phone
● whole/partial body posture.
networks
● memorandum: a type of letter containing a Body language gestures can be used effectively to
statement, usually written by management for the eliminate misunderstandings. However, these gestures
purposes of sharing information can be less effective if there is a distance between the
● letter: typed or handwritten, sent in an envelope by people trying to communicate.
post, considered formal and private

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The table shows examples of good and bad body You might also occasionally need to communicate with
language during conversation. professional bodies, such as:
● the HSE
Examples of good body Examples of poor body ● local authorities
language language ● planning and building control
Open body position (arms Rolling your eyes ● CDM representatives
uncrossed)
● environmental agencies
Upright posture Yawning ● other trade managers.
Relaxed and open facial Hands in pockets
expression It is important to have good, positive communication
Arms relaxed by your sides Crossed arms skills when engaging with all stakeholders, to maintain
Positive eye contact Frowning a professional persona.

Communicating with other Site paperwork

A huge part of communication on site is written
people documentation, which comes in many forms. It is
On a construction site, you might need to essential to the successful running of a construction
communicate with many different people, such as: site and involves communication between all
● site managers stakeholders.
● supervisors

● other operatives

● members of the public

● architects

● local residents.

This table lists different types of written document for construction. They are often in digital form.
Type of paperwork Description
Timesheet A method for recording the
amount of time a worker has
Weekly Time Sheet spent on each job.
NAME OF EMPLOYEE FOR WEEK ENDING
DEPARTMENT EXEMPTIONS
MORNING AFTERNOON OVERTIME FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
DAY OF WEEK
IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT REGULAR HOURS OVERTIME HOURS
MONDAY
TUESDAY
WEDNESDAY
THURSDAY
FRIDAY
SATURDAY
SUNDAY
TOTAL HOURS
NO PERSON PERMITTED TO WORK OVERTIME WITHOUT SPECIAL AUTHORISATION
THIS TIME SHEET MUST BE PERSONALLY FILLED OUT AND SIGNED BY EMPLOYEE.
AUTHORISATION OF OVERTIME EMPLOYEE SIGNATURE

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Type of paperwork Description

Job sheet This contains instructions to
help a worker do their job.
CDS It includes details such as
the time it takes to perform
JOB / SERVICE SHEET tasks, the materials required
and address information.
Date: Call/Ref: Expected time
JOB NO.
Person attending

Customer name: Tel. no.:

Address: Work:

Mobile:

Other:

Postcode: Who gave you the call:

Work to be carried out:

Work carried out including materials:

Further action required:

Customer signature: CDS signature:

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Type of paperwork Description

Variation order This is issued whenever there is a
change to contracted work, such
as:
● adding or omitting work
YOUR COMPANY DETAILS
● increasing or decreasing
quantity of work
Variation Order ● changing the character or
quality of materials
Name: Date: ● changing the order of work.
Address: Customer order no.:

Works Materials Time Price

Date Signature Print

Sub total
VAT
Total due

Requisition order A document generated by a

particular section of the company
CONSTRUCTION CHANGE ORDER REQUEST FORM which tells the purchasing
department which items need to
be ordered.
Change Order No.: Contract No.:
To: Date:

Project Name:
Under our AGREEMENT dated (Year)
********************************************************************************************
You are hereby authorised and directed to make the following change(s) in accordance with the terms and conditions
of the Agreement:
(DESCRIPTION OF THE CHANGE)
FOR THE Additive (Deductive) sum of: (£ ).
Original Agreement Amount £
Sum of Previous Changes £
This Change Order Add (Deduct) £
Present Agreement Amount £

The time for completion shall be (increased/decreased) by ( ) calendar days due to this Change
Order, accordingly, the Contract Time is now ( ) calendar days and the substantial completion
date is . Your acceptance of this Change Order shall constitute a modification to our
Agreement and will be performed subject to all the same terms and conditions in our Agreement indicated above, as fully as if
the same were repeated in this acceptance.

The adjustment, if any, to this Agreement shall constitute a full and final settlement of any and all claims arising out of or related
to the change set forth herein, including claims for impact and delay costs.
The Contract Administrator has directed the Contractor to increase the penal sum of the existing Performance and
Payment Bonds or to obtain additional bonds on the basis of a £25,000.00 or greater value change order.
9 Check if applicable and provide written confirmation from the bonding company/agent (attorney-in-fact) that the
amount of the Performance and Payment Bonds have been adjusted to 100% of the new contract amount.

Accepted (Year)
By: By:
Contractor Architect/Engineer
By:
Owner
F0030 (Revised 03/09/19)

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Type of paperwork Description

Delivery note A document included when goods
are sent out to be delivered. It
Delivery Note
contains a description of the goods
Plasterers Ltd and amounts enclosed, but it does
Terrace Rd not include costing of items. The
Manchester
delivery note must be signed by
Tel: 0161 000000
the recipient.
Customer Invoice Address
Customer Delivery Address
Builders Ltd
North Rd Construction
Carmelite House
Sheffield
Newcastle
Tel: 0181 000000
Tel: 0191 000000

Despatch Date: 5th May 2003

Customer Order No.: CB 23510
Account No.: CB 222468
Quantity Quantity Quantity to
Cat. No. Description
Order Delivered Follow
232 15 Bags of Multi Finish 25 kg each 15
1200 mm × 2400 mm ×12.5 mm
234
plasterboard 20
Received in Good Condition:
Signature.................................. Print Name..........................

Delivery record A document, usually issued monthly,

to track what customers have
purchased over a period of time.
Invoice A document issued by a seller
to the purchaser that shows
INVOICE quantities and costs of products
Contractor/Freelancer Client purchased.
Name Name
Address Address
City Postal code City Postal code
Email Email
Telephone (Business) Fax Telephone (Business) Fax
Type of contracting
Changes
Description of Work Performed Duration of Work Hourly No.of Amount
From To fee hours
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
Total (before tax) 00.00
VAT Registration number VAT 00.00
Total 00.00
Fee Schedule
If the fee is going to be paid during several months
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Description of fee schedule

Confirmation
Place and Date Place and Date
Signature, Contractor / Freelancer Signature, Employer
Print Name Print Name

Risk assessment See Chapter 2

Method statement See Chapter 2

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

8 SUSTAINABILITY produce the oxygen we need to breathe but they also

absorb a lot of the damaging carbon dioxide produced
Sustainability means carrying out activities without by fossil fuels.
depleting the environment’s resources or having a The cutting down of trees also has an effect on the
harmful impact. It is good practice in the construction world’s climate and water cycle. Practitioners in many
industry to be sustainable wherever you are working. industries, including construction, are starting to source
The principle of sustainability aims to meet the needs more sustainable materials in the hope of regenerating
of the present without reducing the ability of future forests and the environment for future generations.
generations to meet their needs. In construction terms, Organisations such as the Forest Stewardship Council
this means creating structures and using processes that (FSC) have been set up to manage forests sustainably.
are friendly to the environment, responsibly sourced
and energy-efficient for a building’s lifespan. KEY TERM
Fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil are taken from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC): an international,
ground, but there is a finite amount so they are classed non-governmental organisation dedicated to
promoting the responsible management of the
as unsustainable fuels. However, there are infinite
world’s forests.
natural power sources such as wind, sun and tides,
which are classed as sustainable.
Sustainable materials
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH Good practice in construction includes:
The word ‘infinite’ means endless; ‘finite’ means ● sourcing materials local to the site to save on
there is an end or limit to something.
transport costs and fuel use
● sourcing timber from properly managed forests
One particular cause for concern within construction
which are replenished regularly
is the worldwide use of timber. Some countries have
● carefully selecting building materials, making direct
done untold damage to the planet and environment for
comparisons between timber frame, metal frame
a number of years by harvesting massive amounts of
or masonry construction to achieve the most
trees for construction purposes. Taking timber from the
sustainable outcome.
world’s rainforests has caused many problems to the
environment, destroying plants and animals, with some This table describes some sustainable materials used in
species now lost to the world forever. Trees not only construction.

Sustainable materials used in construction Description

Bamboo Natural composite material with a high strength to weight ratio;
very good structurally.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Sustainable materials used in construction Description

Straw bales Wheat, rice, rye and oats are used to make straw bales as
structural elements; good building insulation.

Recycled plastic Recycling helps to save energy and landfill space. Recycled
plastic is frequently used in construction applications, e.g.
roofing tiles, insulation, PVC windows, fences and floor tiles. It
can be mixed with virgin plastic to reduce costs without loss of
performance.

Wood If foresting is managed properly, wood is sustainable for future

generations.
Rammed earth A technique for foundations, flooring and walls using natural
raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime or gravel which have
been compressed for strength.

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Sustainable materials used in construction Description

Ferrock Blocks made from small particles of steel mixed with silica from
crushed glass. The iron content corrodes when exposed to
air and forms iron carbonate. Ferrock means ferrous rock and
carbon is the key element in the glass.

Timbercrete A blend of sawmill waste, cement, sand, binders and non-toxic

deflocculating additive, which is cured using the renewable
resources of sun and wind into a unique building block.

Cobs Natural building material made from subsoil, water, fibrous

organic material (straw) and lime. It can be modified with sand
and clay.

KEY TERM
Deflocculating additive: a substance added to a
mixture, to give a slurry that would otherwise be
very thick and gooey a thin, pourable consistency.

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Sustainable materials used in construction Description

Lime This is a substance containing calcium and composed of
oxides and hydroxide, usually calcium oxide or calcium
hydroxide. It is breathable material made from ground
limestone rock.

Sheep’s wool 100% pure wool can be used as an insulator and is extremely
friendly to the environment. This is a sustainable and renewable
resource which helps reduce the carbon footprint of a building.

Energy performance ACTIVITY

Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) set out the Using a suitable search engine, find out as much
information as you can about EPCs.
energy efficiency rating of buildings. This is now a
requirement when buildings are built or upgraded, sold
or rented. Energy is expensive and its production can
be damaging to the atmosphere and environmental
Renewable energy resources
surroundings. While some renewable energy systems can be
expensive to set up, over many years these systems
Energy-efficient buildings are designed to significantly are cost-effective and sustainable. This is in contrast
reduce the amount of energy needed for heating and to fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas,
cooling, regardless of the energy and equipment chosen which have been our main sources of energy for many
to heat or cool the building. If systems can be put in years and have proven to be hugely expensive and
place that allow a building to produce its own energy, damaging.
this is considered good practice.

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This table describes the main renewable energy resources.

Renewable energy resources in construction Description
Solar energy Radiant light and heat from the sun are harnessed using a
range of technologies such as solar heating.

Geothermal energy Energy is generated and stored in the ground. The Earth’s
internal heat is called thermal energy. Geothermal energy
originates from the formation of the planet and from
Generating
unit
Hot radioactive decay of materials. This can be drilled into and
spring Drilling
used as an energy source.
rig

Injection
well
Caprock

Permeable
rock

Water
Impermeable flow
bedrock

Magma (heat source)

Heat pumps/ground energy Heat pumps absorb energy from the sun warming the
ground. Pipes buried underground extract solar energy and
Geothermal heating Geothermal cooling convert this energy into heat.

Warm air Cold air

circulates circulates

Heat is absorbed Heat is dispersed

from the ground into the ground

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

Renewable energy resources in construction Description

Tidal power energy A form of hydropower that converts energy obtained from
tidal movement of the sea into power for electricity.

Wave power energy This system converts the up and down movement of
waves into electricity. Equipment on the surface of oceans
captures energy produced by the movement of the waves.

Hydroelectric energy This system harnesses the power of water in motion, such
as water flowing over a waterfall, to generate electricity.

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Renewable energy resources in construction Description

Wind energy A process by which wind is used to generate electricity,
e.g. wind turbines convert kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical power.

Biomass energy Plant or animal material is used for energy production or in

various industrial processes as raw material for a range of
products.
This system uses purposely grown energy crops such as
Trees C02 wood or forest residue, waste from food crops, horticulture,
absorb
C02
food processing, animal farming or human waste from
and sewage plants.
release
oxygen ● Biomass is burned in a furnace to generate hot gases
which are fed into a boiler to generate steam.
Forest ● The steam is expanded through a steam turbine or
engine to produce mechanical or electrical energy.
Wood Transport Factory Biomass
residues Shipping powerplant

Lumber industry

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 Chapter 1 Principles of construction

CASE STUDY
Sewage

Passive house build

Industrial Municipal Gemma is a project manager for a building
residues solid waste company and has been tasked with managing the
build for a detached property in a rural area. This
will be the first project the company has completed
Biomass
sources as a passive house build. Gemma wants to show
her line manager and future stakeholders that she
is capable of managing the project from start to
Agricultural Animal
crops and finish.
residues
residues
Her first role is to gather information on passive
housing projects and speak to designers and architects
Forestry
crops and who have experience in this field. When she has
residues enough information, Gemma draws up a programme of
works for the build. The site is fairly rural and there are
p Figure 1.89 Sources of biomass energy some weather considerations – these two factors might
affect the build in various ways, including sourcing and
Protecting the environment delivery of materials. Gemma researches the long-term
weather forecast and finds material suppliers who are
As well as using sustainable energy within construction,
closest to the development. She also researches and
it is important to minimise building waste. Construction
engages specialist contractors for some of the technical
by its nature produces large amounts of waste
elements of the passive build: this is the company’s first
materials and legislation now ensures that this waste is
passive build, so they do not have existing contractors
managed in an environmentally friendly way.
with the skills required. Working with new contractors
Building contractors try to get the best possible use could present quality issues.
from supplies and materials and choose products and
Once Gemma has all the quotes for work and materials
methods that reduce waste. There are many recycling
information, she can instruct contractors and manage
processes in construction and building waste is now
the build. If she has planned carefully and allowed
commonly segregated into different skips to enable
for any contingency, all her hard work should pay off
maximum recycling of waste materials.
and she will be able to impress her employers and all
It is important to protect water, plant life and animal stakeholders.
species in areas undergoing construction projects, as
there is government legislation in place to protect the KEY TERMS
biodiversity of local ecologies. Construction companies
Environment Agency (EA): public body working to
should aim to complete projects on time and to a high protect and improve the environment.
standard with the smallest possible impact on the Passive housing: creating an ultra-low energy
environment. building with a small ecological footprint that
requires little energy for space heating or cooling.
ACTIVITY
Use a suitable search engine to find out what the
Environment Agency (EA) is responsible for.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Test your knowledge

1 Which one of these would you not see on a 7 What is the hatching symbol below?
specification for strip foundations?
A the concrete mass
B the location of reinforcing bars
C the width of the strip
D the depth of the hardcore bed A blockwork
2 Which of these can be taken from a block plan B timber
and a site plan? C stone
A services location D gravel
B room layout 8 Which brick bond is shown below?
C north direction
D datum
3 Which of these is not involved in the tender
process?
A closed bid
B deposit payment
C time of opening bids
D date for return A English
4 Where would you get information on B stretcher
foundations, walls, materials, surface finishes,
C Flemish
floors, roofs and components related to a
building project? D header
A specification 9 Which scale should be used for a site plan?
B bill of quantities A 1:1
C tender document B 1:5
D drawing C 1 : 200
5 What is a possible implication and repercussion D 1 : 2500
of inaccurate estimating? 10 What is being created in this image?
A Projects will be profitable.
B There will not be enough labour to do the
work.
C The company will not make profits.
D All contracts will be won.
6 How can good communication improve
teamwork?
A It creates argument and conflict. A biomass energy
B Workers will have poor organisational skills. B tidal power energy
C It gives opportunities for training. C hydroelectric energy
D It improves morale in the workplace. D wave power energy

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CHAPTER 2

HEALTH AND SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
The aim of learning about health and safety in the workplace is to understand the essential tasks for achieving
a healthy and safe workplace. This chapter will help you to control and identify hazards and risks and show you
how to organise, plan, monitor and review health and safety in construction. This information is relevant for
anyone who is involved in construction work, including designers, contractors, operatives, clients and architects.
By reading this chapter you will gain knowledge of:
1 health and safety roles and responsibilities: the Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
2 health and safety legislation:
● Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
● Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations
● Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER)
● Control of Noise at Work Regulations
● Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)
● Working at Height Regulations
● Electricity at Work Regulations
● Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work Regulations
● Manual Handling Operations Regulations
● Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
● Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005
3 construction site health and safety inductions
4 accidents and emergencies
5 fire safety
6 safety signs and signals
7 welfare at work
8 first aid.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.

Level 1 Diploma in Level 2 Diploma in Level 2 Technical

Plastering (6708-13) Plastering (6708-23) Certificate in Plastering
Chapter section Unit 201/601 Unit 201/601 (7908-20) Unit 201
Health and Safety Executive Learning outcomes 1.1, 1.2, Learning outcomes 1.1, 1.2, Topic 2.4
1.3, 1.4 1.3, 1.4
Control of Substances Learning outcome 1.1 Learning outcome 1.1 Topic 2.4
Hazardous to Health
(COSHH) Regulations
Provision and Use of Work Learning outcome 1.1 Learning outcome 1.1 Topic 2.4
Equipment Regulations
(PUWER)

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Level 1 Diploma in Level 2 Diploma in Level 2 Technical

Plastering (6708-13) Plastering (6708-23) Certificate in Plastering
Chapter section Unit 201/601 Unit 201/601 (7908-20) Unit 201
Control of Noise at Work Learning outcomes 1.1, 4.2 Learning outcomes 1.1, 4.2 Topic 2.4
Regulations
Reporting of Injuries, Learning outcomes 1.1, Learning outcomes 1.1, 1.3, Topic 2.4
Diseases and Dangerous 1.3, 2 2
Occurrences Regulations
(RIDDOR)
Working at Height Learning outcomes 1.1, 6 Learning outcomes 1.1, 6 Topic 2.4
Regulations
Electricity at Work Learning outcome 7 Learning outcome 7
Regulations
Personal Protective Learning outcomes 1.1, 8 Learning outcomes 1.1, 8 Topic 2.4
Equipment (PPE) at Work
Regulations
Manual Handling Operations Learning outcome 5 Learning outcome 5 Topic 2.4
Regulations
Construction (Design and Learning outcomes 1.1, Learning outcomes 1.1, 1.2, Topic 2.4
Management) Regulations 1.2, 4.1 4.1
Construction site health and Learning outcomes 1.2, 1.5 Learning outcomes 1.2, 1.5
safety inductions
Accidents and emergencies Learning outcomes 2.2, 3 Learning outcomes 2.2, 3
Fire safety Learning outcomes 2.2, 9 Learning outcomes 2.2, 9
Safety signs and signals Learning outcomes 1.2, 3.5 Learning outcomes 1.2, 3.5
Welfare at work Learning outcomes 1.2, 4 Learning outcomes 1.2, 4
First aid Learning outcome 2 Learning outcome 2

1 HEALTH AND The Health and Safety

SAFETY ROLES AND Executive
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is a
RESPONSIBILITIES government-approved organisation that supervises
the workplace to prevent death, injury or ill health.
Health and safety legislation exists to protect us all. The HSE has the power to make employers change
It tells us what we should do to keep safe and gives working practices so that the workplace is safer for
details of different people’s roles and responsibilities. everyone.
Everyone must stick to the guidance. It is essential that
The HSE advises, cautions and investigates when
you fulfil your role and responsibilities for your own
required and carries out research into occupational
health and safety and that of other people.
risks. It aims for its actions to be cost-effective,
For construction, health and safety legislation tells us measured and clear so that businesses will follow
what should and should not be done by employers the rules.
and employees to stay safe. Breaking these laws
can result in criminal proceedings and then fines,
businesses being forced to close and prison sentences
for employers or employees.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

The HSE focuses on reducing work-related illnesses

and deaths. It works with everyone to improve existing
2 HEALTH AND SAFETY
laws and regulations and suggests new guidance to
make the workplace as safe as possible. If it hears about
LEGISLATION
unsafe working practices, it will step in to enforce the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 (see below) and
Health and Safety at Work
often makes unannounced workplace visits. It will issue Act 1974 (HASAWA)
enforcement notices, such as an improvement notice The HSE oversees and enforces the Health and Safety
or prohibition notice, to any business that has unsafe at Work Act 1974 (HASAWA). This legislation applies to
working practices. every kind of workplace and its purpose is to protect
all stakeholders who might be affected by any type of
9446 9507
8776 8975 8777 work being undertaken.
Under HASAWA, the key responsibilities for employers
are to provide:
1 a safe system of work
2 a safe place of work
2854 2604 2578
2418 2263 3 safe equipment and machinery
2014/15 2018/19 4 safe and competent people working together
Total notices issued by the HSE
Total notices issued by local authorities
5 risk assessments and method statements (RAMS)
6 information about potential hazards and adequate
p Figure 2.1 Enforcement notices issued by local authorities and instruction and training
the HSE between 2014 and 2019
7 a competent person responsible for health and safety
8 adequate welfare facilities for all stakeholders.
INDUSTRY TIP
KEY TERMS
According to the HSE, there were 30 fatalities within the
Legislation: a law or set of laws suggested by a
construction sector in 2018/19. This was a significant drop government and made official by a parliament.
from 49 in 2011/12.
Improvement notice: issued by the HSE or local
The HSE can be contacted for advice on 0300 790 6787. The authority inspector to formally inform a company
number is free to call and lines are open Monday to Friday that safety improvements are needed.
8:30 am to 5 pm. Prohibition notice: issued by the HSE or local
authority inspector when there is an immediate
risk of personal injury. This is very serious and a
IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH company that receives a prohibition notice will
clearly be breaking health and safety regulations.
An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the
initial letters of other words; e.g. HSE stands for
Stakeholder: a person with an interest or concern
Health and Safety Executive. in a project, especially business.
Research and write out the meanings of the following Risk assessment: the process of identifying
acronyms: hazards and risks that could cause harm.
● PVA ● LEV
Method statement: a document to help manage
work and ensure that everyone has been told about
● SBR ● MSDs.
taking precautions. It often includes a logical
sequence of work.

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HASAWA lists employees’ key responsibilities as: Gases and vapours

1 taking care of themselves and others COSHH covers gases and vapours which make it
2 co-operating with their employer in all areas of difficult for people to breathe. If a gas or vapour is
health and safety present at high concentrations in the air, it will replace
3 not obstructing or interfering with health and safety the oxygen we need to breathe. Many gases are
measures invisible and do not carry a smell, so they are difficult
4 attending all mandatory health and safety training. to detect. The oxygen content of the air must be
monitored to make sure that gases and vapours do not
Control of Substances pose a risk to the health of employees.
Hazardous to Health Risk of fire
(COSHH) Regulations 2002 Flammable gases and vapours also carry a risk of
COSHH is the legislation that controls how employers fire or explosion. Employers might need to carry
use substances which are hazardous to health in the out additional duties to keep employees safe from
workplace. In construction, these substances are: such substances. These duties are set out in the
● chemicals Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres
● products that have chemicals added to them Regulations 2002 (DSEAR) and the Confined Spaces
● fumes Regulations 1997.
● dusts

● vapours Biological agents

● gases Biological agents can also be considered to be
● biological agents. hazardous substances:
1 Micro-organisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi
What make a substance hazardous? and the agents that cause diseases, such as:
Under the COSHH regulations, employers are required ● Weil’s disease (leptospirosis) – often present in

by law to prevent and reduce any type of exposure cow and rat urine and can contaminate fresh
to hazardous substances to prevent ill health to their water supplies
workforce. ‘Hazardous substances’ include simple ● bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, also

substances that could cause breathing problems or known as mad cow disease) – can be present in
spread bacteria, for example, industrial paint which the food chain, mainly from beef stock.
might contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or 2 Damp spores caused by poor ventilation are
mould and algae growth on substrates. common in construction. If they are not dealt with
correctly, they can transmit to humans and cause
Substances are considered in the form in which they
breathing and respiratory problems.
might be used in work activities.
3 Material which contains infectious agents, such as
● A hazardous substance might be a chemical
contaminated water or waste material.
compound (a substance with different chemically
4 Substances that cause occupational asthma if a
bonded elements) or it might be a mixture of
person might develop the symptoms of asthma,
compounds, micro-organisms or natural materials,
such as wheezing and shortness of breath, after
such as flour, stone or wood dust.
coming into contact with the substance within the
● Dust of any kind can be hazardous to health under
workplace.
COSHH when it is present at high concentrations in
the air.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

KEY TERMS ACTIVITY

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): organic Research the precautions and safety measures that
chemicals that have a high vapour pressure at will need to be in place when working with polyvinyl
room temperature, including human-made and acetate (PVA) and styrene butadiene (SBR). Find
naturally occurring chemical compounds. Nearly reliable information by searching online for COSHH
all scents and odours are classed as VOCs. data sheets.
Biological agents: types of bacteria, virus,
protozoan, parasite or fungus.
Provision and Use of Work
Equipment Regulations 1998
ACTIVITY (PUWER)
In small groups: The PUWER regulations aim to make the workplace
● research what is meant by volatile organic safer for anyone who uses or comes into contact with
compounds (VOC) and local exhaust ventilation
machinery and equipment. The regulations ensure that
(LEV)
machinery and equipment are:
● give some examples of their uses within
● suitable for purpose
construction.
● maintained regularly and are in good working order

● operated by people who have been trained to use

COSHH risk assessment them correctly
This is a document to examine tasks and processes ● inspected by a competent worker who keeps a

that use any potential hazardous substance. Its maintenance log.

purpose is to identify hazardous substances an PUWER regulations apply to all businesses where
operative might have to use and the precautions that equipment is operated. However, they do not apply
must be taken to avoid harm or ill health from contact to those who have sold or supplied any equipment –
with these substances. the responsibility for the equipment rests with the
There are three ways in which hazardous substances employer. This means that, when buying equipment, it
can enter the body: is important to check whether it will be safe to use or
1 inhalation – breathing in a substance will need to be adapted for use in the workplace.
2 absorption – a substance entering the body through
the skin ACTIVITY
3 ingestion – taking in the substance through the Research how electrical equipment is maintained
mouth. and proven to be safe to work with in the workplace
under PUWER.

INDUSTRY TIP
The Control of Noise at
COSHH data sheets provide information on products to help
users make a risk assessment and describe any hazards the Work Regulations 2005
substance presents. They contain information on handling, While working in the construction workplace, it is
storage and any emergency measures to be taken in case of highly likely that you will be exposed to noise. These
accident or misuse. regulations protect against excessive exposure to
noise which could result in damage to hearing, such as
hearing loss or tinnitus (permanent ringing in the ears).

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

1 Damage might be caused by the volume of noise

(how loud it is), which is measured in decibels.
Reporting of Injuries,
Examples of decibel levels include: Diseases and Dangerous
● a normal conversation: 60 decibels Occurrences Regulations
● a working lawn mower: 90 decibels

● a loud rock concert: 120 decibels.

2013 (RIDDOR)
2 Being exposed to excessive noise for long periods of These regulations state that employers must report
time on a regular basis can also cause damage. The serious workplace accidents, illnesses caused by the
regulations state the maximum periods of time a workplace and dangerous incidents (near misses). The
person can safely be exposed to particular decibel regulations apply to all work premises. Incidents should
levels. be reported to the HSE and not reporting an accident is
breaking the law.
Under the regulations, all of the following must be
reported:
● deaths and injuries caused by workplace accidents

● occupational diseases

● carcinogens (such as asbestos), mutagens (such

as gas particles in the soil discovered during

excavations) and biological agents
● specified injuries to workers

● dangerous occurrences

● gas incidents.

When companies report these accidents, the HSE

can look for trends of where and how any risk may
p Figure 2.2 Ear defenders
occur. This helps them to know whether they should
investigate and to identify ways of preventing future
accidents.

KEY TERMS
Carcinogens: substances which can cause cancer.
Mutagens: agents such as radiation or chemical
substances which can cause genetic mutation in
the body.

ACTIVITY
1 Find out why electric leads should not trail on the
p Figure 2.3 Ear plugs floor on construction sites.
2 Describe in detail the action you would need
The Regulations state the following:
to take if you came across electric leads on the
● If the daily or weekly average exposure to noise is
floor.
80 decibels, the employer must provide information
and training.
● If the daily or weekly average exposure to noise is 85

decibels, employers must provide hearing protection.

● The upper exposure limit is 87 decibels. This means

workers must not be exposed to this level of noise.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

The Working at Height Before working at height, these precautions should be

taken:
Regulations 2005 ● If the work does not need to take place at height,
The purpose of the Working at Height Regulations avoid doing so.
2005 is to prevent death and injury caused by a fall ● If the work has to be done at height, take
from height. Working at height means work in any precautions to prevent falls, either by using an
place where a person could fall a distance likely to existing place of work that is already safe or by
cause personal injury, if there were no precautions in using the right type of equipment.
place. For example, you are working at height if you: ● Assess what would happen if there was a fall from
● are working on a ladder or flat roof height and use the correct type of equipment to try
● could fall through a fragile surface to prevent this from happening.
● could fall into an opening in a floor or a hole in the
Ways of reducing the risk from working at height include:
ground.
● doing as much work as possible from the ground
The term ‘working at height’ refers to any height off ● making sure that workers can get safely to and from
the ground, from a few centimetres to many metres their position working at height
high. If an operative falls from ground level into a ● maintaining the equipment to be used and checking
trench, this is still considered a fall from height. that it is suitable for the job
● not overloading or overreaching
All employers or anyone else in control of a working at
● taking precautions when working on or near fragile
height activity must make sure that this kind of work
surfaces
is properly planned, supervised and carried out by
● providing protection from falling objects
competent people, using the right type of equipment. A
● considering emergency evacuation and rescue
risk assessment should be carried out before any work at
procedures.
height is undertaken. Employees must take reasonable
care of themselves and others who are working at
height and employers and employees should co-operate INDUSTRY TIP
to meet all health and safety duties and requirements.
One of the most common causes of accidents when working
at height is a fall from a roof, through a fragile roof or a
ACTIVITY roof light. These falls can result in death or serious injury
In small groups: and can occur on construction sites or when roof repair
● research what is meant by ‘soft landing systems’ work or cleaning is being carried out. These accidents are
● find or produce some images of these systems, preventable and information on safe working practices is
and discuss their use. available from the HSE.

It is a common occurrence for a construction worker to

work high off the ground, for example when: Using ladders
● using a hop-up Using a ladder might appear to be dangerous but this
● using a ladder is allowed by HASAWA and ladders can be a practical
● using and working on scaffolding choice for some tasks. The right type of ladder should
● working on roofs be used and operatives must know how to use the
● working on chimneys. ladder safely.
The Working at Height Regulations state that A risk assessment should take place before a ladder is
operatives must do everything possible to reduce risk of used for work at height. If the assessment identifies
injury or death from working at height. Workers must that the task involves staying up a leaning ladder or
undertake training, report any hazards to a supervisor/ stepladder for more than 30 minutes at a time, other
line manager and use all necessary and available safety safer equipment should be used. A ladder should only be
equipment. used where it will be level and stable and can be secured.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Strong upper
resting point

Adequate lap on
extension ladders

p Figure 2.5 Resting ladders on plastic guttering can cause it to

bend and break

The Electricity at Work

Regulations 1989
The Electricity at Work Regulations ensure that work
involving electricity or electrical equipment is carried
out safely. Under their duty of care, employers must
Ground back slope make sure that any electrical systems and equipment
not exceeding 6° are safe and regularly maintained.
If at all possible in construction, it is safer to use
battery-powered equipment. Mains power is 230 volts
(v) – this can be dangerous and an electric shock might
Ground side slope not result in bad burns or death.
exceeding 16°, clean
and free of slippery algae For safer use on site, a transformer using 110 V can
and moss
be used. On larger sites it might be necessary to use a
p Figure 2.4 Using a ladder safely large generator capable of 400 V, so that it is safe to
plug in more than one item at once. All three voltages
INDUSTRY TIPS of electricity on site are colour-coded: yellow for 110 V,
blue for 230 V and red for 400 V.
Never rest an aluminium extension ladder on a plastic-type
gutter as your body weight might crush the gutter, causing
damage to it and probably a fall from height. Avoid this
by using a ladder stand off to work safely. This piece of
equipment will sit on the masonry substrate to stop the
ladder leaning on the gutter. This makes it safer to work off
the ladder, reducing the chances of it sliding horizontally
and causing a fall.
Health and safety legislation is put in place to protect you
and others. If you do not follow the law, you are placing
everyone at serious risk.
● When using a ladder, it should be at 75°.
● Use the 1 in 4 rule: 1 unit out for every 4 units up.
p Figure 2.6a 110 V 1 phase – yellow

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

New equipment does not need to be tested, but should

be given a visual check before use to make sure it is not
damaged.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

at Work Regulations 2002
PPE is equipment that will protect the user against
health or safety risks at work. It can include items such
as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility
clothing, safety footwear and safety harnesses. It also
includes respiratory protective equipment (RPE).
PPE helps to protect operatives against accidents or
p Figure 2.6b 230 V 1 phase – blue
injury and should be used alongside other measures
to keep people healthy and safe in the workplace. It is
necessary even where other safe systems of work are in
place, to protect from hazards such as:
● breathing in contaminated air, which can damage

the lungs
● falling materials

● flying particles or splashes of corrosive liquids which

can irritate the eyes

● contact with corrosive materials which can damage

the skin
● extreme temperatures, either cold or hot.

p Figure 2.6c 400 V 3 phase – red

Portable appliance testing

Portable appliance testing (PAT) is the examination
of electrical appliances and equipment to ensure
they are safe to use. All portable equipment should
be maintained to make sure that it is safe. Some of
this testing will be visual, for example, looking at
equipment to check that it is not damaged. However,
some damage will not be visible and formal testing by a
trained person will be necessary. p Figure 2.7 Workers wearing safety harnesses on an aerial
access platform
The amount of testing required will depend on the type
of equipment. Tools used on a construction site will The PPE regulations place a duty on:
need to be tested regularly to make sure they remain ● the makers of PPE to ensure that it satisfies basic

safe to use. health and safety requirements

● employers to provide PPE and make sure that
It is useful to label equipment to show when it was last operatives are trained to use it correctly.
tested. This will help to make sure that equipment is
regularly tested. However, there is no legal requirement PPE should be checked before use and discarded if
for this. damaged.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Other special regulations cover contact with hazardous ● Users must be trained in how to use the PPE
substances (including lead and asbestos) and also noise safely; for example, how to remove gloves without
and radiation. contaminating the skin.
● The use of PPE should be encouraged; for example,
Selection and use through the use of safety signs in the workplace.
When selecting what items of PPE are required, you
PPE should be properly stored and maintained to make
will need to know which risks the user will be exposed
sure it is safe to use. Replacements should be available
to and how long they will be exposed for. You will also
in case a piece of PPE is damaged and there should
need to bear in mind these details:
be enough PPE equipment for all people who require
● Products which meet the standards of these
it, including anyone who might not be a regular user
regulations will be marked ‘CE’.
(such as a visitor).
● The size, fit and weight of the PPE: well-fitting PPE

will keep the user safe while carrying out their work. There should be a designated person who is responsible
● If more than one item of PPE is required, make sure for the storage and maintenance of PPE, but you are
they can be used together; for example, wearing responsible for reporting any faults and using the PPE
safety glasses might disturb the seal of a respirator, properly.
causing an air leak.

Types of PPE
Type of PPE Hazards Options for use and considerations
Knee pads: used when performing ● Kneeling on debris ● Knee pads within protective clothing
kneeling activities, to protect from ● Activity taking a long time trousers
compression and contamination injury ● Chemical reactions (e.g. lime burns) ● Knee pad inserts for work trousers
● Knee pads with Velcro or belt and
buckle fit

Hi-viz clothing: used as standard so ● Moving plant/construction traffic Different forms of hi-viz clothing (e.g. vest,
that operatives are clearly visible when ● Busy pedestrian routes trousers, jackets)
engaging in work activities

Skin protection, such as sun cream or Sun burn and skin damage (e.g. ● High-factor sun block
barrier cream: to protect from harmful dermatitis) ● Three-stage skin protection station (see
sun rays and harmful substances page 46)

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

Type of PPE Hazards Options for use and considerations

Waterproof clothing: to protect from Getting wet, cold and hypothermic Breathable waterproof clothing (e.g.
poor weather conditions (e.g. wind, rain trousers, jackets, hats, gloves, socks)
and snow)

Safety glasses: always use on site and ● Chemical or molten metal splash ● Safety spectacles, goggles, face
in college workshops to protect from ● Dust screens, face shields, visors
plaster/lime sand mortar splashes ● Projectiles ● Make sure the eye protection chosen
● Gas and vapour provides protection against all likely
● Radiation hazards of the task and fits the user
properly

Hard hat: always used on site to protect ● Impact from falling or flying objects ● Industrial safety helmets, bump caps,
from falling objects or minor head ● Risk of head bumping, hair becoming hairnets and firefighters’ helmets
collisions tangled in machinery, chemical drips ● Some safety helmets incorporate or can
or splashes, change of weather or be fitted with eye or ear protection
temperature ● Neck protection should also be
considered (e.g. scarves for use during
welding)

Ear defenders: always used on site to ● A combination of sound level and ● Earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert/canal
protect from excessive noise caused by duration of exposure caps
machinery, saws and drilling ● Very high-level sounds are a hazard ● The right hearing protection should be
even with short duration used for the type of work and noise that
the user will be exposed to
● Protectors should reduce noise but also
allow for communication between users

Gloves: always used on site and ● Abrasion, temperature extremes, cuts Gloves, gloves with a cuff, gauntlets and
sometimes in college workshops to and punctures, impact, chemicals, sleeving that covers part of or the entire
protect from abrasions electric shock, radiation, vibration, arm
biological agents and prolonged
immersion in water
● Gloves might not be suitable for
operating some machinery (e.g. bench
drills) as the gloves might get caught

➥
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Type of PPE Hazards Options for use and considerations

Safety boots: always worn on site and ● Wet, hot and cold conditions ● Footwear with protective toecaps and
in college workshops to protect from ● Electrostatic build-up penetration-resistance; wellington
impact and falling debris ● Slipping, cuts and punctures boots; specific footwear for particular
● Falling objects work areas and equipment (e.g. foundry
● Heavy loads boots and chainsaw boots); oil- or
● Metal and chemical splashes chemical-resistant soles
● Vehicles ● Appropriate footwear should be selected
for the risks identified

Dust mask: always used on site and ● Oxygen-deficient atmospheres ● Respiratory protective equipment
sometimes in college workshops to ● Dusts, gases and vapours (RPE) – respirators such as simple
protect from the inhalation of dust and filtering face pieces and power-assisted
toxic fumes respirators, which must fit properly to
be effective
● Breathing apparatus – fresh-air hose,
compressed airline and self-contained
breathing apparatus

Whole body protection ● Heat, chemical or metal splashes ● Conventional or disposable overalls,
● Spray from pressure leaks or spray boiler suits, aprons, chemical suits
guns ● Materials used might be flame-
● Contaminated dust retardant, anti-static, chain mail,
● Impact or penetration chemically impermeable and hi-viz
● Excessive wear or entanglement of ● Other protection such as safety
own clothing harnesses or life jackets might be
needed

Emergency equipment
ACTIVITY
Careful selection, maintenance and regular training is In small groups, research the cost of these PPE items:
needed for equipment used in emergencies, such as
● hard hat ● hi-viz vest
compressed-air escape breathing apparatus, respirators
● safety glasses ● protective gloves
and safety ropes or harnesses.
● protective footwear ● dust mask.

INDUSTRY TIP
Hard hats have an expiry date and might not offer the level IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
of protection required if used after this date. The expiry When you have found the costs of the PPE items
date is usually stamped below the brim. in the Activity, work out the net costing and the
gross costing including VAT at the current rate.
If your hard hat has expired, speak to your line manager to
See page 44 for information on working out VAT.
request a new one. By law, an employer must provide this
Remember to show your working out.
free of charge.

KEY TERMS
Net cost: value of something after taxes and other Gross cost: value of something including taxes and
costs have been deducted. other costs.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

Manual handling injuries can have serious implications

INDUSTRY TIP for the employer and the person who has been injured.
To help prevent manual handling injuries, employers
PPE will only protect and work properly if it is used
must look at the risks of tasks that involve work with
correctly.
heavy loads and establish sensible health and safety
measures to prevent injury.
The Manual Handling When assessing the possibility of manual handling
Operations Regulations 1992 injuries in the workplace, you must consider:
● what the individual user is able to lift
Manual handling covers a wide variety of activities,
● the types of loads that need to be moved
including lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling and carrying.
● the working conditions
If you do not carry out these tasks correctly, you could
● what training is required.
be injured. Possible injuries include musculoskeletal
disorders (MSDs), such as pain in and injuries to arms, If a load needs to be moved manually, these measures
legs and joints and repetitive strain injuries. These can be taken to help avoid injuries:
injuries can be caused by any work which involves ● Reduce the amount of twisting, stooping and

heavy manual labour, awkward postures and repetitive reaching required.

movements. ● Do not lift a load from floor level or above shoulder

height, especially heavy loads.

The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 set
● Arrange storage areas to minimise the need to
out measures to deal with the risks from all work which
carry out such movements. Heavy items could be
involves manual handling.
delivered directly or closer to the storage area to
minimise the amount of manual handling required.
● Reduce the distances which the load needs to be

carried as much as possible.

● If possible, break down the weight into smaller units

so the individual loads are less heavy.

Lifting techniques
If a load needs to be lifted and moved, the following
should be considered before the process begins:
● Identify any handling aids that could be used.

● Remove any obstructions between the place where

the load is stored and the place it needs to be

moved to.
● Make sure the operator knows where the load

should be placed, so it does not need to be moved

again.
● Where the load will need to be lifted for a long time,

arrange for somewhere to rest midway between the

beginning and end, such as a table or bench. This
will allow the operative handling the load to rest
and if necessary change their grip.
During the lift, the HSE recommends a number of
techniques to help avoid injury, as shown in the
following table.
p Figure 2.8 An operative lifting heavy bricks safely
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Technique Explanation
Adopt a stable position Your feet should be apart with one leg slightly forward (or beside the load, if it is on the
ground) to maintain balance. Be prepared to move your feet when lifting to maintain
stability. Avoid tight clothing or unsuitable footwear, which may make this difficult.
Get a good hold Where possible, hug the load close to your body. This may be better than gripping it
tightly with only your hands.
Start in a good posture Before you start lifting, slightly bend your back, hips and knees. This is preferable to
fully flexing your back (stooping) or fully flexing your hips and knees (squatting).
Do not flex your back any further while lifting This can happen if you begin to straighten your legs before you start to raise the load.
Keep the load close to your waist Keep the load close to your body for as long as possible while lifting. Keep the
heaviest side of the load next to your body. If a close approach to the load is not
possible, try to slide it towards your body before attempting to lift it.
Avoid twisting your back or leaning Shoulders should be kept level and facing in the same direction as your hips.
sideways, especially while your back is bent Turning by moving the feet is better than twisting and lifting at the same time.
Keep your head up when handling Look ahead, not down at the load, once you are holding it securely.
Move smoothly The load should not be jerked or snatched as this can make it harder to keep control
and can increase the risk of injury.
Do not lift or handle more than you can There is a difference between what people can lift and what they can safely lift. If in
easily manage doubt, seek advice or get help.
Put down, then adjust If precise positioning of the load is necessary, put it down first, then slide it into the
desired position.

INDUSTRY TIP Construction (Design and

When using a lifting aid, you are still manual handling. Management) Regulations
However, lifting aids reduce the risk of many potential 2015
injuries such as back strains, hand and feet crush or
These regulations (known as CDM 2015) govern the way
abrasion injuries and muscle strains.
in which all sizes and types of construction projects in
the UK are planned. The main set of regulations is for
managing the health, safety and welfare of construction
projects. It applies to all construction work including
new build, demolition, refurbishment, extensions,
conversions and any repair and maintenance works.
Under the regulations, all stakeholders in a project
have duties that need to be carried out. The HSE lists
these duties, which are summarised in the table below.
Remember the following points:
● A duty holder can carry out more than one of

these roles if they have the skills, knowledge and

experience to do so.
● An organisation can carry out more than one role,

if it is able to do so while ensuring the health and

p Figure 2.9 Mechanical lifting aid pump truck
safety of everyone involved in the project.
● CDM 2015 only applies to domestic clients if the

work is carried out by someone other than the

client. If you carry out your own domestic work,
CDM does not apply and the work is considered to
be ‘do it yourself’ (DIY).
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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

This table describes the duties of different duty holders under the CDM regulations.
Duty holder Description Duties
Commercial clients Organisations or individuals Make arrangements for managing a project:
for whom a construction ● Appoint other duty holders as appropriate.
project is carried out. This is ● Allocate enough time and resources to the project.
done as part of a business. ● Prepare relevant information and provide it to other duty holders.
● Ensure that the principal designer and principal contractor carry out their
duties (see below).
● Provide welfare facilities.

Domestic clients People who have construction Their client duties are normally transferred to:
work carried out on their ● the contractor for single contractor projects
own home (or the home of a ● the principal contractor, if there is more than one
family member). This is not ● a principal designer, if the client chooses this (by written agreement).
done as part of a business.
Principal designers Designers appointed by the Plan, manage, monitor and co-ordinate health and safety before
client in projects involving construction begins. This includes:
more than one contractor. ● identifying, eliminating or controlling foreseeable risks
They can be an organisation ● ensuring that designers carry out their duties
or an individual with the ● preparing and providing relevant information to other duty holders
knowledge, experience and ● liaising with the principal contractor in the planning, management,
ability to carry out the role. monitoring and co-ordination of the construction phase.
Principal Contractors appointed by Plan, manage, monitor and co-ordinate health and safety in the construction
contractors the client to co-ordinate phase of a project. This includes:
the construction phase of a ● liaising with the client and principal designer
project where it involves more ● preparing the construction phase plan
than one contractor. ● organising co-operation between contractors and co-ordinating their work.
During construction, the principal contractors must ensure that:
● suitable site inductions are provided
● reasonable steps are taken to prevent unauthorised access
● workers are consulted and engaged in securing their health and safety
● welfare facilities are provided.

Workers Those working for or under Workers must:

the control of contractors on ● be consulted about matters which affect their health, safety and welfare
a construction site. ● take care of their own health and safety and of others who might be
affected by their actions
● report anything they see which is likely to endanger either their own or
others’ health and safety
● co-operate with their employer, fellow workers, contractors and other
duty holders.

p Figure 2.10 A client, a contractor and an operative looking over

building plans ahead of construction
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Health and Safety

Executive

Construction Phase Plan (CDM 2015)

What you need to know as a busy builder

Under the Construction (Design and Management) You could be a builder, plumber or other tradesman,
Regulations 2015 (CDM 2015) a construction phase doing small-scale routine work such as:
plan is required for every construction project. This n installing a kitchen or bathroom;
does not need to be complicated. n structural alterations, eg chimney breast removal;
n roofing work, including dormer windows;
If you are working for a domestic client, you will be in
n extension or loft conversion.
control of the project if you are the only contractor or the
principal contractor. A simple plan before the work starts is usually enough
to show that you have thought about health and safety.
You will be responsible for:
n preparing a plan; If the job will last longer than 500 person days or 30
n organising the work; and working days (with more than 20 people working at the
n working together with others to ensure health and same time) it will need to be notified to HSE and it is
safety. likely to be too complex for this simple plan format.

The list of essential points below will help you to plan and organise the job, and work together with others
involved to make sure that the work is carried out without risks to health and safety. It will also help you to
comply with CDM 2015. You can use the blank template on page 2 to record your plan.
Plan Working together
Make a note of the key dates, eg: It may be useful to record the details of anybody else
n when you’ll start and finish; working on the job, including specialist companies and
n when services will be connected/disconnected; labourers.
n build stages, such as groundwork or fitout. Explain how you will communicate with others (eg
You will need to find out information from the client via a daily update), provide information about the
about the property, eg: job, coordinate your work with theirs and keep them
n where the services and isolation points are; updated of any changes, eg:
n access restriction to the property; n to site rules;
n if there is any asbestos present. n to health and safety information;
n what you will do if the plan or materials change or
if there are any delays;
n who will be making the key decisions about how
the work is to be done.
Organise
n Identify the main dangers on site and how you will - how you will keep the site safe and secure for your
control them, eg: client, their family and members of the public.
- the need for scaffolding if working at height; n Make sure that there are toilet, washing and rest
- how structures and excavations will be supported facilities.
to prevent collapse; n Name the person responsible for ensuring the job
- how you will prevent exposure to asbestos and runs safely.
building dust; n Explain how supervision will be provided.
If you are unsure about how you can make your site safer, see www.hse.gov.uk/construction for more information
and to download other Busy Builder sheets. See www.citb.co.uk for a free smartphone app CDM wizard.
1

p Figure 2.11 Example of a construction phase plan

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

ACTIVITY
If you are given power tools to work with on site and
you realise there is no recent PAT test for them, work
out an action plan to carry out testing under CDM
regulations.

Control of Vibration at Work

Regulations 2005
These regulations cover hand–arm vibration at work.
Hand–arm vibration is vibration transmitted into the
hands and arms when using hand-held power tools and
equipment and is a risk if these tools are used for a long
time. Examples of tools used in plastering operations
which have potential to cause hand–arm vibration are:
● paddle mixers (whisks) ● power floats
p Figure 2.13 The effect of HAVS
● projection plastering ● auto-feed screwdrivers
The effects of CTS include:
machines ● impact drivers
● tingling, numbness, pain and weakness in the hand:
● SDS drills ● multi-tools.
this can interfere with work and everyday tasks and
● mechanical breakers
might affect your ability to work safely.
Symptoms of both syndromes might come and go,
but if you are exposed to vibration for a long time,
the symptoms could worsen and become permanent,
causing pain, distress and sleep disturbance.
To avoid permanent damage, follow these guidelines:
● Always use correct PPE and take regular breaks

when using these types of tool.

● Do not use these tools for long periods of time.

● Attend training on the risks and correct use of this

equipment and remember the safety information.

p Figure 2.12 An operative taking a rest from using a power tool

3 CONSTRUCTION
There are two main types of ill-health that can be
caused by hand–arm vibration. These are hand–arm SITE HEALTH AND
vibration syndrome (HAVS) and carpal tunnel syndrome
(CTS).
SAFETY INDUCTIONS
The main effects of HAVS are: A construction site induction is a safety briefing given
● reduced strength in the hands, which can stop you to workers at the start of any new work. The induction
from working safely and carrying out tasks involving will explain the safety rules and controls in place, any
fine work potential hazards that workers might be exposed to and
● painful fingers, reducing your ability to work in cold how to work safely on the site. Operatives will not be
or damp conditions, such as outdoors. allowed to start any works until the induction process
is completed.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Operatives will also need a current CSCS (Construction and what to expect, they will be able to work safely
Skills Certificate Scheme) card to begin working on together.
many sites. To gain a CSCS card, you need to provide
The principal contractor is responsible for all site
proof of your qualifications and take an online health
inductions. On smaller projects there might not be a
and safety test.
principal contractor, but it is still a legal requirement
CSCS cards are valid for five years. After this time, you under CDM 2015 to provide an induction to any
have to retake the health and safety test and update workers including sole contractors (working on their
your qualifications to gain a renewed card. own). Whenever a new worker starts on a site, there
must be an induction, even if it is for only one person.
KEY TERM
CSCS (Construction Skills Certification Scheme) ACTIVITY
card: provides proof that individuals working on ● Research CDM 2015.
construction sites have the appropriate training ● List four important responsibilities listed in these
and qualifications for their on-site job role. regulations.

INDUSTRY TIP INDUSTRY TIPS

For trade areas, operatives now need to have the highest The principal contractor has overall control of the
trade area NVQ qualification attached to the CSCS card. construction process when there is more than one
Apprentices will be exempt, but must be working towards contractor working on site. They are appointed by the
these qualifications. client to plan, manage and monitor all aspects of the
development.
Working on your own is sometimes unavoidable. When
ACTIVITY this happens, a Lone Worker Risk Assessment must be
Research the CSCS scheme and find out what you completed to assess the risk of illness, injury or attack. A
need to do to gain a CSCS card. supervisor will usually make sure a lone worker has a mobile
phone and will check on them every 30 minutes or so.

Construction site induction

The purpose of a construction site induction is to HEALTH AND SAFETY
inform workers about the organisation and operation Always check with your line manager/supervisor
of the site and about their individual responsibilities. if there is anything you do not understand from a
Construction site inductions are required by law to health and safety perspective. If you are not sure
about something, do not continue to work.
ensure a safe site.
It is standard procedure to receive an induction on your
first day on site. You will learn about safety rules and Construction site toolbox
controls, any hazards you might be exposed to, how to
work safely on site and the provisions for first aid. No
talks
two sites are the same, so every worker should have a A toolbox talk is a short presentation to a site’s
suitable site induction on every site they work on. workforce on a single aspect of health and safety. The
name comes from the team gathering for a discussion
Giving vital safety information during an induction around a toolbox on a site, but these meetings can be
could be the difference between operating a safe site held anywhere suitable in the workplace.
and a dangerous one. If all workers know what to do

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

A toolbox talk: emergency occurs. The induction should provide

● allows management and workers to explore the risks information on:
of any health and safety issues on site and think ● who to alert when an accident happens and how

about ways to deal with them ● the supervisor for emergency situations, such as a

● is usually a brief meeting (about 15 minutes), carried fire marshal

out on site before works begin ● the available emergency equipment

● is a good way to reinforce safety basics and inform ● where to find first aid kits

workers about any changes to the site or working ● emergency evacuation plans.

conditions since they were last on site

There must be a formal recording and reporting system
● is not a legal requirement, but is regarded as best
in place for any accidents or near misses that occur
practice.
in the workplace. Documentation should include an
accident book, a near miss reporting system such as
INDUSTRY TIP a card drop box (this can be anonymous) and first aid
records.
Toolbox talks are important because they:
● promote safety in the workplace All reports should be recorded electronically and backed
● keep workers informed and remind them of their role in up. This is important in case other agencies such as the
keeping the site safe police, fire service or HSE need specific information
● improve communication and productivity when investigating. These records are maintained by
● function as an updated record of hazards and action the company’s health and safety officer.
plans.
Emergency and accident situations will be dealt with
by trained first aiders and supervisors who must
have current first aider qualifications. These people
4 ACCIDENTS AND are identified during the induction process and often

EMERGENCIES display colour-coded lanyards or hi-viz vests to make

them more identifiable.
In construction there is always the possibility of some
sort of accident or emergency occurring, despite many Hazards in the workplace
improvements to safety measures implemented over Good housekeeping is important and should include
the years. By law, employers must have practical the following points to keep the workplace free from
measures in place to help prevent accidents and must hazards:
have a system for reporting any work-related accidents ● clean and tidy work areas and transition areas

and events. Under RIDDOR 2013 (see page 66) any ● effective RAMS (risk assessments and method

injury which disables a worker from their duties for up statements)

to seven days must be reported to the HSE. This report ● a system for identifying hazards

must be made within 15 days of the accident. ● use of skips and chutes

● safe storage of chemicals and combustibles (COSHH)

Major types of emergencies in the workplace include:
● segregation of waste materials
● floods
● clear, informative signs and notices
● fires
● clear access in transitional areas, in particular to fire
● toxic gas releases
escapes
● chemical spills
● clear access to fire extinguishers.
● explosions

● radiological accidents. The construction workplace is likely to include these

types of hazard:
As part of their health and safety induction, everyone
● fires
in the workplace should know how to respond if an
● slips, trips and falls

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

● hazardous substances (COSHH) Regulations 2002 (DSEAR). These regulations require

● electricity employers to assess the risk of fires and explosions
● asbestos arising from work activities involving dangerous
● manual handling substances and to eliminate or reduce these risks.
● plant and vehicle movement
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 covers
● adverse weather.
general fire safety in England and Wales.

INDUSTRY TIP
If you discover a fire at work, you must raise the alarm if
safe to do so and leave the building immediately.

General fire safety hazards

For a fire to start, it needs a source of:
● ignition, such as heaters, lighting, naked flames,

electrical equipment, smokers’ materials (cigarettes,

matches etc.) or anything else that can become very
p Figure 2.14 Cables can be a trip hazard on site hot or cause sparks
● fuel, such as wood, paper, plastic, rubber or foam
Around the construction site there will be many signs ● oxygen (this can include air).
providing safety information. These are colour-coded to
provide different types of information. See page 83 for Employers or building owners must carry out a fire
more information. safety risk assessment. This is similar to a standard risk
assessment and can be carried out as part of it. When the
Health and welfare site has been risk-assessed, employers/building owners
must put appropriate fire safety measures in place to
CDM 2015 identifies requirements for adequate welfare minimise the risk of injury or death if a fire breaks out.
facilities, such as washing and toilet facilities and
canteen/eating areas (see pages 84–85). The fire safety risk assessment should identify what
could cause a fire to start (sources of ignition that
Some operatives might take prescribed medication, for might be present and sources of fuel for a potential
example, for anxiety, diabetes or epilepsy. This could fire) and who would be at risk if a fire breaks out.
have an effect on their well-being and safety. It is good Then action can be taken to avoid these risks, or to
practice to tell the employer about this before starting reduce and manage them if they cannot be avoided
on site, so that a safe system of work can be put in completely due to the type of work being carried out.
place. However, there must be zero tolerance of any
operatives who use recreational drugs or alcohol within To reduce the risk of fire, the site should follow these
the workplace, as this will put them and others in danger. points:
● Keep sources of ignition and fuel apart from each

other.
5 FIRE SAFETY ● Take action to avoid any accidents that might cause

a fire; for example, make sure any sources of heat

Most fires in the workplace can be prevented, if cannot be knocked over.
employers and employees follow the right approaches ● Follow the housekeeping rules on page 79 to make

to fire safety. sure there is no build-up of any materials that could

cause a fire, such as dust, grease or rubbish.
The main requirements for fire safety come from the
● Employers should install safety equipment such as
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres
smoke detectors and fire alarms. These should be
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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

tested regularly and everyone on site should know

how they work.
● Fire-fighting equipment should be available and
everyone on site should be trained in how to use it.
● Keep fire exits and escape routes clear at all times.
Make sure that directions to them are clearly visible.
● All workers should receive appropriate training on
procedures they need to follow, including fire drills.
● The fire risk assessment should be regularly
reviewed and updated.

Working with dangerous

substances that cause fire
and explosion p Figure 2.15 Fire blanket
Many substances found in the workplace can cause
fires or explosions. These range from the obvious like
petrol and welding gases, to less obvious materials such
as wood dust or engine oil. Work which involves any
materials that could burn or explode is hazardous and
could cause serious injury.
The following are ways to help prevent accidental fires
or explosions:
● Be aware of substances and materials that might

burn or explode. Use information from suppliers to

identify which materials might be flammable.
● Find out which processes in the workplace might set

these materials alight and who might be at risk.

● Consider what measures are needed to reduce or

remove this risk.

p Figure 2.16a CO2 p Figure 2.16b Dry powder
● Reduce the amount of flammable/explosive
extinguisher extinguisher
substances stored in the workplace.
● Make sure that flammable or explosive substances

are disposed of safely.

The fire and rescue authorities deal with fire safety
matters in general workplaces, but the HSE deals
with these matters on construction sites. The HSE is
responsible for making sure that companies stick to
the fire safety rules on storing dangerous substances,
although the local authority might also inspect the
premises.

INDUSTRY TIP
Fire blankets are normally found in kitchens or canteens as
p Figure 2.16c Water p Figure 2.16d Foam
they are good at putting out cooking fires.
extinguisher extinguisher
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

p Figure 2.17 Emergency procedure sign

INDUSTRY TIP INDUSTRY TIP

Induction processes should always include an emergency Be absolutely sure to read and adhere to any safety signs in
evacuation plan. the workplace. They have been put up for a good reason.

Employers must provide safety signs wherever there

ACTIVITY is a risk in the workplace. Signs must be clear, easy to
● Research the job of a fire warden. read and easy to follow. They should explain:
● instructions (e.g. a No Access sign for areas where
● List five of their important duties.
employees should not enter)
● hazards that might be present (e.g. a sign warning of

corrosive material)
6 SAFETY SIGNS AND ● instructions for fire exits and equipment.

SIGNALS This applies to all places and activities where people

are employed. Signs must be maintained to make sure
Safety signs can be found in lots of different places they are visible and relevant and should be explained to
around employment areas. They are put in place to: employees as part of a site induction to make sure that
● warn of any hazards they are followed.
● prevent any accidents

● inform on where things are

● inform on what to do in various areas.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

Safety signs are colour-coded, with each colour The use of safety signs is regulated by the Health and
meaning something different: Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996. The
● green: information (red for fire-related information) regulations require employers to provide suitable safety
● yellow: warning signs in the workplace following the results of risk
● blue: mandatory (things that must be done) assessments, to make sure that risks in the workplace
● red edging: prohibition (things that must not be are reduced.
done).

p Figure 2.18 Safety signs

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

● Hot and cold running water, soap and cleaning

ACTIVITY agents and a means of drying hands (such as paper
Using a search engine of your choice, research
towels or a hot air dryer) should all be provided.
and produce a collection of safety signs that would
be required for a construction college plastering ● In workplaces where employees will become
workshop. covered in dirt, shower facilities should be provided.
● The facilities should be kept clean and in good
condition, so there should be a system in place for
cleaning and regularly replenishing supplies of toilet
INDUSTRY TIP
paper, soap, etc.
The HSE and local authorities are responsible for enforcing
the Safety Signs and Signals Regulations (as governed by the
Health and Safety (Enforcing Authority) Regulations 1989).

7 WELFARE AT WORK
Welfare facilities mean any facilities in a workplace
that are needed for the well-being of the people
working there. These include toilets, rest and changing
facilities and somewhere clean to eat and drink during
breaks. According to the HSE, employers must, ‘so
far as is reasonably practicable’, provide adequate p Figure 2.19 Washing facilities
and appropriate welfare facilities provided for their
employees. Some worksites might be temporary or in remote
locations where new construction is taking place. In these
places, flushing toilets and running water need to be
Toilet and washing facilities provided ‘so far as is reasonably practicable’. This might
Adequate toilet and washing facilities should be include the use of temporary portable toilets, chemical
provided: toilets and washing facilities such as water containers.
● There should be enough toilets and washbasins so

that there are not long queues to go to the toilet. This table shows the number of toilets and washbasins
● Separate facilities for men and women should be
that must be provided for different numbers of people
provided, although some employers might also on site.
provide gender neutral toilet facilities. Number of people Toilets Washbasins
● Facilities for employees with disabilities should be 1–5 1 1
available. 6–25 2 2
● The walls should be tiled or covered in material to
26–50 3 3
ensure that the facilities are waterproof.
51–75 4 4
● Toilet paper should be provided and a means of
76–100 5 5
disposing sanitary products for female employees.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

Drinking and eating

The law requires employers to provide drinking water
that is free from contamination. Water from the public
water supply is preferable, but providing bottled water
is acceptable.
There should be a suitable area for workers to use
during breaks for eating. It should be clean, hygienic
and located where food will not become contaminated.
Washing facilities should be provided and there should
be a means of heating food or water for hot drinks.

p Figure 2.21 Lockers must be provided for specialist clothes to

be worn at work

Personal hygiene

p Figure 2.20 Rest areas

Changing facilities
If people will need to change into specialist clothing for
work, facilities must be provided to allow this. There
should be enough changing rooms for the number of p Figure 2.22 A typical skincare station on a construction site,
people expected to use them. with applications before work, during work and after work to
provide cleanliness and hygiene
Storage facilities should be provided and there should
be somewhere to hang clothes, such as hooks or pegs. When working in construction, you will often become
contaminated and dirty from operational tasks. It is
Separate changing facilities should be available to men and
important to take personal hygiene seriously:
women, with separate storage for dirty or wet clothes.
● You must wash well before, during and after work.
Employers should also provide rest facilities for ● If possible, use appropriate PPE such as overalls and
pregnant women and nursing mothers, particularly on gloves to protect clothing and skin. This will help
larger sites. to keep vehicles, your home or the office free from
building waste and contamination that might be
INDUSTRY TIP present while you work.
● Every time you attend the welfare facilities and
When attempting to dry clothes on site, do not place them return to the workplace, use the three-point skin
in direct contact with heaters as this is a fire hazard. care station to protect and clean your hands.
Following these good practices will maintain a safe and
hygienic workplace for all stakeholders.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

A step-by-step guide to washing hands:

STEP 1 Apply soap to hands from the dispenser. STEP 2 Rub the soap into a lather and cover your STEP 3 Rinse hands under a running tap,
hands with it, including between your fingers. removing all of the soap from your hands.

STEP 4 Dry your hands using disposable towels. Put

the towels in the bin once your hands are dry.

8 FIRST AID
Any type of first aid should only be undertaken by
someone with adequate training.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

A first aid needs assessment will help employers In workplaces where there are more significant health
decide what first aid arrangements are appropriate for and safety risks, a trained first aider might be needed,
their workplace. although there are no specific rules on how many first
As a minimum, a small construction site should have aiders are required in the workplace. Where there are
a first aid box and a person appointed to take charge special circumstances, such as shift work or sites with
of first aid arrangements, such as: several buildings, more trained first aiders might be
● looking after all first aid equipment needed. There should be enough qualified personnel
● keeping check of stocks and rotating items to cover for absences.
● calling the emergency services if necessary. Employers must provide information about first aid
arrangements to their employees.

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

ACTIVITY
Your college or place of work will have appointed
first aiders and first aid kits. Find out:
● how to identify first aiders

● where the first aid kits are kept

● what should be stocked in the kits.

INDUSTRY TIP
p Figure 2.23 A first aid kid First aid should be carried out by a competent, qualified
trained person who will be able to support the patient in an
Assessing first aid needs injured state until further treatment is available.
An assessment of first aid needs will identify the
workplace risks and show what first aid provisions need
to be put in place. The types of risk will depend on CASE STUDY
the workplace, workforce and any identifiable hazards.
Some considerations are: Aasma is a plasterer working on a large construction
● the type of work undertaken and the associated site.
hazards She arrived at her work area to complete some work
● the number of employees and types of job role at height she had started the previous day. She noticed
● the types of injury, accidents or near misses that the mobile tower scaffold she had been using had
recorded in the past been moved and that one of the working platforms had
● the number of buildings and usable working areas been removed and leaned against a nearby wall. The
(including satellite centres) SCAFFTAG® she had filled out at the end of the previous
● separate needs assessment for satellite centres day’s work had also been removed and discarded on
● factors such as remote work areas, new start the floor.
employees, lone workers Aasma put the mobile tower scaffold back in position,
● the distribution of workers around the site
where she had left it the previous day and reinstated
● provision for the public and visitors
the working platform. She also put the SCAFFTAG back
● the location of buildings and sites to emergency
on the scaffold. She then checked the scaffold structure
services. for safety, locked the wheels and used the scaffold to
The Health and Safety (First-Aid) Regulations 1981 complete the job.
state that employers must provide appropriate and
adequate first aid provisions so that anyone who is KEY TERM
injured or taken ill in the workplace receives immediate SCAFFTAG®: a scaffold-status tagging system
attention. to prevent hazards when working at height and
efficiently manage the inspection procedures for
scaffolding.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Test your knowledge

1 What does a blue and white safety sign tell you? 6 What should you do if you discover a fire while
A something you must not do at work?
B something you must do A leave the building straight away
C a general site hazard B raise the alarm if safe, then leave the
building
D where the fire exits are
C carry on working if there is no danger
2 Which legislation covers specific guidance
on the safe lifting of heavy items on site by D contact the site supervisor and tell them
operatives? where the fire is
A Management of Health and Safety at Work 7 What is the reason for recording details of
Regulations accidents?
B Manual Handling Operations Regulations A to keep records for Health and Safety
Executive inspectors
C Health and Safety at Work Act
B to keep records for the principal contractor
D Construction Design and Management
Regulations C to warn other operatives of the danger
3 What must an employer do under the Health D to identify the same types of recurring
and Safety at Work Act? accident
A protect the health, safety and welfare of all 8 Why should you report any near misses?
employees A so lessons can be learned to ensure the
B protect the environment during work same thing does not happen again
activities B if you do not report a near miss, someone
C provide transport from employees’ homes to may blame you
the work site C near misses must always be reported to the
D ensure employees are paid for the work principal contractor
they do D so that someone can be disciplined for
4 What should you do if you are told that an HSE causing the near miss
inspector wishes to interview you after you 9 What information should you be told in a site
witnessed an accident? induction?
A tell the inspector exactly what you saw A how to perform first aid
happen B how to extinguish a fire
B ask your employer what to say C where you will find and identify first aiders
C say nothing D to ensure you have a first aid kit with you at
D leave the site so you do not have to speak to all times
the inspector 10 What should you read before handling any
5 Which of the following agencies has a free chemicals on site?
health and safety advice telephone line? A the chemical regulations
A Construction Industry Training Board (CITB) B the method statement
B Environmental Protection Agency C the COSHH statement
C Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents D health and safety posters on display in the
D Health and Safety Executive (HSE) site cabin

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 Chapter 2 Health and safety in construction

11 At what noise level must you wear ear 16 When assessing how to lift a load, what must
protection? an operative consider?
A 65 decibels A how far the load must be moved
B 80 decibels B how many persons are needed to lift the load
C 85 decibels C what training is required
D 90 decibels D what type of injury an operative may suffer
12 What colour is a CO2 fire extinguisher? when lifting
A red 17 What essential piece of safety equipment must
be used when working on a mobile elevating
B black
working platform (MEWP), besides standard PPE?
C yellow
A dust mask
D blue
B gauntlet gloves
13 Which of the following is an example of good
C face visor
housekeeping on a construction site?
D safety harness
A using skips and chutes
18 What does the acronym PAT stand for?
B going home on time
A problem at towel area
C taking regular breaks
B portable appliance testing
D attending an induction
C pay and timesheets
14 What is the main purpose of a construction site
induction? D portable adapted toilet
A to inform operatives of their responsibilities 19 What is the one in four rule for using a ladder
and the organisation of the site safely?
B to inform managers of how many personnel A 1 in 4 steps must be reinforced
are on site B check for safety once every four days
C to inform workers of who the first aiders are C 1 unit out for every 4 units up
on the construction site D clean the ladder once every four weeks
D to inform all managers and workers of any 20 What is the main purpose of the Working at
imminent fire drills Height Regulations 2005?
15 What does the acronym HAVS stand for? A to prevent death and injury caused by falls
A heavy and vast shipments from height
B hand–arm vibration syndrome B to prove operatives can work safely at height
C hospital and visiting statements C to improve overall health and safety on
D hand armour vibration scoping construction sites
D to inform managers of any falls from height

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CHAPTER 3

INTERNAL PLASTERING AND FIXING DRY LINING

INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers methods of preparing backgrounds, fixing plasterboard, fixing beads and mixing and
applying traditional and modern plasters to form and finish one, two and three coat plastering to interior
surfaces ready for decoration, to fulfil the customer’s needs.
Before you start to apply plaster, you will need to familiarise yourself with the necessary tools. These will be
specific to the job. Remember that looking after your tools and keeping them safe and well-maintained will
ensure they last for a long time.
You will learn about different techniques and methods required to apply and install internal plastering
materials and components to ensure that surfaces are ready for decoration.
Learning about different types of plaster and plasterboard and their properties will help you to understand
how the performance of modern buildings has evolved over the years to meet greater demands for thermal,
sound, fire, heat and moisture resistance. You will also learn about traditional and sustainable plastering
materials and methods, used to preserve our heritage within historic buildings.
By reading this chapter you will gain knowledge of:
1 the tools and equipment required for this work
2 how to prepare the background for plastering
3 how to prepare to fix plasterboard
4 fixing plasterboard by direct bond
5 how to prepare loose plastering materials
6 different plastering systems.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.

Level 1 Diploma in Level 2 Technical

Plastering (6708-13) Level 2 Diploma in Certificate in Plastering
Units 121, 122, 123, Plastering (6708-23) (7908-20)
Chapter section 124, 125 Units 221 and 222 Units 202 and 205
Tools and equipment Unit 221 Learning outcomes Unit 202 Topics 2.2, 3.1
3 and 4 Unit 205 Topics 1.5, 3.1
Prepare the background for Unit 121 Unit 221 Learning outcome 5.1 Unit 202 Topics 2.1, 2.3
plastering
Prepare to fix plasterboard Unit 123 Unit 221 Learning outcomes Unit 202 Topics 1.1, 1.2, 3.2
1 and 2 Unit 205 Topics 1.1, 1.2
Unit 222 Learning outcomes
1, 2, 3, 4
Fix plasterboard by direct Unit 222 Learning outcomes Unit 205 Topics 1.3, 1.4, 2.1,
bond 5, 6 2.2, 2.3

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

Level 1 Diploma in Level 2 Technical

Plastering (6708-13) Level 2 Diploma in Certificate in Plastering
Units 121, 122, 123, Plastering (6708-23) (7908-20)
Chapter section 124, 125 Units 221 and 222 Units 202 and 205
Prepare loose plastering Unit 221 Learning outcome 5.2 Unit 202 Topic 3.3
materials for mixing
Apply plastering systems Units 122, 124, 125 Unit 221 Learning outcomes Unit 202 Topic 3.4
5.3, 5.4, 6 Unit 205 Topic 3.2

1 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

This table describes the use of some common tools and equipment.
Tool Use
Hawk The plasterer’s hawk is used to hold and transfer a workable amount of plaster from
the spot board to the wall. The hawk is used with the trowel to manipulate and apply
the plaster directly on to the background surface. Some plasterers prefer hawks with
detachable handles as they are easier to store.
Hawks were traditionally made from timber, but modern hawks are made from
polyurethane or aluminium.

Laying trowel The best type of trowel used for applying plaster should be made of stainless steel as
this will not rust. Once broken in, the trowel can be used for laying finishing plaster.
The trowel should be used to apply undercoat plaster for several weeks or months until
the edges become sharp and the corners slightly rounded. Some laying trowels can be
purchased pre-worn so they take less time to wear down.
In contrast, the blade of the finishing trowel should be kept firm and straight.
When purchasing a trowel, ensure that it has a long shank on its rear; this will provide
stability for the blade and prevent it from going out of shape.

Gauging trowel This tool has many purposes and uses within the plastering trade. Its main purpose
was to gauge small quantities of plastering materials. Today, this trowel is used for
reaching into awkward areas where a normal trowel cannot reach.

Bucket trowel This is used for cleaning the rim of buckets, but can also be used for cleaning and
removing excess material off the straight edge and scraping the floor to clean up
plaster droppings. A bucket trowel is also used to transfer mixed material from the
bucket onto the spot board.

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Tool Use
Comb scratcher A comb scratcher can be used to key the surface when you apply a scratch coat in
preparation for the floating coat.

Straight/feather edge A straight edge is used for ruling surfaces, checking for straightness or forming the
hard angle of a return. It is also known as a feather edge rule because it has a taper on
one side, allowing you to rule from the tight angles on a wall.
Some straight edges can be square on both sides and are generally used for floor
screeding or when dry lining.

Darby Another tool used for ruling and flattening walls to a smooth surface. You can also use
this tool to form returns when applying a scratch coat.

Flexi finishing trowel (flexi trowel, flexi Flexi finishing trowels are now used more often because they speed up some aspects
trowel blade) of plastering and help to achieve a consistently flat and smooth finish.

Tin snips Tin snips are used for cutting various types of trim such as angle beads, stops and
rolled expanded metal lath (EML) before it is fixed onto the wall plate. Always wear
protective gloves when cutting EML because it is very sharp.

Spirit level This can be used on its own or with a straight edge, which extends its length. It is used
for plumbing and levelling surfaces such as standard angle beads to window openings
and returns, or for plumbing dots to form accurate screeds when floating.
Float Used for consolidating undercoat surfaces to form either a plain smooth finish or a key,
preparing for the setting coat. These floats are generally made from polyurethane.

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

Tool Use
Devil float A devil float is made by nailing tin tacks to one end of a float edge. It is used for
devilling or keying a surface.
When making a devil float, space the tin tacks equally and start from the middle, fixing
every 15 mm. Use fixings such as galvanised nails: screws will cause damage and split
the edge of the float.

Small tool Used in tight, difficult angles. The types shown here are leaf and square.

Mechanical drum mixer A mechanical mixer is best used for mixing cement-based plasters. This type of mixing
is carried out outdoors, as it can be noisy and the materials used will create a lot of
dust.

Plasterer’s wheel (plunger) A hand-mixing tool used for mixing setting plaster. During and after the mixing process,
it should be kept off the floor to prevent any bits of debris (dust and grit) from sticking
to the bottom of the tool, which could contaminate the next mix.

Drill and whisk A mechanical mixing tool used for mixing lightweight undercoat and setting plasters. It
is a fast and efficient way of mixing lightweight plasters.

Flat brush Used to apply water when finishing setting plaster.

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Tool Use
Small brushes Used to clean internal angles and frames.

External corner trowel Used to form rounded hard angles, e.g. in walls with window openings.

Plumb bob A heavy weight attached to a string line, used to set out and transfer plumb points from
above.

Internal angle trowel Used to form wet internal angles of finishing plaster during the setting and finishing
process.

KEY TERM Plastering materials, additives

Rule: flatten off plaster/render using an aluminium
darby/straight edge rule.
and beads used with internal
Expanded metal lath (EML): sheet material in the plastering systems
form of diamond-shaped mesh that is used to You need to familiarise yourself with the materials and
reinforce a surface. This material can be fixed with
components needed to complete plastering activities.
screws and plugs or galvanised nails, or it can be
bedded into the render material. The following images show the majority of materials
you will need when preparing and applying different
Key: referring to the background surface. A rough
surface produces adequate key; smooth surfaces plastering systems.
have less or no key.

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Hydraulic Building
lime sand

Lime
Gypsum Sharp/coarse
putty Vermiculite Aggregates
sand
Binders

Perlite

Hydrated
Cement
lime
p Figure 3.4 Aggregates

p Figure 3.1 Binders

p Figure 3.5 Building sand

p Figure 3.2 Cement

p Figure 3.3 Gypsum p Figure 3.6 Sharp/coarse sand

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Plasticiser

Retarder Additives Waterproofer

Accelerator

p Figure 3.7 Additives

p Figure 3.11 Retarder

p Figure 3.8 Plasticiser INDUSTRY TIP

Always ensure that you measure additives correctly. Adding
too much or too little can affect the performance of the mix.

PVA

p Figure 3.9 Waterproofer

Bonding
agents

Grit SBR

p Figure 3.10 Accelerator p Figure 3.12 Bonding agents

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Standard Standard
angle square and
beads tapered edge

Thin coat
Expanded angle Thermal
metal lath laminate Fireline
beads
Beads and
Plasterboards
reinforcements

Expansion Moisture
Stop beads Sound block
beads resistant

p Figure 3.13 Beads and reinforcements p Figure 3.16 Plasterboards

p Figure 3.17 Fireline

p Figure 3.14 Standard angle beads

p Figure 3.18 Sound block

p Figure 3.15 Expansion beads

p Figure 3.19 Moisture-resistant plasterboard

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Traditional backing coats

Traditional undercoat mixes used for applying pricking
up, scratch and floating coats are referred to as ‘lime
mortar’: a mix made of hydraulic lime putty as the
binder and coarse sand as the aggregate, with the
addition of horsehair for reinforcement. This helps
to bind and strengthen the mortar and reduces
shrinkage, which is a constant problem with this type
of mix.
p Figure 3.20 Thermal laminate

KEY TERMS
Dry Binder: a material used to make the aggregate
wall
screws stick together when mixed.
Aggregate: a material made from fragments or
particles loosely compacted together. It gives
volume, stability and resistance to wear or erosion.
Coarse- to medium-grained material used in
construction for bulking.
Shrinkage: applied plaster can shrink as it dries
out, forming small cracks.
Fixings

Natural hydraulic lime comes in three different strengths.

It has a chemical set that is similar to cement but far
Galvanised Nailable slower, requiring longer periods for drying and setting.
nails plugs

p Figure 3.21 Fixings

p Figure 3.22 Dry wall screws p Figure 3.23 Natural hydraulic lime

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Hydrated lime relies on carbonation, so using this Lime mixes were deemed weak and slow-setting; they
material in winter and summer can cause irregular could take several days, weeks or even months to set
drying. between applications, depending on the temperature.
The use of lime could be a constant strain on plastering
contracts, because deadlines might not be met due to
the slow set.
Today, lime-based plaster mixes are still commonly
used in conservation or restoration work. One
advantage of lime plastering mixes is that they allow
the walls to breathe, which reduces condensation. The
plasterer will often begin by mixing and batching lime
mortar the day before the work commences, and then
remixing to increase it’s workability.

p Figure 3.24 Hydrated lime

The setting coat is a mixture of lime putty with fine

silica sand as filler or fine aggregate to bulk up the
consistency.

p Figure 3.26 Conservation plastering using lime-based plaster

KEY TERMS
Carbonation: exposure to the air to start the setting
process.
Restoration work: restoring plasterwork back to its
original state.
Batching lime mortar: mixing mortar in preparation
for the following day.

ACTIVITY
Research how lime and cement are manufactured.
p Figure 3.25 Lime putty

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Cement-based plaster mixes

Cement was introduced into the industry just after
the end of the Second World War. Made of 75%
limestone and 25% clay, cement is a binder that
provides a faster set and also provides strength in
the mix. The introduction of cement in undercoat
mixes meant buildings and plastering work had faster
setting times. This allowed work to be completed
more quickly, which suited the high demand for new
housing after the war.
Cement mixed with sand and water will begin to set
after 45 minutes and is normally completely set by the
next day. However, the mixture can take several days
to reach its final strength. This process is known as
curing. p Figure 3.27 Testing a background’s suction by splashing it with
Although cement had advantages over lime mixes, it water
also had its own problems, such as shrinkage, mixes
being too dense or brittle and irregular strength KEY TERMS
resulting in cracking. These days: Curing: allowing the mix to set and reach its full
● cement-based mixes are commonly used on strength.
renovation work or when harder background Renovation work: repairs to old, deteriorated
surfaces are required buildings that need to be upgraded and
● cement and sand plastering mixes are commonly modernised or restored to their original state.
used on old buildings that have been treated with a Suction: the rate at which a background absorbs
chemical damp course moisture.
● hydrated lime is sometimes added to cement and Ratio: the proportion of materials mixed together;
sand mixes to improve adhesion, workability and for example, 6 parts of sand to 1 part of cement
would be written as 6 : 1.
even increase suction for the finishing coat.
Gypsum: soft sulphate mineral widely mined and
Cement- and lime-based plaster mixes should only be used in many types of plaster, available in fine-
applied to solid backgrounds. The mix ratio commonly grained white or lightly tinted varieties.
used is 5 : 1 sand and cement, or 6 : 1 : 1 sand, cement
and hydrated lime. However, mix ratios can vary, to Unlike cement- and lime-based plastering mixes,
take into account the strength and compatibility of the gypsum plasters contain manufacturer’s instructions
background. that provide user guidelines for each product. This
provides additional performance benefits when
Lightweight backing and finishing specifying products for a particular design within a
plasters building. There are several different types of plaster
available.
Gypsum pre-mixed plasters have many advantages
● Bonding-grade plaster is a pre-mixed undercoat
over traditional plastering materials because they
plaster that contains vermiculite and perlite
have been designed and manufactured with a specific
aggregate. Vermiculite is sharp and angular in
application in mind. During the manufacturing
shape, giving the plaster excellent bonding abilities
process, plasters are tested in laboratories to ensure
compared with other types of plaster. This type
they satisfy their intended use. The range of plaster
of plaster is suitable for use on low suction and
produced today can be used on low and high suction
poorly keyed backgrounds, such as plasterboard or
backgrounds.
concrete.
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● Multi-finish plaster can be applied to a range

of gypsum undercoats and to sand and cement
backgrounds that have been keyed with a devil float
(see page 93).

p Figure 3.28 Vermiculite

● Undercoat plaster that contains perlite as the
aggregate has to rely on the background having
the necessary key to ensure the plaster bonds
sufficiently. This is because the perlite aggregate is
round and does not bond well to backgrounds that p Figure 3.31 Multi-finish plaster
have a poor key.
● Board finish plaster is applied to plasterboard
backgrounds.

p Figure 3.29 Perlite

● Thistle HardWall backing plaster is a pre-blended

undercoat that contains additives to improve adhesion
or cope better when there are high suction levels.

p Figure 3.32 Board finish plaster

● ThistlePro DuraFinish has been developed for use in

areas that are prone to greater impact than normal,
such as high traffic areas where people walking
past may frequently knock into the plaster. Durable
plaster provides 60% more protection against
damage compared with ordinary gypsum finishing
plaster.

p Figure 3.30 Thistle HardWall backing plaster

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not suited to older buildings which may contain areas

that have been in contact with or affected by rising or
penetrating damp. (This means the background might
still contain some moisture.) Gypsum plasters have
high absorption rates so this could result in problems
if the dampness has not been treated and completely
removed from the background. Gypsum plasters can
become mouldy and eventually perish in persistently
damp conditions.

p Figure 3.33 ThistlePro DuraFinish

● ThistlePro PureFinish is a finishing plaster designed

to make indoor spaces healthier as it has Activ-Air®
technology.

p Figure 3.35 Damp wall affecting plaster

KEY TERMS
Rising damp: moisture rising up from the floor
through the wall.
Penetrating damp: moisture travelling through the
wall from outside.

Plastering manufacturers British Gypsum and Knauf

have developed plasters that can be sprayed directly
onto the background, saving time and labour by
p Figure 3.34 ThistlePro PureFinish improving efficiency. However, spray machines can
be impractical in residential properties due to the
challenge of setting up the equipment in small, tight
ACTIVITY
spaces.
Research the British Gypsum website to learn more
about:
● backing and finishing plasters IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
● what type of backgrounds they can be applied to Visit the British Gypsum manufacturer’s website and
● how much each bag covers.
research Hardwall backing plaster and multi-finish
plaster. For each type of plaster, work out:
● the coverage (the area covered by one bag)
Although gypsum plasters have advantages over
● the number of bags required to plaster a room
traditional plaster mixes in terms of thermal values
with a height of 2.4 m and a perimeter of 36 m.
and heat resistance, gypsum undercoat plasters are

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2 PREPARE THE BACKGROUND FOR

PLASTERING
Building methods and materials are always evolving, Different backgrounds need to be prepared for
with many changes to the way we work and our plastering in different ways. There are several steps you
practices. Modern materials have been developed and need to follow to make sure the plaster adheres well to
manufactured to improve the efficiency of mixing the background surface. Before you start, you will need
plaster and to ensure compatibility with different to control the suction and ensure the background has
backgrounds, simplifying the plastering process. adequate key to ensure adhesion.
Despite this, plastering surfaces can still break down
over time due to age, poor surface preparation or bad KEY TERMS
workmanship (including poor mixing). Furrings: metal stud wall or ceiling linings, fixed
The key to creating a good plaster surface is to with plasterboard; also known as metal-framed
backgrounds.
identify and prepare the backgrounds beforehand. It
is important to understand that not all backgrounds Adheres: sticks.
have the same properties. Some will be soft and weak,
some will be hard and dense, while some backgrounds
could be timber studwork, joists or metal furrings.
Suction tests
Plasterboard fixed to old timber surfaces might need A suction test can be carried out by applying water on
to be built out with backing plaster, depending on how a solid background to see how much it absorbs.
uneven the surface is. This is quite common in old Checking the suction will tell you if the background
buildings that are being refurbished. is dry and porous. You can do this by splashing
water onto the background with a brush. The
quicker the water is absorbed, the higher the
background’s suction.
● No suction or low suction (when the splashed water
stays on the background’s surface) will indicate that
the background is hard or dense.
● High suction backgrounds (when the splashed water
soaks in quickly) will absorb moisture from the
plaster mix and might cause it to dry too quickly
when applied.

p Figure 3.36 Metal and timber backgrounds

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Types of background
This table shows the many different types of background that you might need to plaster and their requirements.
Type of background Description and requirements
Hollow and solid blocks Newly constructed buildings that have block walling need little preparation before you apply
plaster to their surface, because they have medium to adequate key. The surface is flat and
can be plastered using traditional or modern pre-mixed plasters.
Block walling built to today’s specifications and standards needs only a backing coat and
finish, known as ‘float and set’.

Lightweight aerated blocks These blocks are lightweight and weak with an adequate key but high suction levels.
Cement-based mixes are not compatible with these backgrounds because they are too
strong for this surface.
This type of block is best suited for pre-mixed plasters that are weaker than the background
direct bond dry lining. Applying a solution of PVA (polyvinyl acetate – a water-based glue
used for preparing background surfaces by improving adhesion) diluted with water (to the
manufacturer’s instructions) will seal the surface and control the suction.

Plasterboard There are several different types of plasterboard, but they are all made with a plaster core
within an outer skin of paper.
Plasterboard may have square or tapered edges. Before applying plaster, the boards need
to be reinforced at their joints to prevent cracking.
Plasterboard has a flat surface with low suction and only requires a finish coat, applied
using a one coat system consisting of two passes of finishing plaster at an average
thickness of 3 mm. If plasterboard is to be fixed over uneven timber studwork, filling out
may be required; this should be done using a bonding-grade backing plaster that contains
the aggregate vermiculite.
Timber lath Laths were traditionally used on timber backgrounds. They consist of thin strips of wood
over which plaster can be spread.
It can be time-consuming to prepare, fix and plaster this surface. This type of background
is still used in the restoration of listed buildings.

Existing solid plaster This type of surface is common where solid walls require a ‘makeover’ due to poor surface
condition that has developed over time. Over-skim makeovers enhance the appearance of a
wall by re-skimming the surface without removing the old plaster from the background.
When applying plaster to this type of surface, remember that it can only be as good as the
background you plaster over. The surface must be solid and sound with no hollowness. Any
flaking paint and surface grime or grease, that could prevent the new plaster from bonding,
should be removed.
This background has no key and, if it is painted, usually no suction, unless the background
has different properties that are hidden behind the decorated wall surface. For example,
if the wall has been replastered after installation of electrical services, it might contain
different plasters on the background, creating different suction rates.
A bonding adhesive should be applied to the surface of this background before it is
replastered.

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Type of background Description and requirements

Existing plaster and plasterboard There are many different types of plaster surface that might need to be replaced or
surface that has decayed over time restored, whether due to poor workmanship or deterioration over time.
This type of surface might show signs of cracking, hollowness or a crumbling surface that
cannot be decorated due to its condition. You will have to remove any existing surface finish
before you are able to identify the background properties.

Clay bricks Clay bricks were very popular at one time and can be found in all types of building. A
common fault with clay bricks is that they shell their face (the outer surface comes apart),
causing the plaster to ‘blow’ (come away from the background).
This type of background is often uneven because the bricks were manufactured in kilns at
high temperatures, which made them all a slightly different shape. They were then laid on a
lime mortar bed, which is very weak.
Clay bricks and lime mortar joints have a high absorption rate that will cause high suction
levels. This surface will need to be treated with a bonding adhesive before plastering.
Raking out the joints will also improve the key.
Concrete common bricks These bricks are made from coarse aggregate mixed with cement. This surface is smooth
and hard, which means the key is poor and the suction is minimal. A bonding slurry is best
suited for this surface.

Concrete surface This is a hard, dense surface with poor key; it may have absorption and it needs to be
scabbled if smooth. It will need to be prepared with a slurry if using sand and cement.
However, lightweight bonding plaster adheres well with no need to prepare the background.

Engineering bricks This is a hard, dense surface with poor key and no absorption. The face of the brick has
a glossy surface that is difficult to prepare for plastering. It has an enamel look and no
suction.
This surface needs to be scabbled to remove the sheen. You can then slurry the surface
with a bonding adhesive. Alternatively, you can fix sheets of EML to the surface using
mechanical fixings – this is a good way to reinforce and form a key on the background.

Stone and slate backgrounds These backgrounds are often found on very old rural buildings.
Stone can have rough or smooth surfaces. Due to their irregular shape and size, stones
create a very uneven background and require additional layers to build out the surface. The
first of these layers is a dubbing out coat.
Slate is similar to stone in that it can have uneven surfaces with a smooth face and no
suction. The mortar joints between the slate and stone can be very thick and wide, creating
large voids. The old mortar joints need to be raked out, filled in with a suitable plaster mix,
then keyed with a comb scratcher.
Any large stone or slate that has a smooth surface should be prepared with a bonding slurry
to improve the bond.

➥
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Type of background Description and requirements

Timber wall plates This background generally has low suction and no key. Timber can move and twist with
moisture contact. Wall plates are used on top of walls as a fixing for roof trusses. EML is a
good way of reinforcing the timber and providing a key.

Concrete lintels and pad stones This surface is generally flat and hard with minimal suction. Concrete is used to make lintels
and pad stones, which provide load-bearing surfaces above openings such as windows.
Again, if traditional sand and cement is to be used, this surface should be keyed and
applied with a slurry unless a lightweight bonding plaster is used.

Composite backgrounds This means a background made up of two or more different materials. One method of
preparing this type of background is to fix EML mechanically to the surface. This will
strengthen and reinforce the background and the applied plaster.

Timber studs and metal framing Plasterboard is fixed to timber and metal using screws, but galvanised nails can be used
when fixing to timber. Plasterboard can be finished with finishing plaster or tape and joint.

KEY TERMS Removing old plasterwork

Filling out: building out an uneven background.
from the background
Hollowness: holes or depressions in previously
plastered walls where the plaster has become Removing old plaster from backgrounds is a process
loose from the background. known as hacking. It is important to remove all
Slurry: a wet mix applied with a flat brush. loose plaster from the surface. This can be carried
Scabbled: roughened. out by hand or mechanically using various tools and
Dubbing out: the application of several coats of equipment, but before you start you need to protect
plaster/render to achieve a greater thickness. certain areas to prevent damage that can be caused by
Each coat is applied no more than 10 mm thick, this type of work.
allowing for setting between coats.

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Plywood sheeting can be used to protect floors and

openings such as windows and doors. Dust sheets and
Tools and equipment used
tarpaulins are good for protecting furniture that might to prepare backgrounds
be too heavy to move out of the building. Causing There are several types of hand tools that can be used
damage to the client’s property is unprofessional and to hack and remove old plaster. This type of work is
can be costly to repair! strenuous and time-consuming, but it is very important
that the tools are used appropriately to carry out the
work efficiently.

p Figure 3.37 Hacking a surface

HEALTH AND SAFETY

When you carry out this type of work, you need to be
aware of the risks caused by high dust levels and the
build-up of debris. Building sites can be dangerous
places with many hidden hazards. Reading the risk
assessments will make you aware of the hazards
involved with this type of work and identify the type
of personal protective equipment (PPE) that you
need to wear. You also need to follow the method
statement, which will give you a safe means of work.
It is important to dispose of the loose rubble
removed from the surface before it builds up around
you. Using a shovel, brush and wheelbarrow is a
good way of removing and transporting your rubble p Figure 3.38 Lump hammer (top) and bolster (bottom)
– a wheelbarrow will be less strenuous on your body
than a bucket and will reduce the risk of injury.

ACTIVITY
Make a list of hazards you might come across when
removing old lath and plaster.

p Figure 3.39 Pick hammer

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p Figure 3.43 Wire brush

p Figure 3.40 Scutch hammer

p Figure 3.44 Wheelbarrow

p Figure 3.41 Claw hammer Power tools

Mechanical ‘breakers’ are far more efficient than hand
tools and can remove hard plaster surfaces with ease.

p Figure 3.42 Nail bar

p Figure 3.45 Mechanical breaker being used

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ACTIVITY
1 What type of voltage is recommended on site for
using power tools?
2 What type of PPE will you need when using a
mechanical breaker?

Portable dust-extraction unit

Flying debris and high noise levels are some of the
other hazards that you need to be aware of. Due to the
dangers involved with this type of work, you will need
to cordon off the work area with barriers to prevent any
unauthorised person from accessing the area. p Figure 3.47 EML fixed to a background

Tools for forming a key Using bonding agents

Mechanical scabbling tools are used on dense smooth Slurry coats are used to bond plaster to a background
surfaces to create a rough area that will result in a good that has poor key but is still solid and strong enough to
key, improving the bonding properties of the background. receive a plaster application.
These tools have teeth (also known as pins) made from
strong steel that vibrate, rotate and grind hard surfaces.

p Figure 3.48 Wet slurry method

p Figure 3.46 Preparing a concrete background with a scabbler

Expanded metal lathing (EML)

EML can be mechanically fixed to a surface, especially if
the surface contains large cracks or different composite.
EML is also used on timber backgrounds, such as old p Figure 3.49 Dry slurry method
timber lintels and wall plates.
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Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is usually mixed with water

to seal and control suction in porous backgrounds.
However, when used neat, it can bond finishing plaster
to low suction backgrounds. When using undercoat
plasters, it is advisable to mix the PVA with Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) – this will then become a slurry
and a strong bonding agent for bonding cement-based
plasters to solid backgrounds.

KEY TERM
Bonding agent: a substance applied to improve
adhesion on poorly keyed backgrounds.

Styrene-butadiene rubber compound (SBR) is another

bonding agent, which can be mixed with cement to
improve adhesion and waterproof surfaces affected by
damp. p Figure 3.51 Thistle Bond-it bonding agent

p Figure 3.52 Blue grit

p Figure 3.50 SBR

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Specifically manufactured pre-mixed grit adhesives are Research one of the manufacturers of grit adhesive
applied to solid pre-plastered and textured surfaces to and work out the coverage of a 10 litre container.
form a key when over-skimming. They are available in
various colours, depending on the manufacturer.

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Preparing backgrounds for 3 PREPARE TO FIX

timber laths PLASTERBOARD
Installing plasterboard is the first task carried out by
the plasterer, whether the walls are to be plastered
using a solid plastering system or dry lined direct bond.
The first task is to install plasterboard to ceiling joists,
followed by fixing to the stud partitions.

ACTIVITY
Research how plasterboard is manufactured.

p Figure 3.53 Timber laths

Characteristics of
Timber laths were traditionally used to form a suitable
background surface for plastering using three coats of
plasterboard
lime plaster. Laths are thin strips of wood 1.5 m long, There are different manufacturing companies that make
30 mm wide and 6 mm thick. It is time-consuming to plasterboard but they all have one thing in common:
fix these strips to studwork and ceiling joists using they produce a range of plasterboard designed to meet
nails. However, timber laths are still used today in and cope with the various requirements and demands of
conservation work. new homes built today. They also comply with building
regulations and industry changes that often govern
which type of plasterboard is used.
Preparing backgrounds for
Plasterboard is manufactured in a range of sizes and
installing plasterboard thicknesses, each type with a specific design and
Timber studwork, metal studwork, ceiling joists and use. The most common types used in the plastering
metal ceiling linings are generally fixed with screws industry come in two standard sizes:
slightly penetrating the surface to avoid the trowel ● One is 2400 mm × 1200 mm and is designed to be
catching when finishing. Plasterboards are fixed to solid used in new buildings that have walls of the same
backgrounds with dry wall adhesive, which is known as height, or studwork or joists at adequate centres.
direct bond fixing. Using this standard size reduces waste from offcuts.
● The other plasterboard is slightly smaller and lighter
KEY TERMS at 1800 mm × 900 mm. This makes it easy to
Ceiling joists: horizontal components of a ceiling, handle and fix if you are working on your own, or if
to which the rafters are attached. the joist centres are uneven and vary in distance.
Metal ceiling lining: a metal grid background to The plasterboard’s edge type determines the type of
form accurate, level ceiling systems in old and
modern buildings. finish surface it will receive:
● Square edge (SE) plasterboards are manufactured to
Direct bond fixing: using dry wall adhesive to fix
plasterboards to solid backgrounds. be finished with setting coat plasterboard finish or
multi-finish.

Square edge
p Figure 3.54 Square edge plasterboard

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● Tapered edge (TE) plasterboards are manufactured

to be finished with a tape and jointing compound,
ACTIVITY
Work out which walls in a house could benefit from
which is sanded and sealed with a primer to protect
the different types of performance plasterboard.
the board’s surface and prepare it for decorating.
In older buildings requiring renovation, there may
be many problems that need to be resolved before
p Figure 3.55 Tapered edge plasterboard installing new plasterboard. Old timber joists will
need to be denailed and it is likely that some of the
Planning for installation timber will be rotten and need to be replaced and/or
Before you start to install plasterboard, you need to strengthened with additional noggins. Timber can also
ensure that first fix electrical and plumbing services warp and twist over long periods and might have been
have been installed. These could include wiring sockets fitted to different fixing centres than today’s standard
and lighting, telephone and media cables and pipes for distances. A straight edge or string line should be used
hot and cold water and central heating. All of these to check the alignment of the joists: if not corrected
must be installed before the plasterboard. at this stage, the final surface may show steps and
unevenness once the plasterboard has been installed.
Different types of plasterboard are manufactured to
meet the demands of industry and building regulations.
KEY TERMS
Plasterboards are preferable to solid plaster as they
have better performance levels within buildings, having First fix: all work (carpentry, electrical or plumbing)
carried out before plaster is put on internal walls.
the following properties:
● increased fire-proofing
Denailing: removing old nails in timber stud and
timber joist backgrounds before re-installation of
● increased soundproofing
plasterboard.
● repel moisture
Noggin: a timber strut fixed between timber
● impact-resistant
studwork or timber joists to strengthen and
● vapour barrier prevent twisting.
● improved thermal values. Alignment of the joists: checking the joist ceiling
for straightness.

Tools required for preparing and installing plasterboard

Type of tool Description
Utility knife Used for cutting boards. Utility knives can have fixed blades but, for safety reasons, ones
with retractable blades are better.

Tape measure Essential for taking measurements from the backgrounds and transferring them
accurately, allowing you to cut the board to the required size or shape.

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Type of tool Description

Straight edge or feather edge For providing a firm and straight guide against which to cut.

Hammer Used for fixing plasterboard by nailing. The broad head ensures that the nail’s head is left
below the surface of the board without piercing the paper face.

Drywall drill For fixing drywall screws, operated by battery or mains. Self-feeding screw drills are also
available. A drywall drill has a built-in clutch that prevents the screws from being fixed too
far into the board surface.

Rasp (rasp plane, plasterboard plane) Used for smoothing off cut edges or trimming down boards that are slightly too long.
Curved cuts can also be formed using this tool.

Pad saw/service cutter Used for cutting out holes in plasterboards for electrical sockets or pipework.

Foot lifter Used to lift plasterboard up to the ceiling line.

Box rule Used for installing and lining the plasterboard surface against the drywall dabs. It has a
wider edge than a normal straight edge or feather edge rule, so it is less likely to cause
impact damage to the board surface when tapped against the plasterboard.

➥
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Type of tool Description

Chalk line Snapped on floors and ceilings to form guidelines when installing wall boards.

Laser level Used when setting out to provide accurate horizontal and vertical guidelines.

Spirit level Used with a straight edge for plumbing and levelling plasterboard up to openings such as
windows, doors and returns.

Storing and handling KEY TERMS

plasterboard Dabs: dry wall adhesive applied to the background
to receive direct bond plasterboard installation.
Plasterboards are fragile and easily damaged. They can Bow: bend.
bow if stored upright and if kept in damp conditions
Deteriorate: become damaged, defective and
they will soak up moisture and deteriorate. Correct unusable.
storage and handling are essential to help prevent
damage from occurring.
● Plasterboards should be stored flat, under cover in

dry conditions, off the ground and well supported.

● Because of the shape and size of plasterboards, two

people are required to move them. A plasterboard

should be carried on its edge, with a person at
each end to support it. One person should lead the
operation while the other follows instructions. Take
care not to damage the ends of the boards when
picking up and setting down, or when negotiating
obstacles such as doorways and corridors.
● If plasterboards are carried flat, the core may

crack, causing damage to the paper face and later

becoming defective and cracking if they are fixed p Figure 3.56 Moving plasterboard by hand
and plastered.
● When moving plasterboards outdoors, be aware of Procedure for fixing
the weather conditions: a gust of wind could catch
the board and blow you off balance. You must limit
plasterboard with nails
their exposure to rain and moisture and keep the Galvanised nails are used to fix plasterboard to timber
stack well covered and protected. studwork and ceiling joists, using a claw hammer or lath
hammer. The nails are galvanised to prevent rusting.

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

When fixed, the head of the nail should penetrate the for filling by spotting or finishing with setting plaster.
board, finishing flush with the plasterboard surface. Plasterboard screws have Phillips countersunk cross
The nail should penetrate the timber background by a heads which are fixed with a PH2 drill bit.
minimum of 20 mm. Nails are fixed every 150 mm.
Screw sizes can vary from 22 mm to 90 mm in length.
They are fixed at intervals of a minimum of 300 mm to
stud walls and every 230 mm into ceiling joists.

KEY TERMS
Galvanised: coated with zinc to prevent corrosion.
Popping: where plaster comes away from the
plasterboard background because a fixing is loose
or has been driven too far into the plasterboard
surface.
Spotting: applying a small amount of jointing filler
over penetrated fixings.
p Figure 3.57 Galvanised nails

Procedure for fixing

plasterboard mechanically
Fixing plasterboards with screws means that the
plasterboard surface is less likely to move under vibration.
Another reason for choosing this procedure is the higher
moisture content in timber studs or joists, which means
they might move and twist as they dry out.
p Figure 3.59 Phillips countersunk cross head screw
● Screws used to fix plasterboard to timber backgrounds

must penetrate the timber by a minimum of 20 mm.

● Screws used to fix plasterboard to steel studs or linings IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
must penetrate the steel stud or lining by 10 mm. 1 How many screws will you need to fix one sheet
Drywall screws are considered stronger fixings than of plasterboard measuring 1200 mm × 2400 mm,
fixed upright, if the studs are at 600 mm centres?
galvanised nails and have less chance of popping
through the finished surface. 2 How many sheets of plasterboard will you need
for a ceiling measuring 4.3 m × 5.2 m plus 10%
for waste?

The following table shows the maximum joist centres

for plasterboard, both with and without noggins.

Maximum Maximum joist

Plasterboard joist centres centres without
thickness with noggins noggins

12.5 mm 600 mm 450 mm

15 mm 600 mm 600 mm
p Figure 3.58 Self-feeder fixing tools
19 mm 600 mm 600 mm
Screws should be fixed without fracturing the board
Thermal laminates 600 mm 450 mm
surface but firmly enough to penetrate the surface

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Procedure for fixing

905 mm

905 mm
Width
of board
plasterboards to a ceiling plus 5 mm

The following steps show the staggered method for

installing plasterboard to a 10 m2 timber joist ceiling.
Before you start to fix plasterboard, set up a staging
that allows you to install your plasterboard safely and
efficiently to the ceiling.
1 Mark the wall to show the position of the 1.8 m × 0.9 m plasterboard
ceiling joists. 905 mm Chalk line width of board

905 mm

p Figure 3.61 Marked width of the plasterboard

p Figure 3.60 Marked lines for the ceiling joists
3 Measure and cut the first board to the centre of the
2 Mark the width of the plasterboard, allowing an furthest joist.
extra 5 mm on the joists at each end of the ceiling, 4 Rasp the cut edge. This side will be positioned to the
and snap a chalk line. This will give you a guide wall.
line on the ceiling against which to install the 5 Using a plasterboard strut or a dead man prop,
plasterboard edge. position the plasterboard along the chalk line,
making sure the end of the board sits on the centre
KEY TERMS of the joist.
Plasterboard strut: used to prop the plasterboard
in position prior to securing with screws.
Dead man prop: a telescopic pole with pads on each
end. The pole is adjusted to hold an item above your
head just like an extra pair of hands.
Struts

p Figure 3.62 Using struts

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6 Once the board is correctly positioned, it can be

fixed to the correct fixing centres using nails at
150 mm or screws at 230 mm.
7 Continue and fit the next board, leaving a small
gap of about 2 mm after butting up to the previous
board. Make sure you install the board to the
chalk line.
8 On the adjacent run you will need to stagger
the joints. You can do this by fixing a shorter
plasterboard first, followed by a full plasterboard.
You have now completed the layout of the
staggered ceiling.

Staggered joints on adjacent run

p Figure 3.64 Horizontally plasterboarded wall

p Figure 3.63 Completed layout of staggered ceiling

Procedure for fixing

plasterboards to a timber
stud wall
There are two methods that can be used when fixing
plasterboard to studwork.
1 Fix the plasterboard horizontally across the studs.
The adjacent run will need to be staggered, which
will increase its strength and help reduce in-line
cracks. This method is used more when using
plasterboard of 1800 mm × 900 mm. p Figure 3.65 Vertically plasterboarded wall
2 Install the plasterboard vertically, in line with the
studs. This method is preferred on new buildings The following step-by-step instructions show the
that have been designed to accommodate standard staggered method for fixing plasterboard horizontally
wallboards at 400 mm centres. to studwork that is 10 m².

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STEP 1 Mark the floor to indicate the position STEP 2 Cut and position packers to avoid the STEP 3 Measure and cut the first board to the
of the studs. plasterboard coming into contact with the floor. centre of the nearest stud.

STEP 4 Rasp the cut edge and position this side STEP 5 Position the plasterboard, making sure STEP 6 Continue to fix the boards along the
facing the internal wall, with the good edge to the edge of the board fits to half the stud, and wall, making sure there are no steps in the
the centre of the stud. place a level along its edge before fixing with joints. Stagger the board on the next run and
screws every 300 mm on studs, 230 mm on leave a gap of 2–3 mm at the joints, which will
ceilings, or with galvanised nails every 150 mm. be filled with plaster and scrim to reinforce it.

KEY TERMS
Packers: small pieces of doubled-up offcut that
the boards can sit on to keep them off the floor.
Scrim: used to reinforce plasterboard butted
joints to reduce cracking before applying finishing
plaster.
Partition: wall used to separate and divide the
overall space within a building into rooms.

STEP 7 The completed plasterboard partition.

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4 FIX PLASTERBOARD INDUSTRY TIP

BY DIRECT BOND Measure twice, cut once – in case you make a mistake
when measuring dimensions.
Drywall adhesive is a pre-mixed product for direct
bonding plasterboard to solid backgrounds. Fixing by
Suitable solid backgrounds for drywall adhesive include
direct bond is a preferred method because it is easy to
blockwork, brickwork, concrete or scratch coated
install and has increased performance. It also reduces
(keyed) surfaces that may have been created to dub
condensation, which is a constant problem with solid
out uneven walls. There is a certain procedure for fixing
plastered walls.
plasterboards to solid walls and if this procedure is not
The adhesive is mixed with water using a drill and followed precisely, the dry lining background will not
whisk or a handheld mixing wheel, until it is the correct perform to its design requirements.
consistency to apply dabs of adhesive to the wall. A ● Avoid dry lining over damp or painted walls unless

polymer additive is included in the adhesive to improve they can be treated and prepared beforehand, as
its adhesion properties, making it a suitable product for plasterboard will perish and deteriorate in damp
direct bonding plasterboard and laminate surfaces to conditions.
the background. ● Check backgrounds with a straight edge to identify

any high or low points in the wall, as this will

determine how thickly or thinly you need to apply
the dabs of adhesive.
● Before drywall adhesive can be applied as dabs to

receive the boards, you need to position and line

the dabs vertically and horizontally to the top and
bottom of the wall. Mark the width of the board
on the wall to indicate the line of dabs, which
should be 600 mm apart. This will mean each full
plasterboard has three vertical rows of adhesive.
Apply a continuous line of adhesive at skirting level
to provide a solid fixing for the skirting board.
● Before any plasterboard is installed, fill perimeter

seals with adhesive to prevent air flow from entering

behind the plasterboard. Air flow can also come
from services, sockets and window and door linings
p Figure 3.66 Drywall adhesive that are fixed to external walls.

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Setting out chalk lines

STEP 1 Measure 125 mm along the floor level STEP 2 Snap horizontal chalk lines on the STEP 3 Mark the width of the plasterboard on
from the wall at both ends. Transfer the marks ceiling and floor to form marked lines. the wall.
up to the ceiling line at both ends of the wall.

Procedure for fixing plasterboard by direct bond

STEP 1 Apply the dabs of adhesive to the wall STEP 2 Apply a continuous line of adhesive to STEP 3 Place two packers to the floor. Fit the
in three vertical lines. Make sure you place the the base of the wall to create a solid fixing for board onto the wall and check that the edge of
end dabs about 30 mm in from the edge of the the skirting and to the ceiling line for support. the board is plumb.
plasterboard.

STEP 4 Use the box rule and tap the board STEP 5 Lift the board to the ceiling using the foot lifter and
against the dabs and wall until the edge of the pack underneath the plasterboard. Check the plasterboard
box rule is in line with the chalk lines set at the surface with the box rule to make sure it is still plumb. Repeat
floor and ceiling lines. the process for the next board until you have finished the wall.
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Installing plasterboard services, for example – then you need to cut gaps
for these out of the plasterboard before fixing. The
around electrical boxes following step-by-step instructions show you how to
If you are plasterboarding a wall which has electrical cut out for electrical boxes.
boxes fitted – for plug sockets, light switches or

STEP 1 On the wall, measure from where the STEP 2 Transfer these measurements to each STEP 3 On the wall, from where one edge
bottom of the board is going to sit, up to the top end of the plasterboard. Draw a line between of the board is to be situated, measure the
and bottom of the box. these points to give you two parallel horizontal distance to each side of the box.
lines.

STEP 4 Transfer these measurements to each STEP 5 Using a pad saw, carefully cut out the
horizontal line on the plasterboard and draw outline, taking care to keep to the lines.
lines between them to form the outline of the
box.

Installing plasterboard KEY TERMS

around reveals Reveal: small return to a window or door opening.
When you have walls with windows and/or door Soffit: the underside of a window or door opening.
openings, it is best to fix the plasterboard edge 25 mm
past the reveal or return. This allows you to fit a
plasterboard sheet and dab in to the reveal or return. It
is best to fix the head and sill first, as the reveal board
can take the weight of the soffit board.
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Window frame
Wall

25 mm
p Figure 3.69 Plan view of setting out returns off the main wall
Plasterboard 2 Cut and fix the left- and right-side plasterboard,
with overhang
making sure you have the cut end to the wall and
the factory edge to the set out mark at the ends of
returns. This will also make it simpler to plumb the
outer edge of the board.

× 2 with dab
and board

Head/soffit
Plasterboard fixed
to setting out
Cut end
of board

Reveals p Figure 3.70 Plasterboard attached to pier

3 Next, cut and fix the plasterboard that fits into the
face of the pier between the two return ends and
proceed to cut and fix the plasterboards for the
main wall. This will cover your return cut ends at
Sill both internal angles of the returns.

p Figure 3.67 Detail of overhang Cut end hidden

by square end
of plasterboard
1 Set out and snap chalk lines to both back walls,
allowing a clearance of 25 mm for the thickness of
dab and plasterboard. Using a square off the main
walls, mark a right angle to both returns, then mark
a line off the face of the pillar.

Cut end hidden

by square end
of plasterboard

90° 90°

p Figure 3.68 Setting out on the floor off the main wall
p Figure 3.71 Plasterboarded pier and main wall

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Do not forget that if you are dry lining direct bond with
thermal laminates, you will need to:
● allow for the thickness of the insulation when

setting out your chalk lines Nailable

25 mm plug
● fix two nailable plugs near the top of the plasterboard,

25 mm in from the edge. In the event of a fire in the

building, the insulation will break down and melt with
the heat; without the plugs, the plasterboard might Edge of
fall away from the background wall as the insulation plasterboard

melts. This could make evacuation routes difficult to p Figure 3.72 Nailable plug 25 mm from plasterboard edge
use and cause access difficulties for firefighters.

5 PREPARE LOOSE PLASTERING MATERIALS

FOR MIXING
Before setting up the mixing area, you must protect the The following table shows the ratio of mixes for scratch
floor area by placing tarpaulin or timber sheets on it to coats and dubbing out.
protect it from splashes and spillages that may occur
Ratio of mixes Use
when mixing. Dust sheets and cling film can be used to
Ratio (written as 6 : 1 : 1) of: These ratios would be
protect walkways and furniture. preferred on severely uneven
6 sand
It is extremely important to follow the specification backgrounds, such as stone
1 cement
or old brickwork. In some
when gauging plastering mixes and to gauge the 1 lime cases, less lime is added;
materials accurately. Inaccurate mixing or gauging plus plasticiser however, this will depend on
can lead to weakened mixes or mixes that are too Ratio (7 : 1 : 1) of: the specification.
strong. 7 sand
1 cement
KEY TERMS
1 lime
Gauging: measuring out the ratio for mixing plus plasticiser
materials.
Ratio (3 : 1) of: These ratios would be
3 sand preferred when dubbing out
Gauging boxes were traditionally used to measure and applying scratch coats
1 cement
quantities of materials. Today, plastic buckets are to backgrounds that have
plus waterproofer been treated for rising or
preferred as they are lighter and have handles, which
Ratio (4 : 1) of: penetrating damp.
makes the job easier.
4 sand
To measure quantities and volumes of materials accurately, 1 cement
fill the bucket or box to the top and then ‘flatten off’ plus waterproofer
with a piece of timber. This will ensure that the correct Ratio (4 : 1) of: This ratio is preferred when
proportion of each material is added to make your mix. 4 sand applying scratch coats to
slurry surfaces.
1 cement
Cement-based ratios for dubbing out and scratch
coats can vary, depending on the characteristics Ratio (5 : 1) of: This mix would be used on
5 sand uneven surfaces that have
of the background. In some cases, the background good key and only require
might have penetrating or rising damp, which is quite 1 cement
preparing with water or PVA.
common in old housing. This will mean the ratio of the Ratio (5 : 2) of: This ratio is used for training
mix will be different compared to walls that have no 5 sand purposes in colleges.
damp issues but might have poor adhesion and key. 2 lime
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Ratios are used to show the proportions of a mixture.

You can increase the amount of each part, but you
must do this in the same ratio. For example, if you need
to order sugar and coffee in a ratio of 1 : 5, you need
1 kg of sugar for every 5 kg of coffee.
You could double (× 2) the amount of sugar and change
1 kg to 2 kg, but if you do, you should also double the
amount of coffee, i.e. 5 kg should become 10 kg.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Work out and calculate how many buckets of
cement and lime you would need to mix with
48 buckets of sand, if the ratio is 6 : 1 : 1 (sand,
cement and lime).

Mixing traditional cement-

based plastering materials
using machinery
Traditional sand, lime and cement materials are best
mixed with a mechanical drum mixer, which will
thoroughly mix the different materials that make the
plaster mix.
● Clean water and any specified additive such as

plasticiser should be added to the mixer first. This

will prevent materials from sticking to the back of
the drum. p Figure 3.73 Mixing with a drum mixer
● The consistency of the mixed material should be

drier, rather than wet, when mixing is in progress. INDUSTRY TIP

This will allow the additive time to make the mix
workable and easier to use when applying the plaster. Adding too much water will make the plaster slide down the
● Mixing should be carried out for at least five wall, while too little water will make it difficult to spread.
minutes, allowing the materials to fully mix together.
● Do not forget to wear gloves/barrier cream, goggles/

glasses and boots to protect from splashes from the

turning drum of the mixer.

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Mixing by hand
There are some instances where smaller amounts of surface or in a bucket. The following steps show how to
mix are required. This can be mixed loose on a flat mix cement-based plasters by hand.

STEP 1 First, gauge the materials. STEP 2 Next, place the materials into a single STEP 3 Mix the materials dry (without adding
pile. water).

STEP 4 Once the materials are mixed, make a STEP 5 Measure the correct amount of STEP 6 Mix the plasticiser into the water.
dip in the middle of the pile. plasticiser needed to improve workability. Add
the plasticiser to a bucket of clean water.

STEP 7 Pour the water into the middle of the STEP 8 Using a shovel, pull the dry material STEP 9 Mix and turn the material. The longer
pile of materials. slowly towards the centre, into the water. you turn, the better the mix will be.
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STEP 10 The finished mix.

p Figure 3.74 Mixing with a plunger

INDUSTRY TIPS
Always read the manufacturer’s instructions on the rear of
the container when adding plasticiser to water.
Do not add too much water or the mix will become heavy,
unworkable and difficult to use.

ACTIVITY
In groups of two or three, follow the procedure for
mixing lime and sand mortar to a ratio of 3 : 1, plus
plasticiser.

Pre-blended plasters
Pre-blended gypsum-based plasters can be mixed
either by hand with a plunger or mechanically with a
drill and whisk. When mixing, it is important to follow p Figure 3.75 Mixing with a drill and whisk
the manufacturer’s technical instructions; these are
normally printed on the back of the bag. Irregular
setting can occur if you do not follow the rules of using
clean water, tools and equipment when mixing this
type of plaster.
Pre-blended plasters used to be mixed in baths with a
rake or shovel, until a modern powerful motorised drill
was developed with a whisk attachment. This tool can
mix pre-blended plaster with ease.

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6 APPLY PLASTERING SYSTEMS

The type of plastering carried out on internal walls
within buildings will be determined by the background’s
surface. Internal plastering can be completed using
several plastering application processes or systems.

Types of plastering
application systems
● Plasterboard backgrounds require just one
application, known as one coat.
● New blockwork requires two coat application. This
is known as float and set.
● Severely uneven surfaces might require three coat
application, called scratch, float and set. p Figure 3.76 Floating coat

Three coat work

Three coat work is generally applied on uneven
backgrounds, building up the surface in three layers of
plastering material to obtain the desired finish. Some
severely uneven backgrounds might need more than
one scratch coat to build out the surface.

Two coat work

Two coat work is applied on flatter backgrounds, such
as block and brick surfaces, which can be completed
using a floating and setting coat. This has an
approximate overall thickness of 13 mm, but this might
vary on uneven backgrounds. This surface does not
require a scratch coat.

One coat work p Figure 3.77 Applying setting plaster to plasterboard

One coat work is generally related to applying the
finishing coat. This is carried out by applying two passes
of finishing plaster to plasterboard or devil floated
backing coats. The first pass is applied approximately
2–3 mm thick and left to pull in before the second pass
is applied and trowelled up to the desired finish.
One coat work also relates to applying one coat of
universal plaster approximately 10 mm thick and
finishing in one process; this replaces the two coat
process of float and set.

KEY TERM
Pull in: stiffen up or start to set.
p Figure 3.78 Plastering a typical bedroom
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p Figure 3.79 One coat plaster

Taping joints
Another way to finish plasterboard surfaces is to tape
joints using pre-mixed or pre-blended joint adhesive,
p Figure 3.80 Gyproc Habito Corner tape
mixed by hand or mechanically. This procedure can be
carried out manually or mechanically, using a range of
accessories and materials.
The tape is available in roll form and has perforated
holes and a centre crease in its design. These features
make it easier to align the tape to straight joints and
internal angles.
Corner paper tape is used on the external angles. It
contains two corrosion-resistant metal strips along its
length for strength and reinforcement, which means that
this type of tape should be cut with a pair of tin snips.
Gyproc Habito Corner is a high-strength flexible corner
tape that has a memory-free hinge. This means there is
no need for pre-creasing or pre-measuring and the tape
can fit any inside or outside corner angle.
Dry wall beads can also be used for forming and p Figure 3.81 Paper tape
finishing external corners.

INDUSTRY TIPS
Avoid using dirty buckets – they can leave grit on the
jointing surface that will be difficult to sand smooth and
flush with the edge of the board joints.
Plasterboard and plaster manufacturers will only guarantee
the joints against cracking if you use paper tape bedded in
either plaster or jointing material.
p Figure 3.82 Corner paper tape
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 PPLYING THE
A allow the next coat to bond. The scratch coat makes
it simpler to apply and rule the next layer (the floating
SCRATCH COAT coat) with an even thickness of plaster.

Uneven surfaces need to be prepared by applying The following steps show you how to apply a scratch
a scratch coat to the surface. This will build up and coat. Before you begin, mix the different materials
straighten its uneven surfaces, forming a base for the and include the plasticiser, which will give the mix its
floating coat and controlling the suction. Once applied, workability.
the scratch coat is keyed with a comb scratcher to

STEP 1 Load the spot board. Next, set up your STEP 2 Wet the background surface, using a STEP 3 Transfer the plastering material from
hop-up. This will give you a platform to reach brush, to reduce the suction. the spot board to the wall, using your hawk and
the ceiling height of the wall. trowel.

STEP 4 Apply the scratch coat, starting at the STEP 5 Working downwards and across, follow STEP 6 This section of the surface is now
top right corner (if you are right-handed) or the the same procedure until you have applied an ready to be keyed using a comb scratcher.
top left corner (if you are left-handed), laying area of 1 m2. It is best to break the wall surface Key the surface horizontally, deep enough to
four trowel widths in lengths of 300 mm. Then into sections, as this is more efficient and will allow the next coat to grip but not so deep that
flatten the plaster using the trowel at a shallow help you to complete the work in a methodical you penetrate through the scratch coat to the
angle to help spread the material. The applied order. background.
scratch coat should be about 10 mm thick.

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STEP 7 Apply the scratch coat to the rest of the STEP 8 Once the wall has been plastered, STEP 9 Once the wall is complete, clean the
wall and key it, using the same procedure. check its surface with a straight edge. Fill in work area: wet or messy surfaces are a slip
any hollows or remove excessive thickness and hazard.
prepare the surface to receive the next layer
once the scratch coat has set.

Applying the floating coat Lime and cement plaster mixes must be left to dry for
several days before they can be finished with a setting
Depending on the background and the specified plaster,
plaster. Gypsum undercoat plasters set within two
the floating coat will provide a flat and lightly keyed
hours and should be finished with a setting plaster as
base for the setting coat.
soon as possible. If left for more than a day, gypsum
● Rule it with a straight edge, fill in hollows and
undercoats can develop excessive and irregular suction
remove any high spots in its surface that would
rates that have to be treated with diluted PVA to
cause unevenness after application.
prevent the surface from drawing too much moisture
● Then leave the plaster surface to pull in before
from the setting plaster, causing it to craze crack.
consolidating and keying it with a devil float,
preparing it for the final application known as the Once set, prepare all floated surfaces by scraping the
setting or finish coat. surface with the edge of the trowel before applying the
finishing coat. This will remove any snots or nodules
which could protrude when the setting plaster is
applied. Cut back all internal floated angles and ceiling
lines to leave the surface flat.

KEY TERMS
Craze crack: when fine cracks appear on applied
plaster, caused by excessive suction in background
surfaces.
Snots: residue left on the surface of the floating
coat after consolidation. This must be removed
to prevent it from penetrating the surface of the
setting coat.
p Figure 3.83 Devil floating

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

p Figure 3.86 Craze crack

Floating coats can be applied using the following three

methods, each of which has its own purpose in terms
of accuracy and speed of application:
● the plumb dot and screed method

● the broad screed method

● the free hand method.

p Figure 3.84 Removing snots from the floating coat
Plumb dot and screed method
The plumb dot and screed process is the most accurate
method of applying a floating coat, but also the most
time-consuming. If the client is prepared to pay for this
method, the end result is an accurate, plumb plastered
wall.
Timber dots are used to set out accurate plumb walls
and to form horizontal or vertical screeds (strips of
plaster). The screeds are left to set before being used as
guides, allowing the plasterer to fill between them and
accurately rule the surface to obtain a flat plumb wall.
The surface is later consolidated and lightly keyed using
a devil float once the material has pulled in.
This system is sometimes used today in areas such as
bathrooms or kitchens, due to the accuracy required
to fit and fix units and sanitary tiles, or where fibrous
plaster is to be installed.

INDUSTRY TIP
The plumb dot and screed method was often used in the
early days of the industry.
p Figure 3.85 Cutting angles
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STEP 1 Apply a dab of plaster approximately STEP 2 Set the dot into it. The distance from STEP 3 Directly below the top dot, set another
150–300 mm from the ceiling and adjacent the wall surface to the face of the dot will be dot approximately 300 mm from the floor.
wall. the thickness of the floating coat.

STEP 4 Check that the dots are plumb. STEP 5 When the dots have stiffened, apply STEP 6 Using the floating rule or feather edge,
plaster material between them to form the rule off the excess plaster between the dots.
screeds. Remember to wear a hard hat when using a
hop-up.

STEP 7 Fill any hollows. Repeat Steps 6 and 7 STEP 8 When the screeds have stiffened STEP 9 Apply plaster between the screeds,
until the screed is flush with the dots and free sufficiently, consolidate the surface with a starting at the top of the wall and working heel
from hollows. float and form key with a devil float. Remember to toe.
to remove the dots and fill in with stiffening
floating material.
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STEP 10 Repeat until you reach the bottom STEP 11 Place the thinner edge of the rule STEP 12 Any excess plaster will gather on the
screed. across both screeds and, using a side-to-side edge of the rule. This should be cleaned off the
motion, draw the edge up the screeds, ensuring edge and returned to the spot board.
that the edge remains in contact with both
screeds at all times.

STEP 13 Fill any hollows until the plaster is STEP 14 Repeat Steps 9 to 13 until the area STEP 15 The finished floating coat.
flush with the screeds and all hollows are filled. between the screeds is completely covered and
ruled off.

Broad screed method straight walls and is more commonly used in the
The broad screed method is also known as the box industry than dot and screed, the finished surface
screed method. It also uses screeds as guides to help might be straight but not plumb.
float the wall but is different from dot and screed. When using this method, pay particular attention to all
Wet screeds are applied around the perimeter and the internal angles. If these are not correct, it will be an
ruled. Once the screeds have been laid on and ruled obvious defect that will need to be corrected.
accurately, you must check that they are flush where
they meet at the ends. The next stage is to fill in KEY TERM
between the perimeter screeds and rule the surface Wet screed: band of undercoat plaster screed used
either horizontally or vertically against the screeds. as a floating guide while still wet.
Although this method of floating coats produces

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STEP 1 Form the first screed up to 500 mm STEP 2 Rule this off, checking it is plumb and STEP 3 Apply a second screed along the ceiling
wide, applying plaster to the right-hand side filling hollows. line.
of the wall from the ceiling to 25 mm short
of the floor or damp proof course (DPC) and
approximately at the required thickness.

STEP 4 Rule in the ceiling line. STEP 5 Apply another screed 25 mm short of STEP 6 Apply the floating coat between the
the floor or DPC. screeds and rule off. Take care not to scoop out
the screeds as they will still be soft.

Free hand method

The free hand method of producing floating coats is
regarded as a way of completing the work efficiently
and at speed, which is why it is best suited to large
commercial sites where work is being done by ­
subcontractors who have tighter work schedules than
plasterers carrying out private work. However, due to
the speed and the way it is produced, this method can
be less accurate in terms of straightness. To help reduce
this problem, this type of work is carried out on new
block or brick backgrounds, which are much straighter
STEP 7 Ruling in.
than older uneven walls.

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

To carry out this work you need to be highly skilled and

experienced, as there will be no guide such as screeds
to help you rule your work. The plasterer will lay on
plaster to cover a certain area of the wall before it is
ruled using either a darby or a straight edge, filling in
any hollows as the work proceeds. Ruling the surface is
done horizontally and vertically to the applied surface
to eliminate as much unevenness and to fill in as
much as possible. Once the wall has been completely
laid on and ruled, the surface will be checked at wall
angles, ceiling lines, skirting lines and diagonally for
straightness, before consolidating with a devil float.

INDUSTRY TIP
The industry standard for a plastered wall is ± 3 mm
tolerance in a length of 1800 mm in any direction on the
surface.

p Figure 3.88 Free hand method

p Figure 3.89 Filling hollows

Floating ceilings and beams

Floating ceilings and beams involve a different
technique from floating walls. Your tutor should be able
p Figure 3.87 Checking free hand plaster with a straight edge to show you the methods below.
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Floating a ceiling
Set out for floating ceilings using a bonding-grade
undercoat plaster and then follow this method.
1 Mark a datum line around the room about 400 mm
from the ceiling line.

Square

p Figure 3.93 Checking ceiling is level with a straight edge

Datum line If you have an uneven plasterboard ceiling with

hollows, you will need to prepare and build this out by
applying bonding plaster first, allowing it to set before
applying the setting coat. Bonding plaster can be used
p Figure 3.90 Marking a datum line around the room to float plasterboard or EML that has been fixed to
the ceilings.
2 Using a tape measure, find the lowest point from
the ceiling to the datum line; this will indicate the Floating a beam
minimum thickness of your floating coat. At the
Follow this method to float a beam.
lowest point close to the corner, start to set out
1 Fix angle beads and check for level and equal margin
your dots and apply your undercoat plaster to form
along the soffit of the beam.
a perimeter screed to the ceiling.
Dot

Square

Angle beads

Datum line

p Figure 3.94 Angle beads fixed to the beam

p Figure 3.91 Setting out the dots 2 Apply the undercoat to the sides of the beam and
then rule the surface with a square, ensuring it is
3 Once the screeds have set and been keyed, fill 90° to the ceiling.
between them with plaster, ruling off the screeds to
form a level ceiling.

p Figure 3.95 Undercoat plaster applied and ruled on the sides of

Rule off
the beam with a square
the screeds

p Figure 3.92 Filled screeds and ruling off

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3 Apply the undercoat plaster to the soffit of the beam

and rule the surface of the plaster against the beads.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
Calculate how many standard angle beads you
need for fixing to four windows that each have two
reveals and one soffit measuring 1.2 m.

Setting coat
The final coat will be applied in two thin layers of
setting plaster using two different gauges. This coat
is also known as the skim, which refers to skimming
p Figure 3.96 Ruling the surface of the plaster against the beads a surface with setting plaster. When this finish is
completed, it will have an approximate thickness of
2–3 mm on walls and 3–5 mm on ceilings.
INDUSTRY TIPS There are two types of surface in new housing that
Make sure the angle beads are fixed level and the correct must be finished with setting plaster:
width gauge along their length. Use a piece of timber to 1 Plasterboard – a sheet material fixed to joists and
mark the gauge, to check they are of equal length. studwork forming a base for the setting coat. This
Beads are measured by length (linear measurement) and surface should be reinforced with a suitable scrim
generally come in lengths of 2.4 m. at its joints and where it meets the floating coat
before the finish is laid on.
2 Ceilings – setting plaster is generally applied to
ceilings before it is applied to adjacent walls, as
this will reduce the risk of dirty water and plaster
splashes affecting the surrounding surfaces.

Method for applying finishing

plaster to a plasterboard ceiling
(for a right-handed plasterer)
Make sure you have the necessary PPE to carry out this
task. First, erect a fully boarded staging. This will allow
you to apply your plaster in long strokes, making the
job simpler, more efficient and safer to complete.
On some commercial sites, plasterers apply two
applications of setting plaster using the same gauge.
This can lead to imperfections such as sagging and
grinning in the work. This can be avoided by using two
different gauges.

KEY TERMS
Skim: the term used by some plasterers to
describe the setting coat.
Grinning: when the plaster surface reveals
imperfections caused by deeply keyed devil
floating or variable suction of the background.
p Figure 3.97 Plastering a plasterboarded wall
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STEP 1 Apply scrim to reinforce the joints of the STEP 2 Apply plaster to cover the scrim. This STEP 3 Apply the first coat of plaster to the
plasterboard, including the wall and ceiling line. will help keep it in place and prevent it folding ceiling, working from left to right and laying
when the first coat is applied. the plaster in line with your right shoulder. This
will help protect your face from any plaster
droppings.

STEP 4 While plastering, make sure you stand STEP 5 Continue to work around the perimeter STEP 6 The ceiling has now been completely
in the correct position: put your right foot of the ceiling and then start at the opposite covered with approximately 3 mm of plaster.
forwards and your left back. This will allow you end.
a longer reach when applying the plaster.

STEP 7 The next stage before applying the STEP 8 Use a second gauge to apply your STEP 9 Once the second coat has been applied,
second coat is to flatten the ceiling surface second coat in the same sequence as the first flatten the surface, working in the same
with your trowel or finishing blade. Normally, coat. Do not begin to apply the second coat until sequence as before. Make sure there are no
the surface of the first coat will become matt in the first coat has started to pull in. blemishes or galls and that you have a good
appearance, ready for the second coat. ceiling line along the wall.
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STEP 10 Always lay and finish the plaster STEP 11 When the second coat begins to pull STEP 12 Apply a final cross trowel to finish the
along the length of the bead to prevent any in, apply some water to the face of the plaster ceiling to a flat smooth surface.
unforeseen steps or blemishes, which can be using a splash brush and trowel the ceiling,
difficult to overcome at a later stage. continuing to work from left to right in line with
your right shoulder. Repeat this process every
15–20 minutes, at least twice.

Blockwork Soffit
INDUSTRY TIP
When you lay on setting plaster to beads, you should always
work your trowel along the length of the bead. Laying across
the bead can create a recess in the plaster surface as it Level
meets the edge of the bead. Window
opening

Reveal
Forming external angles
Walls with window openings
Before you plaster a window wall, you must prepare
your angles. There are two methods for doing this: p Figure 3.98 Using timber rules in a window
1 Use timber rules as a guide, fixed or wedged to Forming hard angles
the reveals and soffit and positioned to allow for
Conservation work commonly specifies using this
the appropriate thickness of plaster. This method is
traditional method of forming corners. It can be time-
known as forming hard angles.
consuming, because you can only apply plaster to one
2 Use angle beads.
surface at a time and it needs to set hard before the
timber rules can be removed and fixed onto the face
KEY TERMS
of the wall, allowing you to plaster the reveals and
Galls: blemishes in a plaster surface due to poor heads. If you have to apply three coats, this will mean
workmanship.
you have to fit and fix the timber rules three times,
Timber rule: straight plane timber used as a adjusting for each thickness of plaster application.
guide to form the edge of a return. Before the
introduction of aluminium feather edges, timber
rules were also used as straight edges.

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There are other types of external angle used to form hard angles, shown in the following table.

Square arris Splayed Pencil round

Bullnose Staff or quirked Sunken oval

The timber rule method is also used when applying

the setting coat when you need to form rounded hard
angles using an external corner trowel. The setting
plaster is applied to the external corner of the floating
coat in 50 mm wide strips each side. This is then
trowelled with the corner trowel several times, to form
and finish the corner as it sets. Setting plaster is then
laid and finished to the corner’s edge.
Reveal gauges are used to rule the floating coat on the
reveal and soffit, providing a square return surface with
equal margins along the frame.

Fixing angle beads

Standard angle beads are used not only to speed up
the work but also because they provide accurate sharp
corners that are reinforced to protect against impact
damage, helping to prevent chipping of the external
angle.

p Figure 3.99 Window fitted with angle beads

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p Figure 3.100 Reveal gauge p Figure 3.101 Using plaster dabs to fix angle beads

If severely uneven walls are to receive three coat

work, timber rules or a straight edge might be used on INDUSTRY TIP
the reveals to build out the unevenness first, before
applying the angle beads. When you fix beads with plaster dabs, remember to cut back
any excessive dabs (that might stick out past the nosing)
The procedure for setting out and fixing angle beads is before the plaster sets.
similar for a wall with doorways and returns. Standard
angle beads can be fixed with plaster dabs or galvanised
The following step-by-step instructions show how to fix
nails. The preferred method is to use plaster dabs when
angle beads to a window wall. This method will allow
fixing, as this is simpler when plumbing or levelling the
you to set out the beads to the required depth and
bead. Positioning beads with nails and plumbing at the
dimensions.
same time can be a difficult process to master.

STEP 1 Place the straight edge 10 mm off STEP 2 Use a square to mark a right angle from STEP 3 The marks have now crossed on the sill,
the line of the wall, then use a pencil to place the window frame to the left and right reveal, indicating the fixing points for the two angle
a mark along its edge. This mark on the sill making sure this is a similar thickness. Check beads.
indicates the thickness of the undercoat plaster that you have an equal margin along the frame’s
that will be applied to the wall. If there is more edge, as this will be the finished edge of the
than one window, a chalk line can be snapped plaster at the reveals.
from the outer side of each opening to indicate
the line of the horizontal beads.
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STEP 4 The next stage is to cut both angle STEP 5 Mix your plaster stiffer than normal STEP 6 Place the angle bead to your crossed
beads just short (by about 10 mm) of the head and apply plaster dabs to the reveal. Pinch your lines at the sill and bed it in position, ensuring
soffit. This is to allow for the remaining bead plaster away from the corner, leaving a dab. it lines up with the edge of the window. Remove
that fits to the head; this can be cut after both Apply dabs every 400 mm (this can be less if excess plaster from the dabs once the bead is
sides have been fitted with beads. the window is small). in position.

STEP 7 Use a level to check that both sides of STEP 8 Cut your head bead and repeat the STEP 9 Allow the plaster dabs to set before
the bead are plumb in line with the face of the process for setting out and fixing. This time applying the undercoat, as the angle bead will
wall and reveal. make sure the bead is level along the head and be used as a guide to rule the surface.
that it does not have steps at either side to the
reveal beads.

Use a square or gauge to form the reveals and head.

The undercoat will require cutting back at the edge
of the bead, allowing the setting plaster to finish flush
with the arris.

KEY TERMS
Cutting back: removing undercoat plaster from
around door frames or beads, allowing you to apply
setting plaster flush and preventing plaster from
gathering and building up over beads.
Arris: the external edge of the bead.

p Figure 3.102 Using a square or gauge to form the reveals and

head
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Ruling upwards
Ruling
top

p Figure 3.104 Ruling a door and window lining

KEY TERMS
Linings: timber surround for internal doors, forming
a lining to the masonry or studded opening.
Nominal: standard.

INDUSTRY TIPS
Hardwood door linings should be protected from wet plaster
by taping with waterproof masking tape. Wet plaster can
cause staining to the timber that cannot be removed.
p Figure 3.103 Cutting back the undercoat at the edge of the bead
Always clean door frames with clean water at regular
There are other surfaces that have returns and angles. intervals to prevent the build-up of plaster.
These will also require setting out before the angles are
formed, using the hard angle method with timber rules
If the wall contains a return at its end, a standard angle
or fixing angle beads in plaster dabs.
bead must be fixed to the return. This should be lined
through from the door lining to the corner, making
Walls with door openings
a mark on the floor to indicate the thickness of the
Walls that contain timber door casings or linings are
floating coat and the position of the bead.
very helpful to the plasterer as the lining can be used as
a guide to rule the surface. However, if the lining is not Another method is to fix a timber ledge or rule to the
fixed plumb and true, this will cause the floating coat to face of the return to the same line as the door lining;
be a similar shape to the frame. Always check the door this is later removed and reversed to complete the
linings to make sure they are plumb and that they are other side of the return.
fixed to allow a nominal thickness of plaster to the wall
surface. If you find linings or frames to be out of line
or not level or plumb, report the discrepancy to your
supervisor as soon as possible, so the defective work
can be rectified.

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Devil floated Standard

surface angle beads

90° returns

Ruling with a square off

back wall
Undercoat plaster applied Plaster dabs
Block background

p Figure 3.105 Standard angle bead fixed to a wall with a return

and forming returns with a square

After consolidating the plaster surface, you will need to

cut back to the edge of the frame; this will allow you to
apply a setting coat of plaster flush against the frame.
Failure to do this can cause excessive build-up of plaster
on the frame.

Walls with attached piers

p Figure 3.106 Snapped chalk line
For walls with attached piers, such as pillars, you need
to set out snapping chalk lines at each end of the pier
Walls with a chimney
at floor level to the thickness of the undercoat. Once
you have snapped your line, use this as a plumbing Walls with a chimney have two returns at each end,
point for fixing the angle beads or timber rule. If you fix similar to a pillar. Once the beads are set out, you can
to the snapped lines, this should ensure that all beads check the margin from each side of the bead to the
or timber rules line up. other at the top, middle and bottom for accuracy.

You can also use this method when setting out Walls with an independent pier
independent piers in line with each other. The internal When setting out an independent pier with equal sides
right angle to the face and rear of the pier can be set for fixing beads, you must set out a parallel line to
out using a square from the snapped chalk line which the front and rear of the pier to the required thickness
runs along the length of the pier. (approximately 10–20 mm). The next step is to use a
square, set it to the parallel lines and mark the same
Walls with a return
thickness to both sides, making sure the sides are at
Walls with a return can be set out using a square 90°. Once you have set out your marks, you can fix
similar to a reveal; the square must be positioned at your beads plumb to form the external corners. For
90° from the line of the main wall. Figure 3.110 shows accuracy, check the beads for equal margins at the top,
the floor marked out so that a wall with a return can middle and bottom.
receive standard angle beads.

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p Figure 3.107 A wall with attached piers

p Figure 3.110 Setting out an independent pier with equal sides

Beads
Different types of beads
Angle beads
Standard two coat angle beads are made to be used on
two coat work. When fixed, they allow for a suitable
plaster thickness, including the floating and setting
coat.
They can be fixed using several methods, but the
p Figure 3.108 Wall with a return
majority of standard angle beads are fixed with dabs of
stiff setting plaster. Setting plaster is preferred because
it is a fine material that allows the mesh wing of the
bead to bed into the plaster with ease. We might also
use undercoat plaster to bed beads, but in this case it is
best practice to apply a continuous dab along the full
length of the bead.
Thin coat angle beads can be fixed to solid or
plasterboard corners. They are a smaller type of angle
bead that allow for the thickness of setting plasters.
There are two types of thin coat bead: mini mesh
beads and solid beads. Thin coat beads can be fixed
with galvanised nails, drywall screws, dabs of plaster or
p Figure 3.109 Wall with a chimney staples.
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p Figure 3.111 Mini mesh beads

p Figure 3.112 Solid beads

p Figure 3.114 Thin coat stop beads
Stop beads
Stop beads are used when the plasterwork needs to Expansion beads
stop at a different surface. This could be when it goes Expansion beads are used to prevent cracking on walls
up to timber or decorative masonry. Stop beads can that have expansion joints to allow slight movement in
be fixed with galvanised nails or bedded into position, both sides of the wall. These areas are considered weak,
depending on how true the background is. so expansion beads are fixed in line with the edge of
the joint, allowing the plastered wall to move freely
Thin coat stop beads are used in the same way as
without cracking.
standard stop beads. These beads are very popular when
forming splayed angles that are not at right angles.

p Figure 3.113 Stop beads

KEY TERM
True: accurate to plumb, level and/or line.
p Figure 3.115 Expansion beads

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

How to store beads ● You can decide whether to use ready-mixed or pre-
Store galvanised beads on a flat surface or upright in mixed jointing materials, as the same rules apply
racks, away from impact or pedestrian traffic routes, to when applying and finishing. Make sure the material
avoid any possibility of damage. is feathered out and finished to the edge of the
board.
Beads are protected with a galvanised coating to
prevent rusting when they come in to contact with wet
plaster; however, if left outside in wet conditions for
long periods they can corrode and become unusable.
Do not use corroded beads: if used, they will rust and
cause a pattern stain along the length of the bead that
will penetrate through to the plaster surface. This can
be difficult to remove.

Tape and jointing

Before you tape and joint plasterboard, you need to
check that the plasterboard fixings have been driven
home into the timber or steel, allowing you to fill the
heads of the fixings. You should also check that there
are no steps in the edges of the plasterboard and that
any large gaps in the plasterboard joints are filled. p Figure 3.116 Sanding the jointed surface

Tape and jointing is a process that produces a smooth,

crack-resistant surface to the joints where TE (tapered
edge) plasterboards meet. The screw or nail head fixings
can be filled over with jointing material and sanded for
priming and decorating. The jointing material should be
left to dry before sanding and priming.
● You need to apply your jointing material first, before

applying a paper tape over the joint to reinforce it.

Before applying a second coat, squeeze and flatten
the tape, allowing the next jointing application coat
to cover the tape’s surface.
● Before applying another layer of jointing compound,

you must allow the previous surface to dry

sufficiently as this will make it easier to cover. Some
jointing compounds dry and set within one hour,
while others are made from air-drying material that
needs to set overnight. p Figure 3.117 An internal angle

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Tape and jointing angles

Internal angles can be finished by folding the tape in
half and applying to adjacent walls. Take care when
finishing opposite walls, as the trowel can dig in and
damage the surface. A good way to avoid this is to use
a corner tool, which is designed to finish both internal
angles at the same time.
External angles can be finished by using either a
drywall bead or a reinforced paper tape, depending on
the type of reinforcement required. Both are bedded
into the jointing material and finished in the same
way as paper tape jointing. Once the surface has been
jointed, it can then be sanded.

p Figure 3.119 Reinforced paper tape being used on an external

corner

Tape and jointing method

The following step-by-step instructions show the
method for tape and jointing standard TE plasterboard
p Figure 3.118 Drywall bead joints.

STEP 1 Apply jointing material and the paper STEP 2 Apply more jointing material over STEP 3 Sand the surface to remove any
tape to the surface, firmly squeezing the tape the tape, making sure you feather out each unevenness and imperfections in the jointed
against the jointing. Make sure you cover the application in turn, slightly wider than the first. surface. Using a roller and brush (as shown),
surface and the small perforated holes in the For example, if the first application is 20 mm apply a sealer or primer to the plasterboard
tape. wide then the second application should be surface.
30 mm wide.

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

Taping should be carried out carefully. The following

table shows the faults that can occur if taping is not
performed correctly.

Fault Problem
Oversanding The tape will show through.
No filler behind the tape Will cause the tape to bubble
(no adhesive behind it).
Uneven surface Will cause the tape to be
prouder than the board surface.
Fixings that have not Will cause bumps and
penetrated the surface of unevenness.
the board

HEALTH AND SAFETY

When you carry out tape and jointing, you need to
consider your own safety and that of other operatives
who could come into contact with the dusty
p Figure 3.121 Dry lining dust extraction
atmosphere created by sanding the joints and
fixing surfaces.
Apply the following safety measures: Parge coats
● Wear appropriate safety clothing to protect A parge coat, such as Thistle SoundCoat Plus, is a
yourself from the dusty atmosphere. pre-blended, bagged material mixed with water and
● Electrical sanding tools should contain dust
applied to party wall blocks before the installation of
bags (or the dust should be extracted with an
appropriate extractor) to reduce increased or high direct bond dry lining. This layer reduces noise transfer
levels of dust that can be hazardous to lungs. through the walls.
● Due to the amount of dust in the atmosphere,
adequate environmental protection should be
carried out before sanding. Use dust sheets
or cling film to protect furniture, flooring and
surroundings.
● Display warning signs to let others know about
the dangers and hazards involved with the work
in progress. Use barriers to keep people away
from the work area.

p Figure 3.122 Parge coat

When dry lining interiors, you must meet building

regulations standards. These include requirements
p Figure 3.120 Warning sign
relating to resistance to the passage of sound and
acoustic standards for separating partition walls and
ceiling/floor constructions (Part E) and the redraft of
Part L (relating to conservation of fuel and power) that
raises the bar for energy performance.
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Plasterboard manufacturers have developed new Sound tests are carried out to check the acoustic
systems to comply with the Part E and Part L performance of the building, identifying the need to
regulations. For instance, manufacturer British Gypsum reduce or eradicate sound that can have a severe effect
has developed a pre-mixed soundproofing plaster parge on people’s privacy in multiple-occupancy buildings.
coat that minimises air leakage to improve the thermal
and acoustic performance of masonry walls, such as Making good a chase
party walls that divide semi-detached and terraced
You might have to make good a chase if plasterwork
dwellings.
has become defective and been replaced, or if new
services have to be installed behind the original
Sealing materials plasterwork. Once the work has been carried out, the
Drywall sealer is another product that is applied after chase has to be made good to return the plasterwork
taping and jointing to control vapour in bathrooms and to its original state.
kitchens. Otherwise, the large amount of moisture that
exists in these rooms will penetrate the plasterboard The following steps show how to make good a chase.
surface. First, you must mark out the chase on a plastered wall.
Using a lump hammer and bolster, remove the plaster
Other sealing materials include special fixing and sealing to leave a chase in the plastered wall, then follow the
sealants and mastics that are used with fire and acoustic steps below.
performance dry lining systems. You can learn more
about these products if you search the websites of KEY TERMS
manufacturers such as British Gypsum, Knauf and Siniat.
Party wall: a dividing partition between two
adjoining buildings that is shared by the occupants
Sound and air tests of each residence or business.
Buildings that contain dry lining surface linings will be Chase: a void for installing services which will
tested for air and sound transmission. need to be made good with plaster.
Air tests are carried out on modern new builds. This
means that all perimeter surfaces must be sealed,
including internal angles to walls, ceilings and floors, INDUSTRY TIP
frames to openings, and services. All possible air
It is important to wear safety clothing and glasses to avoid
passage points into the building must be blocked. flying debris when cutting out a chase.

STEP 1 Remove the dust and dampen the STEP 2 Mix the undercoat plaster and apply STEP 3 Remove excess plaster with your trowel in
background to control the suction. directly into the chase. line with the existing surface, filling out any hollows.

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

STEP 4 Clean off the previously plastered face, STEP 5 As the undercoat plaster starts to pull in, STEP 6 Key the undercoat with a devil float.
using a trowel and a water brush. cut back the surface with a gauging trowel or small
tool to form a recess of approximately 2–3 mm in
the chase surface to allow for the setting coat.

STEP 7 Soak the edge around the chase several STEP 8 Mix your plaster and apply it to the STEP 9 Remove any surplus plaster away from
times to control the suction at its edge before chase, removing any surplus plaster that is the edge and clean the surface with a splash
you apply your setting coat. applied beyond the edge of the chase. brush.

STEP 10 Repeat the process and apply the STEP 11 Trowel the face of the plaster chase,
second coat. making sure the surface is flush with the edge.

When you have completed this task, run the palm

of your hand along the surface to feel if there are
any recesses or bumps between the chase and the
previously plastered face.
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I recently purchased a Victorian house that required

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY some renovation work to modernise and upgrade it.
After reading this chapter, work in groups to discuss
When I bought the house, several plastering defects
and plan how to plaster a modern two-bedroom
house built of standard blockwork containing were identified in the surveyor’s report. The plaster
timber partitions and ceiling joists. Decide on a two on the ceiling is loose and there are widespread cracks
coat lightweight plastering system, performance on the surface. The living room wall has a large deep
plasterboard, fixings and different types of beads. crack running from the ceiling line down to the floor. I
Workshop activity 1 am eager to get these defects corrected and have been
given the name and telephone number of a qualified
Working with a partner, set out a scaffold staging
in a bay and fix plasterboards to a ceiling. Ensure
plasterer to contact. He has been highly recommended
the boards stagger on the second run, then reinforce after completing some renovation work for a family
with self-adhesive scrim and apply finishing plaster member.
in preparation for decoration.
The plasterer recently called at my property to give
Workshop activity 2 me advice on replacing and renewing the ceilings and
Direct bond around a pillar with plasterboard, fix making good the defective wall surface.
thin coat angle beads to the corners and apply two
He has stipulated in his estimate that the rooms will
passes of finishing plaster.
need to be clear of furniture with adequate protection
Workshop activity 3 and a portable ventilation appliance should be hired
Fix standard angle beads to a window wall, apply to remove hazardous dust when taking down the lath
lightweight backing plaster to the wall face including and plaster ceilings. He suggests replacing the old
the window returns and soffit, cut back at beads and ceiling with fireline plasterboard to increase the fire
devil float, then apply two passes of finishing plaster.
rating performance in line with building regulations,
because fireline plasterboard provides 60 minutes of
fire resistance. This should then be plastered with two
CASE STUDY passes of Thistle Board Finish 2–3 mm thick, polished
flat and smooth ready for redecoration.
After carrying out a thorough check on the deep crack
in the wall, his advice is to remove all old plasterwork
from the wall surface, mix coarse sand and cement,
fill the crevice flush with the face of the wall and then
leave it to set hard. Once set, he has suggested fixing
EML over the cracked area with mechanical fixings, as
this will reinforce the weak area. The wall should then
be plastered using a lightweight plaster system and this
will require three coats: scratch, float and set.
As the plasterer’s advice seems knowledgeable and
precise, I’m going to ask him for a written quotation for
the work. This will ensure that the work he carries out
will be completed with a guarantee and to the required
industry standards.

Megan’s first house is a mid-1850s Victorian

terrace, which she has purchased in the city. She
Megan’s advice
preferred to purchase an older property rather than It is important to find someone reliable and reputable
a newly built house. Read her story to learn how to advise and carry out renovation work, as repairs and
she got on. remedial work can be costly.

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 Chapter 3 Internal plastering and fixing dry lining

Test your knowledge

1 What aggregate is added during manufacture 7 When fixing plasterboard to block background,
to lightweight backing plaster to improve which procedure should be carried out?
adhesion? A direct bond with drywall adhesive
A vermiculite B mechanically fixed with screws
B perlite C using a dry wall self-feeder
C cement D fixing with galvanised nails
D lime 8 When fixing plasterboard to ceilings, what are
2 What term is given to measuring loose materials the recommended fixing centres of the screws?
when mixing plaster backing coats? A 260 mm
A batching B 300 mm
B gauging C 230 mm
C adding D 350 mm
D raking 9 What is the recommended thickness
3 What is the term given to the hardening process when applying finishing plaster to floated
of cement and sand mixed for plastering? backgrounds?
A drying A 8–9 mm
B setting B 6–7 mm
C curing C 4–5 mm
D shrinkage D 2–3 mm
4 What type of defect occurs when finishing 10 After ruling a floating coat, what is the next
plaster is applied over a high suction process before applying the finishing coat?
background? A devil float the surface
A grinning B key with a comb scratcher
B shrinkage C fix angle beads with plaster
C blistering D apply scrim to the joints
D crazing 11 What type of bead is used on returns built of
5 What reinforcement is fixed over timber wall blockwork background?
plates before plastering? A stop bead
A expanded metal lath B standard angle bead
B self-adhesive scrim C expansion bead
C scrim cloth D mini mesh bead
D mesh matting 12 When is the process of cutting back carried
6 What type of plasterboard is best used on out?
bathroom walls? A after devil floating
A fireline B after applying finishing plaster
B vapour check C after fixing plasterboard
C moisture-resistant D after mixing backing plaster
D sound block

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13 Which of the following backgrounds is three 17 What tool is used to hold plasterboard in
coat plasterwork applied to? position when fixing to ceilings?
A plasterboard ceiling A gauge
B blockwork walls B strut
C expanded metal lath C ledge
D concrete floors D whisk
14 What is the result of applying excessive 18 What tool is used to cut gaps for services in
thicknesses of undercoat plaster? plasterboard?
A drying A panel saw
B sweating B circular saw
C blistering C hack saw
D sagging D pad saw
15 Complete this sentence. Plaster ordered for a 19 When fixing plasterboards by direct bond
specific background must be: application, what are the vertical dab centres?
A desirable A 300 mm
B suitable B 400 mm
C compatible C 500 mm
D economical. D 600 mm
16 What tool is used to remove rough edges of 20 How many minutes of fire protection do fireline
plasterboard after cutting? plasterboards provide?
A utility knife A 30 minutes
B pad saw B 60 minutes
C tape measure C 90 minutes
D rasp D 120 minutes

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 CHAPTER 4
APPLYING EXTERNAL PLAIN RENDERING

INTRODUCTION
External rendering is another aspect of your plastering career that you will need to practise to develop. This
type of work will test your skills, when you have to produce straight, flat and smooth surfaces that also contain
sharp details to returns of angles and openings.
This chapter covers the materials, tools and equipment required to prepare and apply external rendering. It also
explains the procedures and techniques you will need to develop to master this challenging skill.
By reading this chapter you will gain knowledge of:
1 what is meant by external rendering
2 how to interpret information for external work
3 how to select and prepare materials, tools and equipment for external work
4 how to apply render to external backgrounds.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.

Level 2 Diploma in Level 2 Technical

Level 1 Diploma in Plastering (6708-23) Certificate in Plastering
Chapter section Plastering (6708-13) Unit 224 (7908-20) Unit 203
What is external rendering? n/a Learning outcomes 3 and 4 Topics 1.3, 2.1
Interpret information n/a Learning outcomes 1 and 2 Topics 1.1, 1.2
Select tools, materials, tools n/a Learning outcomes 3 and 4 Topics 2.2, 3.1
and equipment
Apply render to external n/a Learning outcomes 5 and 6 Topics 2.3, 3.2, 3.3
backgrounds

1 WHAT IS EXTERNAL RENDERING?

The purpose of external rendering in the building ACTIVITY
industry is to provide: Research on the internet what is meant by U-values
● a desirable finish that will enhance the appearance and how they are used to measure the energy
of a building performance of buildings.
● a protective surface, preventing passage of moisture

that can penetrate the external wall and enter the There are many different types of external render finishes.
building The following table shows the different types of external
● a thermal barrier that enhances U-values of surface and texture that are commonly used in the
buildings and reduces energy consumption. construction industry. Many of these render finishes are
covered in greater detail in Level 3 Plastering qualifications.

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External render finish Description

Plain face Plain face finish is completed by scouring and consolidating the surface of render that
has been ruled with a straight edge and flattened with a darby. It has a flat, smooth,
sandy look.

Tyrolean A textured layered stipple type finish achieved over several passes to avoid slumping
of material. The finish is honeycomb-like and applied to plain face backgrounds with a
Tyrolean spray gun.

Ashlar Ashlar is formed with a jointer or similar tool, carving out the shape of blockwork in the
surface of plain floated render.

Brush Applied render finished by rotating a large bristled brush flat to the rendered face.

Pebble dash Granite, stone or flint spar thrown onto a buttery render mix which is applied to a
scratch coat surface. (Buttery is the consistency of the mixed render for this type of
application, to receive pebble dash finish; also known as dash receiver.)

Rough cast A mixture of granite and render material that can be thrown onto a butter coat or keyed
surface.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

External render finish Description

Scrape texture Achieved by scraping the surface of a pre-mixed render that contains additives or is
polymer-modified.

Thin coat render This external render is applied and finished by scouring the surface with a specialist-
made float, forming a textured surface. It can be more efficiently applied using a spray
hopper gun. Also known as ‘light texture’ and ‘rubbed texture’, it contains resin/acrylic/
silicone as a binder, allowing the surface to be flexible and crack-resistant.

KEY TERMS Spray machines are often used today as a fast and
efficient way of applying render. Ritmo L Plus machines
Consolidate: to close in the surface of a floating
coat, render or floor screed with a float, making are used mainly for projection plaster/render pre-
the surface flat, dense and compact. blended bagged materials.
Slumping: when plaster has been applied too
thickly and slides down the wall due to excessive
thickness and weight.
Rotating: small circular movement when applying
brush textured finish.
Scratch coat: a plaster or render mix applied to a
surface to control suction and provide adequate
key before a floating coat is applied.
Butter coat: the top coat render mixed to a buttery
consistency that is applied to receive dry or wet
dash finish onto its surface.
Keyed surface: a surface able to receive an
application of plaster/render that enables suitable
adhesion of two surfaces.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Many rendering products can be harmful. Always
p Figure 4.1 Ritmo L Plus machine
wear adequate PPE and read the manufacturers’
technical information. Minimum PPE will be hard Spray hoppers are used mainly for application of thin
hat, safety glasses, dust mask, gloves, hi-viz jacket
and safety boots.
coat renders/Tyrolean Cullamix.

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p Figure 4.6 A jointer used for forming a pattern with its teeth for
ashlar joints

ACTIVITY
p Figure 4.2 Spray hopper Search the internet for more types or makes of
projection plaster machines that are widely used
within the plastering industry.

Pulley wheels are sometimes used for lifting heavy

buckets of mixed render onto scaffold lifts. On larger
sites this would be done by the telescopic handler
machine driver.

p Figure 4.3 A jointer is used for forming an ashlar pattern

p Figure 4.4 A darby is used for flattening and smoothing render

p Figure 4.7 Pulley wheel

p Figure 4.5 The ashlar cutter tool by Refina. A jointer used for
forming deep V and square ashlar joints p Figure 4.8 Telescopic handler
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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

ACTIVITY HEALTH AND SAFETY

1 Research two types of render on the websites of Always wear protective gloves when handling fibre
manufacturers such as Sto, Weber and K Rend. mesh scrim cloth to prevent cuts to hands.
2 Look at types of background preparation for
different substrates and identify the materials to This chapter focuses on plain face smooth render (see
use for background preparation. pages 181–187), which is best applied and finished on
3 Look at the types of topcoat finish available and a scratch coat surface. This type of finish consists of
match materials which are compatible (can be several layers applied onto a solid background surface.
used together).
It can involve either two or three coat plastering/
4 Research the correct beads and trims that are
rendering work, depending on the unevenness of the
used in various render finishes, in particular the
difference between insulated render finishes and background.
other types of render system.
INDUSTRY TIP
There are also other, less common, types of render that
are used on older buildings. These are generally made Some modern pre-blended bagged materials can be applied
to suit the character of the building and can create in the same day in two passes of 6 mm each, when applied
a very effective appearance; a good example of this to new concrete blocks with moderate suction.
is cottage finish. These types of render require less If the background suction is too high, the render application
technique to apply and finish than other renders. will dry out too quickly. This will cause it to eggshell and
shrink, causing delamination.
External renders are popular and can be used on a If the background suction is too low, the render application
range of different backgrounds, including insulation. will not adhere to the surface, causing slumping and
External wall insulation (EWI) is fixed to solid delamination.
backgrounds mechanically and by direct bond,
improving the insulation of the building.
ACTIVITY
Research the types and strengths of concrete block
which are best suited to plain-faced render. You
might find it helpful to visit the British Board of
Agrément (BBA) website or read BS 5628 Part 3
Masonry.

KEY TERMS
Cottage finish: a traditional render finish applied in
rustic fashion.
Eggshell: when plaster or render dries out too
quickly, shrinks and cracks.
Delamination: when plaster or render becomes
p Figure 4.9 Insulation being fixed to a background, showing detached from a background and falls off, due to
mechanical and direct bond fix together the eggshell effect.
Pre-blended bagged renders are preferred on insulated BBA: within the construction industry, British
Board of Agrément certification indicates a
backgrounds because render contains polymers and is
high quality, experienced and reliable company
applied with reinforcing fibre mesh scrim cloth bedded or product. It is highly regarded and used by
into the render to reinforce the surface. Monocouche manufacturers in industry as a symbol of quality.
15 mm application is not compatible with an external
wall insulated system.

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Preparing and forming this type of finish will challenge

your skills as an operative. Being eager, enthusiastic
and keen to practise will help you to learn and develop
the required techniques to apply and form the finished
surface. You will need to produce high standards of
workmanship, using a variety of hand tools to produce
the final product.
To do this successfully, you will need to deal with
factors such as background key, which helps to make
the render adhere to the surface. You will also need
to control and treat suction to apply the first scratch
coat successfully. Another important factor will be the
selection of suitable materials that will be compatible
with the background, to ensure there is good adhesion
and bond between the two surfaces.
The process of rendering includes laying on several
applications of render. The number required will
depend on the specification, which will state the
background’s properties. The specification might state
that the background must be built up using dubbing
out coats, before the scratch coat and top coat are
applied. See the next section of this chapter for more
information about specifications, British Standards
p Figure 4.10 An uneven external background that requires
and other sources of information.
dubbing out

KEY TERMS
Background key: the background surface; you may
need to form (or ‘key’) a compatible surface to
allow adhesion between various coats of plaster/
render, either by using SBR/PVA application, or
by forming a scratched, rough surface between
application coats to enable the coats to adhere
without delaminating.
Specification: instructions stating the standards
required and practice to be followed for a task,
usually BBA-approved and to meet British
Standards. It is often an official document from
the architect who is overseeing a project.
British Standards: standards produced by the
British Standards Industry (BSI) Group, which is
incorporated under a royal charter and formally p Figure 4.11 Dubbing out stonework
designated as the National Standards Body (NSB)
for the UK.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

2 INTERPRET Green St

INFORMATION

Sand St
Plot 1

Plot 2
To carry out the work correctly, you will first need to
Plot 3
prepare properly by interpreting drawings and reading
various contract documents such as specifications,
schedules and data sheets. You will need to extract
from them the information required to carry out the Scale: 1:200

different aspects of the work. More information on p Figure 4.13 Block plan
these documents is given in Chapter 1.
You can then use the gathered information to select
appropriate tools and equipment, evaluate how to
prepare the background surface and prepare for mixing
and gauging the materials.

INDUSTRY TIP
As a trainee, you will generally work from verbal instructions
communicated by a person in higher authority – this could
be the plasterer, supervisor or manager.

p Figure 4.14 Elevation drawings for a typical house

Working drawings
Learning how to accurately read drawings such as block When you work on external rendering contracts, the
plans will give you the necessary skills to develop architect’s drawings provide detailed measurements of
and progress within your plastering career. Drawings external wall surfaces. You can use these to calculate
provide accurate information about and descriptions areas and volumes of material, as well as linear
of the rendering process and will describe the desired measurements for pre-made beads or trims. This will
outcomes of the project. They illustrate building help you to schedule materials and labour costs if you
elevations, positions of pre-made profiles, sections are required to tender for the work.
of windows, door heads and reveals and also any
special design features that might be included with the Specifications
rendering work. You can use the specification to help you order the
correct materials and components for rendering work.
The specification provides detailed descriptions of
the materials that must be used for the work. It also
contains other vital information, including the:
● type of background

OPF ● surface preparation

● mix ratios and additives

● required standards of workmanship

● method of application

● thickness

● tolerances

● types of pre-formed beads or trims to be used.

p Figure 4.12 Section of external wall and rendering systems

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You will need to comply with manufacturer’s

KEY TERMS
instructions and guidelines when using rendering
Block plan: drawing that shows the proposed products and components in order to maintain the
development in relation to the surrounding
quality of the completed work. Failure to do this can
properties.
lead to costly mistakes, which can have a major effect
Elevations: drawings that show the external walls
of the building from different views. on the outcome of the rendering work.
Tender: to submit a cost or price for work in an
attempt to win the contract. ACTIVITY
Ratio: the proportion of materials mixed together; Search the internet to find a data sheet for cement
for example, 6 parts of sand to 1 part of cement and lime. List the information covered.
would be written as 6 : 1.

Not following drawings and specifications might lead HEALTH AND SAFETY
you to carry out the work incorrectly. There might be The documentation is likely to include Risk
other trades working alongside you and any hold-ups Assessments and Method Statements (RAMS).
in your work schedule will no doubt have a knock-on RAMS are applied to most activities within the
construction process and must be read and
effect on their work too. understood before any work is started, to enable safe
If you find any discrepancies (errors or things that do working practice.
not match) in the drawings or specification, you must
report them to someone in higher authority as soon
as possible, to avoid disrupting and delaying the work. Calculate quantities of
For more information on specifications, refer back to materials
Chapter 1, page 31.
At the start of every job, you should be aware of the
possible effects of poor planning. Every effort should
ACTIVITY be made to ensure consistently high quality work and
Write a specification for the image used in the these efforts need to be maintained throughout the
‘Improve your maths’ activity on page 164. Make
rendering process.
sure the specification covers the points in the list
above. Your tutor will help you with this task. Always store materials correctly prior to use, so they
do not become damaged, contaminated or damp/
Schedules wet. If plaster/cement bagged products become wet or
damaged before use, they will be unfit for purpose and
The schedule is another document used in construction must be disposed of in the correct recycling skips.
contracts, containing information on the amount of
materials and components required for the work. For Check materials for quality and shelf life before
example, the schedule will list the amount of each type using them: using poor quality materials can cause
of pre-formed bead required for a rendering contract. problems and will reflect badly on your workmanship
and professionalism as a qualified operative. You may
For more information on schedules, refer back to
also incur the cost of having to redo or repair the
Chapter 1, page 32.
work.
Manufacturer’s information KEY TERMS
Manufacturers’ data sheets contain important
Manufacturer’s instructions: these state what a
information about the storage and use of their
product may be used for, how it is to be installed
products, as well as product information and technical and the conditions it can safely be exposed to.
guidelines. For more information on data sheets, refer
Shelf life: the use-by date of products such as
to Chapter 6, page 227. cement and lime.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

INDUSTRY TIP
Store materials in a dry, well-ventilated area, off the floor
and under a protective cover.

p Figure 4.16 Buckets are used to measure materials

p Figure 4.15 Poorly set-up mixing area and materials

It is good practice to order just enough materials to EXAMPLE

start and proceed with the job. Good planning and ● One 25 kg bag of sand will cover 4.5 m2 at
storage control, with order points set against your 10 mm thickness.
work schedule, will prevent you from running out of ● One 25 kg bag of cement will also cover 4.5 m2

materials during the work. If this happens, it not only at 10 mm thickness.

causes delays but can become costly if there are no If the mix required is 4 sand to 1 cement (a 4 : 1 mix),
we can calculate that 5 bags will cover 22.5 m2
materials for the hired labour to work with.
of wall at 10 mm thickness. The calculation for this
When pricing for work, you will have to calculate how is the total number of bags multiplied by the area
much of each material you need for the area to be covered by one bag:
rendered. You can do this by measuring and calculating 5 × 4.5 m2 = 22.5 m2
the wall area from the drawings. Once you have the If you have a wall area that measures 225 m2, how
measurements and calculations, the next stage is to many 25 kg bags of sand and cement will you need
find out the ratio of the mix. This will allow you to to apply a 4 : 1 ratio of sand to cement at 10 mm
work out the amount of each material that you need. thickness? To find the answer, divide your wall area
Reading the specification will also help you to do this. by the area covered by the 4 : 1 mix:
225 ÷ 22.5 = 10
Ratio of mixing materials So you will need 4 × 10 = 40 bags of sand and
An example of a ratio of mixing materials is: 4 parts 1 × 10 = 10 bags of cement to complete the job.
sand, 1 part cement, 1 part lime = 4 : 1 : 1. To allow for minor errors, always add around 10%
extra for wastage. You need to work this out for both
Always use containers of the same size to measure the sand and cement.
the materials to be used, so the mix ratio keeps the ● Sand: 10% of 40 is 4.
same consistency all the way through the process.
● Cement: 10% of 10 is 1.
Always fill the buckets exactly to the top. Failure to
So you need another 4 bags of sand and another
do so will result in an inconsistent mix and a finished 1 bag of cement. This brings the total for the job to
rendered substrate which has an appearance of 44 bags of sand and 11 bags of cement.
differing shades.
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Formulas KEY TERMS

You need to know a number of formulas to calculate Gable apex: the triangular part of a gable wall.
volume. For example, when rendering around the top
Linear measurement: measurement of a straight
of a house, you will need to know: distance between two points.
1 the formula for calculating the volume of the
triangular part of a gable apex:
half-length × height × thickness
2 the formula for calculating the volume of the square
or rectangular part of the gable wall:
length × height × thickness.

If there are any window openings, you will need to

subtract the volume of the openings from your gable
wall volume.
You can calculate the quantity of beading required from
the linear measurements of openings.
p Figure 4.17 A building with a gable-ended roof

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Answer the following questions, using this drawing. How many 25 kg sand and cement bags will you
need to cover the gable elevation, with a ratio of
sand cement render at 4 sand to 1 cement at 20 mm
thick? Round up your answer to the nearest number of
bags.
2.4 m

Remember from page 157 that:

● one 25 kg bag of cement will cover 4.5 m2 at
10 mm thickness
● one 25 kg bag of sand will also cover 4.5 m2 at
10 mm thickness.
1.2 m

1.2 m

To find the answer you will need to do the following:

1 Work out the area that one bag of sand and
1.8 m 1.2 m
cement covers at 20 mm thick.
2 Work out the area to be covered. This will involve
4.7 m

1.2 m
working out the gable area (the triangular part)
1.2 m

and the rectangular part of the wall and then

adding the two together.
2.2 m

1.8 m 3 You will then need to subtract the area of the four
openings from the area to be covered.
4 Divide the area to be covered by the area that the
4 : 1 mix covers.
5.1 m
5 Add 10% extra for wastage for both sand and
cement, rounded up to the nearest whole bag.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

3 SELECT MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Rendering materials KEY TERMS
Selecting and preparing the correct materials plays a Binder: a material used to make the aggregate
major part in the external rendering process. Knowing stick together when mixed.
what materials to select and how to prepare them will Curing: allowing the mix to set and reach its full
strength.
allow you to plan your work methodically.
You need to refer to the specification when selecting
materials, as this will provide detailed descriptions of Lime
the required types. Lime is another material that has many uses in
plastering mixes. It is made by crushing limestone and
Cement heating it in a kiln. Lime comes in bags and should be
Cement is used as a binder and to provide strength in stored on pallets in dry conditions. There are two types
the mix. It is made from 75% limestone and 25% clay used in plastering mixes: hydrated lime and hydraulic
and is used because of its faster setting time compared lime.
with lime mixes. Cement mixed with sand and water ● Hydrated lime does not set when added to
will begin to set after 45 minutes and will normally be plastering mixes. This has many benefits. Lime
completely set by the next day. Cement-based mixes added to a cement-based mix will improve the
can take several days to reach their final strength and mix’s workability and adhesion and help prevent
this process is known as curing. Ordinary Portland shrinkage. Another benefit of lime is that it creates
Cement is one of the most commonly used cements in suction.
mortar. ● Hydraulic lime has a ‘chemical set’ and sets very

White cement is another type of cement, which is used slowly when mixed with sand. The setting times can
in the render finish coat to enhance its appearance, be influenced by the temperature – setting will take
providing a much lighter look. It is made from longer in winter than in summer, so good planning
limestone (75%) and white china clay (25%). Gauging of the work is required.
white cement for rendering should be done accurately
to ensure the mix is uniform in colour and consistent in
strength.

ACTIVITY
Research how white cement is manufactured and
discuss your findings with your tutor.

p Figure 4.19 Bagged lime

Sand
Sand is an aggregate used to bulk the mix. Without
sand, cement mixed with water would be too hard and
p Figure 4.18 Bagged cement
would crack.

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Many different types of sand are used in construction.

Sand used for rendering should contain a mixture of
small, medium and large grains and contain as little silt
as possible. Silt is a very fine grain that can prevent the
cement from binding the mix, resulting in the render
surface becoming weak and powdery.
Some types of sand should be avoided because of the
shape of their grains – they can be too round in shape
and the sand will therefore contain too many voids.
● Pit sand is generally used by bricklayers for building

work. This sand is very fine with round-shaped

p Figure 4.20 Sand
aggregate and contains too much silt for rendering.
● Silica sand and silver sand are deemed too fine for

plain face rendering. Instead, they tend to be used as

Additives
a fill-in between paving bricks and for filling in fine Additives play an important part in the render mix and
seams or joints between the masonry. you need to know when and how to use them. They
● Loam sand is a term used for sand containing clay. usually come in liquid form in 5- or 25-litre containers.
This type of sand is used for traditional lime-based The table below lists the different types of additives
renders in the restoration of old buildings. and how they can enhance the performance of the
render mix.

INDUSTRY TIP KEY TERMS

Voids: pockets of air, common in poorly graded
Sea sand contains salt and impurities such as shells. It
sand.
is considered badly graded so should never be used for
rendering. Additive: a substance added to plaster mixes to
change their natural properties.

Additive Use
Plasticiser Plasticiser creates air bubbles in the mix and is used to improve the workability of the
mix. Without plasticiser, the mixed material would separate and become too heavy to
spread.
Too much plasticiser in the mix, however, can make it weak and cause the mix to
crumble.

Waterproofer Added to the mix to prevent water penetrating through.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

Additive Use
Frostproofer/accelerator Added when cold or frost conditions are expected during the work, to speed up the
setting time.

Salt inhibitors Used to prevent the effects of efflorescence from penetrating through the background
surface.

SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber) Used to increase the bond on poorly keyed surfaces.
bonding slurry

Mould remover Mould remover is not an additive but is used on backgrounds or render surfaces that
have been affected by mould growth such as fungi, mildew, moss and algae.
Mould remover is painted or sprayed onto the affected surface to remove and destroy
the mould spores and other airborne particles.

KEY TERM Manufacturers’ guidance and instructions should be

followed when using additives. Measuring the exact
Efflorescence: a white powdery deposit on the
surface of plaster, containing a high proportion amounts to add to clean water is vital: adding too
of salt. much or too little will cause the mix to lose its strength
and adhesion properties.

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
The plasterer’s labourer has added far too much In groups, look at the different types of additive used
plasticiser to the render mix. Research what would for external rendering. Read the instructions on their
happen to the mix and report on what steps must be use and feed back your findings to the whole group.
taken to prevent this from happening again.

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Storing materials KEY TERMS

You will need to prepare designated areas for storing Contamination: when materials have been in
bagged materials and containers. Poor housekeeping contact with something unclean, such as leaves
and stock control can result in waste. Consider a solid blown into the sand or dirty water used for mixing.
flat surface for loose materials such as sand and make Stock rotation: ensuring old stock is used before
sure it is protected with a good heavy cover. Using new stock. When new stock is delivered, it should
contaminated materials can negatively affect the work be stored behind the older stock, which needs to
and it will be costly to replace or renew them. be used first.
Bulking: the swelling of sand when it is wet,
New deliveries of materials must be checked to make making it heavier.
sure the delivered goods match the order in terms of
quantity and quality. Check use-by dates before signing
the delivery note. If any materials are not accounted INDUSTRY TIP
for, or are damaged or out of date, record this on the
Some plasterers doing three coat work will add coarse sand
delivery note and report it to your supervisor as soon
to the dubbing out coat to give it strength.
as possible. You can check the shelf life of bagged
material by looking at the use-by date on the bag.
Storing cement
INDUSTRY TIP Store cement off the ground, under cover and away
from damp conditions. Contaminated or out-of-date
Always put new deliveries at the back of the stock pile, to cement will become hard and lumpy and result in a
ensure the older materials are used first. This is known as
weak set. If accidentally used in the render mix, it might
stock rotation.
not bind the sand and the render will lose its initial
strength. Using poor quality cement might also cause
Storing sand the surface of the render to become powdery and soft.
Sand can be purchased loose, in bags or in sacks. Sand If cement is stored for a long time, even in good
used in plastering mixes should be protected from conditions, too many bags on top of each other can
leaves or animal contamination, as this can affect the cause the cement to set in the bag, becoming unusable.
binding of the material and the quality of the surface This is known as pack set.
finish. A good cover or tarpaulin is useful to protect
from rainwater (which can cause bulking). Bulking
increases the weight and volume of sand, which leads to
inconsistency when gauging and mixing the render mix.

p Figure 4.22 Bagged cement in storage

Poor quality materials can result in loss of strength,

causing mixes to break down and lose their ability to
bond and be compatible with the background.
p Figure 4.21 Sand in bays
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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

ACTIVITY Selecting pre-formed

Make a list of the effects of poor storage of materials beads/trims
such as cement, lime and sand and how they can
affect the render mix or surface. You will need to select the appropriate type of pre-
formed beads for your rendering work. Each one has
a specific purpose and use and should be fixed in the
correct position.

Type of bead Use

Angle beads Used on corners. They form straight arris edges and reinforce vulnerable corners by
protecting them from impact.

Stop beads Used when a straight stop edge is required. This could be for rendering up against
different surfaces, such as cladding or facing brick.

Expansion beads Used along straight joints in brickwork or blockwork, allowing for slight movement
and preventing cracking.

Render/bell beads These are fixed to bridge the damp proof course (DPC), window and door heads
to act as a drip. They are also used to break down large areas of render into more
manageable working areas.

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Type of bead Use

Reveal bead with mesh Used to allow expansion and movement against a window frame to reduce cracking
direct to a window.

KEY TERMS ACTIVITY

Arris edge: a corner feature formed as a sharp Carry out research into different manufacturers that
edge finish with angle bead trim or by forming a produce beads and trims, for example: Expamet,
hard angle. Catnic, ProBead and Renderplas.
Damp proof course (DPC): a layer or strip of
watertight material placed in a joint of a wall to
prevent the passage of water. Fixed at a minimum Selecting tools and
of 150 mm above finished ground level.
equipment
Beads are manufactured either in stainless steel Basic tools and equipment, such as the trowel and
or plastic and are available in various lengths and hawk for laying render on the background surface, will
thicknesses. The different sizes allow for their use when be familiar to you by now. You can refer to Chapter 3
applying render of different thicknesses. Fixing and for more on the use of these tools. However, other
positioning beads is explained later on in this chapter. tools and equipment are also used to carry out
rendering work.

Tool Use
Straight edge/feather edge Straight edges are used to check backgrounds and rule the render surface, removing
any high points and filling out low points.
This tool can also be used to form the external angles of the render surface and the
corners of returns.

Darby Used for flattening and ruling surfaces. You will need to be competent to use this
successfully. It can also be used to form the corners of returns.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

Tool Use
Comb scratcher Used to key the surface of backing coats.

Float Used to consolidate the final surface of the render finish, removing any high points and
filling in low areas in the render surface.
A wooden float was traditionally used to carry out this work; plastic floats are now often
used.

Tin snips Used to cut beads to the required length.

Drum mixer A strong, mechanical, robust mixer is required to make the render.

Serrated straight edge Used to rule the render surface and reduce air pockets in the render.

Finishing spatula Used to consolidate surface after use of serrated edge.

Sponge float Used to consolidate the final surface of the render after use of the float.

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Access equipment
When rendering, it is important that the scaffold
platform is suitable for the job in hand. The table below
details some of the equipment you may use.
Equipment Use
Independent scaffold A good type of scaffold to use when rendering outside surfaces because it is erected
away from the wall. It is a wide and solid working platform, allowing plenty of room to
carry out your work.

Trestle staging A good scaffold for low level buildings, which can be erected and dismantled with ease.
A firm, flat base is always required for erecting trestles.
Some sites will not allow trestles to be used. You should always check what type of
access equipment can be used on the site where you will be working.

Hop-up A good staging to reach low levels up to roughly 2.4 m in height.

Podium access equipment Often used on larger sites when trestle staging and hop-ups are not allowed.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

Equipment Use
Mobile tower Often used on smaller elevations.

Semi-electric scissor lift Often referred to as a mobile elevating working platform (MEWP), this is used for quick
and efficient access on lower elevations.

ACTIVITY HEALTH AND SAFETY

1 Research three types of access equipment shown SCAFFTAGs are used on equipment from which a
in the table. person might fall 2 metres or more. A scaffold should
2 Highlight any specialist training that might be be checked before it is used for the first time and
required to safely use the equipment under the then every seven days until it is removed. Information
current Working at Height Regulations. on scafftags will show when a scaffold was last
inspected and indicates whether it is fit for use.

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KEY TERMS
Return: a corner profile/edge.
Bell cast: a plaster feature set above openings and
the DPC line to form a drip and deflect rain water
away from the wall surface.
Plinth: the surface area below the bell cast that
runs along the DPC; upstand detail formed at the
bottom of a building at ground level.

4 APPLY RENDER
TO EXTERNAL
p Figure 4.23 Example of a SCAFFTAG
BACKGROUNDS
INDUSTRY TIPS Planning the work schedule
Before you start work on site, you need to read the
Scaffolding erected with a series of platforms to the height
RAMS to minimise risks involved with the work. This
of the building is called a scaffold lift.
will help to prevent accidents and injuries that could
Never work on scaffolding unless it has been erected by occur during the rendering process.
a competent person and regularly checked as the work
progresses. You should always adhere to the most up-to- Although method statements are produced to plan
date Working at Height Regulations when working from a safe method of work, there are other factors to
access equipment. consider before applying external plain face rendering
to background surfaces:
1 Working at height causes many safety issues.
ACTIVITY 2 The climate can affect the process and cause
1 Research different types of scaffold inspection damage to the surface of the work:
system and report on the use of scafftags when ● Sometimes weather conditions change in
working at height. minutes and can have an instant effect, causing
2 Look at various types of scaffolding for different a wash-down of the applied surface from rain, or
types of contract, to see what is necessary by causing surfaces to dry too quickly when render
law when working at height. Websites that might
is applied in direct sunlight or windy conditions.
offer advice include Smart Scaffolder and the
● In winter you need to be aware of frost and
Health and Safety Executive.
freezing conditions, as these will cause the mix
to become weak or crumble as the material
ACTIVITY thaws out.
Make a list of tools and equipment you would
3 On some renovation work, you will need to consider
need to apply two coat work to brick or block and plan how to deal with television aerials, satellite
backgrounds that contain a return, require a bell dishes, telephone cables, services and pipes. These
cast above a window and require a plinth along should be removed while the rendering work takes
the base of the wall at DPC height. place and then reattached after the work is complete.
4 Drains and gullies should be covered and protected
to prevent blockages. Windows, doors and
ironmongery should be covered with sheeting or
cling film to protect them from the render mix.

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5 Unauthorised entry and pedestrian traffic areas

are important factors to consider when planning
your work. Display signs and barriers to warn
other operatives of possible dangers and that the
rendering work is in progress. This will also help to
prevent accidental impact damage to the surface
of the work, which would be difficult to repair and
costly to replace. Use hoardings or fences to cordon
off the work area, preventing any trespassers or
intruders from entering the work area.

INDUSTRY TIP
Always check the latest weather predictions before you
carry out rendering work, in case the weather is likely to
affect the finished work.

Preparing background
surfaces
The background surface determines many aspects of
the rendering process. It forms the base for the render
and if it is deemed weak with a poor key it will not be
compatible with the applied mix. It is important to
understand that not all backgrounds have the same
properties and different methods and techniques are
required to prepare them. p Figure 4.24 Applying water with a flat brush
Backgrounds can:
Check the background’s surface before starting work
● be soft and weak
and remove any mortar snots that might have been left
● be hard and dense
by the bricklayer when they carried out their brick work
● be uneven, requiring building out
or blockwork.
● have low suction or high absorption rates.

Checking the suction and absorption will tell you if KEY TERMS
the background is dry and porous. You can find out by Hoarding: a barrier surrounding a site to protect
applying water to the background with a splash brush, against theft and unauthorised entry.
to see how quickly or slowly it is absorbed. No or low Three coat work: when plastering exteriors, this
suction will indicate that the background is hard or dense. means applying three distinct layers of render:
dubbing out/pricking up, scratch and finish render
Two coat backgrounds are classed as flat and straight surface.
and are finished using two applications of render. Some
uneven backgrounds require an additional coat of
render; this is termed three coat work (dubbing out,
scratch and finish).

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Background types
Let’s examine the surface characteristics of different backgrounds in more detail.
Type of background Comment
Composite backgrounds Composite backgrounds (backgrounds made up of two or more materials) should
be prepared with stainless steel expanded metal lath (EML), fixed using mechanical
fixings and plugs. This will reinforce the render when it is applied to the background,
creating a strong surface.

Stone or slate backgrounds This type of background cannot be completed in two coats due to its unevenness, with
deep crevasses and recesses that will require dubbing out.
Stone and slate have poor key and should be prepared by application of a bonding
slurry on their faces to improve adhesion when rendering.

Clay bricks Clay bricks were very popular at one time and can be found in all types of building. A
common fault with clay bricks is that they shell their face, causing the plaster/render to
‘blow’ (come away from the background).
This background is often uneven because the bricks were manufactured in kilns at
great heat which made them all a slightly different shape. They were then laid on a lime
mortar bed, which is very weak.
Clay bricks and lime mortar joints have a high absorption rate that will cause high
suction levels. This surface should be treated with a bonding adhesive before
plastering/rendering. Raking out the joints will also improve the key.

Concrete bricks These bricks are made from concrete aggregate mixed with cement. This surface
is smooth and hard, which means that the key is poor and the suction is minimal. A
bonding agent is best suited for this surface.

Engineering bricks This is a hard, dense surface with poor key and no absorption rate. The face of the
brick has a glossy surface that makes it difficult to prepare for plastering/rendering. It
has an enamel look and no suction.
This surface should be scabbled or roughened to remove the sheen and then an
external slurry can be applied. Alternatively, you can fix sheets of EML to its surface
with mechanical fixings – this is a good way to reinforce and form a key on the
background.

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Type of background Comment

New blockwork Newly constructed buildings that have block walling need little preparation before you
apply plaster/render to their surface because they have medium to adequate key. Water
can be applied in warm humid conditions to prevent the render from drying out too
quickly. The surface is flat and can be rendered using traditional or modern pre-mixed
materials.
Block walling built to today’s specifications and standards needs only a scratch coat
and finish; this is known as two coat work.

KEY TERMS
Expanded metal lath (EML): sheet material in the
form of diamond-shaped mesh that is used to
reinforce a surface. This material can be fixed with
screws and plugs or galvanised nails, or it can be
bedded into the render material.
Mechanical fixings: fixings used to fix EML to
composite backgrounds.
External slurry: thin, sloppy mixture of cement and
bonding adhesive applied to a background to bond
render to the surface.

Using bonding agents p Figure 4.25 External render with surface cracks

There will be occasions when you need to prepare

SBR bonding slurry
the background surface to improve its adhesive
properties, otherwise the external render will SBR is a strong bonding agent that is mixed with 1 part
not bond and will become loose. This could lead SBR to 2 parts cement to make a bonding slurry. This
the render to develop severe cracks that become type of slurry is applied to the background and while it
widespread over the surface. is still tacky the scratch coat mix is applied over the top
of it to ensure a good bond between the background
The specification will provide specific details about the and the applied material.
background surface and how it needs to be prepared
before the render is applied. Instructions on mixing
and applying bonding agents can be obtained from
data sheets; you will need to follow these carefully to
avoid breakdown between surfaces and so you do not
invalidate the guarantee of the rendering work.
Some bonding agents can be applied to surfaces and
left with a textured surface, to form a good key.

ACTIVITY
p Figure 4.26 SBR container
List five areas or surfaces that would need to be
protected on an external contract before you apply
slurry. INDUSTRY TIP
Remember to protect surfaces before you apply the slurry.
Splashes can be difficult to remove from glass and can also
stain surfaces such as masonry, timber and plastic.

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p Figure 4.28 Applying spatterdash to a common brick wall to

p Figure 4.27 Applying SBR slurry create a textured surface

Polymer-based bonding adhesives ACTIVITY

There are many types of polymer-based bonding Carry out a simple bonding test on a brick surface
adhesive on the market today, specially designed using different bonding agents.
to overcome problems with adhesion. They contain 1 Mix the slurry and apply it to the brick face, then
polymers that have been tested in laboratories to apply the render while the slurry is still tacky and
enhance their performance, providing added insurance leave for three days to cure.
and a manufacturer’s guarantee. 2 Repeat the process, but this time use the brush to
form a stipple pattern with the slurry and leave it
Manufacturers’ instructions and data sheets provide to dry on the brick face overnight.
simple user guides with instructions on mixing and Your tutor will help you set up this task.
application. Failing to follow these will invalidate the
guarantee and cause a breakdown in adhesion between
the applied material and the background. Setting up equipment
Reading the specification will help you to set up before
KEY TERM mixing and having the necessary tools and equipment
Polymer: strong glue-like substance used to to hand will make the process simpler to complete. You
improve the adhesion of render surfaces. will need equipment for:
● mixing, handling and lifting, such as buckets and tubs
A traditional method for bonding surfaces was to ● transporting, such as wheelbarrows and shovels
use a spatterdash slurry (see Figure 4.27). This is ● access, including scaffolding and ladders
a mixture of cement and sharp sand, made into a ● storing waste, such as skips or bins.
slurry and then thrown onto the background with a
paddle or small shovel. In more recent years, glues
INDUSTRY TIP
have been added to increase and improve the bonding
properties. Before you start the mixing process, make sure you have the
The first coat of render applied to EML which has been necessary health and safety equipment and clothing (PPE).
mechanically fixed to a substrate is known as a pricking
up coat.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

ACTIVITY Mixing equipment

Make a list of: A mechanical drum mixer (see page 171) powered by
● dangers associated with mixing
electricity or fuel is best for mixing render materials.
Set up the mixer in a designated mixing area, away
● safety clothing that you will need to carry out this
work. from traffic and pedestrian routes. A suitable place for
this work is outside the building and as close to the
work as possible, with good access for transporting the
render mix.
The materials should be gauged and measured in
buckets or a purpose-made box to ensure consistent
quality and strength throughout the mixing process.
Mixing materials such as cement and lime outside
can help reduce dust inhalation and adheres to Local
Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) health and safety good
practice. You also need to wear the appropriate safety
equipment to protect your lungs and eyes.
Water and power are essential for mixing efficiently.
Storing materials such as sand close to the mixer will
reduce physical labour and increase efficiency. Before
you start the mixing process, make sure the mixer you
will be using is well maintained and fit for purpose.

Mixing method
Render for two coat work would normally be mixed to
the following ratios:
● Scratch coat: 4 parts of sand to 1 part of cement

with waterproofer additive.

● Top coat: 5 parts of sand, 1 part of cement and ½

part of hydrated lime with a plasticiser additive.

INDUSTRY TIP
p Figure 4.29 Equipment for external rendering: wheelbarrow,
shovel and skip When applying several or subsequent layers of render, the
first mix should be strong, followed by the same strength
The next stage is to prepare for mixing, which will
or a slightly weaker mix to avoid creating stress. Stress
include mixing and gauging different materials and
can lead to cracking and cause the render to blow from
additives to specified ratios. the surface.

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The architect is responsible for designing and The following step-by-step instructions show the
writing the specification and will decide on the ratio method for mixing by machine, using the ratio 4 parts
for the mix. sand to 1 part cement with waterproofer.

STEP 1 Set up the mechanical mixer in the STEP 2 Fill a bucket with clean water, add the STEP 3 Pour some of the water into the mixer.
designated area. Set up the other equipment required amount of waterproofer and mix.
and materials near to the mixing area.

STEP 4 Fill one bucket full of cement and add it STEP 5 Fill four buckets full of sand and add STEP 6 Let the mix turn slightly dry rather than
to the mixer. them to the mixer. wet in consistency for a couple of minutes, so
the mix becomes workable.

STEP 7 When the mix is ready, place it in a STEP 8 Set up the spot board and stand
clean wheelbarrow and transport it to the work and soak the board. Empty the mix from the
area. wheelbarrow onto the spot board and you are
ready to go.
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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

Accurate gauging of materials and additives reduces the

possibility of incorrect ratios, which cause poor surface
finishes and variable strength and colour in mixes.

Pre-blended modern renders

Modern plastering methods and materials have
changed the way in which plasterers work. Pre-
blended/mixed renders in sealed bags are available in
a range of colours that have been specially designed.
These renders cause fewer problems than render mixed
on site, because they have been manufactured and
batched in specialised processing plants.
Common pre-blended renders are scraped texture
finish and one coat render (OCR) finish.
● Scraped texture finish is hand applied to 18 mm

thickness in two passes and scraped back around p Figure 4.30 Pre-blended render for external rendering
16 hours after application, depending on weather
conditions. INDUSTRY TIPS
● OCR is applied in two passes of 8 mm to make

16 mm thickness and finished flat smooth float/ Pre-blended/pre-mixed renders have a specified setting time
sponge float finish on the same day, depending on which makes the application more predictable. However, this
weather conditions. is variable due to weather conditions: for example, sunlight
and warm wind will reduce the setting time, whereas
Both applications can be machine-applied using
damp/wet conditions will increase it. Familiarity with these
different types of projection plaster/render machines. materials is essential for a seamless finish.
Although expensive, these machines increase the
Pre-blended renders can be applied by machines that mix
application method hugely by applying more volume
and spray the render onto the wall. Keep the water–render
per day than applying by hand. They also save the ratio constant to ensure quality.
wear and tear on plasterers’ tools over a considerable
amount of time.
Before being bagged, these products undergo vigorous Applying two coat rendering
checks to make sure they meet industry standards. Let’s look at the process of applying plain face
Another benefit of using these renders is that they rendering using two coat work on brick or block
carry a manufacturer’s guarantee (as long as they backgrounds. This is completed in three stages.
have been applied in accordance with the installation
guidelines provided by the manufacturing company).
INDUSTRY TIP

ACTIVITY Before you apply the render material, plan how you intend to
Search the web for pre-blended external renders. proceed with the work and think about applying the material
Weber is one manufacturer that supplies traditional in sections. This will give the job a clear structure and make
undercoat and top coat plain renders. it simpler to complete.

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Stage 1: Apply the scratch coat stronger, especially if exposed to open areas with
The first application of render for two coat work is severe climate conditions.
known as the scratch coat. This is normally gauged If you rule the scratch coat, this will make the base
and mixed using 4 parts sand to 1 part cement. A even and it will be easier to apply the top coat to an
waterproofer additive is measured and mixed with the average thickness. It also helps the top coat to dry
water to form a waterproof barrier in the render when evenly, allowing you adequate time to form the finish.
it has set. Be careful when applying the render because applying it
The scratch coat provides the base for the top coat too thickly can cause it to sag and slide.
and is applied about 9–12 mm thick. However,
the thickness depends on the unevenness of the KEY TERM
background. In some instances the mix can be made Rule: flatten off plaster/render using an aluminium
darby/straight edge rule.

STEP 1 Check for suction by wetting the STEP 2 Using a low level working platform, STEP 3 Check the surface with a straight edge
background. Set up the spot board and load it apply the render material, starting from the and remove any high points.
with material. right-hand side and laying on a trowel length
at a time. Spread the render from side to side,
flattening the surface to a thickness of roughly
10 mm.

STEP 4 Once you have finished a section of the STEP 5 After completing the wall, use a gauging STEP 6 The completed scratch coat surface.
wall, key the surface using a comb scratcher. trowel to remove any render that is left on the
floor.

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INDUSTRY TIP
Modern pre-blended/pre-mixed renders for backing/
preparation coats, such as Weber Rend Aid, are similar
to apply. Background preparation is applied and alkali
resistant fibreglass mesh cloth is bedded into the
background. A stipple rolled finish is prefterred for keying
to the next application coat. This gives an overall equal
suction to the substrate.

p Figure 4.32 Pre-formed beads

Bell beads are used to form a bell cast. The purpose of

the bell cast is to form a drip along the bottom of the
wall, directing rain water away from the render surface
below the DPC. On traditional renders, this practice
is also carried out over window and door openings to
direct water away from in situ frames. However, there is
no requirement to do this with modern render systems
p Figure 4.31 Example of alkali resistant fibreglass mesh cloth as they have improved non-porous qualities and water
Once you have applied the scratch coat, clean the work will run off without penetrating existing frames.
area and leave the scratch coat to dry. You will need to There are two methods for forming the bell cast:
let the render surface dry for a couple of days before 1 timber battens alone
you start the next stage. 2 timber battens with pre-made bell beads resting on
top.
Stage 2: Fix the bell bead
With both methods, first the timber batten has to be
The next stage is to fix the different types of pre- fixed along a level line. Then render is applied to the
formed beads or trims. Their positions will be shown timber along the length, forming a slight curve on the
on the working drawing. The total number of beads wall about 150 mm from the approximate depth of the
required for a contract will be listed in the schedule. curve formed by the bell cast shape. This render is left
Refer to the relevant data sheets as they will provide to set overnight before the timber is removed.
information on precise installation and fixing
procedures. If bell beads are used, a plastic or stainless steel bead
is rested and fixed along the timber batten and then
The specification will give specified makes and designs rendered to form the bell cast. Before fixing, tin snips
of the beads. They should be made from plastic or and a tape measure are used to cut the bead to the
stainless steel; galvanised products should be avoided required length and angle of cut.
for external work as the coating can corrode, causing
rust stains in the work. In modern practice, most Bell beads are also used above window and door
external render projects use plastic PVC external openings for the same reason and provide a rigid fixed
render beads. profile line to finish the render.

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p Figure 4.33 Timber batten used to form a bell cast

p Figure 4.35 Completed bell cast in place

p Figure 4.36 Fixing beads along the timber batten

INDUSTRY TIP
Using a timber batten is a good way of making sure you have
p Figure 4.34 Forming the angle at the bell cast with a timber a straight surface to rest the bead on before fixing. Trying
batten
to fix the bead without a batten may cause it to buckle and
distort along its length, which is unsightly to the eye.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

STEP 1 Using a pencil, mark the position for STEP 2 Using a level and straight edge, transfer STEP 3 Fix a timber batten along the line.
fixing the bell bead on one side of the wall. This a level line from the marked point.
could be 300 mm off the floor.

STEP 4 Rest the bell bead along the timber. STEP 5 Apply render to the bell bead and form STEP 6 The completed bell cast, keyed with the
Then fix the bead using nails or screws or by the bell cast shape, cutting back about 10 mm comb scratcher.
bedding it into render mix. along the edge of the bead to allow for the
application of the top coat.

Fir tree fixings are a more modern type of mechanical

fixing for beads. They are pre-drilled to a depth and
gently tapped in to fix with a lath hammer. It is good
practice to bed pre-mixed external bead adhesive on
top of fir tree fixings. Do not use pink grip adhesive to
fix beads externally, as the pink grip might bleed/grin
through the finished render.

INDUSTRY TIP
Do not mix and match different manufacturers’ materials. If
there is any kind of failure, all guarantees will be void due
to this type of practice.
p Figure 4.37 Fir tree fixing

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

ACTIVITY
Which types of fixing – mechanical and direct
bond – are compatible for fixing external beads to a
render system and which are incompatible?
Do some research and give full reasons for your
answers.

Forming timber bell casts above

windows
There are several methods used to form drips above
openings, such as windows and doors, using timber
rules or roofing battens instead of pre-made beads.
p Figure 4.39 Notched timber bell cast in position
One method is to cut the timber and notch both ends,
allowing the bell cast to project about 75 mm past The other method is to position a timber batten on its
the reveal. edge along the head of the window or opening.

INDUSTRY TIP
When consolidating the surface with a float, form and
finish the sides of internal angles at different times. This
is because the float will dig in and distort the opposite
side when you are consolidating and finishing the face of
the work.
The opposite side should be left until the following day, so
the surface can set hard. This will leave the internal angle
looking straight and sharp.

p Figure 4.40 Timber batten fixed on edge

p Figure 4.38 Notching the timber p Figure 4.41 Forming the bell cast up to the timber batten

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

With both of these methods, the bell cast must be The mix for this application includes cement, lime
supported from below by timber struts as it is formed. and sand. The ratio is normally 6 parts sand, 1 part
The soffit would then be finished plain and smooth cement and 1 part lime, with a plasticiser additive
once the timber has been removed. included to improve the mix’s workability. Hydrated
lime does not set but is added to reduce shrinkage
Stage 3: Form the plain face finish and improve the mix’s workability, making it fatty and
The top coat is the final coat and will need to be good for spreading and ruling. Plasticiser also helps
applied and ruled to tolerances and standards set improve the workability of the mix; without this, the
out in the specification, which will test your skill. This mix would be heavy, dense and very difficult to apply
type of finish will look poor if not ruled accurately; an and spread.
uneven surface will cast shadows when the sun glares You must apply your render to the correct thickness:
on its face. The same procedure for setting up should ● If it is applied too thin, it will dry too quickly.
be followed as for Stage 1. ● If it is applied too thick, it will sag and be unable to

line in when you rule it with your straight edge.

KEY TERMS
The surface of the render has to be rubbed and
Soffit: the underside of a window or door opening. consolidated with a plastic or wooden float while
Tolerance: required standards and accuracy of the surface is starting to set. A good way to do this
completed work.
is to have some render on your hawk which can be
used when you rub the face with the float, filling in
minor defects or holes as you finish the surface. If
you time this right, the surface will look straight, flat
and plain.

INDUSTRY TIP
Take care when using additives with the mix: adding too
much will weaken the mix and cause the face of the finish
to crack or crumble.

If the render dries and sets inconsistently, it might

be difficult to form the finish and achieve a uniform
appearance to the surface. Poorly prepared surfaces
that dry too quickly result in dark sandy patches
that stand out on the face of the render, due to over-
p Figure 4.42 Top coat consolidating.

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STEP 1 Apply the render mix onto the surface, STEP 2 Rule the surface with a straight edge STEP 3 Continue to work along the top of the
working from the top right corner. Complete a or darby, filling in any hollows as the work wall, applying and ruling from your previously
section of work roughly 1 m2 or an area that you proceeds. laid section.
can rule with a straight edge or darby.

STEP 4 Before you finish, check that the surface STEP 5 Complete the bottom part of the wall STEP 6 Apply the render to the bell cast, forming
is flat and that it lines in with the straight edge. just above the bell cast and proceed to the other a slight angle in the wall’s surface at this level.
end, using the straight edge or darby to rule and A darby is best used along this area to make sure
check that the surface is straight. the surface is flat.

STEP 7 As the applied render surface starts to STEP 8 Lightly rub a sponge/sponge float over
pull in and set, consolidate the surface with a the face of the finished surface.
plastic float to obtain a smooth, plain finish.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

Applying external render to

returns using two coat work
Applying render using a scratch and float finish to a
return or a pillar can be a difficult technique to learn
if traditional handheld methods are used to form the
corner. There are several ways to form the corner of the
return, which include forming and finishing two angles
at the same time (unless using and fixing pre-made
angle beads).

Reverse rule/hard angle method

One method of forming the angle is to hold a straight
p Figure 4.43 Sponge float
edge along the edge of the return to the required
thickness of the scratch coat, checking for plumb with
a level. Apply the render to the edge and flatten the
surface, then key with a comb scratcher, working away
from the edge. Remove the straight edge by tilting one
side and repeat the process on the other side. This is
known as forming the corner free hand or the ‘reverse
rule/hard angle’ method.

p Figure 4.44 Power float

INDUSTRY TIP
Many plasterers applying modern render systems use a
power float for the consolidation and finish of plain-faced
renders.

p Figure 4.45 Removing the straight edge

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The following step-by-step instructions show how to

form a return to a pillar (i.e. the top coat finish).
This activity needs two people to complete it.

STEP 1 Hold a straight edge to the face of the STEP 2 Apply the render mix up to the edge, STEP 3 Once the face has been ruled, remove
reveal to a thickness of 10 mm, using a spirit starting from the top and rule the surface with a the straight edge and clean its face.
level to ensure it is plumb. darby or small straight edge. Do not work down
to the bell cast at this stage.

STEP 4 Place the straight edge on the other STEP 5 Apply the render mix up to the edge and rule STEP 6 Tilt the straight edge and slide away
face to the same thickness as before. the surface with a darby or small straight edge. Do from the angle. This should leave it sharp.
not work down to the bell cast at this stage.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

STEP 7 Form the bell cast in the same way, then STEP 8 Once the render surface has begun to set STEP 9 Hold the straight edge to within 1 mm
leave to set before the next step. and pull in, rub up the face and consolidate the along the edge line and rub up to the edge with
surface with a float. the float, consolidating and forming the finish.
Again, do not go down to the bell cast until both
sides of the return have been finished.

STEP 10 Place the straight edge on the opposite STEP 11 A small plain timber batten can be
side and repeat the process. Once complete, tilt used to form the edge of the bell, using the same
and remove the straight edge carefully to leave procedure as above.
a sharp arris along the edge.

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External angles can also be formed with angle beads, All types of bead can be mechanically fixed or direct
which make this job simple and easy to achieve. bond fixed. It is good practice to mechanically fix using
These beads can be fixed to the corner, forming and fir tree fixings and direct bond fix using wet render
reinforcing a sharp arris that allows you to apply your product.
render and finish flush and flat to the edge of the ● Stop beads are useful profiles that allow the render

bead. Once the bead is fixed it will not move, making finish to be stopped against the edge of different
it easier to apply your render against a solid corner surfaces such as face brickwork, timber or plastic
profile. cladding. The principle for fixing is the same as for
angle beads. Again, once they have been covered
with the render material, they cannot be moved or
repositioned. Remember to take care when fixing,
using a straight edge to make sure the edge of the
bead is aligned.
● Expansion beads are fixed to straight joints of

brickwork and blockwork. They allow for slight

movement, preventing the surface cracking.
Two stop beads are used side by side with a gap
in between. It is quite common today to have
expansion joints in buildings, especially if the
building has a steel frame that contracts and
expands.

INDUSTRY TIP
Expansion/movement bead profiles sometimes come as
a sealed unit back to back as one profile. When rendered
p Figure 4.46 Fixing angle beads to an external corner
this profile lacks movement potential. It is better to use
two independent stop beads set separately to form any
INDUSTRY TIPS expansion joint as this gives more flexibility for expansion
and contraction of the substrate.
Prime the straight edge with water before you apply the
render to the face of the edge. This will make it easy to
remove and slide away, otherwise it will become sticky and
drag the render surface.
Take care when fixing beads. If not fixed accurately, they
will look unsightly and out of line. Once covered with render
they cannot be moved or repositioned.

p Figure 4.47 A sealed unit expansion/movement bead, which has

limited movement potential

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

External render features

External render features are a good example of how
smooth render can be used as a raised feature to
produce a classical and elegant look to the wall surface.
Window reveals and heads are rendered smooth,
forming a sharp edge for different external renders
such as pebble dash and rough cast. Different types of
profile can be formed by an experienced renderer to
enhance the finish of a rendered substrate: for example,
mullions around windows, enhanced heads and cills
(also spelled sills), key stones, quoins or raised banding
and plinths.

KEY TERMS
Mullion: vertical bar detail around windows.
Cill (sill): horizontal slat detail, forming the base of
a window.
p Figure 4.48 A stop bead. Two stop beads can be positioned Key stone: detail at the apex of a formed arch.
back to back to form an expansion/movement joint, which has Quoin: detail formed at external corners of a
more flexibility for expansion and contraction building.
Banding: horizontal detail formed around a building
at strategic points.
Plinth: the surface area below the bell cast that
runs along the DPC; upstand detail formed at the
bottom of a building at ground level.

p Figure 4.49 Plumbing and aligning the edge of a stop bead with
a straight edge and level p Figure 4.50 Window bands and quoins
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Common faults in external

rendering
Faults occur in plastering work due to a number of
factors and issues. This table describes some faults that
can happen in external rendering.
Fault Description and consequences
Poorly Render applied to background surfaces
prepared should be slightly weaker; applying render that
background is stronger than the background will cause
stress, leading the plaster to crack and blow.
Backgrounds that have poor adhesion and
low suction will not bond and the render will
become loose in time.
Render mixes applied over high suction
backgrounds will lose their moisture content
p Figure 4.51 Smooth rendering around a window reveal and soffit too quickly, forming a fine crazing surface.
Climate Hot and cold climate conditions can affect
ACTIVITY conditions the set of render mixes in different ways.
Mixing in freezing conditions will affect the
Calculate the following areas from the drawing
strength of the mix and cause the mix to
provided: crumble when set.
1 Gable wall to be rendered. Lime blooming is a phenomenon that can
2 Window and door openings. affect the early stage of curing of cement
3 Gable wall without windows/door. render in damp or cold conditions.
Avoid applying render in direct sunlight as
4 Linear length of all beads (stop bead/angle
this can draw moisture from the applied
bead/Bell cast bead). render mix, causing it to crumble and
become weak.
Hot conditions can remove the moisture
content from the mix; this will affect the
1.5 m
curing process and can weaken the mix.
Rain and frost can cause damage to the
surface and strength of the render.
Over-mixing Over-mixing rendering materials or using
4.75 m or using contaminated water affects the setting process
contaminated and can cause the mix to lose its strength,
water causing the surface to become powdery.
0.9 m
Using contaminated water can affect the
strength of the render and cause inconsistent
0.9 m
colour or colour deterioration.
Incorrect Incorrect gauging of rendering materials
1.1 m
gauging causes mixes to be inconsistent and have
6.5 m
different strengths.
0.9 m

0.75 m KEY TERM

Lime blooming: this happens when lime in the
form of calcium hydroxide migrates and forms on
1.98 m
the surface as the material dries out. On reaching
the surface, this reacts with carbon dioxide in the
air and produces a surface deposit of calcium
carbonate.

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

CASE STUDY background properties were weaker than the render

mix. The strength of the mix had caused stress on
the background and it had blown from the surface in
places. The window reveals had also corroded and there
was rust staining on the surface of the render, caused
by using the incorrect type of metal bead.
Carly wrote her report and stated that the background
would need to have stainless steel EML mechanically
fixed to its surface to reinforce it, making it suitable
to receive a two coat cement-based render. It would
also require either plastic or stainless steel bell beads
and angle beads to all openings, including reveals and
soffits.
During Carly’s visit she was able to determine access
for scaffolding and identify clear labour and pedestrian
Carly works for a local building company as a routes to carry out the job safely. She also made
plastering supervisor. One of her duties was enquiries to the client about services and a designated
to carry out a rendering survey on a detached mixing area.
bungalow in order for the company to tender for
Carly advised the client to use a pre-mixed render
re-rendering.
finish which comes in a range of colours and would not
When Carly arrived on site, she noticed that the plaster need painting. This would ensure a low-maintenance
was loose and it had severe cracks. It would need solution. It would also benefit the company, as space
to be hacked and re-rendered. When she removed for mixing was restricted and using pre-mixed render
some of the loose plaster, it revealed a lightweight would take less room than mixing a range of traditional
block surface which immediately told her that the render ingredients.

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Test your knowledge

1 Why is external render applied to a building? 8 Complete this sentence: Mixing render with
A to prevent stains from appearing contaminated water will affect the mix’s:
B to prevent paint from flaking A strength
C to prevent an uneven surface B application
D to prevent water ingress C thickness
2 To what are dubbing out coats applied? D evenness.
A uneven backgrounds 9 Where will you find information about the
number of pre-formed beads needed for a
B flat backgrounds
rendering contract?
C straight surfaces
A schedule
D poor surfaces
B data sheet
3 Why is waterproofer added to the mix?
C specification
A to prevent quick curing
D bill of quantities
B to prevent fast drying
10 When measuring quantities of materials, where
C to prevent penetrating damp will you find the measurements you need?
D to prevent moisture rising A method statement
4 What can be used to key renders? B schedule
A a comb scratcher C risk assessment
B a gauging trowel D drawing
C a bucket trowel 11 Which one of the following tools is used for
D a mixing tool ruling the surface of external render before it
5 What are bonding agents used to improve? can be finished?
A curing A boat level
B strength B adjustable staff
C adhesion C straight edge
D consistency D timber batten
6 Which one of the following is known as a binder 12 Complete this sentence: Pre-mixed render is
when mixing render? consistent in:
A sand A strength
B cement B thickness
C additive C application
D inhibitor D suction.
7 What do manufacturers’ instructions provide 13 Which of the following is used to form external
information about? render returns or reveals?
A binders A angle tool
B aggregates B angle guide
C application C long timber staff
D wastage D plane timber rule

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 Chapter 4 Applying external plain rendering

14 Why would external render material sag after 18 Which of the following is best to mix external
application? renders?
A It is too thin. A drill and whisk
B It is too thick. B mechanical drum mixer
C It was applied from the top. C plunger
D It was applied from the bottom. D bucket trowel
15 Which one of the following floats is used to 19 What is best used to gauge render material for
form plain face rendering? consistency and strength?
A plastic A paddle
B sponge B bucket
C devil C shovel
D setting D scoop
16 Why are render surfaces keyed? 20 Complete this sentence: External render mixes
A to prevent suction applied to the background surface must be:
B to allow the next coat to bond A bulky
C to prevent adhesion B fatty
D to improve workability C stronger
17 What are external render bell casts used to D compatible.
form?
A an arris
B an edge
C a recess
D a drip

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CHAPTER 5

FLOOR SCREED SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Floor screeds are laid to provide a hard, flat, level and durable surface that forms a base for floor coverings such
as carpets, vinyl and ceramic tiles. Floors must be level if they are to receive furniture such as kitchen units,
tables and chairs. An exception is when preparing a shower area with falls to a gully.
The basic principles for preparing, setting out and laying floor screeds and curing the materials are always
similar.
Traditionally screeds were laid by plasterers and if you work in the domestic market for small builders, this
is a service that you will generally still provide. However, commercial floor screeding is now usually carried
out by specialist floor screeding companies, especially since the introduction of pumped, ready-mixed, easy
flow materials. The addition of polypropylene fibres in sand and cement mixes to improve reinforcement and
flexural strength is now commonplace, due to the popularity of under floor heating.
By the end of this chapter, you will understand how to:
1 interpret information from drawings and specifications for laying sand and cement screeds
2 select materials and components for laying sand and cement screeds
3 know the difference between the types of screeded floor
4 lay sand and cement screeds.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.

Level 2 Diploma in Level 2 Technical

Level 1 Diploma in Plastering (6708-23) Certificate in Plastering
Chapter section Plastering (6708-13) Unit 223 (7908-20) Unit 204
Interpret information n/a Learning outcomes 1 and 2 Topics 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
Select materials and n/a Learning outcomes 3 and 4 Topics 2.3, 3.1
components for laying sand
and cement screeds
Types of screeded floor n/a Topics 2.1, 2.2
Lay sand and cement n/a Learning outcomes 5 and 6 Topics 2.4, 3.2, 3.3
screeds

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

1 INTERPRET INFORMATION
Specifications and drawings INDUSTRY TIP
As with all plastering operations, the contract
Good information sources for laying floor screeds are
specification is key to producing work to the required
specifications, schedules, manufacturer’s technical
standard. This will provide information about the:
information (MTI), drawings and building regulations.
● mix ratio

● screed materials to be used

● screed thickness

● insulation thickness KEY TERMS

● type of finish Insulation: objects or materials used in buildings to
● falls ratio (if the screed is in a shower room or other improve thermal quality.
sloped floor). Energy certificate: states a property’s energy
efficiency and recommends how energy can be
saved, to save money and be environmentally
friendly.
U-values: a measure of heat loss through a
building’s walls, floors and roof. Higher U-values
suggest poor thermal performance. The lower the
U-value, the better the building is at retaining heat.
Specification: instructions stating the standards
required and practice to be followed for a task,
usually BBA-approved and to meet British
Standards. It is often an official document from
the architect who is overseeing a project.
Schedule: a timetable or sequence of events.
Manufacturer’s technical information (MTI):
technical information on products for safe use and
correct installation.
p Figure 5.1 Floor screeding Drawings: provide a graphic illustration/
representation of what is to be built.
The inclusion of information about insulation reflects
a government focus on saving energy, with Part L of Building regulations: rules enforced by the building
control department of local councils to ensure all
the Building Regulations 2010 in England requiring all buildings are safe and fit to live and work in. These
properties to supply an energy certificate. This has regulations contain the minimum standards for
led to increased use of insulation to improve U-values design, construction and alterations to buildings.
in screeded floors. Underfloor heating, which is
increasingly popular, also relies on good design and use
of insulation.
ACTIVITY
As well as the contract specification, the contract 1 Search online to find out how U-values are
drawings should also be consulted for information calculated.
about floor screeding. The main two drawings are: 2 Work in small teams to create a poster
● a detailed drawing showing how the screed is built up presentation to share your findings.
● a location drawing showing the position of drainage

outlets for shower rooms.

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Screed
Slip sheet
Insulation
DPM
Concrete slab

Alternative location for DPM

Hardcore with sand blinding

Ground

p Figure 5.2 Example of a detailed drawing

p Figure 5.4 Skin burns from cement

ACTIVITY
Carry out an internet search for ‘floor screed
insulation’. Find the names and websites of two
manufacturers that make insulation.

p Figure 5.5 Wearing the correct PPE

ACTIVITY
1 Research what is meant by pH of 12–14.
p Figure 5.3 Safety glasses 2 Find out what treatment is required if cement
burns occur.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

There are many health and safety issues to consider burns. This is made worse by the abrasive (scratching)
when you are mixing and laying screeds. For example, action of the sand and by kneeling in it as you work.
the dust created by the cement when it is being added To prevent this from being a problem, wear a long-
to the mix can cause respiratory illness. Measures sleeved, heavy-duty pair of moisture-resistant overalls
must be taken either to reduce the levels of dust and/ and a good pair of knee pads.
or to reduce your exposure to the dust, such as: Wet cement can cause chemical burns on the skin.
● mixing in a well-ventilated area (with doors and When water is added to cement, relatively harmless
windows open) calcium oxide turns into calcium hydroxide which
● making good use of LEV has a pH of 12–14. This can often be slow to injure
● wearing a fine-particle dust mask or respirator the affected skin area, meaning that by the time
when mixing symptoms of burning appear, it is too late and the
● wearing gloves and safety glasses, as well as the injury will need treatment immediately.
standard hi-viz clothing and safety boots.
Laying floor screeds requires you to work while
When the mix is being laid, it no longer poses a kneeling, bending over and stretching. This can put
significant risk from fine dust particles. However, a lot of strain on your back, so avoid working for long
cement is an irritant and can cause severe chemical periods without a break.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Mix volume and ratios

Floor screeds are expected to last at least 60 years, so
it is important to gauge and mix the floor screeding
materials correctly, according to the specification. If
you do not do this, there might be cracking or weak
spots. To minimise the risk of this happening, a mix
ratio is used which stops the mix being too strong or
too weak. The two most common mix ratios for a
traditional floor screed are 3  : 1 and 4  : 1.
● 3  : 1 – three parts of sharp screeding sand to one

part of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

● 4  : 1 – four parts of sharp screeding sand to one part
p Figure 5.6 Mix ratio of 3 : 1
of OPC.
The materials are mixed by volume to make sure the
consistency remains the same throughout the gauge. It is
Calculating materials
You must know how to calculate the volume of
very important to add the right volume of water to your
materials to use on a screeding job. Let’s look at some
mix, as too much water will weaken the floor screed.
examples of how to do this.

EXAMPLE
If a room measures 5.5 m by 3.5 m and the screed Then divide this amount by the weight of one bag of
thickness is to be 75 mm with a ratio of 1   :  4, what is cement (25 kg).
the volume of the materials required?
368.64 ÷ 25 = 14.74
Step 1 Round this figure up to the nearest whole number. In
Find out the volume to be filled with screed. Multiply this example, the number of 25 kg bags of cement
the area of the room by the screed thickness, making needed is 15.
sure you are using the same units of measurement.
Step 5
5.5 × 3.5 × 0.075 = 1.44 m3
Next, work out the weight of sand needed.
Step 2 For our calculations we will assume screeding
sand weighs 1.6 tonnes per metre cubed, or
Divide the volume to be filled by the total of both
1600 kg/m3. Multiply the weight per metre
sides of the ratio. The ratio here is 1  :  4, so 1 + 4 = 5.
cubed by the amount of material needed in metres
1.44 ÷ 5 = 0.288 m3 cubed.
Step 3 1600 × 1.152 = 1843.2 kg
Multiply each material by the volume it needs to fill. Then divide this amount by the weight of one bag of
Cement: sand (25 kg).

1 × 0.288 = 0.288 m3 1843.2 ÷ 25 = 73.728

Sharp sand: Again, round this figure up to the nearest whole

number. In this example, the number of 25 kg bags of
4 × 0.288 = 1.152 m3 sand needed is 74.
Step 4 Step 6
Work out the weight of cement needed. Cement Total up your materials. In this example, to lay a
weighs 1280 kg per cubic metre, written as kg/m3. So screed 75 mm thick with a ratio of 1  :  4 in a
multiply the weight per metre cubed by the amount of 5.5 m × 3.5 m room, we need 15 bags of cement
cement needed in metres cubed. and 74 bags of sand.
1280 × 0.288 = 368.64
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

INDUSTRY TIP IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

When calculating screeds, you will need to know
When gauging sand by volume, you must consider the how to calculate:
sand’s water absorption. For example, for domestic work ● area – the amount of space taken up by a
most sand is purchased in jumbo bags, which most people 2D surface
assume to weigh 1 tonne. But on average a jumbo bag ● volume – the amount of space a substance occupies
weighs approximately 850 kg. To complicate things further, ● linear length – arranged in a straight line
a cubic metre of screeding sand has a dry weight of
● ratio – the proportion of different materials in a
approximately 1.6 tonnes per cubic metre. mixture.
If we ordered the sand in jumbo bags weighing 850 kg, then
we would need to divide 1843.2 kg by 850 kg, which is 2.16,
rounding up to 3 jumbo bags of screeding sand.

2 SELECT MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS

Tools and equipment
To carry out floor screeding successfully, you will need the tools and equipment shown in the table.
Tool Use
Floor laying trowel Used to trowel the floor screed smooth. This differs from a plastering trowel as it is
made from thicker steel and is at least 450 mm long.
Some screeding trowels have a pointed end, to allow the plasterer to trowel into the
corner of a room.

Float Plasterers prefer to use a larger float to cover more of the surface area when finishing
the work and consolidating the material.

Spirit level At least two good quality levels are required: one with a length of 600 mm and the
other of 1800 mm. These are used to ensure a level surface.

Water level Used to transfer a datum point (see page 204) from one room to another.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Tool Use
Laser level Easy to use. Their accuracy generally increases in line with their cost.

Gauging trowel Used to mix small amounts of material and position material into tight corners.

Chalk line Used to mark out screed lines and datum lines.

Box rule Also known as a flooring rule. Used for ruling in screeds and checking the level, as
well as to compact sand and cement down to the screeds. This expels trapped air
and compresses the sand and cement, making the screed more solid and helping to
prevent weak spots.

Measuring tools Tools such as a tape measure are used to measure lengths of timber battens or floor
areas.

Square Used to square off frames and walls and for setting the screeds at the datum level.

➥
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Tool Use
Cement mixer For domestic work, an electric drum mixer (pictured) is the most popular, but on
larger sites a pan mixer might be used. As ready-mixed screed is becoming more
popular, this equipment is not always required.

Wheelbarrow Narrow wheelbarrows are used for domestic work as they allow you to manoeuvre
through doorways.

Large shovel Used for mixing and placing mixed material when floor laying.

Buckets Buckets of various sizes are used to carry water and materials.

Screed rail To help keep the floor flat, to form a chequerboard framework or to use when forming
falls.

KEY TERM INDUSTRY TIP

Datum point/line: a point or line from which
measurements are taken to establish the finished The terms ‘tools’ and ‘equipment’ are sometimes used
floor level; usually about a metre high and running interchangeably, but can be used to mean different things.
throughout the whole building. Tools may be handheld but equipment usually refers to
larger items. If you are employed, equipment will usually be
supplied by your employer.
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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

ACTIVITY Materials
Do some online searches to find out: The main two materials used for traditional floor screed
● how to use a laser level mix are:
● information on datum levels and deviation from ● Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

datum, using the search term ‘Screed Scientist ● sharp screeding sand (washed well-graded sand).
Lexicon’
Other materials can also be added in; these are covered
● in which situations a power float should be used
later in the chapter.
rather than a polyurethane hand float.

Ordinary Portland Cement

Cement works by wrapping itself around the aggregate
(in this case, the sand) during mixing, acting as a
binder. Refer back to Chapter 3, page 100, for more
information about cement.
OPC is made from limestone and silica. It is produced
worldwide, with the industry growing at a rate of 5%
per year. It takes a lot of heat to produce a bag of
cement, which has implications as governments are
Laser beam trying to reduce CO2 emissions following the Kyoto
Protocol.
p Figure 5.7 Using a laser level
KEY TERMS
Aggregate: a material made from fragments or
INDUSTRY TIP particles loosely compacted together. It gives
volume, stability, resistance to wear or erosion.
A power float is a mechanical tool used instead of a Coarse- to medium-grained material used in
polyurethane hand float to consolidate larger areas of construction for bulking.
screed work. Kyoto Protocol: an agreement between the world’s
nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Sharp screeding sand

Coarser than plastering sand, sharp screeding sand has
the strength and durability required for a floor screed.
The sand provides filler to the mix.
Sand for screeding should be sharp and gritty,
containing larger grains of sand to give more durability
to the screed. It should also be clean and free from
impurities.

p Figure 5.8 Power float

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

p Figure 5.10 Polypropylene fibres

p Figure 5.9 Sharp screeding sand

When sand is wet it increases in volume, a process Styrene-butadiene rubber

called bulking. This must be taken into account when Like a cement slurry, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
gauging materials, to avoid accidentally creating a can be added to the mix to improve adhesion to
weaker mix. the sub-floor. When it is added to a screed mix, the
polymers in the liquid bond the aggregate and cement
KEY TERM together. This produces high-strength screeds and is
Bulking: the swelling of sand when it is wet, useful for carrying out patch repairs.
making it heavier.
Hardeners
Hardeners can be added, either during the mixing
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS process or during the curing of the floor screed, when
Remember that 1 tonne = 1000 kg.
the cement is kept moist to allow the screed to harden.
They make the surface of the screed more durable and
also allow earlier foot traffic over its surface.
ACTIVITY Waterproofers
Find out the cost of 1 tonne of sharp screeding sand
These can be added to the mix if the screed is to be laid
by visiting local builders’ merchants/suppliers or
looking at their websites. in a wet area.

Reinforcing mesh
Other materials Reinforcing mesh – such as D49 mesh or chicken wire –
can be laid midway in the screed to reinforce the screed
Polypropylene
and help prevent cracking.
Polypropylene fibres that are 20 mm long can also be
added to the mix. They help to reduce cracking and
improve strength. As a proportion of the concrete or KEY TERMS
screed mix, 1 × 100 g bag is used for 1 × 25 kg bag of Curing: allowing the mix to set and reach its full
cement. strength.
Foot traffic: people walking or travelling over an
In a standard-sized cement mixer (with a 90-litre
area. The term is used when a newly laid floor
capacity), one-third of the cement bag is used at a screed allows someone to walk over the screed
time to create a standard concrete/screed mix, so without leaving any indentations, usually after
one-third of the fibre bag’s contents would also be about three or four days.
added to each mix.
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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Component materials used for

screeding
Pre-mixed screed
Using ready-mixed screed has a few advantages over
using a traditional sand and cement site-mixed screed.
These include:
● consistent batching of materials

● no storage or mixing areas required on site

● retarders can be added to allow a longer working time

● other additives can be incorporated into the mix, p Figure 5.12 Diesel engine screed pump with hose, tripod, seals
such as polypropylene fibres to reduce cracking and and safety clips
improve flexural strength
● increased productivity as site operatives do not have IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
to spend time mixing materials. Research diesel engine pump screeds.
1 Find out how much they cost to purchase and to
KEY TERM hire for one week.
Flexural strength: the ability of a material to bend 2 Make a table of your findings and report on
without cracking or breaking. whether purchase or hire is more cost-effective.

Dry silos
INDUSTRY TIP On most medium to large construction sites, dry silos
Screeds are specified by: are used to store pre-mixed materials such as mortar,
● performance – this specifies a quick drying sand and
render and floor screed materials. They are connected
cement mix to the mains water supply, which is regulated to add
● strength – this is specified as a C rating (from C16 to the right amount of water to mix the materials to the
C30), with differently rated mixes being used for various correct consistency. The materials can then be drawn
applications off as needed.
● use and/or wear – this is classified as light or heavy.
Silos can hold as much as 16 tonnes of material, with
some silos having the technology to monitor how full
they are and trigger a reorder when the supplies drop
to a set level.

p Figure 5.11 Pre-mixed screed used for renovations or small

projects

Pre-mixed screed can feed into a mixer with a built-in

pump, which pumps the mixed screed up many floor
p Figure 5.13 Dry silos
heights. This saves production time and operative
fatigue.
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Materials such as lining paper for decorating and

INDUSTRY TIP polythene for flooring are sold according to their
thickness. The current building regulations state that
One method of screed testing is the BRE Drop Hammer Test.
polythene used for a DPM must have a thickness of at
The test is included in the British Standard (BSI) Code of
Practice and identifies any areas of the screed that are not least 1200 gauge.
able to withstand the load that is expected to be placed on
the screed. KEY TERMS
Day work joint: used when laying large floor areas.
Expansion strips are located at the edges of work
Expansion strips completed that day. The expansion strips help to
prevent cracking across the screed.
To help reduce possible shrinkage and cracking, a large
Lapped: the overlap of material, such as DPM, to
screeded area is laid out in a grid pattern to form day
ensure no moisture can penetrate.
work joints. This allows the plasterer to screed the
bays in sequence, rather than trying to screed the
whole area in one go. Each bay is approximately 14 m2.
Expansion strips are placed and levelled into each bay
at its joins.
An added advantage of using an expansion strip is
that it can be used as a screeding point to rule from.
The current guidelines ((BSI) BS5385) suggest that
expansion strips should placed every 8 m.

p Figure 5.15 Lapped DPM

Building sand
Soft building sand can be laid and compacted to
p Figure 5.14 Day expansion strip
an average thickness of 50 mm over the sub-base
concrete; the DPM is then laid on top of the building
Damp proof membrane
sand. The sand minimises the risk of concrete aggregate
Commonly abbreviated to DPM, a damp proof puncturing the DPM.
membrane is a thin, plastic, sheet-like layer. It is laid in
the sub-floor to prevent moisture rising up from the This process is known as sand blinding.
ground and into the screed. The membrane is lapped
up the wall level with the damp proof course (DPC); see
Chapter 1 for more information.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Liquid damp proof membrane

Liquid DPMs are sometimes used in refurbishment work
where an existing floor screed is failing. The old floor
Slip sheet
screed is removed or cleaned to receive a coat of
Insulation
bitumen liquid that is allowed to dry overnight. Once
dry, a second coat of bitumen is brushed over the DPM

first coat.
While the second coat of bitumen is still tacky, clean
Possible
sharp sand is scattered over it and allowed to dry. The vertical
new screed can then be laid on top, to a minimum insulation
thickness of 50 mm.
Also available is a two-pack epoxy liquid-applied DPM,
which is solvent-free and therefore low odour. It is Thermal block
used to provide protection for moisture-sensitive floor Insulation
finishes when the DPM is unsatisfactory and might fail.
The pack is manufactured in two contrasting colours to Plasterboard
help identify which areas have been coated. laminate

Rigid insulation Slip sheet

Rigid insulation is used under the floor screed or under Insulation

the sub-base (see Chapter 1) to help reduce heat loss DPM
through the floor.
Rigid insulation is available in various thicknesses,
to allow for the horizontal and vertical positioning Possible
vertical
of the insulation. The insulation is very durable and
insulation
offers good compressive strength. On this type of
board, the minimum thickness of the screed should
be 65 mm depth.
Thermal block
ACTIVITY Insulation
1 With a partner or in groups, discuss the steps
and processes for creating a liquid DPM.
2 Search online using the term ‘floor screed
insulation board’ and find out about Kingspan Threshold
Thermafloor TF70.

DPC
DPM
KEY TERM
Insulation
Compressive strength: the ability of a material (for
example, insulation) to take heavy loads, such as
furniture and people, without denting or going out
of shape.

p Figure 5.16 Insulation at various positions

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Slip sheet layer Self-levelling compounds are available in slow set and
A slip sheet is laid between the insulation and the floor fast set varieties. The fast set variety can receive foot
screed, made from 1200 gauge polythene sheet. It traffic after 20 minutes. It is important to lay the self-
should be lapped 150 mm up the sides of the walls to levelling compound reasonably quickly, to allow the
form a vapour control. materials to flow and self-level.

INDUSTRY TIP
Screed

Slip sheet Always make sure the sub-floor is clean: slightly dampen
Insulation the sub-floor with clean water or apply a diluted mixture of
Concrete sub-base PVA. Apply the self-levelling compound while the substrate
is still damp or tacky with PVA. This will control suction and
DPM above or allow the levelling compound to flow easily.
below slab

p Figure 5.17 Slip sheet

Free flow liquid screeds
Free flow liquid screeds use modern laying techniques
INDUSTRY TIP
and materials. Calcium sulphate, sand, water and
1200 gauge is the measure of thickness of the DPM additives are mixed to produce a free flow self-levelling
(300 microns). It also comes in 1000 gauge (250 microns). screed.
● Instead of marking out the screed using dots or

battens, screed levelling tripods are used, levelled

Self-levelling compound (latex) from a datum line.
Self-levelling compounds are used to compensate for ● The screed is poured over the area through a hose,
irregular floor screeds, especially on refurbishment work. up to the underside of the tripods.
● A dappling bar is then gently moved across the
First prepare the floor which is receiving the compound
by removing loose particles and dust. Then apply floor to level the floor screed.
a waterproof PVA (if necessary, following the This type of screed must be laid over an insulated sub-
manufacturer’s technical information) before self- floor, as moisture can affect its durability. It is a quick
levelling, to control suction and improve the self- process which makes it ideal for larger floor areas.
levelling compound’s adhesion.
All self-levelling compounds are cement-based. The
KEY TERMS
cost of self-levelling compounds varies, depending on Screed levelling tripod: used to make sure the floor
the quality of the aggregates and their flow rate (ability is laid to the correct level.
to self-level). Better quality self-levelling compounds Dappling bar: used to help level and finish the
liquid screed.
contain latex, which is either incorporated in the dry
mixture or added separately during the mixing process.
Self-levelling compounds that contain latex flow better
and provide a smoother finish if laid correctly. ACTIVITY
Find a video online of pump-applied floor screed
The method is the same, whether or not compounds being laid. One example is Weberfloor 4310 Fibre
contain latex: Flow-Weber Flooring Systems.
● Mix the compounds in a bucket with a mixing whisk

until they have a creamy consistency.

● Lay immediately with a plastering trowel to the

floor, to a thickness of between 2 and 5 mm.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

3 TYPES OF SCREEDED
FLOOR
There are four main types of sand and cement screed.
These are:
● monolithic

● bonded

● unbonded

● floating

Monolithic
When something is described as being monolithic, it
p Figure 5.18 Dappling bar means it is made up of a single, unbroken mass. When
a monolithic floor screed is laid, it is laid within three
hours of the concrete slab substrate being poured, that
is while the sub-base concrete is still green. By then, the
concrete has had its initial set but not its final set. This
means the screed which is laid on top chemically bonds
with the concrete, as they both set and dry.
The recommended thickness of a traditional sand
and cement screed without fibres is 20 mm, but can
be from 12 to 25 mm depending on the levels, high
points and low points of a floor. With added fibres, the
thickness can be reduced to 10–15 mm.
p Figure 5.19 Free flow screed with tripod
This type of screed is often found in commercial
settings, such as factories and warehouses.
Screed
12–25 mm

Concrete
sub-base

p Figure 5.21 Monolithic screed

KEY TERM
Green: describes a material such as concrete/
p Figure 5.20 Screed levelling tripod screed/plaster that has not fully set and is still soft.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Bonded Floating floor

As its name suggests, this type of floor screed is The floating floor method, also known as unbonded
bonded to the substrate. The screed is laid when the screed, is becoming more common. This type of screed
sub-base concrete has hardened and been scabbled, so is laid on rigid extruded polystyrene insulation to
that it is left with a tamped finish that provides a key provide an insulated floor area.
for the floor screed.
All walls and pillars must be lined with edging foam or 20
Screed mm insulation, to protect against shrinkage cracking.
40 mm
This system is the most commonly used in modern
Bonding
agent house building, especially for floors with underfloor
heating systems.
Concrete ● Floating floor screeds must be laid to a minimum
sub-base
thickness of 65 mm or 75 mm if heating pipes are
contained in domestic flooring.
p Figure 5.22 Bonded screed ● Commercial floating floor screeds are laid to a

Bonded screed is also known as separate. Before the minimum thickness of 75 mm and no greater than
screed is laid, the sub-base concrete should be soaked 100 mm.
with water, ideally overnight, to minimise the risk of
bond failure and edge curling. To improve adhesion, a Screed

slurry of cement and SBR can be mixed together to a Slip sheet

Insulation
ratio of 1 : 1 and then brushed over the concrete, and DPM
the screed should be laid while the slurry is wet. Concrete sub-base
Pre-formed concrete slabs and concrete block floors
are also suitable substrates for this type of screed. The p Figure 5.24 Floating screed
minimum thickness for this floor is 40 mm.
KEY TERMS
Unbonded Scabbling: removing the surface finish by
This type of screed is laid directly on top of either heavy mechanical means, producing a suitable key.
waterproof building paper or 1200 gauge polythene Tamped finish: where the screed has been
sheeting (DPM) with at least 100 mm laps up the outside compacted and consolidated to push coarse
walls. The only preparation required is to sweep the aggregate below the screed surface.
substrate clean of any debris that might puncture the DPM. Extruded polystyrene: this is formed by heating
polystyrene crystals to high temperatures, along
The screed is laid to a minimum thickness of 50 mm, with other additives, and forcing the mixture
but this increases to 65 mm if it is laid over an insulated through a die (which is like a mould). The result is
floor containing heating pipes. a denser material than expanded foam.
Edging foam: this measures 8 mm × 150 mm ×
Screed 50 m and is used to line the perimeter of each
minimum
50 mm
room where either a high floor build-up or a screed
layer is required. The foam is used to butt all floor
DPM
layers to reduce the effect of impacts transferring
into the adjacent walls.
Concrete
sub-base

p Figure 5.23 Unbonded screed

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

ACTIVITY
1 Draw a cross-section of a monolithic floor, a
bonded floor and an unbonded floor on DPM.
2 Use the correct symbols for each material
found in the floors’ construction. See Chapter 1
(page 35, Figure 1.79) for more information on
the symbols to use.

Screed sub-bases
Floor screeds are laid onto the following sub-bases:
p Figure 5.25 Edging foam ● green concrete base (when laying a monolithic screed)

● set concrete base (when laying a bonded screed)

ACTIVITY ● beam and block (when laying a bonded screed)

● beam and block overlaid with rigid insulation (when

1 In a small area, practise laying a bonded floor,
an unbonded floor and a floating floor. laying a floating screed)
2 Discuss the differences between them. ● set concrete base overlaid with polythene membrane

(DPM) (when laying an unbonded screed)

● set concrete overlaid with rigid insulation (when

Floor screed tolerances laying a floating screed).

All screeded floors should be level and flat. However, it
is good industry practice for the quality of the finished Screed
floor to match what is written in the specification, Slip sheet
which will be based on the British Standard Insulation
DPM
BS8204-1:2003.
To check how level a screeded floor is, lay a 3 m rule
across the surface of the screed. Any gaps or hollows
p Figure 5.26 Beam and block
showing underneath the rule must be within the
tolerances shown in this table. Heating pipe

Tolerance for gaps/hollows Floor finish

Class showing under a 3 m rule Screed
SR1 (the highest specified 3 mm
Insulation panel
floor screed finish)
DPM
SR2 5 mm
Concrete sub-base
SR3 (the lowest specified 10 mm
floor screed finish)

p Figure 5.27 Underfloor heating screed

INDUSTRY TIP
KEY TERM
SR means surface regularity. It is classified as:
Beam and block: floors made up of standard building
1 high standard
blocks laid between pre-stressed concrete beams.
2 normal standard
3 utility standard.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

4 LAY SAND AND HEALTH AND SAFETY

When brushing a dusty floor, wear a dust mask
CEMENT SCREEDS
●
and spray a light water mist over the floor to help
keep the dust down.
Incorrect disposal of waste such as dust could
Preparing floors ●
result in the blocking and contamination of
Traditional screeded floors are laid with a semi-dry drains. Remove waste in line with RAMS.
mix. Mixing the screeding sand and cement in this way
allows you to rule off, compact and consolidate as the
work proceeds. Preparation will depend on the type of INDUSTRY TIP
sub-base.
Consolidating and compacting a screed helps it to Methods for creating mechanical key:
bond and stops it breaking up. To do this, tap the loose 1 hacking laitance
screed with a trowel or aluminium box rule, to compact 2 scabbling smooth surfaces
it before ruling off. 3 brushing newly laid concrete surface.
Providing a mechanical key Methods for creating chemical key:
When screeding directly to a concrete sub-base that 1 primers
has been allowed to harden, i.e. for a bonded screed, 2 cement grout
prepare the base as follows. 3 bonding agents
4 bitumen.

p Figure 5.28 Providing a mechanical key

1 Provide a mechanical key if screeding directly to the

sub-base.
2 Sweep and remove all debris and any signs of laitance.
3 Soak the concrete sub-base overnight with water.
Remove surplus water the next day with a broom.
4 Mix a 1 : 1 mix of water and PVA to 50% cement
to make a slurry and brush over the concrete
sub-base.
5 Lay the floor screed while the cement slurry is tacky.
p Figure 5.29 Sweeping the floor
KEY TERMS
Semi-dry: the mix consistency of a traditional sand
and cement screed.
Laitance: a layer of weak cement that can affect
the strength of the floor screed if not removed.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Screed mixing methods Mixing by hand

It is important always to gauge materials by either For smaller quantities, such as for repair work, the sand
weight or volume, using a gauge box or buckets. Never and cement can easily be mixed by hand. The materials
gauge materials using a shovel, as this will produce an should be proportioned by weight or volume following
inconsistent mix. Always read the specification to ensure this sequence.
the materials are mixed to the correct mix ratio.

STEP 1 Gauge the materials with buckets. STEP 2 Place the materials in a single pile. STEP 3 Mix the materials dry (i.e. without
adding water).

STEP 4 Pour a small amount of water into the STEP 5 This is a semi-dry mix. It is important not
centre and gently turn the sand and cement to add too much water when mixing: you should be
into the water using a shovel. Continue until all able to clench a ball of sand and cement in your hand
of the sand and cement is damp. Turn over the without any water squeezing through your fingers.
material at least three times until thoroughly This is often referred to as ‘the snowball test’ – the
mixed. mix should be a similar consistency to a snowball.

INDUSTRY TIP
Using a semi-dry mix allows you to compact the sand and
cement screed when ruling off and reduces the risk of
laitance forming.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Mixing by cement mixer 10 Pour the mixed material onto a spot board or into a
This is where the materials are put in a cement mixer wheelbarrow.
and tumbled until mixed. 11 Wash out the mixer and clean the equipment.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

There is no set frequency for PAT testing. However,
if equipment is used often, it should be tested at
regular intervals by a competent person to make sure
that it is safe.

INDUSTRY TIP
Do not mix more materials than you can use within an hour.

Ready-mixed screed
Using ready-mixed screed has advantages compared
with mixing the screed yourself.
● There is no need to store materials as the screed can

be laid the same day it is delivered.

● Additives that delay the setting time can be added

p Figure 5.30 Mixing by cement mixer by the manufacturer, allowing more time to lay
larger areas.
Take care when adding water, as the tumbling action of ● Fibres and hardeners can be added by the
the materials being mixed together can cause balls of manufacturer to help reduce cracking.
compacted materials to form. Always ensure there are ● The correct consistency of mixed screed material
no unmixed materials stuck at the back of the mixer. is guaranteed, as the supplier will mix and deliver
The following steps explain how to mix with a cement the screed to the screeder’s specified ratio or the
mixer. architect’s design specification.
1 If using an electric cement mixer, check that it ● There is less wastage – you only need to order

has a current Portable Appliance Test (PAT) label enough materials for the job.
(see page 69) and is safe to use. ● As bagged materials do not need to be stored on

2 Make sure the work area is uncluttered and all site, there is a reduced risk of theft.
materials are close to hand with a supply of clean
water. Check that the mixer is on a firm standing. INDUSTRY TIP
3 If using an additive, add it to a large drum of water
to ensure consistency throughout the mix. Use Ready-mixed materials are most commonly used because:
water only from this drum for mixing. ● there is a guarantee of consistent mix and setting times

4 Add a small amount of water into the mixer drum. ● they save time and labour, as no mixing on site is required.

5 Add fibres, if you intend to use them.

6 Add about half of the sand that you intend to use.
7 Add about half of the cement that you intend to use. ACTIVITY
8 Add a little more water, followed by the remaining 1 Look at the ready-mixed section of these websites:
● https://readymixedconcrete.com/calculator/
sand and cement. ● https://source4me.co.uk/calculate_
9 Mix for no longer than five minutes – three minutes readymixed_concrete.php
is recommended. 2 Use your own figures to arrive at an estimate to
lay the screed in a room in your home.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Using and laying ready-mixed materials

KEY TERM
Ready-mixed screed can be laid using battens or from
Compaction: consolidation of the sand and cement
screed dots. Preparation is the same as for a traditional screed by tamping the screed with a box rule
sand and cement screed. and floor laying trowel. This strengthens the floor
To be effective when using ready-mixed screed, it is screed.
important to set up your working area correctly. For
example, when working on a domestic extension, lay out ACTIVITY
polythene sheets as near to the delivery point as possible Answer these questions, referring to the task above:
so the material can be stored there, with the sheeting
1 If the screed is to receive ceramic floor tiles,
preventing contamination of the delivered materials. specify the type of floor finish that will be
On larger projects, ready-mixed screed can be pumped necessary.
as far as 60 m. Some delivery vehicles can pump as 2 Outline how you will promote the curing of the
floor once it has been laid.
much as 20 tonnes of ready-mixed screed.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

If a room measures 5.5 m × 3.5 m and the required Floor screed finishes
screed thickness is 75 mm, how much ready-mixed The purpose of a floor screed is to provide a smooth,
material is required, not allowing for wastage? level surface that can withstand loads and foot or
Make sure you convert the measurements so that wheel traffic. There are different ways in which a floor
you are working in the same units. You will need the screed can be finished.
formula:
volume = length × width × height Type of finish Explanation
Trowel finish This finish is achieved using a large steel
Effects of poor workmanship trowel for smaller domestic floors or a
power float for larger floors. Trowel-finished
Cause Effect floors usually receive vinyl tiles/sheets or
carpet.
Lack of preparation Cracking and lifting of screed
of sub-base Float finish This finish is achieved using a large plain
float. The float leaves a coarser texture
Too little water Materials difficult to lay and compact
which provides a key for tiling adhesive
Too much cement Surface cracking when laying ceramic floor tiles.
Too little cement Weak screed, prone to wear and tear Latex finish This finish is achieved using a levelling
Too much water Weakens screed, causes cement to float compound, which is trowelled over an
to the top of the screed, screed shrinks existing floor with a steel trowel to a
Inconsistent mixing Leaves patches of sand or cement thickness of about 3–5 mm.
Over-trowelling or Attracts water to the surface with the Free flow This finish is achieved using a dappling bar
trowelling too soon cement, leaves a film of cement on the screed finish and is mainly used on larger commercial
surface of the screed properties.
Poor curing The screed dries out too quickly which
weakens it; curing can occur around
the edges of the screed
Poor compaction Produces small pockets of air that
weaken the floor

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Methods of laying a floor of the room and at intermediate positions (points in

between) to allow ruling off. When you have levelled
screed the battens or dots and they can stand the pressure of
The first task when laying a floor screed is to determine ruling off, screeding can begin.
the levels to work from. These are taken from a fixed ● If the timber batten method is used, the plasterer/
point such as: screeder starts to fill in between the timber battens
● a concrete door step at the furthest point away from the exit point,
● the bottom of a door frame for domestic work ruling and tamping the screed materials as the work
● a datum line. progresses. The timber battens are usually about
1.5 m long; this allows the plasterer/screeder to
remove the battens as they proceed, fill in with floor
screed where the batten was positioned and then
finish the work with a steel or plastic float.
● Alternatively, if dots are used, screeding materials

are laid between the dots and ruled off using a floor
Datum line
rule. As soon as the screed is firm, the timber dots
are removed. The plasterer/screeder will start to fill
between the wet screeds, ruling and tamping as the
work proceeds, finishing the floor with a trowel or
Timber
dot/batten steel float. If the floor screed material is initially too
wet to finish with a trowel or float, this can be done
later in the day when the floor is able to take light
Square foot traffic.
Set mark

p Figure 5.31 Laying to a datum line using a square INDUSTRY TIP

To make the screed non-slip, carborundum dust can be
sprinkled over the surface and trowelled in at the final
trowelling stage. For non-slip wet areas, a batten roller is
used to produce a dimpled effect.

Datum line
40-50 mm height
from floor
1000 mm
p Figure 5.32 A dot bedded in the screeding material

A datum line should always be used for commercial

work. Always check that the datum point allows for
the floor finish to be laid to the correct finished floor
level (FFL).
Once the finished floor level has been determined,
timber battens or dots are bedded in, using the
screeding material, around the perimeter (outside edge)
p Figure 5.33 Set the dots and form a perimeter screed

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Datum line Datum line

1000 mm 1000 mm

p Figure 5.34 Fill both sides p Figure 5.35 Fill middle and work out of the room

The following step-by-step instructions show you how

to lay a floor to a datum line using dots.

STEP 1 Damp down the floor. STEP 2 Sweep the floor. STEP 3 Set out the dots. The first dot should
be set in the corner furthest from the door and
approximately 300 mm from the end of the wall
which has the room’s longest length. Use a tape
measure to make sure the dot is the required
distance below the datum.

STEP 4 Set further dots as required. Make sure STEP 5 Form screeds between the dots. Ensure STEP 6 Rule in the floor to the dots with a box
that each dot is the same distance below the they are in line and flush with the top of the rule.
datum line. Level the dots across. dots and are level along their length.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

STEP 7 Before you lay beyond what you can STEP 8 Repeat Steps 5–7 along the opposite STEP 9 You should now have two screeds ruled
comfortably reach without over-stretching, wall to form another screed. in to dots and levelled in from the datum.
remove the dots, fill their holes and float the
surface of the floor, filling any misses and
hollows, etc. Check the floor with a box rule.

STEP 10 Fill in between the screeds. Starting at STEP 11 Follow the same process for the back STEP 12 Rule in the screed with a box rule and
the back wall of the room, empty a wheelbarrow screed, applying screed and compacting the float.
of mix between the screeds. This will need to mix.
be compacted down as firmly as possible, then
ruled off flush with the screeds.

STEP 13 Use a trowel to smooth the screeds. STEP 14 Continue in this manner, compacting, STEP 15 Complete the floor with a trowel.
ruling and floating, working methodically
towards the door.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Screed to a fall
All of the basic principles for setting out a sand and
cement screed can be applied to laying a screed to
a fall (a sloping floor). The purpose of laying screed
to a fall is to enable water to drain away to a sunken
drainage outlet. This type of floor screed can be found
in food preparation areas where washing down is
required, in kennels and in walk-in shower/wet rooms.

STEP 16 Carry out a final check for level.

Laying screed to a larger area

Larger areas of floor screed require a different laying
technique to reduce cracking and to allow finishing of
the floor. Screed rails are levelled through to form a
chequerboard framework: this allows the floor screeder
to lay alternate bays. The screed rails are then removed
and expansion strips are placed in the gaps to reduce
cracking.

p Figure 5.38 Drainage outlet

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

A factory floor is to be laid with a constant fall
of 1 : 100 throughout its 15 m length from a level
p Figure 5.36 A chequerboard framework base. The minimum thickness is to be 50 mm at the
drainage point.
Calculate the maximum thickness of the floor.
Make sure you convert the measurements so you are
Datum line working in the same units.

Setting out screed to a fall

As with a flat floor screed, the finished floor level is
established from a datum point or line. The next stage is
to check the working drawing to find the ratio of the fall.
For example, the drawing might state the fall is 1 in
100 or 1 : 100. This means that for every 100 mm in
p Figure 5.37 Chequerboard framework using day work joints or length, the screed will slope down 1 mm. So, if the floor
timber battens screed was 10 m long to an outlet, the fall (slope) would
be 10 cm.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Laying screed to a fall

When laying a screed to a fall, you have to work from
two datum points:
● a horizontal datum line or point to produce the flat

part of the floor

● the sunken gully to form the slope that allows the

water to drain away.

20–30 mm
fall

p Figure 5.39 Setting out to falls

Set out each corner from

datum line equal distance

p Figure 5.42 This picture shows forming falls to a grid gully, mostly
used in public leisure facilities which cater for multiple showers
Before starting work, check with your line manager
or the client that the sunken gully is connected and
functioning correctly. As with a flat floor screed, you
can use screed rails or form wet screeds to establish the
slope, working from the gully to the flat screed area.
Drainage outlet Battens set out
Depending on the design of the gully, the finished floor
20–30 mm lower to falls level will be flush with the gully’s rim or just below it;
this is to allow for fixing of ceramic or vinyl sheeting.
p Figure 5.40 Falling to a drainage grid
Always check the drawings and specification, as no
two floor screeds will be to the same design. Working
angled screeds is a difficult job. You will need shorter
feather edges or box rules as the floor screed becomes
narrower when you reach the gully.

470mm

500mm 500mm

p Figure 5.41 Laying a fall to a gully

p Figure 5.43 Using battens to lay a screed to a fall

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

The following steps show you how to lay screeds to a fall.

STEP 1 Set up the perimeter level, which is STEP 2 Level the corners across. STEP 3 Transfer the level diagonally.
always flat. Place a tile in each corner.

STEP 4 Fill in the perimeter. STEP 5 Rule off with a box rule. STEP 6 Compact the screeds to create the
finished floor level.

STEP 7 Lay battens (or form freehand) towards STEP 8 The gully will be lower than the screeds. STEP 9 Rule off the timber battens and
the gully. compact.

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STEP 10 Form the other side of the gully with STEP 11 Compact. STEP 12 Remove the tiles and battens and fill in.
battens or freehand.

STEP 13 Trowel or float finish. STEP 14 The finished fall.

Curing and drying out Whichever method you use, it is important to allow
enough time. Artificial heat should not be used to
Curing means keeping cement moist to allow the
speed up drying as the screed needs to be allowed
screed to fully harden. This is different from drying.
to dry naturally. As a rule of thumb, allow one day of
Curing is an essential part of floor screeding as it allows
curing for every 1 mm depth of floor screed. It might
the cement to reach full strength – the cement should
therefore take a long time.
not be allowed to dry too quickly.
To test: leave a glass beaker upside down on the floor
There are two options for curing:
screed overnight. If condensation appears in the glass in
1 Keep the floor screed damp for about seven days by
the morning, the floor screed is still drying out.
covering it with plastic sheeting or lightly spraying it
repeatedly with water. After seven days, remove the If any cracks appear during the curing period, there is a
plastic sheeting. simple test for lack of bond. Tap with a hammer either
2 Spray a chemical curing agent onto the floor screed. side of the cracked area and listen for a hollow ringing
After a few days, the chemical agent breaks down sound. If you hear that noise, it indicates delamination
and curing is complete. of screed to the substrate base. However, remember
that unbonded and floating floors will always sound
hollow when tapped.

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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

Ayna laid a sheet of polythene on the drive to receive

INDUSTRY TIP the ready mix, while Jordan fetched some battens to
lay over the water pipes to prevent damage to the
It is important to protect the working area from foot traffic
heating system. Jordan located the datum and marks
for several days while setting and curing take place. If
after a couple of days some foot traffic needs to access around the room where the finished floor level should
the screeded area, always put timber sheets or scaffold be: he had to make an allowance as the floor was to
boards down to take foot traffic. If any damage occurs, receive ceramic floor tiling over the screed.
it is important to do repairs correctly (particularly when The ready mix arrived at 9.30 a.m. As specified, it
preparing and keying the background), replacing damaged included a retarder to allow Jordan more flexibility and
sections and leaving a seamless finish.
polypropylene fibres to improve the flexural strength of
A 75 mm screed could take three months to dry completely. the floor: this is essential to help prevent the floor from
crazing as the screed heats up and cools down.
Ayna decided she would barrow the materials to Jordan
CASE STUDY so he could lay the screed to the minimum 65 mm
depth as recommended in the British Standards. Jordan
Ayna and Jordan have been awarded a 12-month started at the furthest point away from the door
contract with an underfloor heating specialist on a opening as he didn’t want to trap himself in the room.
sub-contract, labour-only basis. Jordan is an experienced plasterer and floor screeder, so
he laid the screeds to work from without using battens;
he worked around the perimeter of the room and laid
a few intermediate screeds to create bays of workable
sizes.
With the levelling screeds laid, he started to fill in
between them, ruling and tamping with a box rule
to consolidate the ready-mixed sand and cement.
Checking as he worked that the floor screed was flat
and level, Jordan used a steel trowel to lay the floor,
followed by a large plastic float to flatten and provide a
textured surface ready to receive the ceramic floor tiles.
They received a phone call from the main contractor, Ayna waited for Jordan’s instructions before dropping
giving them details about a job in Leeds. It meant an the ready mix onto the insulation as it was important
early start for Ayna and Jordan as they had to travel that Jordan had control of the laying process.
about 50 miles to get to the job and the ready mix was
As Jordan neared the end of laying the screed, Ayna
due to be delivered between 8.30 a.m. and 1.00 p.m.
started to clean and tidy the working area. With the
When they arrived at 8.15 a.m., the plumber was just floor screed laid, Ayna sprayed it with a curing mixture
carrying out a pressure test to ensure there were no to make sure the chemical reaction took place: if a floor
leaks in the plumbing system. Where the screed was to screed dries out too quickly it can become weaker.
be laid, the insulation and the slip layer were already in Polythene can be used to cure a floor screed but it can
place, including the perimeter insulation to help prevent only be placed when the screed can take light foot
cold bridging and allow for expansion and contraction traffic, and by that time Ayna and Jordan would have
as the floor screed heats up and cools down. started a new job.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Test your knowledge

1 A monolithic floor screed must be laid within 7 What is laitance?
how many hours of the concrete being A a cement layer on top of the finished screed
placed? B an additive to promote curing
A 3 C an additive to promote hardness
B 6 D a type of floor finish
C 9 8 Why is curing necessary?
D 12
A for quick drying of the screed
2 Which one of these is an advantage of using a B to aid compaction of the screed
ready-mixed screed material?
C to obtain an even float finish
A easier to lay
D for hardening of the cement
B cheaper to buy
9 What is the minimum thickness of a floor screed
C consistent mix quality over insulation?
D consistency can be adjusted on site
A 85 mm
3 How much ready mix is required for a floor B 75 mm
measuring 6 m by 4 m with a screed depth of
C 65 mm
65 mm?
D 55 mm
A 1560 m3
10 What is the purpose of perimeter insulation
B 0.156 m3
around a room?
C 15.60 m3
A to prevent cold bridging
D 1.56 m3
B to give an edge to work to
4 Which of these is appropriate for floor screed
C to allow for dry lining
battens?
D to keep the floor warm
A They should be left in the screed when the
floor is completed. 11 A floor screed finished with a trowel is suitable
for which type of floor covering?
B They should be removed as work
proceeds. A wood block floor
C They should be removed after the floor is B ceramic floor tiles
completed. C underlay and carpet
D They can be left in or taken out. D vinyl sheeting/tiles
5 Which of these injuries can be caused by 12 What is self-levelling latex screed used for?
exposure to cement? A to cover up poor workmanship
A skin burns B to level an uneven floor
B dry skin C to give a trowel finish
C cracked nails D to cover up cracked floors
D sore knees 13 Which one of the following is the minimum
6 Which resource should be used to transfer a thickness of floor screed if laid over an
datum point to another room? insulated floor with heating pipes?
A boat level A 75 mm
B water level B 65 mm
C feather edge C 55 mm
D measuring tape D 50 mm
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 Chapter 5 Floor screed systems

14 What can be added to increase the strength of 18 Floor levelling compound should be mixed to
a screeded floor? what sort of consistency?
A hessian A thick
b rapid hardening cement B watery
C polypropylene fibres C creamy
D masonry cement D weak
15 What can poor curing cause a floor screed to 19 What is used to lay floor levelling compound?
do? A steel trowel
A dry out too quickly B plastic float
B weaken around its edges C gauging trowel
C weaken in its centre D bucket trowel
D dry out too slowly 20 A monolithic screeded floor has a fall of 1  :100
16 What might happen if there is too much cement throughout its length of 15 m from a level base.
in a screed mix? With a minimum thickness of 25 mm, what is
A The screed will shrink and crack. the maximum thickness of the floor?
B The screed will have good adhesion. A 125 mm
C The screed will set quickly. B 150 mm
D The screed will be weaker than normal. C 175 mm
17 What is the most common mix ratio for a floor D 200 mm
screed?
A 1 sand to 1 cement
B 2 sand to 1 cement
C 4 sand to 1 cement
D 5 sand to 1 cement

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CHAPTER 6

PRODUCING, FIXING AND FINISHING PLAIN PLASTER

MOULDINGS TO MATCH EXISTING

INTRODUCTION
To be a fibrous plasterer you need to develop lots of new skills. This chapter will help you acquire and develop
them. It explains the process from the design and planning stage to constructing running moulds, producing
reverse moulds and casting from reverse moulds.
By reading this chapter you will gain knowledge of:
1 what fibrous plaster mouldings are and how to interpret information about them
2 how to select materials, components and equipment for producing fibrous plaster moulds
3 how to produce plaster reverse moulds
4 how to cast from a reverse mould
5 how to fix and finish plastering mouldings.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.

Level 2 Diploma in Plastering Level 2 Technical Certificate

Level 1 Diploma in Plastering (6708-23) Units 225 in Plastering (7908-20)
Chapter section (6708-13) and 226 Unit 206
Fibrous plaster n/a Unit 225 Learning outcomes 1 Topics 1.1, 1.2
mouldings and 2
Unit 226 Learning outcomes 1
and 2
Select materials, n/a Unit 225 Learning outcomes 1 Topics 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
components and and 3
equipment Unit 226 Learning outcome 3
Plaster reverse n/a Unit 225 Learning outcomes 4 Topics 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
moulds and 5
Cast from a reverse n/a Unit 225 Learning outcome 6 Topics 4.4
mould
Fix and finish plaster n/a Unit 226 Learning outcomes 4, Topics 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
mouldings 5, 6, 7 and 8

1 FIBROUS PLASTER MOULDINGS

Fibrous plasterwork developed as a modern This type of work is produced and manufactured by a
replacement and a lighter reinforced option for ornate fibrous plasterer in a purpose-made fibrous workshop.
plasterwork that was formed in situ. It resembles
classic period designs which were created in the KEY TERM
Georgian, Regency, Victorian and Edwardian eras. In situ : when a plaster moulding is run directly to
The process for fibrous plasterwork is to produce the background, using a positive profile.
reinforced positive plaster casts from a reverse mould.
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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

p Figure 6.1 Different mouldings in position p Figure 6.2 Positive and negative moulding run on a bench

When producing positive mouldings, it is important to

Benefits of fibrous understand the design process:
1 Establish the finished pattern.
plasterwork 2 Produce a reverse of the pattern from a running
All plastering work carried out on a plasterer’s mould profile, produced from a drawing or squeeze.
workbench falls into the category of fibrous plastering.
Fibrous plasterwork has benefits that appeal to
architects, project managers and plasterers:
● The fibrous items can be manufactured by specialist

plasterers in a controlled factory environment (as

well as on site). p Figure 6.3 A profile template
● Fibrous plasterwork is durable and lightweight.

● The skill and efficiency of the specialist plasterer

saves time.
What is a reverse mould?
● The project manager can plan the manufacture
Running moulds fall into two basic categories:
● Positive running moulds are used to produce a
and delivery of the fibrous plasterwork to meet
contractual timescales. section of the mould on a bench as a run cast or in
● The quality of finished work can be maintained by
situ.
● Reverse or negative moulds are run on a bench
following proper fixing procedures.
● It can be manufactured to order beforehand,
and a positive plaster cast is taken from the reverse
reducing standing time. mould.
● It can be manufactured to the required lengths. Reverse moulds are the ‘back to front’ version of the
● It is lightweight and uses less material than solid design shape or pattern you want to produce.
plasterwork.
● Ornate designs can be manufactured, using various KEY TERMS
moulding techniques.
Profile: the shape and pattern of a mould outline.
● Positive moulding is run on a bench to the shape
Squeeze: a method for reproducing a mould
of the finished product, such as a panel mould or a outline.
dado rail.
Run cast: a plaster moulding run on a bench with
● Negative moulding is run on a bench as the reverse
an upstand to produce a positive profile.
design, then a positive cast is taken to produce the
finished product, such as a cornice.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Early reverse moulds tended to have plain, simple There are several methods for taking a squeeze:
member designs, but as fibrous plasterers’ skills ● taking a plaster squeeze

developed over time, undercut mouldings were ● using a pin profiler/profile gauge to form the shape

manufactured using loose piece moulds and flexible of the cornice profile
compounds. ● cutting into the existing moulding using a fine-

toothed saw, inserting a sheet of card and drawing

Insertion reverse moulds were developed, originally
around the profile onto the card
using wax and gelatine, to produce ever-more
● cutting a small section out of the cornice and
ornamental cornice designs. However, today we use
transferring the shape directly to a sheet of zinc or
flexible hot or cold compounds and fibreglass to
aluminium.
produce detailed ornate designs.

Template Panel

p Figure 6.4 Positive panel mould

Template Panel

p Figure 6.5 Reverse panel mould

p Figure 6.7 Profile gauge

Template Panel

p Figure 6.6 Cornice panel mould

The profile designer who creates the detailed drawing

and the plasterer who will manufacture and fix the
final item must both have the ability to interpret
the drawing and visualise the finished product. The
plasterer must also have the skills to accurately transfer p Figure 6.8 Plaster squeeze
geometric mould outlines from a drawing onto a sheet
Once the fibrous casts have been produced, it is good
of zinc or aluminium.
practice to let them dry to allow excess water to
When drawings are not available, for example when evaporate. Always store the casts flat or upright to
working for a domestic client, the plasterer will be prevent distorting and warping. Once dry, they become
required to reproduce the profile from an existing stronger and are ready to be delivered to site where
cornice. This can be achieved by taking a squeeze. they can be installed.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Geometrical setting out of INDUSTRY TIPS

moulding outlines
On site, if you have a verbal instruction, it is best to have it
Geometrical outlines for cornice moulding are based on
confirmed in writing, because messages passed on verbally
either Greek or Roman architecture. Although many of are open to interpretation and can be forgotten.
the shapes are similar, the Greek style is more flowing
The size and shape of the mould outline can be found on
whereas the Roman style is proportional and based on
the working drawings. When matching an existing design, a
squares. squeeze can be taken and transferred to the template.

ACTIVITY
You have a responsibility for health and safety in the
p Figure 6.9a Cavetto workplace.
1 Enter ‘fine casting plaster MSDS’ into an internet
search engine.
2 Print off a relevant health and safety data sheet
and use it to identify any hazards that might
affect you or other people on site.
p Figure 6.9b Ovolo

Information sources used

when repairing and making
good plaster mouldings
p Figure 6.9c Cyma-Recta
Drawings
Drawings show the cornice design with dimensions of
depth and projection. The main drawings used by a
fibrous plasterer will be:
● detailed drawings, for the manufacture of the

running mould, including the zinc or aluminium

p Figure 6.9d Torus profile (usually at 1 : 10, 1 : 5 or 1 : 1 scales)
● assembly drawings for the fixing of the cornice into

position on site (usually at 1 : 20, 1 : 10 or 1 : 5 scales).

KEY TERMS
p Figure 6.9e Scotia Depth: the distance from the ceiling to the lowest
edge of the cornice.
Projection: the distance from the wall to the outer
ACTIVITY edge of the top of the cornice.
Draw each design shown here. You will need
Detailed drawing: a drawing that shows the profile
graph paper, pencil, rubber, ruler and compass to
or design of plaster moulding in negative or
complete this task.
positive view.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Schedule On receipt of the contract drawing and specification,

The schedule identifies the room location to ensure it is good practice to review the information to check
each cornice is fitted in the correct room. This is whether the item on the drawing can be made and
especially important if the site has multiple rooms with that the specification reflects the job to be carried out.
different fibrous plasterwork designs to be fitted. Also check that the materials specified comply with the
manufacturer’s own guidelines.
Specification Any discrepancies should be reported to your line
The specification gives guidance on the required fixing manager if you are employed or, if you are a sub-
method and the materials to be used for fixing the contractor, to the main contractor or the architect.
cornice or other fibrous work, such as a niche. For Cornice
example, guidance on the required fixing method might
include information about the depth and projection of Frieze

the cornice and instructions, such as: Ceiling rose

● Mark out to prepare ceiling and walls to receive

fibrous cornice by scoring to improve mechanical

key. Niche
● Drill pilot holes every 600 mm through timber

lath bearers.
● Apply approximately 3 mm of FiberFix adhesive to
Dado
back leading edge of cornice.
● Firmly push cornice into position and fix with Architrave
50 mm drywall screws into plugged or timber
background.
● Remove excess FiberFix. Make good and joint as Skirting board

work proceeds.
p Figure 6.11 Different types of fibrous plasterwork

KEY TERM Figure 6.11 is an artist’s impression of a room showing

Pilot hole: a small, pre-drilled hole bored to help various types of plaster moulding. Although not a
prevent splitting. working drawing as such, architects often use this type
of drawing to illustrate to a client how a room might
look once it is completed. You will notice that the
picture does not include the measurements or other
information a plasterer would need to make and fix
fibrous work.

ACTIVITY
Have a look at the decorative plaster frieze in
Figure 6.11. What type of mould would you use to
produce this decorative fibrous plasterwork?

p Figure 6.10 A niche is a type of fibrous work

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

3 Composition of material: states the ingredients

ACTIVITY used in the product.
1 Search online to find prices and measurements
4 First aid measures: gives first aid advice, such
for the following:
● plain plaster ceiling rose (find cost and
as how to deal with skin exposure or inhalation/
diameter of ceiling rose) ingestion of the material.
● plain plaster cornice ogee (find cost, depth 5 Firefighting measures: states whether the material
and projection of cornice) is flammable and how to deal with it in the event of
● egg and dart plaster cornice (find cost, depth a fire.
and projection)
6 Accidental release measures: gives advice on what
● decorative plaster frieze (find depth of frieze)
● solid based plaster niche (find cost, width and
to do if the materials spill on the floor.
length of niche) 7 Handling and storage: covers how best to handle
● egg and dart plaster dado (find cost). and store the material.
2 Sketch or describe the egg and dart design in 8 Exposure control: states limits of exposure when
your own words. using the material and engineering controls to
minimise the risks when using the material.
9 Physical and chemical properties: gives the
Manufacturer’s specifications
properties of the material under various conditions.
The manufacturer’s specification will give information 10 Stability and reaction: provides information about
such as: the stability of the material in various conditions
● product/material description and make
and how it reacts when mixed with other materials.
● how to apply or install the material or product
11 Toxicological information: gives advice on
● standards of workmanship.
whether the material is poisonous.
Manufacturer’s instructions 12 Ecological information: covers information about
the effects of the material on wildlife and the
The manufacturer’s instructions will give information
natural environment.
such as:
13 Disposal considerations: recommended methods
● technical data, including limitations on use
for safe disposal of the material.
● how to dispose of waste material in a safe and
14 Transport information: provides information about
environmentally friendly manner
whether the material requires any special delivery
● any health and safety considerations while using the
precautions, i.e. whether it is a Department of
material.
Transportation (DOT) hazardous material.
15 Regulatory information: outlines regulations that
Data sheets might apply to that material.
Data sheets are produced by the plaster manufacturer
and are usually available online. If an employer is KEY TERM
planning to use new materials for the first time, they
DOT: stands for Department of Transport;
are responsible for informing their workforce how to
transported materials are given a DOT rating to
use them safely. This could be done during a toolbox talk. indicate how hazardous they are.
Data sheets provide lots of information about the
use of the material and usually contain at least 15 DOT rating
important headings:
Material such as sand is low risk, whereas petrol might
1 Product name and company information:
be considered high risk should an accident occur.
provides a general description of the material
and its use, plus the name and address of the Most lorries have a notice on the back including a DOT
manufacturing company. number. If the lorry is involved in a traffic accident, this
2 Hazards identification: outlines any known number will help the fire service choose the best option
hazards when using the material, which can be used for dealing with a spillage or fire.
when creating the job’s risk assessment.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

ACTIVITY Calculating quantities

Search online for a data sheet for plaster of Paris. There are many factors to consider when ordering
For how long should you wash your eyes if you get materials for fibrous work, including the width, depth
plaster in them? Discuss your findings with your and length of the reverse mould or fibrous cast.
group and tutor.
Many different materials are used in the process of
manufacturing a reverse mould and cornice, such as:
● casting plaster ● hessian
Types of backgrounds ● retarder, such as glue ● fibreglass
There are several different types of substructure size or trisodium citrate ● sheet zinc or aluminium
background that may be used for in situ moulding work, (sodium citrate) ● small tacks
including: ● tallow ● drywall or wood screws
● masonry
● timber lath ● shellac
● timber laths
● plywood or timber ● clay.
● EML

● plaster.
Calculating and estimating
Measuring for fibrous plasterwork is carried out
Checklist before starting a using standard measurements which are as follows.
repair ● Area: used to measure most plastered surfaces, such as

two coat plasterwork, dry lining and finishing plasters.

Before repairing a damaged moulding, you should
The common unit symbol is m2 (a metre square).
consider:
● Volume: used to measure area and thickness
● the extent of damage
of application in three coat work. Plasterers
● the methods of repair that are going to be used
also use volume when gauging loose plastering
● if the repair is to a listed building, how the repair
materials to ensure equal measuring. The common
will fit with the rest of the building
unit symbol is m3 (a metre cubed).
● the location of the moulding to be repaired
● Linear: with the exception of very deep or complex
● what needs to be done to protect the work area.
cornice moulding, the majority of cornice is measured by
the linear metre run. The common unit symbol is L m.
KEY TERM
Listed building: a building of particular interest,
architecturally or historically, which is considered
INDUSTRY TIP
to be of national importance; details of these ● Plastering work is measured in area, volume and linear
buildings are recorded on national lists. measurements.
● Laths and rolled materials such as hessian are
The main methods of repairing damaged plain plaster measured by linear measurements.
mouldings are:
● run in situ Sometimes you will need to work out the individual cost
● run cast of an item that is normally sold in packs, including the
● reverse mould and cast. VAT cost and any delivery costs. Let’s look at an example.
The method chosen will be the one that best matches
the original design. The repair is made by taking a squeeze
then replacing the damaged section and making good.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

EXAMPLE
If a bundle of 100 laths costs £33.00, how much
does each lath cost if you also add VAT at 20% and
£15.00 for delivery of the bundle?
Step 1
Work out the cost for the bundle with VAT. In your
calculator, enter the bundle cost and multiply it by
itself plus 20%. This is written as ‘1.20’.
33 × 1.20 = £39.60
Step 2
Add the delivery charge to the total cost so far:
39.60 + 15 = £54.60 p Figure 6.12 A plasterer’s workshop
Step 3
To produce fibrous work, a plasterer needs a strong
Divide the total cost by the total number of items in
the bundle:
workbench to support the weight of the materials used.
54.60 ÷ 100 = 0.546
Round this up to the nearest penny and the answer is
55p per lath.
An easy way to divide by a decimal number without
using a calculator is to count the zeros and move
them to the left. For example, there are two zeros in
100. Move the decimal point in £54.60 two spaces
to the left and you get £00.546. Round this up to
£00.55 (55p).

ACTIVITY
Using the internet or trade catalogues, find the price p Figure 6.13 A plasterer’s bench
and weight of a bag of fine casting plaster.
Traditionally a plasterer’s bench was made with solid
timber legs and an over-boarded top which received
50–75 mm of casting plaster, producing a hard flat
2 SELECT MATERIALS, surface. Today, most plasterer’s workbenches are
COMPONENTS AND marine plywood instead of having a plaster top. The
most common top size is 1.2 m × 2.4 m, although
EQUIPMENT the size of the top really depends on the type of work
carried out. You could easily run a reverse cornice
Equipment to produce mould from a laminated surface such as a worktop.

fibrous moulding work The essentials of a plasterer’s bench are that:

● it is large enough to produce the item required
The majority of fibrous work is carried out in a fibrous ● it has running rules on either side of the bench,
plasterer’s workshop. Ideally this will have adequate made from timber or metal
space to store all the materials used to produce moulding ● if the surface is porous, it has been sealed with at
work, as well as drying areas for the finished work. If least three coats of shellac
hot melt compounds (HMCs, also known as hot pour ● it is sturdy and sits level on the floor.
compounds) are to be used, adequate extraction must be
installed to remove hazardous fumes when melting.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Some plastering workshops like to use plaster bins for HMCs are environmentally friendly as the compound
the daily fibrous work, as they keep the plaster dry and can be remelted to produce new flexible rubber moulds.
promote an organised working environment.
KEY TERMS
Thermoplastic: a characteristic of material,
meaning it can be remelted.
Dissipate: disappear.

Grades of HMC
There are three basic grades of HMC and each
manufacturer will have its own colour scheme to show
the different grades. For example, the manufacturer
Vinamold uses red, white and yellow:
p Figure 6.14 Plaster bin ● Vinamold Red is a general-purpose PVC and the

most flexible compound, suitable for most plaster

INDUSTRY TIPS applications.
● Vinamold White is both flexible and tough, so it is
● Always check that the bench is flat. ideal for concrete and polyester resin.
● If you are using a running rule, ensure it is positioned ● Vinamold Yellow is the least flexible of the three, so
straight and aligned, as this will determine the end result it is used with large moulds and thin sections and is
when producing a cornice reverse moulding.
recommended for use with all casting materials.
● Fibrous plasterwork is popular because it is lightweight
and can easily be transported to site.

Hot melt compounds

Flexible compounds are used to produce ornate
plasterwork. They are made out of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), which is a thermoplastic material. This means it
has to be heated to between 140–170°C to become a
liquid. Always read the manufacturer’s instructions for p Figure 6.15 Vinamold
the melting point of the compound. Different grades can be mixed together if required. For
● Once the compound has reached the required
example, if you are running short of materials or are
temperature, pour it into a galvanised bucket and just topping up, the different grades are compatible
leave to stand for about a minute. This allows any with each other when heated.
air bubbles trapped in the liquid to dissipate.
● The hot compound is then poured over a plaster/

clay model surrounded by a temporary fence, or

INDUSTRY TIPS
through a metal funnel if the model is surrounded Hot melt rubber is colour-coded to show its grade.
by a plaster case.
Always wear the correct safety clothing – especially leather
● As the compound cools it starts to solidify, forming
gauntlets – when melting HMCs and ensure that fumes are
a flexible rubber compound. extracted safely.
● Leave the hot melt compound to cool overnight.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

How to use HMCs Case moulds

Follow the steps below when using HMCs. ● When pouring rubber into a case mould, place a
1 Check that the heating equipment has a current PAT funnel at the base of the model.
label. ● The length of the funnel must be higher than the
2 Visually check the heating equipment before model otherwise the rubber will not rise to the top.
switching it on. Ideally the heating equipment Breather holes at the top of the case will ensure the
should be situated under an extractor system, or at HMC pushes to the top.
least in a restricted, safe and ventilated area. ● Cap off the breather holes with clay when the
3 Set the thermostat to the manufacturer’s rubber has cooled down.
recommended melting point.
4 Estimate the amount of HMC you will need to
complete the pour in one attempt.
5 Cut the HMC into small cubes, about 25 mm2, as
this helps the melting process.
6 Remove any air present in the plaster model by
pre-soaking it in water. Do not over-soak, as any
visible water on the model surface will be detrimental.
7 Depending on the style and size of the model, form a
fence or a case around the model. This is a dangerous
operation: you must wear appropriate heat-resistant
PPE including arm-length gauntlet gloves.
8 Pour the HMC into a metal bucket and allow it
to stand for a few minutes to lose heat. This is a
dangerous operation: you must wear appropriate
heat-resistant PPE, including arm-length gauntlet
gloves. The cooling lets any bubbles in the HMC
dissipate. If you pour too quickly, any air bubbles
present will appear on the flexible mould.
9 Then, still wearing appropriate heat-resistant PPE,
pour the hot HMC liquid in one continuous stream,
from the lowest point of the model.
p Figure 6.17 A HMC heater

Flood moulds
● When pouring rubber into a flood mould, remember
to make sure that all the porous surfaces have been
sealed with a suitable sealer.
● Pour a steady continuous stream of rubber at the
p Figure 6.16 PAT label lowest point at the base of the model until the rubber
is a few millimetres short of the clay, plasterboard or
timber fence that surrounds the model.
INDUSTRY TIP ● Once the rubber is set, carefully remove the fence
and the rubber from the model and wash the rubber
Minimise any possible suction to a bare plaster model by
soaking it in water. reverse. Plaster casts can then be taken using one
gauge of casting plaster.

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Cold pour compounds Running moulds

Cold pour uses a flexible silicone, two-part moulding Materials
compound consisting of a liquid and a catalyst, colour- Running moulds are constructed from timber. They use
coded to visually aid thorough mixing. It is important a zinc or aluminium template that forms the profile
to read the manufacturer’s instructions before mixing shape of the moulding. You will need the following
as each silicone compound will have a different mix materials to make a running mould.
ratio, depending on the weight of the material.
Working time can vary from 15 minutes up to
90 minutes, depending on the selected silicone.
Curing/demould time is at least 10 hours for most
silicone compounds.

p Figure 6.19 Cutting zinc

p Figure 6.18 Cold pour rubber compound
Material Use
Latex rubber is also a cold pour compound. This Timber or plywood To make the
material does not use a catalyst to activate the set and running mould.
is brushed over the model to build up as many coats as
required. Because of its thixotropic properties, it can be
applied vertically.

KEY TERMS
Catalyst: commonly used with fibreglass materials Zinc or aluminium To make running
or cold pour rubber, the catalyst in liquid form is mould profiles.
carefully measured into the bulking liquid. It reacts
with the other liquid: in fibreglass it hardens,
whereas in cold pour rubber it turns the liquid into
a flexible rubber.
Thixotropic: material that remains in a liquid state
in its container, but changes into a gel-like state
and hardens into position when brushed vertically
Small tacks or panel pins To fasten zinc
or horizontally.
profiles to timber.
Zinc: a non-ferrous metal, zinc is easy to cut and
forms its own protective layer called patina, so it
does not rust.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Material Use
Drywall or wood screws To assemble
running moulds.

Shellac To seal porous

plaster.

Tools
You will need a workbench with a vice to hold the timber
and zinc steady while the materials are cut, shaped and
assembled. As well as this, you will need the tools in the p Figure 6.20 Bench with vice
following table for the running mould making process.

Tool Use
Tin snips Basic or avionic tin snips are used to shape the zinc or aluminium into a mould profile.

Files Files are required to form both the timber and the zinc. Files come in a variety of styles
and sizes. You will need at least a flat and a half-round fine metal file for shaping the
zinc or aluminium and similar wood rasps for forming the timber.

Wood saw A sharp wood saw is used to cut the timber or plywood horse, stock and brace to size.

Coping saw Once the profile has been cut to shape, the outline of the mould is placed on the
timber/plywood stock and the outline is extended by approximately 3–5 mm. The
coping saw is then used to shape the timber.

➥
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Tool Use
Tenon saw This fine-toothed saw is useful for cutting rebates into timber.

Pein hammer This small lightweight hammer is useful for securing the zinc profile onto the timber
stock with nails. Also known as a pin hammer.

Drill/driver A small lightweight drill/driver is essential to drill pilot holes and secure the running
mould, together with suitable screws.

Try square Also known as a carpenter’s square, it is useful for making sure the horse is square
with the stock and if you decide to cut a housing joint into the horse instead of a butt
joint (see page 247).

Sandpaper/wet and dry emery paper Sandpaper is used to smooth down rough edges of timber. Wet and dry emery paper
can be used to smooth out high spots on zinc or aluminium profiles.

Busks Sometimes known as ‘drags’, busks are small pieces of thin flexible metal available in
three shapes: square, kidney and rectangle. Their main use is for cleaning mouldings
and for making good joints.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Tool Use
Small tools An essential part of the plasterer’s tool kit, available in various shapes and sizes, the
most popular are trowel and square and leaf and square. Useful for mixing small
quantities of plaster, for making good damaged plasterwork and mitre and for working
behind pipes.

Gauging trowel Also known as a ‘bull nosed trowel’, gauging trowels are used to mix small quantities of
plaster and feed plaster into awkward areas.

Splash brushes Traditional splash brushes have coarse bristles and are circular, unlike standard paint
brushes which have various types of bristles and are oblong in shape. A splash brush
is used to brush plaster into enrichments in reverse moulding and then to brush and
splash plaster when casting.

Shellac brush Any good quality paint brush can be used to apply shellac. Any size can be used but
50 mm is perhaps the most common. The most important issue is not to leave the
shellac brush exposed to the air for too long or the brush will be ruined. Always leave
the brush in water after use or in a shallow container with shellac in it.

Mixing bowls Used for mixing small quantities of plaster. As bowls are designed to be flexible (unlike
plastering buckets), casting plaster can be left to set hard in them because it will just
pop out.

Scraper Used to clean plaster from floors. The blade of a scraper can also be used as a joint
rule/busk for cleaning plaster slabs and mouldings.

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KEY TERMS
Horse: runs against the running rule on the bench.
Stock: holds the zinc profile and is attached at a
90° angle to the horse.
Brace: fixed to the top of the horse and stock
at a 45° angle; it stops the running mould from
twisting when it is in use.
Enrichment: decorative sections of plasterwork,
such as egg and dart or acanthus leaves.

3 PLASTER REVERSE p Figure 6.21 Casting Plaster

MOULDS
Materials INDUSTRY TIP
The plaster used in fibrous work is commonly Retarders slow down the set of the plaster when added to
known as casting plaster, although its proper name water. This makes the surface of the plaster harder, when
is hemihydrate plaster. It is made from gypsum, added to the firstings. Common retarders are citric acid or
a naturally occurring mineral rock with the chemical trisodium citrate.
calcium sulphate.
● The rock is extracted from underground mines or

open cast quarries and the crushed gypsum is fed KEY TERM
into containers called kettles. Retarder: a chemical additive that slows down the
● It is then heated for about two hours at a setting time of gypsum plasters, casting plaster
temperature of 170°C, until three-quarters of the and cement.
waters of crystallisation have been driven off.
● The resulting material after grinding is the Types of casting plaster
hemihydrate plaster, also known as ‘plaster of Paris’.
In Europe, a major manufacturer of casting plaster is
When plaster is added to water, the reverse chemical Saint-Gobain Formula. The characteristics of casting
reaction takes place and the waters of crystallisation plaster depend on its water/plaster (W/P) ratio,
re-form to convert the plaster back into gypsum. hardness and compressive strength. As a rule of thumb,
Chemically, the plaster will accept the exact amount the more water required to mix the plaster, the more
of water that was driven out during the calcining or fluid the mix will be, but the strength will be reduced
heating process; any excess water will be left to dry out and the setting time extended. Conversely, with less
later. water the setting time is shorter, but the hardness and
You will notice that the plaster becomes warm as compressive strength are greater.
● Fine casting plaster 100/70 = 100 parts by weight
it sets; this is part of the chemical reaction. Do not
attempt to remix gypsum plaster as it sets because the of plaster to 70 parts by weight of water – this is a
crystals will not lock together, resulting in a weak final weaker plaster.
● Crystacal Alpha K 100/21 = 100 parts by weight
set.
of plaster to 21 parts by weight of water – this is a
Manufacturers of casting plaster will formulate harder plaster.
products to suit specific applications. By doing so, they
create products with the desired properties, such as set The method of manufacture also determines the
time, fluidity and strength. ultimate strength and water ratio of the plaster.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

● If the plaster is manufactured in industrial kettles ● Formula Crystacast (100/28): an extremely hard
under atmospheric pressure, it is classed as a beta plaster, used where exceptional detail is required.
plaster. This plaster will be cheaper but weaker. ● Formula Crystacal R (100/35): an extra hard plaster
● Alpha plaster is heated to the same temperature used for its high strength and hardness.
as beta plaster (200–392°C), but is made in an ● Formula Crystacal Alpha K (100/21): ultra high-
autoclave oven under steam pressure, which gives strength casting plaster that can be used for
the plaster its hardness. industrial modelling.
Often, two different mixes of plaster are used for
casting. The first mix is known as the firstings and the
second mix is known as the secondings or seconds.

Trade names
● Prestia Classic Plaster (100/70): a consistent
general-purpose casting plaster, ideal for fibrous
plasterwork and sculptural work.
● Prestia Normal Plus Plaster (100/66): similar to
Prestia Classic but with a slower setting time; useful
when a longer working time is required.
● Prestia Casting Plaster (100/68): ideal for general
casting, cast moulds and curving.
● Formula Fine Casting Plaster (100/70): probably
the most common general-purpose plaster, it is a
versatile and economical beta plaster and is used in p Figure 6.22 Formula Herculite No. 2
numerous industries.
● Formula Fine Casting Plus (100/70): used to make ACTIVITY
decorative fibrous plaster pieces such as coving, Plaster companies sometimes merge with other
cornices and columns. companies or are taken over, but except for some
● Formula Keramicast (100/56): a hard plaster used new branding, the products largely stay the same.
for bulkheads, columns, lighting profiles and dado In pairs, research the latest information on three of
rails. the products in this list.
● Prestia Traditional Plaster (100/70): a slow-setting
general-purpose beta plaster.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
● Prestia Creation (100/50): a good quality hard
Plaster to water ratio by weight is 1.43 kg/litre. This
plaster useful for most casting and modelling means that if you weigh 1.43 kg of plaster, you will
applications. need 1 litre of cold water to mix the plaster for it to
● Formula Herculite No. 2 (100/42): a hard plaster reach full strength. If you use too much water, the
used for high strength and surface durability. plaster will be weaker. Sometimes the ratio might be
● Formula Herculite Fibrefix (100/55): an adhesive shown with decimals, worked out by dividing 1 by
1.43:
for fixing all plasterwork as well as for filling and
stopping. Used on-site where strong adhesion and 1 ÷ 1.43 = 0.70
longer working time is necessary. This is then referred to as 100/70.

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Materials used for reinforcement KEY TERM

Casting plaster can be brittle. To improve the overall Flexural strength: the ability of a material to bend
strength of fibrous work, timber, hessian and fibreglass without cracking or breaking.
strands can be used.

Reinforcement material Use

Hessian Hessian comes from the jute plant. It is woven into coarse fabric that is available in
many sizes, usually in 200 m rolls and in widths of 75 mm, 100 mm, 150 mm, 300 mm
and 450 mm. It is still the most common material used in traditional fibrous work.
Hessian can be wrapped around damp timber laths or wire to improve their flexural
strength. You can form hessian ropes and wads by dipping hessian into wet casting
plaster. Remove the excess plaster by running your fingers loosely over the hessian.
Then place the hessian in position from fibrous slabs to suspended fibrous slab
ceilings.

Sisal Sisal comes from the sisal plant. Its main use is to manufacture twine and for making
rope. Like hessian, sisal is a popular choice as fibrous reinforcement material.

Fibreglass Chopped fibreglass is a more modern material used to reinforce fibrous plaster. It is
useful to tuck into awkward places, where hessian may be difficult to drape. Chopped
fibreglass can be bought in lengths from 3 mm to 20 mm; 15 mm is the most popular
size.
Fibreglass can also be added to backing and finishing plasters and to floor screed
mixes to help prevent cracking. Chopped fibreglass and matting are most often used
in acrylic resin-based plasters that can be used externally, such as Jesmonite or
Fibrocem.

Timber lath Softwood timber lath can be used along with hessian to reinforce fibrous casts,
providing a strong, rigid skeleton and preventing casts or mouldwork from snapping.
Timber laths are generally 3 mm and 5 mm thick (or deep). Widths may be 10 mm,
13 mm or 22 mm and lengths are either 2.4 m or 3 m. The most popular size for
fibrous cornice work is 3 mm deep by 22 mm wide by 2.4 m long.
Laths require soaking overnight to prevent the cast from cracking when it dries out.

ACTIVITY INDUSTRY TIP

Search online to find out the most common sizes for
purchasing fibrous laths. Always cut your laths at least 10–20 mm short when
casting. This allows for the hessian to be tucked in and
stops bulges on the back of the cast.

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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS INDUSTRY TIP

1 Measure the perimeter of a room in your home.
2 Calculate the number of timber laths required to It is better to have the shellac weaker rather than stronger,
produce enough 3 m lengths of fibrous cornice, because it needs to be absorbed into the porous plaster
if two lengths of laths are required for each 3 m reverse mould.
length of cornice.

Sealants and release agents ACTIVITY

A 1-litre container is half-filled with shellac flakes.
As well as casting plaster and reinforcements, you
How many millilitres of methylated spirit will be
might need to use some of the following sealants and required to give a 50 : 50 ratio?
release agents.

Shellac Tallow
Shellac is a traditional material used to seal plaster. It Tallow is solid animal fat from beef or mutton. The
is a resin secreted by the female lac bug on trees in the solid fat is warmed up gently by heating it in a pan. As
forests of India and Thailand. It is processed and sold as soon as the fat has softened and become runny, it is
dry flakes. removed from the heat and paraffin is added at a ratio
of approximately 50 : 50. At this stage in the process, it
When the plaster reverse mould has been run on the
is known as ‘plasterer’s grease’.
bench, before any casting can take place, the plaster
needs to dry and be sealed, because the plaster surface Plasterer’s grease is used as a release agent to help
is porous. Shellac flakes are dissolved in methylated prevent plaster from sticking to the workbench or the
spirits, usually overnight. The shellac is then brushed plaster cast sticking to the reverse mould. During cold
onto the plaster surface and left to dry. weather, the plasterer’s grease might start to solidify
and in summer it might become too runny. To solve
Second and third coats of shellac are applied after
this problem, adjust the amount of paraffin added to
the previous coat has dried. More coats of shellac
the softened tallow, or store the grease in a warmer or
can be applied to plaster reverse casts, depending on
cooler area of the workshop, as necessary.
the viscosity of the shellac and the porosity of the
reverse cast. Other materials can be used as an alternative to
plasterer’s grease, such as lard, vegetable oil and linseed
You can also use shellac to seal your workbench.
oil. For exceptionally fine-detailed cornice works,
oil-based materials are a better choice as a release
agent because of their thinner consistency.

KEY TERMS
Viscosity: how thick or runny a liquid is. A viscous
liquid is thick and sticky and does not flow easily.
Porosity: how porous a material is; a porous
material has many tiny holes or ‘pores’ in it and
will easily absorb air or liquid.
Release agent: a substance applied to the surface
of a mould to make it easier to remove after the
plaster has set.
p Figure 6.23 Shellac

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Retarders
Retarder can be added to casting plaster to slow its
setting time.

Glue size plaster retarder

This retarder is made from animal skins and hooves
and is traditionally used within the ornate plasterwork
industry. When added to gauging water, it slows down
the set of the plaster, allowing you more working time.
To make a batch of this retarder (called ‘size’ in the trade):
● add 1 kg glue size crystals to a gallon bucket of very

p Figure 6.24 Tallow/plasterer’s grease hot water

● stir the crystals into the hot water to dissolve; do

not allow the water to cool

INDUSTRY TIP ● while the water is still warm, add approximately

25 g of hydrated lime and stir until fully dispersed

Tallow can be used in solid block form to grease the
● allow the mixture to cool.
plasterer’s workbench. Because it is not as slippery as oil,
the plaster tends to stay in place while moulding runs are Keatin is very similar to glue size and is also used as a
being produced. retarder.

Trisodium citrate
French chalk
This retarder is very easy to make:
This is a fine powder, similar to talcum powder. It is
● Add 1 kg to a gallon bucket of very hot water.
used when the reverse is greased to find any spots that
● Mix until fully dissolved and then allow to cool down.
have not been greased.

RL247 wax INDUSTRY TIPS

This type of wax is a brush-on liquid wax release agent,
● When making ‘size’, it is difficult to gauge its strength.
also available in an aerosol canister.
Use a small pot, measure the amount you add to your
gauging water and adjust accordingly.
● Be careful when using trisodium citrate as a retarder:
add too much to your gauging water and the plaster will
take too long to set, which affects the hardness of the
plaster.
● If no ‘size’ or trisodium citrate is readily available, a
small quantity of pink plaster may be added to the
water before casting plaster is added to the water. The
retarder in the pink plaster will slow down the set of the
casting plaster, too.

p Figure 6.25 RL247 wax

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Components of a running
mould
Running moulds can be constructed in a variety of
shapes and sizes. The profile design determines the p Figure 6.27 Housing joint
moulding member features of both positive and
negative profiles.
Running moulds must be robust, strong and
constructed from the correct materials in line with
specifications, to ensure they are fit for purpose.

Slipper/horse

Brace
p Figure 6.28 Butt joint

Types of running mould

Profile This list shows some of the types of running mould and
Stock
their uses.
● Plain panel/dado mould: a small positive mould run
p Figure 6.26 Parts of a running mould
on a bench.
The basic components of a running mould are as follows: ● Plain reverse mould: a negative cornice mould.

● Horse or slipper: two different regional words to ● Loose piece reverse mould: a negative cornice mould

describe the same part. The stock is fixed to the with an undercut profile.
horse/slipper with nails or screws. The horse then runs ● Loose piece insertion reverse mould: a negative

down the bench against the bench’s running rule. cornice mould with ornate detail.
● Stock: the stock is fixed at 90° to the horse/slipper ● Extended stock running mould: to run circular

with a butt or housing joint (see Figures 6.28 moulding.

and 6.29). The stock is approximately 3 mm larger ● Gig stick running mould: to run circular moulding

than the profile. This helps prevent a build-up of with a larger radius.
plaster on the back of the profile when running the ● In situ running mould: to run a mould direct to the

plaster mould. wall or ceiling, in situ.

● Brace: timber that is fixed to the horse/slipper and
The following step-by-step instructions show you how
the stock at an angle of 45°, using nails or screws to to construct a running mould. The photographs on
brace and strengthen. page 248 show a positive panel mould being
● Profile: sometimes known as a template, this is
constructed, but the principle is the same for making
made from zinc or aluminium to the shape of the either a positive or negative mould.
mould (positive or negative) and is fixed to the stock
using small tacks or screws.

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STEP 1 Design the basic shape of the profile STEP 2 Cut out the shape of the profile with tin STEP 3 Using a smooth metal file, shape the
on graph paper and stick it onto a piece of snips to within 2 mm of the profile line. zinc to match the paper template.
aluminium or zinc.

STEP 4 Remove any burrs with wet and dry STEP 5 Cut your stock. This should be wider and STEP 6 The stock and profile can now be fixed to
emery paper. longer than the profile metal (5 mm bigger in the slipper. For strength, the stock can be notched
both directions) to fit the profile on its surface. then glued and screwed into position. Make sure
This allows for any swelling that might occur the stock and slipper sit flat on the bench before
when in contact with wet plaster. Fix your fixing them together. For stability when running on
aluminium/zinc profile to the stock using tacks. the bench, it is normal for the slipper to be longer
than the stock.

KEY TERM
Burrs: rough edges on the profile
left after filing.

STEP 7 Braces can be fixed to support the stock STEP 8 The running mould has been
and slipper. Use a square to make sure the constructed but you might want to seal the
stock is set at a right angle to the slipper before timber with shellac before it comes into
fixing. contact with wet plaster. This will increase the
running mould’s life span and prevent distortion
of the timber.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Undercut designs A model or mould with overhanging ornate design

Some cornices may incorporate an undercut design. is known as an enrichment. When casting a cornice
This design feature makes it difficult to release the mould with an ornate design, the mould will be
fibrous cast from the reverse. impossible to take off: the undercut pattern of the
enrichment on the reverse mould will prevent the cast
being taken off when set.
In this situation, the inserted enrichment on the
reverse mould is produced with a flexible compound
material:
● Form a plane rebated section in profile of the

running mould.
● Bed the enrichments in the rebated section of the

positive mould and leave to dry.

● Carry out fencing and sealing.

● Pour cold or hot rubber compound over the positive

p Figure 6.29 Undercut cornice
mould to produce a flexible reverse mould.
Scotia

p Figure 6.32 Egg and dart decorative plasterwork

p Figure 6.30 A scotia member

KEY TERMS
INDUSTRY TIP
Insertion: incorporating an enrichment pattern in
to a moulding to enhance its design.
It important to rub the outline shape of the profile/template
using 180 or 220 grade wet and dry abrasive paper. This Fencing: ensuring that a model such as an
will remove any file score marks. You can use the side of a enrichment is surrounded, to eliminate leakage
when flexible compounds are poured over the
nail if you run out of wet and dry paper.
enrichment model to form a reverse.

Ornate undercut pattern

ACTIVITY
1 Search the internet for different moulding designs.
2 Make a list of the different enrichment patterns
found on ornate moulding work.

Using a backboard to produce a run cast

moulding
Although not often used today due to the amount of
labour involved with the process, fibrous plasterers can
obtain the same design by carrying out a procedure
p Figure 6.31 Ornate pattern design known as run cast process.
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A backboard is formed by securing a length of timber ● Once coated, pour a creamy gauge of casting
vertically on the plasterer’s workbench. It can be used plaster to the top of the mould and gently shake to
to run a cornice when only small amounts are required remove any trapped air.
for matching existing moulding work or running short ● The plaster cast must be fully set before you attempt
breaks that might be difficult to run in situ. to remove the outer case. To remove the outer case,
use sharp chisels and cutting tools to cautiously cut
Procedure for running a loose piece mould
and chip away until the tinted plaster is reached. This
To run a loose piece mould:
indicates that the cast has nearly been reached, so
● Prepare the bench in the usual way.
gradually remove the tinted plaster with blunt tools
● Run the reverse mould with the detachable loose
to avoid potential damage to the cast.
piece profile in position.
● Apply two to three coats of shellac to the section Casting plaster Tinted casting plaster
that the loose piece ran over and grease this lightly
to prevent plaster sticking to the loose piece channel.
● Run the reverse mould again, filling the loose piece

channel. It is wise to strengthen this section with

lath, hessian or fibres.
● Seal the whole of the completed reverse mould with

shellac three times. Clay model

When a cast is taken from this reverse mould, the loose p Figure 6.33 Waste mould
piece will separate from the mould, allowing the cast to
be removed without any problem. Cast filled with plaster

Waste moulds
Waste moulds are used to produce a one-off moulding
from a clay model where the sculptor wishes to retain
exclusivity.
● Prepare the clay model with a thin coat of a release

agent such as linseed oil or Mac Wax spray.

● Mix casting plaster with a coloured tint, such as

vegetable dye used in cake-making. p Figure 6.34 Mould turned over with clay model removed and
● Lightly splash the mixture onto the clay model to casting plaster inserted
a thickness of approximately 5 mm. Make sure that
no air is trapped between the clay model and the
tinted plaster and that the model is completely
covered with the tinted plaster.
● As the plaster starts to set, brush a weak mixture

of clay water over the tinted plaster, just enough to

discolour the surface.
● Mix and apply ordinary casting plaster over the

clay wash to an approximate thickness of 12 mm,

depending upon the size of the model.
● Once set, turn over the mould and carefully pick out

the clay original.

● Rinse the inside of the mould with clean water; p Figure 6.35 Removing the case
apply a mixture of soft soap and water to the
Large, more intricate waste moulds are best made in
mould, making sure all of the crevices have a
several sections to ease the removal of the clay and
coating of soft soap.
then the waste plaster.
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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Insertion moulds mould from the small rubber reverse. Join these
Insertion moulds can be manufactured in the following together to provide a seamless plaster model; again,
two ways. build a fence around the plaster model ready to
receive hot or cold pour compound. These small
Method 1 castings are called flood moulds because the
● Run a cornice in situ with a channel in the profile. plasterer just ‘floods’ the rubber reverse with plaster.
● Cast enrichments separately from a rubber mould.
Bed them into the channel with casting plaster or a INDUSTRY TIP
suitable plaster adhesive and joint them as required.
When casting from reverse moulds, it is important to
remove trapped air by vibrating the bench surface during
the casting process. Otherwise, there will be imperfections
and air holes on the mouldings.

p Figure 6.36 Run cornice with sinking channel

Method 2
The more popular method for producing a decorative
p Figure 6.37 Reverse mould with enrichment
cornice with enrichment moulding is to run a reverse
mould with channels and fix decorative moulding in
place, then take a rubber reverse moulding from which Running a reverse mould
plaster casts can be taken.
● A modeller will create a clay model of a decorative Preparation
section of the plasterwork on a sheet of plywood.
● The next stage is to make a clay fence around the
INDUSTRY TIP
model, which should extend to at least 10–20 mm
from all parts of the model including its highest Prepare all resources and material beforehand and keep
part: this is to allow for the pouring of the hot or your working area and running mould clean as you work to
cold pour compound. The thickness of the clay prevent unnecessary build-up of plaster.
fence depends on the size of the model: the fence
must be robust enough to be free standing and to ● Scrape and sweep the bench with a brush to remove
hold the pressure of the poured compound. Other any loose materials.
materials, such as timber or plasterboard, can be ● Check that the running rules are firmly in position
used to form the fence around the model as long as and free from any sticking plaster, as this would
they are sealed with shellac. hinder the smooth movement of the running mould
● In a clay model, make a small section and take along the bench.
a rubber reverse. Make as many plaster casts as
necessary to cover a sufficient length of a panel
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● Repair any indents on the bench surface and apply a

few coats of shellac to seal the surface of the bench. INDUSTRY TIPS
● Check the robustness and strength of the running
● When bagged materials are delivered, always check the
mould and the sharpness of the profile to prevent
use-by date on the side of the bag. It is not uncommon
any unwanted drag lines that would spoil the for suppliers to deliver materials that are out of date or
finished work. nearly out of date.
● Get two buckets of clean cold water, a brush to ● When you store bagged materials, remember to rotate
clean the running mould and at least three clean the stock so they are used on a ‘first in, first out’ basis.
flexible mixing bowls. Apply some barrier cream
or wear a pair of disposable latex-style gloves to A reverse mould requires a core to help reduce
protect your hands. expansion of freshly mixed plaster during running by
● It is important to mix enough plaster to run the using less plaster. This is a good opportunity to recycle
full length of mould, with no major misses along offcuts.
the length and members of the moulding. If this is
not done, there will be uneven expansion along the KEY TERM
length of the mould during the later stages of the
Core: old moulding or plasterboard incorporated
run, when running down to a finish. in the reverse moulding; used to reduce
expansion because it reduces the amount of
plaster required.

Finished
profile of Running mould
mould
Traditional
plaster core
keyed

Nails covered
with clay

p Figure 6.39 A reverse mould with a plaster core

INDUSTRY TIPS
● A running mould can be made either left- or right-
handed, but the principle of using the running mould is
the same.
p Figure 6.38 Cleaning the bench with a scraper
● Do not be tempted to add the plaster to the water and
mix it straight away, as your mix will be lumpy and
inconsistent.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Running the mould

STEP 1 Position the core on the bench. STEP 2 Fix the core in place. STEP 3 Apply plasterer’s grease to the bench.
This will allow the running mould to move freely
and act as a release agent.

STEP 4 Lightly grease the running mould STEP 5 Add some clean cold water to a mixing STEP 6 Pour the creamy plaster mix just longer
before using it, to help prevent the plaster from bowl and then sprinkle through your fingers than the required length of the finished mould.
sticking. small quantities of casting plaster until the This is to allow for wastage.
plaster sits just below the water line. Let the
plaster soak for a minute or two. Then gently
mix the plaster through your fingers to produce
a smooth lump-free creamy consistency.

STEP 7 Place firm downward pressure on the STEP 8 The zinc or aluminium profile should STEP 9 As the running mould is gradually built
horse against the running rule and the nib of always face the direction you are working. With up, mix smaller wetter quantities of plaster to
the stock. This ensures the running mould has one hand on the nib and the other on the brace, finalise the running.
full contact with the bench and helps prevent walk while pulling the running mould. As you are
plaster building up beneath the running mould. walking, feed the surplus soft plaster from in front
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STEP 10 Wash the mould. Repeat Steps 8–10 STEP 11 Gently run the blade of a small tool STEP 12 Brush the sides of the mould.
several times. Once you are satisfied that the to both edges of the reverse mould. This will
running mould is complete, leave the mould release the mould from the bench.
for 20 minutes or so until the plaster has set.
During this time, take the opportunity to clean
up and get ready to run the next cast.

STEP 13 When the reverse mould is complete, STEP 14 Apply three coats of shellac to seal the
trim off the rough ends. porous plaster surface. Once sealed, the reverse
mould can be used many times to produce
fibrous cornices.

Gently tilt the panel mould on its edge to move it to a

KEY TERM
suitable storage area.
Muffle: a temporary plaster mix applied to extend
To speed up the running process, a false profile can the profile by 5–6 mm; thin ply or a zinc sheet
be built up from plaster, or a zinc plate can be fixed can also be used.
temporarily to the stock profile. This will reduce the
amount of casting plaster used and also reduce mass
swelling when producing the reverse moulding.
The false profile should extend the original profile by
approximately 6 mm and can be made from casting
plaster or any sheet material such as zinc, plywood or
hardboard. In plastering terms we call this false profile
a muffle.
p Figure 6.40 Use a small tool to build up the muffle gradually
(view from inside the running mould)

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

p Figure 6.41 Scribe the set plaster to the shape of the profile

Running a plaster positive p Figure 6.43 Running a panel mould

panel mould
The method used to produce a bench panel mould is
Checklist for running a panel mould
similar to that for making a plaster reverse mould – but ● Prepare the bench and running mould: check and
a panel mould is smaller and does not require a core. repair any defects.
● Drive two headless nails into the bench, ● Grease the bench and running mould.
approximately 500 mm apart, leaving about 10 mm ● Secure headless nails every 500 mm and cover
of each nail projecting out of the bench at the with clay.
deepest section of the mould. ● Select clean buckets, bowls, water brushes and
● Place a small cone of clay over the nail heads. This water.
prevents the expanding plaster moulding from ● Select a small joint rule.
moving when being run and stops the plaster ● Mix plaster to a creamy consistency and pour just
sticking to the nail head. beyond the length of the finished mould.
● Depending on the size of the running mould, you can ● Build up the running mould shape with creamy
incorporate reinforcement by using hessian scrim. plaster mix as quickly as possible.
● Finalise the running mould shape with smaller,
To run a panel mould, refer back to pages 247–248 wetter quantities.
as the step-by-step instructions are the same as for ● Clean up and leave the plaster mould to set.
running a reverse mould. ● Carefully remove the plaster mould from the
workbench.
Positive
panel mould
● Place the panel moulds flat in a well ventilated area.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Clay ● Casting plaster is considered a safe material to
use. However, you must take care not to inhale
its dust: mix it in a well-ventilated area and wear
a dust mask. Wear barrier cream or nitrile gloves
to help prevent absorption into the skin and also
Bench Nail wear safety glasses.
● Never cast body parts on raw skin, especially
p Figure 6.42 Bench mould in place your hands. Skin burns can occur at 45°C and
the cast can reach 60°C when setting.
● Dispose of casting plaster in a separate skip for
recycling. Tip dirty plaster water down a filtered
trap, but scrape the plaster slops at the bottom
of a bucket into the plaster skip.

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experience. After familiarising himself with health

and safety during his induction, Kwame’s role is to
work alongside Sam, producing fibrous casts which
incorporate an enrichment for a local client.
As Sam cut out the sink profile for the reverse mould,
he explained to Kwame how important it was for the
mould to be cut to match the drawing design and
specification accurately. Kwame observed and later
assisted by sanding the sink profile to remove burr
marks which were pointed out during inspection. Sam
constructed the running mould and Kwame prepared
the bench and resources that he had become familiar
p Figure 6.44 Nitrile gloves with during his first week at work.
As Sam produced the reverse mould, he explained
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS the running process to Kwame. Kwame was allowed
This activity can support numeracy and literacy skills. to run the mould along the bench at the start of the
Imagine you are working for a fibrous plasterwork running process and to form the shape of the reverse
plasterer. A new contract has been awarded to your mould. Sam supervised and instructed Kwame on his
company to make 840 lengths of cornice for a hotel techniques. As the moulding process came to the final
chain. On average, you can make three lengths of
stage, Sam complimented Kwame’s technique and told
cornice an hour and you have a 35-hour working
week. him to clean all resources and set up for the next stage.
1 How many weeks will it take you to make Sam explained to Kwame that it was his role to
840 lengths of cornice for this contract? manufacture the enrichment mouldings, while it would
2 If the contract value is £14,700.00, what is the be Sam’s job to prepare the positive mould and insert
unit cost for a length of cornice? the enrichments.
Kwame poured plaster into rubber enrichment reverse
moulds and Sam inserted them into the mould.
CASE STUDY However, while inserting the enrichments Sam noticed
there were a lot of imperfections and minor air holes
on some of the mouldings Kwame had produced. Sam
observed Kwame and noticed he was not vibrating the
table after pouring the plaster into the reverse. Sam
explained to Kwame why it was important to vibrate
the table, to ensure the plaster flows into every detail
of the reverse, eliminating trapped air and creating a
sharp design.
Sam explained to Kwame that this was a common
mistake made by an apprentice, but he should not lose
heart as he was making excellent progress as a trainee
fibre hand.

Kwame has just left school and is joining a fibrous KEY TERM
plastering company as an apprentice. Fibre hand: a person who manufactures and
Kwame will work alongside Sam, who is the supervisor installs fibrous plaster components.
and an experienced fibre hand with over 20 years’
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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Kwame and Sam went on to prepare and complete

the positive mould and produced an excellent reverse
Suitability of materials for
mould containing an enrichment modillion block. fixing the moulding
It is essential that all the materials used are compatible
with each other, including the background that the
fibrous work is being fixed to. Remember to follow
manufacturers’ instructions when preparing and
installing fibrous plasterwork.
Mechanical fixings must be rust-free to avoid staining
the finished work. All types of drywall screws are
suitable, but zinc-plated screws offer better all-
round performance. In the same way, if any fibrous
components are used to fix fibrous work with the wire
and wad method (see page 270), the wire must be
strong enough to support the fibrous component and
p Figure 6.45 Modillion block be galvanised to prevent rusting.
FiberFix is a material commonly used for direct bonding

4 CAST FROM A fibrous work to solid backgrounds. Coving adhesives

can be bought in powder or pre-mixed form. However,
REVERSE MOULD they have very different properties with respect to
setting times, fineness of the materials and adhesive
The next stage is to make a fibrous cast from the strength. With some powder adhesives, there is no
reverse mould and then transport the finished items to need to prepare the background with PVA.
the client for fixing.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
A room in a Victorian house measures
3.85 m × 4.25 m.

3.85 m

4.25 m

1 How many lengths of plain-faced coving are

required if the lengths are manufactured 3 m
long? Remember to round up to the nearest
whole number.
2 The coving costs £8.00 per length and 10 kg of
coving adhesive costs £12.30. The cost of fixing
the coving is £3.50 per linear metre. Including all
jointing, how much would the job cost, excluding
profit and VAT?

p Figure 6.46 Casting a ceiling rose

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

The specification Part of the challenge of working on site is planning to

receive materials from stockists. These materials can
You should refer to the specification to check whether
include fibrous work for fixing, if these items are not
the fibrous work is to be mechanically fixed or fixed
being manufactured in house, and fixing materials such
using adhesive. It could be a combination of both fixing
as adhesive, wire and fixing screws.
methods. When fixing cornice work, you should also
● On larger sites, there is usually a designated person
check projection and depths and the position of dado
to receive all inward goods and materials.
or panel mouldings.
● On smaller sites, the delivery driver will probably
The manufacturer’s instructions and the specification deal directly with the subcontractor.
will also cover how to prepare the background to
The principles for receiving goods are the same for a
receive the fibrous work.
large or small site:
For installation instructions, the schedule states the ● Check the delivery note against the official order.
fixing locations and positions of the fibrous work. Check especially that the quantity and grade
delivered match the quantity and grade ordered.
● Check the goods for any signs of damage and, if

there are no problems, sign the delivery note to

acknowledge receipt.
● Any discrepancies found with the delivered goods,

such as damaged goods or shortages, should be

reported to your line manager so they can decide
whether to take part-delivery or return the full
consignment. Remember that once you sign for the
goods, your company is responsible for payment under
the terms and conditions of the supplier’s contract.
● Store materials in a secure location that is

appropriate for the type of goods received:

● High-value goods should be stored in a lockable

container; it is good practice to store less

valuable but equally desirable items such as
screws in a lockable container, too, as these items
have a tendency to slip into overall pockets.
● Perishable goods, that is bagged materials with a
p Figure 6.47 Measuring projection
use-by date, must be stored in rotation, so that
older materials are used first (‘first in, first out’).
INDUSTRY TIP ● Other materials, such as timber, fibrous work

and sheet materials, are usually stored off the

Order the moulding work to site in line with the programme ground, horizontally or vertically, in a dry and
of work, as this will reduce standing time, material damage well-ventilated secure storage compound.
and storage problems resulting in wastage.

You should also consider protecting the finished work

once it is fixed, especially exposed items of work such
as dado or panel mouldings. Any work damaged on site
without being signed off could lead to a contractual
dispute over payment.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

The casting process

Select materials, components and
equipment
The following materials are used to cast fibrous
plasterwork:
● casting plaster ● sealing agents/shellac

● release agents ● reinforcement.

p Figure 6.48 Mixing casting plaster in a bowl

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
1 What is the number given as pi?
2 Draw the symbol for pi. ACTIVITY
3 A ceiling rose has a circumference of 1005 mm. Search online for ‘hemihydrate plaster’ to find the
What is the diameter of the ceiling rose? chemical name for casting plaster.

Tools and equipment

The tools used to fix fibrous work are shown in this table.

Tool Use
Tape measure Used for measuring lengths such as laths, hessian and moulding work in lengths.

Pencil Used to mark out dimensions. It is impossible to work without one!

Timber or metal square Used to square up reveals, soffits and beams.

Fine-toothed saw Used to cut plaster and timber for moulding.

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Tool Use
Rasp Used to clean down and reduce the size of cornice and plasterboard.

Mitre box Used to cut mitres.

Claw hammer Used to fix (and remove) nails.

Battery-powered drill Used to drive screws into a timber mould and for mechanically fixing fibrous work into
plastic plugs or timber grounds.

Hand screwdriver Can be used instead of a battery-powered drill/driver.

Tin snips Used to trim zinc profiles and cut metal trims.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Tool Use
Laser level Used to determine a level or vertical line to work from.

Spirit level As with a laser level, used to determine a level or vertical line to work from.

Chalk line Essential in every fibrous plasterworker’s kit: used to provide a line to work from.

Small tool Essential for mitring joints.

Joint rule Used in conjunction with a small tool to form mitres.

Busk Used to remove blemishes from plasterwork.

Gauging trowel Used to mix small quantities of materials and apply materials to awkward areas.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

KEY TERM Setting up to cast from a

Mitre: a cut joint to an internal or external angle. plaster reverse
The joint is then made good (the gaps are filled)
with casting plaster or fixing adhesive, using a Laths
joint rule and a small tool.

Other equipment required includes: Hessian

● buckets and flexi bowls

● access equipment

● benches (if making fibrous work on site).

Reverse mould

p Figure 6.51 A reverse

Materials and sequence of work

1 Sealing the plaster reverse: Use shellac to seal the
plaster reverse mould. Apply many coats, leaving
each coat to dry before applying the next.

p Figure 6.49 Using a bench and a bowl to mix casting plaster

Cast fibrous plasterwork

The most common fibrous plaster casts are taken from
a plaster, rubber or fibreglass reverse.

p Figure 6.52 Sealing the plaster reverse with shellac

2 Casting plaster and equipment: While the shellac

is drying, gather the necessary casting plaster,
hessian cloth, timber lath, plasterer’s grease or
linseed oil, mixing bowls, brushes and hand tools.
3 Hessian and lath: Once the shellac has dried, lay
the hessian along the length of the plaster reverse,
ensuring that at least 50 mm extends at each end
and both sides. (Remember that hessian comes in
various sizes.)
p Figure 6.50 Fibrous plasterwork

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

● Cut some small pieces of hessian to use as cross

braces; small pieces of timber lath can be used
in conjunction with the hessian to improve
strength.
● Cut the timber lath just short of each end

of the plaster reverse; this is to allow for turning

back the hessian cloth to the end and sides.
● Cut a small piece of lath for cleaning the plaster

reverse strike off and set it aside for later.

● Soak the timber laths in water as this helps to

reduce cracking in the fibrous cast.

4 Release agent: The most commonly used release
agents are linseed oil and plasterer’s grease, p Figure 6.53 Cutting hessian
although other products are available. Apply a
thin coat of your chosen release agent to the Producing the fibrous cast
plaster reverse using either a brush or an oil-soaked Before you start:
hessian cloth. ● make sure everything you need is to hand and that

5 Bowls and buckets: You will need at least the working area is clear of debris and clutter
three mixing bowls and two buckets. One of the ● look down the length of the plaster reverse to check

buckets should contain clean water for mixing, the that you have applied a release agent to all of the
other water is for cleaning the splash brush during plaster reverse mould
the casting. ● check that the casting plaster is within its use-by date

● half-fill two mixing bowls with water, adding retarder

to the second if you feel you will not have enough time
KEY TERM
to position hessian and timber lath reinforcement.
Strike off: the built-up plaster area on the back
of a cast that will come into contact with the INDUSTRY TIP
background surface on the wall and ceiling when
the plaster cornice is fitted in place. If you look along the length of the plaster reverse, you
should see the oil glistening or a slight sheen. If any spots
do not have this sheen, you have missed a bit!

This is the step-by-step procedure for using the two

gauge system to produce a cast from a plaster reverse
mould.

STEP 1 Cut the hessian and laths to the STEP 2 Apply grease to the face of the reverse STEP 3 Mix the firstings.
required length. mould.
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STEP 4 Apply the firstings to the reverse mould STEP 5 Wash the bowl as soon as possible, STEP 6 Clean off the strike off before applying
with a brush. Remove air from the cast by before the plaster sets. the seconds.
vibrating it, then leave it to pull in.

STEP 7 Mix the seconds and apply to the STEP 8 Apply plaster over the hessian. STEP 9 Bed the laths on the back of the cast.
tacky firstings. Place the hessian in position,
overhanging the strike offs.

STEP 10 Fold back the hessian/canvas over the STEP 11 Build up the strike off with the STEP 12 Use a lath to form the strike off.
laths to strengthen and reinforce the cast. remaining plaster, then leave to set.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Casting from a flexible

mould
Casting from a flexible mould is similar to casting from
a plaster reverse. The major difference is that there is
no need to apply a release agent, because the hot and
cold compounds are self-lubricating.
It is important to ensure that the flexible mould sits
firmly on the workbench, as any distortion will show
on the finished work. With larger flexible moulds, form
a plaster or fibreglass case over the back of the flexible
STEP 13 The cast will curl and lift slightly at both ends. However, do not
mould to ensure the flexible mould sits firmly on the
remove it from the reverse until it has completely set. bench.
Case

INDUSTRY TIPS
Wet casting plaster has a slight sheen. When it starts to
dull, the plaster is ready for the second application. Do not
Thin layer of
let the first application dry too much, as this will prevent
clay (10–20 mm)
the second application from adhering.
For larger casts, hessian and timber laths can be used to Ceiling rose Greaseproof
reinforce and strengthen the cast. paper

● Place the hessian and, if required, timber laths into the p Figure 6.54 Case mould
seconds bowl.
● Remove the excess plaster through your fingers and
position the plaster-soaked hessian across the fibrous
cast every 500–600 mm along its length.

ACTIVITY
Search online for ‘plaster cast moulded cornice’ to
find out more about the techniques for casting from
a plaster reverse.

Leave the plaster to set and then gently prise the fibrous
cast away from the plaster reverse. Store it vertically
on a hook or loop, if possible. If storing it flat, make sure
the cast is kept completely flat otherwise it will distort.
If casting from a rubber reverse mould, silicone release p Figure 6.55 A finished ceiling rose
agent must be applied instead of grease. The process
and procedure for casting are otherwise the same.

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Casting from a flexible ceiling rose mould

Follow these step-by-step instructions for the process of casting from a flexible ceiling rose mould.

STEP 1 Set up the workbench area: select STEP 2 Cut the hessian to overlap the ceiling STEP 3 Cut the timber lath for the centre and
the necessary casting plaster, hessian, lath, rose by at least 50 mm all round, snipping the strike off.
buckets, bowls and tools. Wash the flexible around the outside to help prevent gathering.
mould and pat it dry to remove surplus water. Cut extra hessian to cover the timber lath.
Place the flexible mould flat on the workbench.
Check that the flexible mould is clean and dry.

STEP 4 Sift plaster into two plaster bowls to STEP 5 Mix the first bowl of plaster to a creamy STEP 6 Clean off the strike off and allow the
just under the water line, setting aside the consistency and brush it into the decorative firstings to pick up.
second bowl without mixing. sections of the mould. Brush and then splash to
cover to a depth of approximately 3–5 mm.

STEP 7 Place a large piece of hessian on top of STEP 8 Brush from the centre out towards the STEP 9 Work around the perimeter of the ceiling
the firstings, then mix and pour a cup full of the perimeter of the flexible mould. This action will rose, tucking in the hessian overlap as you go,
seconds into the centre of the flexible ceiling minimise the build-up of air bubbles and ensure allowing for a 10 mm band around the perimeter
mould. that the hessian adheres firmly to the firstings. of the ceiling rose.
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STEP 10 With the large piece of hessian in STEP 11 Start to build one of the centre laths STEP 12 Leave the plaster to set and then
position, brush both sides of the timber laths flush with the perimeter: this will allow the gently peel the rubber mould away from the
with plaster and lay them into position over the ceiling rose to fit flush with the ceiling. Splash plaster.
hessian. Dip the short pieces of hessian into the back of the ceiling rose and clean off the
the seconds, then tuck and lay the wet hessian strike off for the last time.
over the laths, making sure there are no
pockets of air.

STEP 13 The finished ceiling rose. Remember

to lay the plaster ceiling rose flat otherwise it
will distort.

INDUSTRY TIP
Wet the laths before use. Sometimes thicker laths are left
outside to absorb moisture.
p Figure 6.56 Wet the laths

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Storage and delivery to site 5 FIX AND FINISH

Manufactured fibrous work should be stored in a
dry, well-ventilated room, ideally with an ambient PLASTER MOULDINGS
temperature of about 15°C. The important thing is to
not let the room get too cold or too hot, otherwise How to fix fibrous
the fibrous work could freeze, form mildew or dry too
quickly.
plasterwork
The first task is to consult the contract schedule and
Cornices are best stored upright; during casting, hessian contract drawings to determine precisely where the
loops can be incorporated into the casts so they can be fibrous items are to be fixed. You will also need to refer
hung vertically. If you decide to store a cornice flat, use to the contract specification to determine the specified
plenty of bearers to promote drying; do not scrimp on fixing methods and materials. Remember that:
bearers as wet fibrous work will warp if not supported ● the contract schedule identifies the fibrous items
correctly. and where they are to be fixed
Other manufactured items should be stored flat to ● the contract drawings identify the fibrous items in

prevent any possible distortion. detail, with fixing dimensions

● the contract specification identifies fixing methods
All fibrous work must be protected from accidental and materials.
damage caused by poor handling or poor
transportation. Most cornice work is transported face
to face and tied together. Bubble wrap is a good option
as it can be used to completely wrap the work and will
accommodate all shapes and sizes.

KEY TERMS
Pick up: when the materials start to stiffen.
Bearers: small blocks of wood placed between and
underneath materials to keep them separate and
promote drying.
p Figure 6.57 Fixing a ceiling rose

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Fixings
Always follow current health and safety legislation
when moving and transporting materials: Most fibrous work is fixed into position using adhesive,
● Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA) 1974 although larger, heavier items might require additional
● Control of Substances Hazardous to Health support using mechanical methods. The length of the
(COSHH) Regulations 2002 fixing will depend on the thickness of the fibrous item
● Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992
being fixed and the depth of the background it is being
● Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work
Regulations 1992.
fixed to.
You should also pay attention to the Environment
Agency’s requirement that plaster waste be disposed
of separately and make sure you plan for deliveries
and storage on site.
For more information about health and safety
legislation, refer back to Chapter 2.

p Figure 6.58 Fixing fibrous plasterwork

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Suitable fixings include: The size and weight of the cornice dictate how much
● adhesive fixing is required. Heavy cornice should be mechanically
● nails and screws fixed with a plastic plug and screws every 300 mm,
● wire and wad. while lighter cornice can be mechanically fixed every
600 mm, also using a suitable fixing adhesive.
Adhesive
Coving/fibrous cornice adhesive is available ready-
mixed or in powdered form. It can be purchased in 1 kg,
5 kg, 10 kg, 15 kg, 20 kg and 25 kg bags.
● Ready-mixed adhesive has a slower setting time as

it is air setting.
● Powdered adhesives have specific setting times that

range from 45 to 120 minutes, depending on the

manufacturer.
The adhesives are used for jointing internal and external
mitres. The more expensive adhesives incorporate a
PVA that improves adhesion to the background.
p Figure 6.59 Annular nails
Nails and screws
Nails must be rust-proof, such as galvanised, aluminium
or zinc-plated nails. Those with annular shanks offer ACTIVITY
better fixing as they grip the timber better. Nails Search the internet to find out:
usually come in 25 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm 1 what nail-popping means
length sizes. 2 the cost of:
● 1 kg of 50 mm plasterboard nails
Nails are a less popular fixing option as they tend to ● 500 50 mm drywall screws
lose their fixing strength over time and can result in ● a box of 1000 coarse phosphate 50 mm-long
nail-popping with plasterboarded ceilings. screws.

In contrast, screws offer a more secure fixing and in

most cases are cheaper to buy than galvanised or zinc-
plated nails.
Drywall screws are commonly used because they are
phosphate or zinc-plated, which makes them rust-proof.
They are available in most sizes from 25 to 75 mm,
which covers the majority of fixing situations.
When fixing into masonry, plastic plugs are required to
properly secure the screw fixing so that it can carry the
weight of the fibrous work. The plastic strip that joins
p Figure 6.60 Drywall screws
the plugs contains guidance on the required size of the
screw and the diameter of the masonry drill bit to drill
the hole in the masonry.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

6 Adjust the suction of the background and the

fibrous item using clean water or a weak solution of
water and PVA.
7 Have ready some temporary support such as nails
or props to hold the fibrous item in position until
the adhesive has set. (If permanent mechanical
fixings are to be used in conjunction with adhesives,
these temporary supports are not so important.)

INDUSTRY TIPS
● Before you fix fibrous work, remember to mark out the
p Figure 6.61 Plastic plug position and score the background with a utility knife.
This will improve the key and adhesion properties.
Wire and wad ● Always carry fibrous work on its edge to stop it from
Wire and wad is a traditional method of hanging flexing.
fibrous slabs from joists and steel beams. Basic wadding ● Always scan the wall with a pipe/electric detector before
involves soaking hessian in casting plaster to fix or joint tapping nails into a wall.
fibrous work together or to a background. To improve
the strength, galvanised wire is tied to the fibrous work
and to a fixing point and then wrapped with plaster- Fixing cornices
soaked hessian. Before starting the work, have a final check of the
drawing and manufacturer’s information to determine
Galvanised wire is used because it is easy to work with
the projection and depth of the cornice.
and does not rust. The choice of wire thickness depends
Projection
on the size and weight of the fibrous slab, but typically
it will be 1.6–5 mm thick.
As soon as the fibrous slab has been levelled and
secured, plaster-soaked hessian is wrapped around
the wire to form a strong support mechanism. It is Depth
important to make adjustments to the fibrous slabs
before applying the plaster wads, because as soon as the
plaster wads set, no further adjustments can be made.

p Figure 6.62 Projection and depth of a cornice

Marking out and preparation
Take the following measures to mark out and prepare Although the following text refers to cornices, the same
for installing fibrous plasterwork. steps should be followed for fixing coving.
1 Lay protective sheeting on the floor area and select The walls and ceilings should be plumb, level and true.
suitable access equipment. If they run out slightly, it is better to have straight
2 Check that the background and the item to be fixed projection lines, as these lines are more noticeable
are both free from dust. when looking at coving or cornice work.
3 Determine the projection and depth of the coving or
cornice.
4 Using a level and chalk line, mark out the position of
INDUSTRY TIP
the fibrous item to be fixed. When joining straight lengths together, the best method is
5 Provide a mechanical key by lightly scoring the to mitre the joint as opposed to creating a butt joint, which
background with a craft knife or a scutching hammer. is more likely to show through on finished work.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Once you are ready, follow these step-by-step instructions.

STEP 1 Measure the projection of the cornice on STEP 2 Measure the depth of the cornice on the STEP 3 Snap chalk lines to the ceiling projection
the ceiling line (in this case, 100 mm). wall (in this case, 100 mm). and depth marks to indicate the position of the
cornice on the ceiling and wall.

STEP 4 Place the cornice in position between STEP 5 Position the cornice in the mitre box, STEP 6 Use a fine tooth saw to cut the cornice
the set lines and mark the cornice to indicate making sure the ceiling line of the cornice lies to your previously set mitre marks, making sure
the mitre cut. to the base of the mitre box. you cut to the front and not from the rear.

STEP 7 Cut a stop end on the other side. This STEP 8 Fix the stop end in position. STEP 9 Repeat the process when cutting the
will be the same cut as an external mitre. next length which starts with a left internal
mitre cut, followed by the opposite external
mitre on the opposite side.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

STEP 10 Check that this fits and tack in place. STEP 11 Cut the remaining length which has an STEP 12 Now you have cut all the cornices and
internal right mitre and on the opposite side a checked their position, you need to remove them
return stop end. and prepare them for fixing.

STEP 13 Prepare the cornice by sealing the STEP 14 Mix the cornice adhesive to a creamy STEP 15 Position the cornice directly in place
strike off with diluted PVA; this will control the paste and apply adhesive to the strike offs with and firmly squeeze; this will cause excess
suction. a gauging trowel. adhesive to spread out.

STEP 16 Use a busk to remove the excess STEP 17 Clean the wall and ceiling line using a STEP 18 Continue to fit the remaining lengths
adhesive. brush and clean water, to remove any surplus and both stop ends, making sure that all the
adhesive. moulding members line in with no steps. Moulding
members should be sharp and in line with no
misses, no build-up of plaster, no blemishes and
no chattering marks on the moulding surface.
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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Cross lines after marking projection Internal

KEY TERM of cornice from both sides of the splayed
internal splayed angle joints
Chattering marks: marks caused by chattering
(excessive expansion of casting plaster as the
mould is run along the bench when producing
moulding). Mitre lines

INDUSTRY TIP
Projection line
When cutting a mitre, always have the ceiling line of the
cornice on the bench with the face of the cornice towards you. External angle/mitre (allow for projection
when marking out and cutting)

Return stop end p Figure 6.65 Plan of bay window

Projection
ceiling line IMPROVE YOUR MATHS
1 The quantity surveyor suggests that a single
plasterer will fix a 3 m length of fibrous cornice,
including all jointing, in 40 minutes. How long will
it take the plasterer to fix all the fibrous cornice in
a living room with a perimeter of 38 m?
Depth
wall line 2 The fibrous cornice for the living room has been
manufactured at a cost of £26.35 per 3 m
length. How much will it cost to manufacture?

p Figure 6.63 Cornice in position IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

1 A Victorian style ceiling rose is to be fixed to a
single central light. Write a specification on how
best to fix the fibrous ceiling rose to the ceiling.
2 Write a method statement on fixing a cornice to
a living room.

p Figure 6.64 Plan view of stop end INDUSTRY TIPS

Cutting splayed joints requires a different technique,
If the fibrous cornice is dry, adjust the suction by applying
with the projection and deep chalk lines marked out.
a weak solution of PVA. If you apply weak PVA to joints and
● For an internal splayed joint: cut the cornice to
mitres, it improves adhesion and helps prevent hairline
the wall length and hold into position. Where cracks.
the ceiling line chalk lines cross, mark the cornice ● Larger mitre gaps can be filled out with hessian soaked
and cut to the end of the cornice meeting the in plaster.
wall line. ● Number each panel section and the background in
● For an external splayed angle: cut the cornice to the sequence. This saves time and ensures that all the
wall line and allow for the length of the projection. items fit.
Again, hold the cornice in position and, where the
chalk lines cross, make the cut to the end of the
cornice on the wall line.

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Panel and dado moulds The method of fixing a beam case depends on the
beam it is surrounding. A structural beam will be
Panel and dado moulds are usually smaller and lighter
formed from concrete or a steel joist; imitation beam
than cornice moulds and only require adhesive for
background may be formed with timber or metal
fixing. You will still require temporary support to hold
studding. Therefore beam cases are fixed using a
mouldings in position.
combination of adhesive and mechanical fixing.
● The background should be clean and free from debris.

● Having marked out fixing positions with a level and

chalk line, lightly score the background and the back

of the moulding to provide a mechanical key.
● Test suction of both the background and the moulding

with a splash of water and adjust accordingly with

water or a weak solution of water and PVA.
● As with the cornice, the moulding must sit firmly

and squarely in the mitre box. Try not to cut the

mitre exactly: a small mitre gap of 5–8 mm allows p Figure 6.66 Beam case
adhesive to be pushed in and forms a stronger mitre.
● Some panel moulds feature a quadrant mould

running into a straight length, similar to cutting a

splayed joint to a cornice. A bit of skill is required
to produce a mitre as these moulds cannot be cut
in a mitre block. To overcome this problem, outline
the shape of the panel mould on the wall or ceiling. p Figure 6.67 Bare structural concrete beam floor
Make mitre lines longer so that you can see where
to mark the panel moulding for cutting. Draw a line
through the outer and inner lines and extend the
lines by about 5 mm to allow for the mitre joint.
● Cut all of the panel mould lengths and hold them

in position to check that they fit before mixing any

adhesive.
● Mix a small amount of adhesive to a thick, creamy

paste and apply with a gauging trowel to a thickness

of about 3 mm to the back of the moulding. Press
firmly to the outer or inner outline and remove any
surplus materials with a joint rule or a damp sponge.
● Work all mitres with a small tool and joint rule.

● Remove temporary support when appropriate and

p Figure 6.68 Beam cases in position
make good as necessary.

Beam cases
Beam cases can be manufactured in one unit,
i.e. upstand cheeks and a soffit, or they can be
manufactured in three sections, i.e. two upstand cheeks
and one soffit. Alternatively, timber laths can be fixed
to the steel beam or concrete beam with suitable p Figure 6.69 Steel beam
fixings to allow the beam case to be fastened to them
using suitable screws.

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

Laths Back of cast

laid flat struck off flat

Rebated joint

p Figure 6.71 Fixing a fibrous slab with drywall screws

Suspended ceiling
Suspended ceilings are used to lower a ceiling’s height
p Figure 6.70 Built-up timber beam
and to conceal services. The architect will specify a
datum point from the finished floor level or a datum
Fibrous slabs level. A metal grid is formed which hangs from the
The method for fixing fibrous slabs depends on the concrete floor slab or structural beams. Fibrous slabs
type of ceiling, whether it is: are usually wired and wadded into position.
● timber joist or metal stud

● suspended.
Concrete

Timber joist or metal stud ceiling

When fixing to a timber joist background, the finished Grid hanger
ceiling height datum line will have been formed Wad over grid

by a carpenter. The fibrous slabs should have been Metal grid

manufactured to fit to the joists’ centres, with slabs
being mechanically fixed to the ceiling joists using Lath (fixed
on edge)
drywall screws or galvanised nails into timber joists.
● The starting point will vary, depending on the size Plaster slab
and layout of the room.
● During fixing, drill pilot holes through the slab at Wire tied so plaster
fixing points to minimise the risk of cracking the slab is fitted in place

slab. The pilot holes are usually just smaller in p Figure 6.72 Detail section of fibrous slabs fixed with wire and
diameter than the fixing screw or nail. wad
● Think about the weight of the fibrous slabs before

attempting to hold and fix them in position. Two Sequence of work

people working together will make the job easier. If 1 Set out ceiling grid centres.
working on your own, a strut or prop can be used. 2 Pull the string line tight along the first line of slabs.
● You must check slabs for alignment as the work 3 Drill holes each side of the lath diagonally at
proceeds, similar to plasterboarding a ceiling. 70–80 mm centres to line up with the fixing points
of the grid.
KEY TERM 4 Form slotted grooves or rebates between the holes
Strut/prop: a telescopic pole with pads on each below the surface of the slabs.
end; the pole is adjusted to hold an item above 5 Working in pairs with one person supporting the
your head, just like an extra pair of hands. A useful slab, thread a suitable length of 18 g wire through
piece of equipment when working on your own. the slab and twist the wires.
6 Adjust the wires if required, using wire cutters, until
the slab is level and in line.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

7 Wrap the wires with plaster-soaked hessian to form Producing a cast from a reverse
a solid plaster fixing. mould
8 Repeat the steps above for the other slabs in the line.
Steps 1–10 show how to produce a cast from a reverse
9 Reposition the string for the next row of slabs and
mould and fix it to a wall with an internal and external
repeat the process until the ceiling is complete.
corner.
1 Produce two lengths of cornice by casting from a
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS prepared reverse mould you have produced during
The local builders’ merchant’s delivery van has your training.
broken down. Your manager asks you to collect
2 Mark out the projection and depth measurements
30 bags of casting plaster weighing 25 kg.
on a background which includes one internal mitre,
How many trips will you need to make to collect the
materials if your van’s maximum carrying capacity is one external mitre and a stop end.
600 kg? 3 Key the background by scoring and then seal the
surface with diluted PVA to control the suction.
4 Using a saw, cut the cast mouldings to the required
Jointing fibrous slabs length and correct to mitred cuts.
● Wet the joints with a weak solution of water and PVA. 5 Fix nails in the wall and ceiling and position the cast
● Push hessian soaked in plaster into the rebated joint, dry to ensure everything fits accurately.
making sure the hessian does not protrude. 6 Prepare and seal the rear of the casts for fixing and
● As the hessian stiffens in the rebate, mix a small mix the necessary adhesive.
quantity of casting plaster and work it into the joint 7 Apply adhesive to the cast and bed in correct
with a small trowel. position.
● Finish the joint with a joint rule or busk; the hessian 8 Clean wall and ceiling lines and repeat process for
will strengthen the joint and reduce the risk of remaining casts.
cracking. 9 Ensure mitres are in line and intersecting after
positioning.
10 Make good all joints by stopping in, ensuring mitres
are sharp and members are lining through.

p Figure 6.73 Fibrous slabs

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

CASE STUDY proceeded. Kwame then mixed some PVA to a 1 : 5 ratio

to seal the plaster surface. They used Fiberfix adhesive
Kwame and Sam arrive on site to fix the cornice as the coving is lightweight.
casts they produced in the workshop. Sam instructed Kwame to fix in nails just below the
chalk line on the wall, while he measured and cut
enough cornice for the first wall. Kwame mixed a
small amount of adhesive to fix these lengths. Sam
applied adhesive to the fixing edge of the cornice with
a gauging trowel, ensuring a liberal application was
applied. Working together, Kwame and Sam carefully
lifted the cornice into position and squeezed it against
the wall and ceiling chalk lines. Sam fixed a few nails
along the ceiling line to temporarily hold the cornice in
position and then removed the surplus adhesive with a
joint rule and cleaned the surface with clean water and
a small brush.
They worked in sequence around the room until all of
the cornices were fixed in position. Kwame removed
the temporary support nails as the adhesive started to
set, while Sam mixed a small amount of casting plaster
to make good and stop in the internal mitres using a
joint rule, small tool and small brush. Kwame used a
Kwame fetched the clean dust sheets from the van joint rule to fill the holes where the nails temporarily
and laid them in the room where the cornice was to be held the cornice in position, then wiped the ceiling and
fitted. Sam got the tools and equipment out of the van wall joints with a moist sponge to clear away any dirty
and set up a working area. plaster marks.
Reading the specification, Sam told Kwame to check They both walked around the room, checking that the
the projection and depth of the cornice and the cornice was fixed and clean. Satisfied, Sam cleaned
fixing method. Using a working platform to reach the all the tools and equipment while Kwame carefully
ceiling line, Kwame used a tape and measured out the removed the dust sheets, shaking them in the back of
projection across the ceiling and the depth down the the van to minimise mess in the client’s property.
wall from the ceiling line. From each corner, he snapped
chalk lines around the perimeter. As soon as the room was clean and tidy, Sam asked
the client to look at the complete work. The client was
Wearing the correct PPE, they carefully created a pleased with the standard of work and complimented
mechanical key by lightly scoring the plasterwork Kwame and Sam on the cleanliness and efficiency of
with a utility knife, sweeping the dust away as they their work.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Test your knowledge

1 What can be used to take a copy of a cornice? 7 What can occur if completed plaster casts are
A squeeze not stored correctly?
B slurry A dusting
C clasp B distortion
D clutch C warping
2 What term is used to measure how much the D shrinkage
cornice protrudes from the ceiling? 8 What is fixed to a bench to prevent the
A projection reverse mould from moving during the
running process?
B volume
A screw
C length
B scrim
D depth
C rule
3 Which stage does ‘running down’ refer to when
producing a positive mould? D nail
A when preparing to run 9 Firstings and secondings is a method used for
producing plaster casts by using how many
B after completing the first run
gauges?
C during the building up process
A one gauge
D when completing the final run
B two gauges
4 What is the advantage of using hot melt
C three gauges
compounds for producing fibrous plaster
mouldings? D multiple gauging
A casts do not need reinforcement 10 What is fixed to the bench to make sure the
running mould runs in line?
B you can produce multiple casts
A box rule
C casts will dry quickly, saving time
B timber rule
D compounds can be remelted and reused,
saving costs C scale rule
5 What is the advantage of using cold pour D measuring rule
compounds for producing fibrous plaster 11 What material is used to seal plaster reverse
mouldings? moulds?
A melting equipment is not required A shellac
B you can produce multiple casts B grease
C casts will dry quickly, saving time C chalk
D compounds can be remelted and used again D size
6 What material is used as a release agent? 12 What material is used to reinforce fibrous
A paraffin plaster casts?
B clay A clay
C grease B tallow
D shellac C laths
D hessian

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 Chapter 6 Producing, fixing and finishing plain plaster mouldings to match existing

13 A contract requires 122 m of cornice to be 19 What type of fixings are preferred when
fixed. How many 3 m lengths are required? Add installing cornice?
10% for wastage and round up your answer. A rustproof
A 44 B flexible
B 45 C expandable
C 46 D compressible
D 47 20 When fixing cornice, what do chalk lines
14 How many cornices measuring 3 m in length are indicate?
required for a room measuring 8 m by 5.3 m? A depth and projection
A 7 B thickness of cornice
B 8
C length and dimensions
C 9
D height of room from the floor
D 10
21 What is used as a temporary fix when installing
15 When casting a length of cornice, when is fibrous plasterwork?
reinforcement applied?
A sink screws
A when applying the firstings
B dry wall straps
B when applying the seconds
C plastic plugs
C after the seconds have set
D steel nails
D after the firstings have set
22 What is the main advantage of fibrous
16 Why is shellac applied to plaster reverse moulds?
plasterwork, in addition to the fact that it is
A to stabilise dry dust strong and light?
B to protect the surface
A It can be prefabricated.
C to seal the surface
B It needs no decoration.
D as a release agent
C It needs no mechanical fixings.
17 What method is best used for carrying lengths
D It can be load-bearing.
of fibrous plaster casts?
23 What should be applied to the reverse mould
A on their edge in pairs
before casting takes place?
B flat-faced, end to end
A shellac
C over your shoulder
B size
D upright, individually
C grease
18 When cutting mitres, where is the projection of
the mould placed in the mitre box? D chalk
A to the left side of the box 24 What can be added to slow down the set of
casting plaster?
B on the floor of the box
A tallow
C on the upstand of the box
B alum
D to the right side of the box
C size
D soda

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CHAPTER 7

METAL FRAME SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we look at three different types of metal frame system used in today’s construction industry. By
reading this chapter you will gain knowledge of:
1 the benefits of using metal frame systems
2 information sources for using metal frame systems
3 how to set out metal frame systems
4 how to install metal stud partitions
5 how to install metal wall lining systems
6 how to install metal furring ceiling systems.
The table below shows how the main headings in this chapter cover the learning outcomes for each
qualification specification.

Level 2 Technical Certificate

Level 1 Diploma in Plastering Level 2 Diploma in Plastering in Plastering (7908-20)
Chapter section (6708-13) (6708-23) Unit 222 Units 207, 208, 209
Benefits of using n/a Topic 1.1
metal frame systems
Information sources n/a Learning outcomes Topics 1.2, 1.3
for using metal 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4
frame systems
Set out metal frame n/a Topics 2.1, 2.3
systems
Metal stud partitions n/a Unit 209 Topics 2.2, 3.1, 3.2,
3.3, 3.4
Metal wall lining n/a Unit 207 Topics 2.2, 3.1, 3.2,
systems 3.3, 3.4
Metal furring ceiling n/a Unit 208 Topics 2.2, 3.1, 3.2,
system 3.3, 3.4

1 BENEFITS OF USING METAL FRAME SYSTEMS

Using metal to build has significant benefits compared Other advantages of using metal:
to traditional timber methods. Plasterers use metal ● It is non-flammable.

to install partitions, linings and ceiling systems. Metal ● It is easy to transport, store and handle.

frames or linings can be built and installed much more ● It is easy to cut and install.

quickly than timber, which can be bulky and heavy, ● It can include insulation which will improve the

and requires the use of power tools for cutting and thermal properties of the building.
installing. Timber can also rot, warp and shrink, causing
further problems for plastering surfaces.
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 Chapter 7 Metal frame systems

● It is easy to accommodate mechanical and Floor and reflective drawings provide information on
electrical services such as water, electricity and layout.
telecommunications.
Detail drawings provide specific information on design,
● Metal substrates can be installed, which help to
such as deflection heads (see page 288).
control noise and can also add fire proofing.

KEY TERM Specifications

Fire proofing: installed to increase the fire rating of These documents provide information about the type
the metal frame. of metal section, component or fixing to be used. You
can use the specification when ordering materials as
In this chapter we will look at three types of metal it provides specific information about the materials to
system: be used.
1 Metal stud partitions are made up of a track
Specifications state the necessary standards of
channel profile with incorporated metal studs to
workmanship that need to be adhered to when
form a frame. They are used to divide large open-
installing metal-framed systems.
plan areas into rooms in private, residential and
commercial buildings.
2 Metal wall linings provide a true lineable surface Manufacturer’s information
for misshaped walls. The lining is fixed to a solid The manufacturer provides information to enable
background surface that might require straightening you to install the metal system in line with their
or upgrading. instructions. This document is a useful guide to prevent
3 Metal ceiling linings provide a metal grid poor workmanship. Consumers can typically find
background to form accurate level ceiling systems in troubleshooting questions and answers in the product
old and modern buildings. Using steel will increase instructions if problems arise.
the fire rating.
Each system has its own installation guidelines and Building regulations
provides a backing that can easily be covered with Building regulations are standards intended to protect
plasterboard, which can be either plastered or taped people’s safety, health and welfare in and around built
and jointed. environments. These are the minimum standards for
design and are supported by approved documents; for
example, setting standards for energy performance,
2 INFORMATION resistance to the passage of sound and sound

SOURCES FOR USING insulation, or fire safety within and around buildings.
The local authority’s building control department is
METAL FRAME responsible for checking that the building work meets
building regulations standards.
SYSTEMS
Drawings 3 SET OUT METAL
When installing metal frame structures, it is important
to read the drawings before you start as they will
FRAME SYSTEMS
provide you with: Before installing the system, you will need to make sure
● the setting out dimensions and position of the
the surface background is fully prepared.
frame
● the components used with the installation system.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Preparing surface KEY TERMS

backgrounds C stud: named after the profile shape of the metal
stud.
Before installing the system you will need to do the
following checks: Gauge: the term used to indicate the metal’s
thickness.
● Analysis: before installing partitions, you need
Service channels: gaps or channels incorporated in
to assess background substrates for strength,
the studs to allow for cables and piping.
straightness and mechanical fixing process. This
will establish the type of anchor points and fixings
to be used.
● Type of surface: there are a number of different

types of surface to which the system may be

installed, including concrete, beam and block, brick,
block, timber and metal. Different surfaces require
different fixing centres.
● Condition: you will need to check the strength of

substrate to receive the metal-framed system.

Methods of setting out

When setting out you will need to consider:
● floor and ceiling lines and right angles

● doorways and openings

● fixing points and centres

● services.

For more details, see the sections on installing the

different types of system below.

4 METAL STUD
p Figure 7.1 Metal stud partitions
PARTITIONS
There are several types of metal stud which can be
used when erecting metal stud partitions:
● Metal studs are incorporated into a ceiling and wall

channel to form the partition frame, as shown in

Figure 7.1.
● Metal studs incorporated in the track provide vertical

support in wall framing. These are called C studs

and are available in a range of widths, lengths and
gauges depending on requirements for strength
height, impact resistance, sound insulation and any Door opening
need for service channels.
p Figure 7.2 Metal stud partitions showing door opening

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Metal stud components

Component Use
Track Fixed to the floor and ceiling to receive the upright metal studs. Also used to form
heads and sills for openings.

C stud Metal studs are incorporated between the floor and ceiling track to produce the
metal-framed partition wall surface that receives the installation of plasterboard.

I stud Used when increased strength and impact resistance are required.

Acoustic stud Manufactured for increased acoustic performance.

Wafer head drywall screw Used to fix together metal components. These are corrosion-resistant self-tapping steel
screws.

Wafer head jack-point screw Used when the depth of metal is greater than 0.8 mm thick.
Fixing metal components to masonry can be carried out using mechanical fixings with
screws and plugs or a cartridge-operated tool.

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When forming openings for doors, the track is returned

a minimum of 300 mm up the stud from the floor
and securely fixed by crimping or screwing using
wafer head screws. These returns are referred to as
jambs. To form the head detail, the track is cut leaving
a minimum of 150 mm to be returned down the
stud. Once the door opening head track is positioned
to meet the height of the door frame, dimensions the
returns can be crimped or screwed in place.
p Figure 7.3 A PH2 drill bit

ACTIVITY
Search online for different types of mechanical fixing INDUSTRY TIPS
used for installing and fixing metal components
to masonry. Look for different manufacturers and ● If you use perforated metal tack and stud, a screw fixing
systems to broaden your understanding of this topic. will be able to penetrate both metals without slipping.
Some websites that might be useful include: ● Screws used for interior systems have been designed to
● www.british-gypsum.com/literature/white-book/
be installed using a PH2 drill bit.
partitions
● www.knauf.co.uk

● www.siniat.co.uk/en/knowledge-centre
KEY TERMS
Manufacturers provide installation guidelines and Jambs: when the track is cut and returned to form
videos on how to build systems step by step. a door or window opening in a partition.
Datum line/point: a point or line from which
measurements are taken when setting out.

Tools and equipment used for installing and constructing

metal stud partitions
Tool/equipment Use
Tape measure Used to set out and mark dimensions for cutting and installing metal track and
studs.
Laser level Can accurately project a red or green laser beam from fixed datum lines/points
when establishing straight lines, right angles and levels for setting out floor and
walls to receive metal track and studs.

Tin snips Used to cut metal components to the required length.

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Tool/equipment Use
Chop saw As it has a metal blade, a chop saw is used when there is greater demand for
cutting metal components; for example, in large-scale construction work.

SDS hammer drill Used for drilling holes in masonry backgrounds when using mechanical fixings.
SDS chuck

Depth Trigger
gauge

Auxiliary
handle
(to be used Selector switch enabling
during drill to either rotate
heavy drilling) without hammer action,
rotate with hammer
action or just hammer action

Portable screwdriver Used for fixing screws.

Crimper A hand tool that punctures the metal track and stud together without the need to
use wafer head screws.

Clamps Used to provide a temporary fixing when preparing and positioning metal
components before final installation.

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Tool/equipment Use
Magnetic levels Useful when levelling and plumbing metal before fixing in position.

Square Used to mark right angles.

Impact drill driver Used when additional power and torque are required to drive a screw without
damaging the screw head.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS When installing metal-framed systems, several types of

Research the costs of the items in the table above.
access equipment are used to ensure that work is
Calculate the cost of each item and then work out carried out safely at height.
the total cost of the tools.

Type of access equipment Use

Hop-up Provides a low level platform for a single person.

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Type of access equipment Use

Step ladder Generally used for light work or accessing platforms.

Tower scaffold Suitable for one or more people. It has a working height greater than a hop-up or
podium.

Podium A suitable working platform for one person which can be moved around the working
area with ease.

Scissor lift A motorised mechanical lifting aid that provides a low or high level working platform.

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INDUSTRY TIP ACTIVITY

Produce a model of a deflection head using metal
Always wear the appropriate safety clothing when cutting off cuts from previous activities. This model can be
and installing metal systems. used to show other learners how the deflection head
works to allow for movement.

Deflection heads are used within metal stud partitions

when there is a need to allow for movement (up, down
or both) within the structure at the head of a partition. INDUSTRY TIP
This movement (or deflection) is created by loads on
Always check the ceiling layout to determine which way
the floor or roof above.
the joists run, as you might require additional fixing points
when installing the ceiling track.

Install metal stud

20 mm clearance
to stud and partitioning systems
Fix 50 mm from plasterboard
sheet top. Do not
fix through track
Step-by-step procedure for installing
Fix deflection head
track to slab at a metal stud partition with a
600 mm max. centres
and 100 mm max.
door opening
from ends

Align service holes

in studs prior to
fixing plasterboard

p Figure 7.4 Deflection heads.

STEP 1 Measure and mark out on the floor STEP 2 Measure, cut and fix floor track, STEP 3 Measure and cut the length of track for
and ceiling, making sure the floor marks are allowing for the door opening. Ensure the track the ceiling and fix in position. This is now ready
plumbed up to the ceiling. The most accurate is returned upwards along the stud a minimum to receive the studs. Measure and cut stud
way to do this is to use a laser level. 150 mm and fixed securely. You can use uprights 10 mm shorter than required to enable
mechanical fixings when installing the track to ease of installation.
concrete floors and dry wall screws to fix the
ceiling track to the timber joists.

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STEP 4 Position the studs at 600 mm centres. STEP 5 Fix each stud in the correct position,
Where the stud meets the masonry, install the using wafer head screws.
metal with mechanical fixings at 600 mm centres.

STEP 6 Form the door head by measuring and cutting a length of track. Position and fix in place, STEP 7 To produce a strong door lining with good
ensuring that it supports the stud. fixing points, install timber fillets that are inserted
into the door opening metal studs. Cut a sheet of
plywood and fix it between the studs to create a
fixing for a radiator. You could also consider this if
there will be cupboards fixed to the wall.

The framework is now ready to receive the plasterboard.

INDUSTRY TIP
When forming a right angle stud wall, leave a gap to fit the
plasterboard.

ACTIVITY
1 Search the internet for different manufacturers of
metal partition systems.
2 Find the dimensions (the length and width) of
metal stud and track components.

Gap for drywall Loose stud Drywall screw

p Figure 7.5 Metal stud framing

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ACTIVITY
Work in groups of two.
Measure between two opposite walls in a plastering
work bay. Work out the quantities of materials and
fixings you would need to install and build a metal
stud partition with a door opening, in preparation
for plasterboard.
Provide a sketch drawing of the installation with
dimensions.

Fixing details when forming

a return using metal stud
Dviding walls are used to divide large spaces into
different room layouts. When installing such walls, you
will be required to set out and install metal studwork p Figure 7.7 Fixing metal stud to masonry substructure
that contains returns and right angles. The drawings
below show the positions of plasterboard and studs to Timber fillet 150 mm max.
ensure the appropriate fixing methods are used and
to avoid poor workmanship.

KEY TERM
Dividing wall: a wall that separates areas;
for example, for framing out bedrooms and p Figure 7.8 Inserting timber fillets in metal studs to receive door
bathrooms. This will not be a load-bearing wall. frames

Steel stud

Expansion bead

p Figure 7.9 Movement joints in metal stud work

KEY TERM
Movement joints: these allow surface and
components to move slightly under expansion and
contraction in buildings.
Sound proofing: installed to reduce noise transfer
p Figure 7.6 Layout of a metal stud partition corner (top) and a through metal systems.
metal stud partition containing a right angle (bottom)

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Intumescent sealants IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Intumescent sealants are designed to stop the spread of Calculate how many C studs you would need to
fire and smoke in interior systems installation. divide a room measuring 6 m in length if the studs
are fixed every 600 mm.

5 METAL WALL LINING

SYSTEMS

Track channel
p Figure 7.10 Intumescent sealant

Acoustic sealants
Acoustic sealants are a form of sound proofing. They
are designed to reduce sound transmission and are used
with interior systems installation.
Brackets

Lining channel

p Figure 7.12 A metal wall lining system

A metal wall lining system is a lightweight, non-load-

bearing dry lining which is erected independently of
the external wall construction.
Wall linings are generally used when background
substrates are irregular and need lining to form a
plumb framed surface. This surface can be fixed with
plasterboard and finished with plaster or by tape
and joint, which can then be decorated. Wall linings
are commonly used in older buildings when the wall
surface is uneven, or in buildings that are being restored
in line with specific building regulations performance
requirements.

p Figure 7.11 Acoustic sealant

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When lining walls use metal, services such as

KEY TERM
electricity, water and cables can be hidden neatly
behind the lining and can be accessed through Thermal insulation: installed to improve the
thermal performance of the building.
service hatches.
Metal wall lining systems are used in all types of
building, but are particularly suitable for those with Benefits of a metal wall lining
reinforced concrete, steel frames and those that system
have severely uneven and out of plumb background
● Using a metal lining system is a cost-effective way
substrates and poor thermal insulation.
of creating an independent wall.
Wall linings can be used to: ● By using different plasterboards on the wall lining
● provide fire resistance to structural steel sections surface, you can achieve different performance
within the lining cavity levels to meet thermal performance, acoustic
● increase sound insulation performance and vapour control requirements.
● meet thermal performance requirements of new or ● Fixing plasterboards on the wall lining face will
existing masonry walls. reduce thermal bridging, as the lining system sits
slightly off the background substrate it has been
fixed to.

Wall lining components

Component Uses
Track Floor and ceiling track for retaining the lining channel at floor, ceiling, wall, abutments
and around openings.

Lining channel This provides the main support channel to receive fixed plasterboard.

Standard bracket Used to connect the lining channel to the structural background with a maximum
75 mm stand-off from the masonry background.

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Component Uses
Extended bracket Used instead of a standard bracket when a maximum 125 mm stand-off is required.
26 29
19.2 176 mm
16 29
42 296 mm
29
296 mm

Wall lining channel connector Connectors are used to join two wall lining sections when extending their length.

Fixing channel Used to support medium-weight fixtures on walls.

Fixing strap Used to support horizontal board joints.

Bracket anchor Used to fix brackets mechanically to concrete or masonry walls.

Steel framing clip Used when encasing independent metal columns.

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Component Uses
Steel angle length Used when forming the wall sides of metal columns attached to masonry.

ACTIVITY
Make a list of the different backgrounds you might
come across on site prior to installing metal partition
systems.

Wall lining junctions

4
5
7

3 3

1 1
2

8
6 p Figure 7.15 Wall lining junctions: internal angle
5
4
Key:
1 Gyproc plasterboard
p Figure 7.13 Wall lining junctions: head and base 2 Gypframe GL1 lining channel
3 Gypframe GL2 or GL9 bracket fixed
with Gypframe GL11 GypLyner
anchor
1
4 Gypframe GL8 track
5 Gyproc sealant
7 6 Bulk fill with Gyproc jointing
materials (where gap exceeds 5mm)
7 Wall structure
3 8 Skirting
2

p Figure 7.14 Wall lining junctions: external angle

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Installing a wall lining system to a wall with an opening

INDUSTRY TIP
Always check the depth of irregularity in the background.
Surface-fixed services such as pipes and cables will need
to be inserted behind the wall lining frame.

STEP 1 Mark at each end of the wall to indicate STEP 2 Transfer and plumb the floor marks to STEP 3 Mark vertical lines on the wall at 600 mm
the position of floor track and snap a chalk line. the ceiling line with a level at each end and intervals to indicate bracket-fixing centres, then
Fix the track at 600 mm centres, ensuring that the snap a line, then fix the ceiling track at 600 mm mark horizontal lines at 800 mm centres to show
large part of the track is closest to the background. centres. the individual bracket positions. Use a 5.5 mm
drill bit to drill a 45 mm minimum depth, then
position each bracket, ribs to the wall. Fix through
the bracket slot into the masonry wall using an
anchor fixing, which is a hammer-driven fixing.

STEP 4 Measure and cut the lining channels STEP 5 Bend bracket legs forwards and fix each STEP 6 Bend back protruding bracket legs to sit
slightly smaller than the actual size. Round off leg to the channel using a wafer head drywall clear of the channel face.
ends with tin snips for an easier fit. screw. Insert the screw through the hole in the
bracket nearest to the back of the channel.
Avoid exerting any backwards or forwards
pressure on the channels when screw-fixing the
brackets, otherwise a straight and true lining
surface might not be achieved.

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STEP 7 When fixing a wall lining at internal STEP 8 Fix boards to all framing members at STEP 9 Adjacent linings are fixed through
angles, position the lining channel tight into the 300 mm centres using drywall screws from top previous plasterboard into the frame-lining
corner to provide support for the lining. Bend one to bottom. Adjacent boards are butted: ensure channel behind. Locate the track tight to the
bracket leg across the face of the lining channel that screw fixings are 10 mm from bound edges wall at the corner position and fix through the
and fix with a wafer head drywall screw to secure and 13 mm from cut edges. lining into the channel.
and restrain the channel at the corner position.

STEP 10 When forming an opening, position STEP 11 Position short lengths of lining channel
a lining channel either side of the opening above the opening for additional support and to
to compensate for the thickness of the maintain appropriate support centres.
plasterboard to be fixed into the reveal. Then
install a cut and bent track to form the head of
the opening and fix to the side of the channel
using two wafer head drywall screws.

Metal linings can also be used to encase steel frames,

columns, beams and joists, protecting them from fire
ACTIVITY
1 Produce a drawing to indicate the setting out and
and providing increased fire resistance to the structure.
position of frame sections, including the position
of brackets.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS 2 With a partner, set out and install a wall lining
Calculate the cost of components required to install a system in line with your drawing.
wall lining system to a window wall.

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Protecting a steel column using a lining system

STEP 1 Position friction-fit framing clips onto STEP 2 The lining channel stand-off from the STEP 3 Snap the lining channel section over the
four sides of the column flanges. Position clips face of the structural steel frame is 25 mm and clips to form the steel framework.
within 100 mm of the base and soffit and at 10 mm from the edge of the flange.
intervals of 800 mm maximum.

KEY TERM
Stagger: where plasterboards
are fixed to avoid in-line joints in
ceilings and partitions.

IMPROVE YOUR
MATHS
Calculate how many lining
channels and brackets you need
STEP 4 Cut boards to width and fix to all STEP 5 Cut short lengths of lining channel to install a wall lining system for a
framing members at 300 mm centres, using to form horizontal sections if you need to join wall surface that measures 2.4 m
drywall screws. Start with a half-length board adjacent boards. in height and 2.4 m in length.
on opposite sides to stagger board joints
around the column.

p Figure 7.16b Beam encasement

p Figure 7.16a Fixing wall linings to columns

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6 METAL FURRING CEILING SYSTEMS

Metal furring is a suspended ceiling system suitable for The grid is fully concealed and the ceiling plasterboard
most internal dry lining applications. lining is taped and jointed or plastered, to present a
finished appearance for decoration.

Strap
hangers

Main ceiling
channel
Perimeter Primary support
channel channel

p Figure 7.17 Metal furring system

A bulkhead is used to divide one ceiling from another.

Usually, the ceilings have differing heights.

There are many benefits to using a metal furring system:

● Partitions or wall linings can be fixed and supported

by the ceiling framework.

● Heights and gradients can be preplanned during the

design stage.
● Performance plasterboards can be fixed to the

framework to increase the performance level of the

ceiling.
● Service hatches can be installed to allow access

to the void between the metal framework

and the ceiling above, if access is required for p Figure 7.18 Bulkhead
services.
KEY TERMS
ACTIVITY Bulkhead: a partition between two compartments.
1 Search the internet for further information on Performance-enhancing: able to improve a
improving a building’s performance rating. building’s performance rating; for example,
2 Make a list of five performance-enhancing to reduce the spread of fire, minimise sound
plasterboards. transmittance and improve thermal performance.

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Metal furring ceiling system components

Component Use
Main furring ceiling section The main ceiling channel, also known as a ‘top hat’, for receiving the plasterboard.
Provides the main support section.

Perimeter channel This component is fixed to the perimeter as support for the main metal furring section
above.

Primary support channel Provides support for the main ceiling grid that receives the plasterboard lining.

Strap hanger Supports the suspended grid from the ceiling substrate.

Steel angle Can be used to form a right angle against metal surfaces and masonry surfaces.

Acoustic hanger Improves the acoustic properties of suspended ceilings.

Connecting clip Connects the primary grid and ceiling sections.

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Component Use
Nut and bolt Used to fix the strap hanger to the soffit cleat.

Soffit cleat Used as a suspension point from the structural soffit.

KEY TERM
Structural soffit: the background from which the
system is suspended; for example, timber joist,
concrete, beam and block.

Installing the metal furring ceiling system

STEP 1 Before you start, you will need to STEP 2 Locate each strap hanger or angle STEP 3 Begin to form the primary grid by fixing
determine the ceiling height. Measure from the section against a soffit cleat and fix using a the first support channel. Rest one end on the
set datum, then mark and fix the perimeter nut and bolt, then screw-fix to the structure. top flange of the perimeter channel.
channel on the walls at 600 mm centres, using Alternatively, a steel angle can be cut, bent and
appropriate fixings. Mark fixing points for soffit drilled to facilitate direct fixing to the structure
cleats to the structure at 1200 mm centres (maximum loads will be reduced by 25% if this
to form a 1200 mm × 1200 mm grid. Secure method is used).
each cleat using an appropriate fixing. You
can pre-cut strap hangers or steel angle to
the approximate depth of suspension required.
Pre-punch or pre-drill these hangers or angles
to facilitate fixing to the soffit cleats.

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STEP 4 Fix hangers (two fixings per hanger) to STEP 5 Extend channels by overlapping back to STEP 6 Form the secondary grid by running the
the primary support channel using wafer head back by 150 mm minimum. Fix together using ceiling section at right angles to the underside
jack-point screws. two wafer head jack-point screws. of the primary grid at maximum 450 mm centres,
engaging into the perimeter channel at the
perimeter.

STEP 7 Alternatively, connect using connecting STEP 8 Extend sections (overlapping by 150 mm STEP 9 Install further sections to complete
clips. minimum) and crimp or screw-fix twice through the grid. Once complete, you can fix your
each flange. plasterboard.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Calculate the cost of components required to install a
metal furring ceiling system in a plastering bay in the
workshop.

p Figure 7.19 A section detail for a metal furring ceiling system

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ACTIVITY Storing metal components

1 Produce a drawing to indicate the setting out and Long lengths of metal stud, track and furrings are
position of frame sections in a 3 m × 3.5 m bay, generally stored on timber bearers, strapped and bound
including an access panel. to avoid separation during lifting and transporting.
2 With a partner, set out and install a metal furring
ceiling system in line with your drawing.

KEY TERM
Access panel: designed to allow easy access to areas
behind walls or ceilings, to carry out maintenance of
services such as cables and pipework.

IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

You need to fix a perimeter channel to a room
measuring 3.5 m × 4 m. Work out and calculate
the required quantity of channel if one channel
measures 2.4 m. p Figure 7.20 Storing metal components

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Test your knowledge

1 What type of fixing is used when securing metal 7 What can be used to support plasterboards
track to a timber background? horizontally on a metal partition surface?
A masonry nails A strap
B dry wall screws B plate
C galvanised nails C anchor
D wafer head screws D angle
2 What are the maximum centres of metal stud in 8 When are clips used to install wall linings?
a metal partition wall? A when forming bulkheads
A 300 mm B when forming encasements
B 400 mm C when forming deflection heads
C 500 mm D when forming window openings
D 600 mm 9 Why would this component be used with wall
3 What hand tool can be used to fix metal studs lining systems?
to the track?
A gauger
B ratchet
C crimper
D clamp
4 Why are deflection heads used when installing
metal stud partitions?
A to control moisture
B to minimise vibration A to minimise metal vibration
C to allow for movement B to attach linings to masonry
D to prevent air leakage C to extend the track length
5 What tool is used to ensure floor and ceiling D to extend the wall lining height
tracks are fixed in line and accurate before
10 In a metal furring ceiling system, what is this
fixing?
clip used for?
A spirit level
B metre rule
C datum gauge
D laser level
6 What metal component is used to form a
window head in a metal stud partition?
A plate A to connect plasterboard to the ceiling
B track channel
C stud B to connect the primary channel to the ceiling
channel
D bracket
C to connect the primary channel to masonry
D to connect the ceiling channel to the
perimeter
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11 What type of ceiling component is shown in the 15 When extending primary ceiling channels, what
image? minimum dimensions must they be extended
by?
A 100 mm
B 110 mm
C 130 mm
D 150 mm
16 What is the first component to be used when
installing metal grid ceiling systems?
A secondary channel
B perimeter channel
C steel angle connector
D connecting clip
A masonry
17 When setting out for installing metal wall
B acoustic
linings, what must be the height of the fixing
C dry wall brackets from the floor level?
D anchor A 200 mm
12 How are metal furrings for ceilings measured B 400 mm
and cut?
C 600 mm
A by width
D 800 mm
B by length
18 When setting out for installing metal wall
C by height linings, what centres should be used?
D by depth A 600 mm
13 When forming door openings in metal stud B 500 mm
partitions, what should be incorporated within
C 400 mm
the stud channel to receive screw fixings when
installing door frames? D 300 mm
A plasterboard 19 What document identifies the manufacturer to
be used when costing metal ceiling installation
B steel angle
systems?
C timber fillets
A drawing
D service plugs
B schedule
14 When setting out for ceiling systems, where are
C specification
perimeter levels marked and transferred from?
D job sheet
A window reveal
20 What document provides the positions and
B floor surface
dimensions for installing partitions?
C door opening
A drawing
D datum point
B specification
C job sheet
D method statement

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 Test your knowledge answers

CHAPTER 1 9 D
10 A
15 C
16 D
11 B 17 B
1 B 6 B
12 A 18 D
2 A 7 C
13 C 19 D
3 A 8 C
14 D 20 B
4 A 9 C
5 D 10 C
Answers to activities
Answers to activities Improve your maths, page 115
Improve your maths, page 43 1 27 screws
2 9 sheets
24.94 m2
Improve your maths, page 124
Improve your maths, page 44
8 buckets of lime and 8 buckets of cement
Current VAT rates @ 20%
1 60 3 168
Improve your maths, page 137
2 96 4 216
12 angle beads
Activity, page 44
£28.80
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 2 1 D
2 A
11 C
12 A
3 C 13 B
1 B 11 C
4 A 14 B
2 B 12 B
5 C 15 A
3 A 13 A
6 B 16 B
4 A 14 A
7 C 17 D
5 D 15 B
8 A 18 B
6 B 16 C
9 A 19 B
7 D 17 D
10 D 20 D
8 A 18 B
9 C 19 C
10 C 20 A Answers to activities
Improve your maths, page 164
CHAPTER 3 13 bags of sand and 4 bags of cement

Activity, page 194

1 A 5 A
2 B 6 C 1 34.44 m 3 29.35 m
3 C 7 A 2 5.09 m 4 33.36 m
4 D 8 C

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CHAPTER 5 Improve your maths, page 257

1 6 lengths
1 A 11 D 2 £117.20
2 C 12 B
3 D 13 B Improve your maths, page 259
4 B 14 C 1 3.14
5 A 15 A 2 π
6 B 16 A 3 319.9 mm
7 A 17 C
8 D 18 C Improve your maths, page 273
9 C 19 A A 507 minutes = 8 hours and 44 minutes
10 A 20 B B £333.77

Answers to activities Improve your maths, page 276

Improve your maths, page 217 Two trips
1.44375 m3 (round up to 1.5 m3 for delivery and
order purposes)
CHAPTER 7
Improve your maths, page 221 1 B 11 B
200 mm 2 D 12 B
3 C 13 C

CHAPTER 6 4 C
5 D
14 D
15 D
6 B 16 C
1 A 13 B
7 A 17 D
2 A 14 C
8 B 18 A
3 D 15 D
9 D 19 C
4 D 16 C
10 B 20 A
5 D 17 A
6 C 18 B
7 C 19 A Answers to activities
8 C 20 A Improve your maths, page 291
9 B 21 D 11 lengths of C stud
10 B 22 A
11 A 23 C Improve your maths, page 297
12 D 24 C
5 lengths of wall lining channel,
10 wall lining brackets
Answers to activities
Improve your maths, page 256 Improve your maths, page 302
1 Eight weeks 3.5 + 3.5 + 4 + 4 = 6.25. Rounded up to 7 lengths of
2 £17.50 channel

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 Glossary
Access panel: designed to allow Beam and block: floors made up of as the National Standards Body (NSB)
easy access to areas behind walls or standard building blocks laid between for the UK.
ceilings, to carry out maintenance of pre-stressed concrete beams. Building regulations: rules enforced
services such as cables and pipework. Bearers: small blocks of wood placed by the building control departments
Additive: a substance added to between and underneath materials of local councils to ensure all buildings
plaster mixes to change their natural to keep them separate and promote are safe and fit to live and work in.
properties. drying. These regulations contain the minimum
Adheres: sticks. Bearing capacity: the ability of soil to standards for design, construction and
support loads applied to the ground, alterations to buildings.
Aggregate: a material made from
fragments or particles loosely so as not to produce shear failure. Bulkhead: a partition between two
compacted together. It gives volume, Bell cast: a plaster feature set above compartments.
stability and resistance to wear or openings and the DPC line to form a Bulking: the swelling of sand when it
erosion. Coarse- to medium-grained drip and deflect rain water away from is wet, making it heavier.
material used in construction for the wall surface. Burrs: rough edges on the profile left
bulking. Binder: a material used to make the after filing.
Architrave: a decorative moulding aggregate stick together when mixed. Butter coat: the top coat render
often made from timber (sometimes Biological agents: types of bacteria, mixed to a buttery consistency that
plaster) that is fitted around doors and virus, protozoan, parasite or fungus. is applied to receive dry or wet dash
windows to hide the gaps between finish onto its surface.
Block plan: drawing that shows the
frames and walls. It also provides a
proposed development in relation to C stud: named after the profile shape
decorative feature.
the surrounding properties. of the metal stud.
Arris: the external edge of the bead.
Bond [in masonry]: the arrangement Carbonation: exposure to the air to
Arris edge: a corner feature formed of bricks or other building units when start the setting process.
as a sharp edge finish with angle bead building a wall to make sure it is stable Carcinogens: substances which can
trim or by forming a hard angle. and strong. Different types of bond cause cancer.
Background key: the background can be used to give a decorative effect.
Catalyst: commonly used with
surface; you may need to form Bonding agent: a substance applied fibreglass materials or cold pour rubber,
(or ‘key’) a compatible surface to allow to improve adhesion on poorly keyed the catalyst in liquid form is carefully
adhesion between various coats of backgrounds. measured into the bulking liquid. It
plaster/render, either by using SBR/
Bore hole: a narrow shaft bored reacts with the other liquid: in fibreglass
PVA application, or by forming a
(drilled) in the ground vertically or it hardens, whereas in cold pour rubber
scratched, rough surface between
horizontally, to test soil conditions. it turns the liquid into a flexible rubber.
application coats to enable the coats
to adhere without delaminating. Bow: bend. Ceiling joists: horizontal components
Brace: fixed to the top of the horse and of a ceiling, to which the rafters are
Banding: horizontal detail formed
stock at a 45° angle; it stops the running attached.
around a building at strategic points.
mould from twisting when it is in use. Chase: a void for installing services
Batching lime mortar: mixing mortar
Braced panels: critical elements of a which will need to be made good with
in preparation for the following day.
wood/metal-framed structure which plaster.
BBA: within the construction industry,
resist forces that act along the wall Chattering marks: marks caused by
British Board of Agrément certification
plane (mainly to resist lateral wind chattering (excessive expansion of
indicates a high quality, experienced
forces). casting plaster as the mould is run
and reliable company or product.
British Standards: standards produced along the bench when producing
It is highly regarded and used by
by the British Standards Industry (BSI) moulding).
manufacturers in industry as a symbol
of quality. Group, which is incorporated under a Cill (sill): horizontal slat detail,
royal charter and formally designated forming the base of a window.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Compaction: consolidation of the sand Dappling bar: used to help level and Drawings: provide a graphic
and cement screed by tamping the finish the liquid screed. illustration/representation of what is
screed with a box rule and floor laying Datum point/line: a point or line to be built.
trowel. This strengthens the floor screed. from which measurements are taken Dubbing out: the application of
Compressive load: a weight which to establish the finished floor level; several coats of plaster/render to
tends to shorten or ‘squash’ a structure. usually about a metre high and running achieve a greater thickness. Each coat
Compressive strength: the ability of throughout the whole building. is applied no more than 10 mm thick,
a material (for example, insulation) to Day work joint: used when laying allowing for setting between coats.
take heavy loads, such as furniture and large floor areas. Expansion strips are Edging foam: this measures 8 mm ×
people, without denting or going out located at the edges of work completed 150 mm × 50 m and is used to line the
of shape. that day. The expansion strips help to perimeter of each room where either
Consolidate: to close in the surface of prevent cracking across the screed. a high floor build-up or a screed layer
a floating coat, render or floor screed Dead man prop: a telescopic pole with is required. The foam is used to butt
with a float, making the surface flat, pads on each end. The pole is adjusted all floor layers to reduce the effect of
dense and compact. to hold an item above your head just impacts transferring into the adjacent
like an extra pair of hands. walls.
Contamination: when materials
have been in contact with something Deep foundations: a type of foundation Efflorescence: a white powdery
unclean, such as leaves blown into the that transfers building loads to a deposit on the surface of plaster,
sand or dirty water used for mixing. subsurface layer or a range of depths. containing a high proportion of salt.
Core: old moulding or plasterboard Deflocculating additive: a substance Eggshell: when plaster or render dries
incorporated in the reverse moulding; added to a mixture, to give a slurry out too quickly, shrinks and cracks.
used to reduce expansion because it that would otherwise be very thick and Elevations: drawings that show the
reduces the amount of plaster required. gooey a thin, pourable consistency. external walls of the building from
Cottage finish: a traditional render Delamination: when plaster or render different views.
finish applied in a rustic fashion. becomes detached from a background Energy certificate: states a property’s
Craze crack: when fine cracks appear and falls off, due to the eggshell effect. energy efficiency and recommends how
on applied plaster, caused by excessive Denailing: removing old nails energy can be saved, to save money and
suction in background surfaces. in timber stud and timber joist be environmentally friendly.
CSCS (Construction Skills backgrounds before re-installation of Enrichment: decorative sections of
Certification Scheme) card: provides plasterboard. plasterwork, such as egg and dart or
proof that individuals working on Depth: the distance from the ceiling acanthus leaves.
construction sites have the appropriate to the lowest edge of the cornice. Environment Agency (EA): public
training and qualifications for their Detailed drawing: a drawing that body working to protect and improve
on-site job role. shows the profile or design of plaster the environment.
Curing: allowing the mix to set and moulding in negative or positive view. Expanded metal lath (EML): sheet
reach its full strength. Deteriorate: become damaged, material in the form of diamond-
Cutting back: removing undercoat defective and unusable. shaped mesh that is used to reinforce
plaster from around door frames or Direct bond fixing: using dry wall a surface. This material can be fixed
beads, allowing you to apply setting adhesive to fix plasterboards to solid with screws and plugs or galvanised
plaster flush and preventing plaster from backgrounds. nails, or it can be bedded into the
gathering and building up over beads. render material.
Dissipate: disappear.
Dabs: dry wall adhesive applied to Dividing wall: a wall that separates External slurry: thin, sloppy mixture
the background to receive direct bond areas; for example, for framing out of cement and bonding adhesive
plasterboard installation. bedrooms and bathrooms. This will applied to a background to bond
not be a load-bearing wall. render to its surface.
Damp proof course (DPC): a layer or
strip of watertight material placed in a DOT: stands for Department of Extruded polystyrene: this is formed
joint of a wall to prevent the passage Transport; transported materials are by heating polystyrene crystals to
of water. Fixed at a minimum of given a DOT rating to indicate how high temperatures, along with other
150 mm above finished ground level. hazardous they are. additives, and forcing the mixture
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 Glossary

through a die (which is like a mould). Gable apex: the triangular part of a Jamb: when the track is cut and
The result is a denser material than gable wall. returned to form a door or window
expanded foam. Galls: blemishes in a plaster surface opening in a partition.
Faced/Fair-faced: these bricks are due to poor workmanship. Key: referring to the background
durable and graded on a scale to Galvanised: coated with zinc to surface. A rough surface produces
match the building material required prevent corrosion. adequate key; smooth surfaces have
by the project. Cosmetic face bricks less or no key.
Gauge: the term used to indicate the
are made to face the world with Key stone: detail at the apex of a
metal’s thickness.
a smooth look, whereas common formed arch.
bricks/blocks do not have smooth Gauging: measuring out the ratio for
mixing materials. Keyed surface: a surface able to
sides. receive an application of plaster/render
Fencing: ensuring that a model such Green: describes a material such as
that enables suitable adhesion of two
as an enrichment is surrounded, concrete/screed/plaster that has not
surfaces.
to eliminate leakage when flexible fully set and is still soft.
Kyoto Protocol: an agreement
compounds are poured over the Grinning: when the plaster surface
between the world’s nations to reduce
enrichment model to form a reverse. reveals imperfections caused by
greenhouse gas emissions.
Fibre hand: a person who deeply keyed devil floating or variable
suction of the background. Laitance: a layer of weak cement that
manufactures and installs fibrous can affect the strength of the floor
plaster components. Gross cost: value of something
screed if not removed.
Filling out: building out an uneven including taxes and other costs.
Lapped: the overlap of material, such
background. Gypsum: soft sulphate mineral
as DPM, to ensure no moisture can
Fire proofing: installed to increase the widely mined and used in many types
penetrate.
fire rating of the metal frame. of plaster, available in fine-grained
white or lightly tinted varieties. Lateral load: typical lateral loads
First fix: all work (carpentry, electrical include wind blowing against a facade,
or plumbing) carried out before plaster High-density block: durable and
an earthquake, or ocean movement on
is put on internal walls. resilient, high in strength and with
beach-front properties.
good acoustic rating, generally used
Flexural strength: the ability of a Legislation: a law or set of laws
for structural purposes.
material to bend without cracking or suggested by a government and made
breaking. Hoarding: a barrier surrounding a
official by a parliament.
site to protect against theft and
Foot traffic: people walking or Lime blooming: this happens
unauthorised entry.
travelling over an area. The term when lime in the form of calcium
is used when a newly laid floor Hollowness: holes or depressions in hydroxide migrates and forms on the
screed allows someone to walk previously plastered walls, where the surface as the material dries out. On
over the screed without leaving any plaster has become loose from the reaching the surface, this reacts with
indentations, usually after about background. carbon dioxide in the air and produces
three or four days. Horse: runs against the running rule a surface deposit of calcium carbonate.
Foreshortening: shows an object or on the bench. Linear measurement: measurement
view as closer than it is; dramatically Improvement notice: issued by the of a straight distance between two
reduces an object in scale. HSE or local authority inspector to points.
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC): formally inform a company that safety Linings: timber surround for internal
an international, non-governmental improvements are needed. doors, forming a lining to the masonry
organisation dedicated to promoting In situ: when a plaster moulding is run or studded opening.
the responsible management of the directly to the background, using a Listed building: a building of particular
world’s forests. positive profile. interest, architecturally or historically,
Frame members: studs/partitions, Insertion: incorporating an enrichment which is considered to be of national
wall plates and lintels. pattern in to a moulding to enhance its importance; details of these buildings
Furrings: metal stud wall or ceiling design. are recorded on national lists.
linings, fixed with plasterboard; also Insulation: objects or materials used in Longitudinal: running lengthwise
known as metal-framed backgrounds. buildings to improve thermal quality. rather than across.
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Low-density block: extremely Nominal: standard. because a fixing is loose or has been
versatile and can be used in standard Packers: small pieces of doubled-up driven too far into the plasterboard
wall construction. offcut that the boards can sit on to surface.
Manufacturer’s instructions: these keep them off the floor. Porosity: how porous a material is; a
state what a product may be used Partition: wall used to separate and porous material has many tiny holes
for, how it is to be installed and the divide the overall space within a or ‘pores’ in it and will easy absorb air
conditions it can safely be exposed to. building into rooms. or liquid.
Manufacturer’s technical Party wall: a dividing partition Portland Cement: also known as
information (MTI): providing technical between two adjoining buildings that Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), this
information on products for safe use is shared by the occupants of each is the most commonly used cement. It
and correct installation. residence or business. is named after stone quarried on the
Mechanical fixings: fixings used to fix Isle of Portland off the British coast, as
Passive housing: creating an ultra-low
EML to composite backgrounds. it is similar in colour.
energy building with a small ecological
Metal ceiling lining: a metal grid footprint that requires little energy for Profile: the shape and pattern of a
background to form accurate, level space heating or cooling. mould outline.
ceiling systems in old and modern Penetrating damp: moisture Prohibition notice: issued by the HSE
buildings. travelling through the wall from or local authority inspector when
Method statement: a document to outside. there is an immediate risk of personal
help manage work and ensure that injury. This is very serious and a
Performance-enhancing: able to
everyone has been told about taking company that receives a prohibition
improve a building’s performance
precautions. It often includes a logical notice will clearly be breaking health
rating; for example, to reduce the
sequence of work. and safety regulations.
spread of fire, minimise sound
Metric scale: a system of transmittance and improve thermal Project brief: a summary of a project’s
measurement in millimetres. performance. ideas; it shows what work needs to be
done.
Mitre: a cut joint to an internal or Pick up: when the materials start to
external angle. The joint is then made stiffen. Projection: the distance from the wall
good (the gaps are filled) with casting to the outer edge of the top of the
Pilot hole: a small, pre-drilled hole
plaster or fixing adhesive, using a joint cornice.
bored to help prevent splitting.
rule and a small tool. Pull in: stiffen up or start to set.
Planar wall: a flat wall.
Movement joints: these allow surface Purlins: roof-framing members that
Plant: machinery, equipment and
and components to move slightly span parallel to the building eaves and
apparatus used for an industrial
under expansion and contraction in support the roofing materials.
activity. In construction, plant
buildings. Quoin: detail formed at external
refers to heavy machinery and
Muffle: a temporary plaster mix equipment used during construction corners of a building.
applied to extend the profile by works such as diggers, dumpers and Ratio: the proportion of materials
5–6 mm; thin ply or a zinc sheet can cranes. mixed together; for example, 6 parts
also be used. of sand to 1 part of cement would be
Plasterboard strut: used to prop
Mullion: vertical bar detail around the plasterboard in position prior to written as 6 : 1.
windows. securing with screws. Renovation work: repairs to old,
Mutagens: agents such as radiation or Plinth: the surface area below the bell deteriorated buildings that need to be
chemical substances which can cause cast that runs along the DPC; upstand upgraded and modernised or restored
genetic mutation in the body. detail formed at the bottom of a to their original state.
Net cost: value of something after building at ground level. Restoration work: restoring
taxes and other costs have been Polymer: strong glue-like substance plasterwork back to its original state.
deducted. used to improve the adhesion of Retarder: a chemical additive that
Noggin: a timber strut fixed between render surfaces. slows down the setting time of
timber studwork or timber joists to Popping: where plaster comes away gypsum plasters, casting plaster and
strengthen and prevent twisting. from the plasterboard background cement.

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 Glossary

Return: a corner profile/edge. Semi-dry: the mix consistency of a Soffit: the underside of a window or
Reveal: small return to a window or traditional sand and cement screed. door opening.
door opening. Service channels: gaps or channels Sole trader: a self-employed person
Rising damp: moisture rising up from incorporated in the studs to allow for who owns and runs their own
the floor through the wall. cables and piping. business. The business does not have a
Shallow foundations: a type of legal identity separate to its owner, so
Risk assessment: the process of
foundation that transfers building that person is the business.
identifying hazards and risks that
could cause harm. loads to the earth very near to the Sound proofing: installed to reduce
surface. noise transfer through metal systems.
Rotating: small circular movement
when applying brush textured finish. Shear failure: occurs when there is not Specification: instructions stating
enough resistance between materials, the standards required and practice
Rule: flatten off plaster/render using
so structures can move and flex; this to be followed for a task, usually
an aluminium darby/straight edge rule.
leads to structural weakness and BBA-approved and to meet British
Run cast: a plaster moulding run on a cracking. Standards. It is often an official
bench with an upstand to produce a document from the architect who is
Shelf life: the use-by date of products
positive profile. overseeing a project.
such as cement and lime.
Scabbled: roughened. Spotting: applying a small amount of
Shrinkage: applied plaster can shrink
Scabbling: removing the surface finish as it dries out, forming small cracks. jointing filler over penetrated fixings.
by mechanical means, producing a Squeeze: a method for reproducing a
Site manager: responsible for the
suitable key. mould outline.
completion of a building project
SCAFFTAG: a scaffold-status tagging effectively, safely and on time. Stagger: where plasterboards are fixed
system to prevent hazards when to avoid in-line joints in ceilings and
Site plan: shows the plot in more
working at height and efficiently partitions.
detail, with drain runs, road layouts
manage the inspection procedures for
and size and position of existing Stakeholder: a person with an interest
scaffolding.
buildings. or concern in a project, especially
Scale ratio: the ratio of the size of a business.
Skim: the term used by some plasterers
drawing to the size of the object being
to describe the setting coat. Stock: holds the zinc profile and is
drawn.
Skirting board: a decorative attached at a 90° angle to the horse.
Schedule: a timetable or sequence of
moulding often made from timber Stock rotation: ensuring old stock
events.
(sometimes plaster) that is fitted is used before new stock. When new
Scratch coat: a plaster or render mix at the bottom of a wall to hide the stock is delivered, it should be stored
applied to a surface to control suction gap between wall and floor and to behind the older stock, which needs to
and provide adequate key before a protect the bottom of a wall from be used first.
floating coat is applied. foot traffic. Strike off: the built-up plaster area on
Screed levelling tripod: used to make Sleeper wall: a short wall used to the back of a cast that will come into
sure the floor is laid to the correct support floor joists, beam and block or contact with the background surface
level. hollowcore/concrete slabs at ground on the wall and ceiling when the
Scrim: used to reinforce plasterboard level. plaster cornice is fitted in place.
butted joints to reduce cracking before Slumping: when plaster has been Structural soffit: the background
applying finishing plaster. applied too thickly and slides down from which the system is suspended;
Seismic forces: forces which act on a the wall due to excessive thickness for example timber joist, concrete,
building to represent the effect of an and weight. beam and block.
earthquake. Slurry: a wet mix applied with a brush. Strut/prop: a telescopic pole with
Seismic load: relates to forces Snots: residue left on the surface of pads on each end; the pole is adjusted
caused by ground movement such the floating coat after consolidation. to hold an item above your head, just
as earthquakes, which will cause This must be removed to prevent it like an extra pair of hands. A useful
movement and possible collapse of from penetrating the surface of the piece of equipment when working on
structures. setting coat. your own.

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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

Subcontractor: a tradesperson who is Thixotropic: material that remains roof. Higher U-values suggest poor
not directly employed by a company in a liquid state in its container, but thermal performance. The lower the
but is employed for short periods to changes to a gel-like state and hardens U-value, the better the building is at
complete some aspects of the work. into position when brushed vertically retaining heat.
They are paid for the completed work or horizontally. Vertical load: loads in addition to
at a set price. Three coat work: when plastering the weight of the structure; this can
Subsoil: the layer of soil under the exteriors, this means applying three include the weight of floors, roofs,
topsoil on the surface of the ground. distinct layers of render: dubbing out/ beams and columns all pushing down
It is composed of a variable mixture pricking up, scratch and finish render compressively.
of small particles such as sand, silt surface. Viscosity: how thick or runny a liquid
and clay, but with a much lower Timber rule: straight plane timber is. A viscous liquid is thick and sticky
percentage of organic matter and used as a guide to form the edge of and does not flow easily.
humus (a dark, organic material that a return. Before the introduction of Voids: pockets of air, common in
forms in soil from plant and animal aluminium feather edges, timber rules poorly graded sand.
matter decay). were also used as straight edges.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs):
Suction: the rate at which a Tolerance: required standards and organic chemicals that have a high
background absorbs moisture. accuracy of completed work. vapour pressure at room temperature,
Tamped finish: where the screed has Topographic survey: a survey that including human-made and naturally
been compacted and consolidated gathers data about elevation points occurring chemical compounds. Nearly
to push coarse aggregate below the on a piece of land and presents them all scents and odours are classed as
screed surface. as contour lines on the plot. It gives VOCs.
Tender: to submit a cost or price information about the natural and Wet screed: band of undercoat plaster
for work in an attempt to win the human-made features of the land, screed used as a floating guide while
contract. such as natural streams or existing still wet.
Thermal insulation: installed to groundworks.
Zinc: a non-ferrous metal, zinc is easy
improve the thermal performance of True: accurate to plumb, level and/or to cut and forms its own protective
the building. line. layer called patina, so it does not rust.
Thermoplastic: a characteristic of U-values: a measure of heat loss
material, meaning it can be remelted. through a building’s walls, floors and

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 Index

Index
A block plans 37, 161–2 carborundum dust 218
accelerator 96 blocks 21, 104 carcinogens 66
access 45 blockwork 177 carpal tunnel syndrome
access equipment 172–3, 286–7 blue grit 110 (CTS) 77
see also working at height body language 47–8 carpenter 4
accidents 79–80 bolster 107 carpentry, second fix 32
acoustic sealants 291 bond, masonry 21–2 case moulds 237
acoustic stud 283 bonded screed 212, 213 casting plaster 242–3, 255
addition 42 bonding agents 96, 109, 110, 177 catalyst 238
additives 96, 166 bore holes 8 cavity walls 16
adhesives 119, 257, 269 bow 114 ceiling rose 257, 265–7
aggregates 95, 98, 205 box rule 113 ceilings
air tests 150 braced panels 16, 17 floating 135–6
alignment of joists 112 bracket anchor 293 installing plasterboard 116–17
aluminium 238 BRE Drop Hammer Test 208 metal 275, 298–302
angle beads 97, 140, 144, 145–6, bricklayer 4 suspended 275
169, 192 bricks 21, 105, 176 cement 95, 100, 165, 168
architect 3, 5 British Board of Agrément (BBA) burns 200
architectural technician 3 160, 199 mixer 204
architraves 32, 34 British Standards 160 see also Ordinary Portland
area 234 expansion strips 208 Cement (OPC)
arris edge 142, 170 floor screeds 213 cement-based mixes 100–2
ashlar 156 broad screed method 133–4 chalk lines 114, 120
attached piers 144–5 brushes 93–4, 241 changing facilities 85
buckets 204 channel connector 293
B
bucket trowel 91 chasing 150–1
background key 160
building contractors 2, 5 chattering marks 273
backgrounds 104–6, 119, 176
building information modelling chimney 144
preparing 103–11, 175
(BIM) 36 chopped fibreglass 244
bamboo 52
building operatives 4–5 chop saw 285
banding 193
building regulations 7, 199 cills 193
batching lime mortar 99
Building Regulations 2010 7, 199 cladding 24
bathrooms, second fix 33
buildings, types of 6 clamps 285
beads 97, 140, 144, 145–7, 169,
building sand 95, 208 claw hammer 108
183, 192
building technician 4 clay bricks 105, 176
beam and block 213, 214
bulkhead 298 clerk of works 5
beam cases 274–5, 297
bulking 168, 206 client 5
bearers 268
burns 200 climate 194
bearing capacity 8
burrs 248 clothing, protective 71–2
bell bead 183–7
busks 240, 261 cobs 54
bell cast 183–7
butter coat 156, 157 cold pour compounds 238
bill of quantities 36
comb scratcher 92
binders 95, 98, 165 C
commercial buildings 6
biological agents 64–5 calculating quantities 162–3,
commercial construction 2
biomass energy 58–9 201–2, 234–5
communication 47–8
bitumen 209 carbonation 99
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

communication networks see data sheets 162, 233 drill and whisk 93
networks datum line 218, 284 drill bits 284
compaction 217 datum point 202, 204, 284 drills 240, 260, 285, 286
composite backgrounds 106, 176 day work joints 208 drum mixer 93, 204
compressive load 7 dead man prop 116 dry silos 207
compressive strength 209 decayed backgrounds 105 dry slurry method 109
concrete bricks 105, 176 deep foundations 8–9 drywall adhesive 119
connecting clip 299 deflection heads 288 drywall beads 128
construction deflocculating additive 54 drywall drill 113
parts of a building 7 delamination 160, 224 drywall screws 239, 269, 283
sustainable 52–5 deliveries, to site 45 dubbing out 106, 160
types of 2 delivery note 51 dust-extraction 109
Construction (Design and denailing 112 dust hazards 149
Management) Regulations 2015 depth 231 dust mask 72
74–6 detached property 6 duty holders 75
construction phase plan 76 detail drawings 39, 200, 231
E
contaminated materials 168 deterioration 114
ear defenders 66, 71
Control of Noise at Work Regulations devil float 93
edging foam 212–13
2005 65–6 dextrene 242
efflorescence 167
Control of Substances Hazardous direct bond fixing 111, 119–20
eggshell 160
to Health (COSHH) Regulations dividing walls 290
egress 45
2002 64–5 division 42
electrical equipment 65
Control of Vibration at Work documentation
electrician 4
Regulations 2005 77 construction 35–7
electricity 12
coping saw 239 site paperwork 48–51
first fix 32
cornices 249, 270–3 technical 37–8
health and safety 65, 68–9
see also fibrous plaster mouldings domestic construction 2
portable appliance testing
cottage finish 159 doors
(PAT) 69
coving see fibrous plaster mouldings openings 143–4, 284
second fix 34
cracks 130–1, 224 second fix 33
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
craft workers 4, 5 DOT (Department of Transport)
68–9
craze crack 130–1 rating 233
elevation drawings 38, 161–2
crimper 285 drainage 12
emergencies 79–80
CSCS (Construction Skills Certificate drawings 35, 161, 199
emery paper 240
Scheme) card 78 assembly 231
emulsion paint 26
C stud 282, 283 block plan 161–2
energy
curing 100, 165, 206, 224 depth 231
biomass 58–9
cutting back 142 detail 39, 200, 231
efficiency 55
elevation 38, 161–2
D geothermal 56
floor plan 38
dabs 113, 114 ground (heat pumps) 56
hatchings and symbols 39–40
dado moulds 274 hydroelectric 57
isometric 41
damp 102 renewable 55–9
orthographic 41
damp proof course (DPC) 9, 169, solar 56
producing 40–1
170, 208 tidal power 57
projection 231
damp proof membrane (DPM) 208 wave power 57
scales 39–40
dappling bar 210–11 wind 58
section through 38
darby 92, 158 energy certificate 199
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 Index

Energy Performance Certificates fixings 98, 257, 268–9 G

(EPCs) 55 fixing strap 293 gable apex formula 164
engineering bricks 105, 176 flat brush 93 galls 137
engineers 5 flat roof 27 galvanised nails 114–15
English bond 22 Flemish bond 22 gas 12
enrichments 241, 249 flexible mould 265–7 gases 64
Environment Agency (EA) 59 flexi trowel 92 gauge 282
equipment see tools and equipment flexural strength 207, 244 gauging 123
estimating 234 float 92, 171 gauging trowel 91
estimator 5 float finish screed 217 general foreman 5
expanded metal lath (EML) 94, floating beams 136–7 geometrical outlines 231
109, 177 floating ceilings 135–6 geothermal energy 56
expansion beads 97, 146, 169, 192 floating coat 130–1 gloves 71, 256
expansion strips 208 floating floor 13 glue size 246
extended bracket 293 floating screed 212, 213, 217 Greek architecture 231
exterior paint 22 flood moulds 237 green (set) 211, 212
external angles 139, 189–92 floor laying trowel 202 grinning 137
external corner trowel 94 floor plan 38 gross costing 72
external render features 193 floors gypsum 95, 100, 102, 242
external rendering see rendering cracks 224
H
external slurry 176, 177–8 drying out 224–5
hacking 106–7
external wall finishes 21–4, 156–7 finished floor level (FFL) 218
hand-arm vibration syndrome
external wall insulation (EWI) 23 floating screed 212, 213
(HAVS) 77
extruded polystyrene 212 laying screed 218–21
hand washing 86
mechanical key 214
F hard angles 139, 189
screed finishes 217
faced walls 20, 21 hardeners 206
screeding 199–225
fair-faced walls 20, 21 hard hat 71
sloping 221–4
felt 29 hatchings 39–40
solid flooring 12
fencing 249 hawk 91
sub-bases 213
ferrock 54 hazardous substances 64–5
suspended flooring 12–15
FibreFix 257 hazards 79–80, 149
underfloor heating 213
fibreglass 244 header bond 22
upper floors 15
fibre hand 256 health and safety 172
foot lifter 113
fibrous plaster mouldings 228–77 casting plaster 255
foot traffic 206
fibrous slabs 275–6 dust hazards 149
foreshortening 41
files 239 fire 80–2
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 52
filling out 104, 106 floor screeds 200
forming a key 109
fine-toothed saw 259 hazards 79–80, 149
forming corners 189–92
finished floor level (FFL) 218 legislation 62–7
formulas 164
finishing coat 137–9 safety signs 82–3
foundations 8–12
finishing spatula 171 on site 46
frame members 15
fire 64, 80–2 Health and Safety (Safety Signs and
free flow liquid screeds 210–11
fireline 97 Signals) Regulations 1996 83
free flow screed finish 217
fire proofing 281 Health and Safety at Work Act
free hand method 134–5
first aid 87 (HASAWA) 1974 63–4
French chalk 246
first fix 30, 112 Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
frost proofer 167
fixing channel 293 62–3
furrings 103
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

heat pumps 56 knee pads 70 plasterboards 97

height, working at see working at Kyoto Protocol 205 rendering 165–7
height reverse moulds 242
L
hemihydrate plaster 242 roofing 29–30
ladders 67–8
hessian 244, 262–3 running moulds 238
laitance 214
high-density blocks 21 sealing 150
laser level 114, 205
high-rise buildings 6 storing 114, 147, 168
lateral load 16, 17
hi-viz clothing 70 sustainable 52–5
latex finish screed 217
hoarding 175 walls 21
laying trowel 91
hollowness 104, 106 see also calculating quantities
lead 29, 30
hop-up 172, 286 maths 42
legislation, health and safety 62–7
hot melt compounds (HMCs) measurements 42, 164
legislative bodies 2
236–7 mechanical breaker 108
lifting 73–4
hydrated lime 98–9, 165 mechanical fixings 177
lime 55, 165
hydraulic lime 165 mechanical key 214
lime blooming 194
hydroelectric energy 57 medium-rise buildings 6
lime mortar 98
metal ceiling linings 111, 281
I lime putty 99
metal framing 106
I-Joists 15 linear measurements 164, 234
metal furring ceiling system 298–302
I stud 283 lining channel 292
metal stud ceiling 275
imperial measurements 42 linings 143
metal stud partitions 281–91
improvement notice 63 lintels 106
metal wall linings 281, 291–7
induction 77–8 liquid damp proof membrane (DPM)
method statements 63
industrial buildings 6 209
metric measurements 42
industrial construction 2 listed building 234
metric scale 39–40
insertion moulds 249, 251 load-bearing walls 15
Microcement finish 26
in situ 228 local authorities 2, 5
mitre 262, 273
insulation 199, 208–10 Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) 179
mitre box 260
internal angle trowel 94 longitudinal timbers 27
mixing 123–6
internal wall finishes 24–6 low-density blocks 21
equipment 179, 216
intumescent sealants 291 low-rise buildings 6
by hand 125–6, 215
invoice 51 lump hammer 107
over-mixing 194
isometric drawings 41
M pre-blended plasters 126
J magnetic levels 286 ratios 123–4, 163
jack-point screw 283 maintenance 2 render 179–80
jambs 284 Manual Handling Operations screeds 201, 214
job roles 3–6 Regulations 1992 73–4 using machinery 124, 216
job sheet 49 manufacturers 2 mixing bowls 241
joiner 4 manufacturer’s technical information mobile elevating working platform
jointer 158 (MTI) 162, 199 (MEWP) 173
joint rule 261 materials mobile tower 173
joints, taping 128 additives 94–6, 166 modern render systems 24
joists, alignment 112 aggregates 95, 98 monocouche finish 24
beads and reinforcements 97 monolithic floor screed 211, 213
K
calculating quantities 41–4 mortar 21
keyed surface 156, 157
cement-based mixes 100–2 mouldings 228–77
key stones 193
contaminated 168 mould remover 167
kitchens, second fix 33
floor screeds 205
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 Index

movement joints 290 penetrating damp 102, 123 plaster of Paris 242
mullions 193 percentages 44 plastic, recycled 53
multiplication 42 perimeter channel 299 plasticiser 96
mutagens 66 perlite 101 plastic tiles 29
personal hygiene 85–6 plinths 193
N
personal protective equipment (PPE) plumb bob 94
nail bar 108
69–71 plumb dot and screed method 131–3
nails 114–15, 269
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) plumber 4
negative communication 47
at Work Regulations 2002 69–70 plumbing
net costing 72
pick hammer 107 first fix 31
networks 12
piers 144–5 second fix 34
first fix 32
pile foundation 10–11 plunger 93
new build 2
pillars 189–92 podium 172, 287
niche 232
pilot holes 232 polymer 178
nitrile gloves 256
pitched roof 27 polypropylene 206
noggins 112, 115
plain face finish 156, 187–8 polyvinyl acetate (PVA) 110, 210
noise 65–6
planar wall 18 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 236
nominal 143
plant 45 popping 115
non-load-bearing walls 16
plasterboard 97, 104, 111 porosity 245
non-slip screed 218
installing 112–23 portable appliance testing (PAT) 69
nut and bolt 300
storing and handling 114 Posi-Joist system 14
O plasterboard direct bond and skim/ positive communication 47
one coat work 127 set 25 power float 189
ordinary cement render (OCR) 181 plasterboard strut 116 power tools 108
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 21, plasterer 4 pre-blended plasters 126, 181
110, 201, 205 plasterer’s bench 235–6 pre-mixed renders 181
orthographic drawings 41 plasterer’s grease 245–6 pre-mixed screed 207
over-mixing 194 plasterer’s wheel 93 preparing backgrounds 103–11, 175
P plaster float and skim/set 25 primary support channel 299
packers 118 plastering application private sector 3
pad foundation 10 broad screed method 133–4 profile 229–30
pad saw 113 chasing 150–1 programme of works 36
pad stones 106 cutting angles 131 prohibition notice 63
paint external angles 139 project brief 3
exterior 22 finishing coat 137–9 projection 231
internal 25, 26 floating a beam 136–7 prop 275
painter and decorator 4 floating a ceiling 135–6 Provision and Use of Work
panel moulds 255, 274 floating coat 130–7 Equipment Regulations (PUWER)
panel pins 238 freehand method 134–5 1998 65
panel walls 18 one coat work 127 public sector 3
paperwork see documentation plumb dot and screed method pulley wheel 158
parge coat 149 131–3 pull in 127
parking, on site 45 scratch coat 129–30 purlins 27
partitions 17, 30, 118 setting coat 137
Q
party walls 150 systems 127
quantities, calculating 41–4, 162–3,
passive housing 59 tape and jointing 147–9
201–2, 234–5
pebble dash 156 three coat work 127
quantity surveyor 4, 5
pein hammer 240 two coat work 127
quions 193
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 The City & Guilds Textbook: Plastering for Levels 1 and 2

R sand 95, 165–6, 168, 201–2, shellac 239, 245, 262

raft foundation 11–12 205–6 shovel 204
rammed earth 53 sand blinding 208 shrinkage 98
rasp 113, 260 sandpaper 240 signs, safety 82–3
ratio 100, 162–3 saws 239–40, 259, 285 silicone paint 22
ready-mixed screed 216–17 SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber) silos 207
recycled plastic 53 bonding slurry 167 sisal 244
reinforcement materials 97, 206, scabbling 105, 109, 212 site
244 scaffold 172, 287 health and safety 46
reinforcing mesh 206 scafftags 173–4 induction 77–8
release agents 245, 263 scale ratio 39–40 layout 44–5
render beads 169 scale ruler 40 paperwork 48–51
rendering 22–4, 155–60, 165–7 schedules 35, 162 plans 37
application 174–93 scissor lift 173, 287 toolbox talks 78–9
faults in 194 scraper 241 welfare facilities 46, 80, 84–6
mixing 179–80 scrape texture 157 site agent 5
see also external wall finishes scratch coat 129–30, 157, 182 site manager 6
renewable energy 55–9 screeding 199–225 size (glue) 246
renovation 2, 100 screed levelling tripods 210–11 skim 137
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases screed rail 204 skin protection 46, 70, 84
and Dangerous Occurrences screed testing 208 skirting boards 32, 34
Regulations (RIDDOR) 2013 66 screed to a fall 221–4 slate 29, 105, 176
requisition order 50 screwdriver 260, 285 slater 4
residential buildings 6 screws 115, 269, 283 sleeper wall 14
restoration work 99 scrim 118 slip sheet 210
retarder 96, 242, 246 scutch hammer 108 sloping floor 221–4
returns 189–92 sealants 245, 290–1 slumping 156, 157
reveal bead 170 sealing materials 150 slurry 105, 106, 109, 176, 177–8
reverse moulds 229–30, 242, second fix 32 small tools 241
251–2, 257–8, 262–5, 276–7 section through drawings 38 snots 130–1
reverse rule method 189 seismic loads 8, 16, 17 soffit 187, 194
rigid insulation 209 self-levelling compound 210 soffit cleat 300
rising damp 102, 123 semi-detached property 6 solar energy 56
risk assessments 63, 65 semi-dry mix 214 sole trader 3
Roman architecture 231 semi-electric scissor lift 173 solid flooring 12
roofs 27–30 serrated straight edge 171 solid plaster 104
rough cast finish 156 service channels 282 sound block 97
rule 94, 182 service engineer 3 soundcoats 149–50
run cast 229 services 12 sound proofing 290
running moulds 238, 247–56 setting coat 137 sound tests 150
shallow foundations 8–9 special coatings 23
S
sharp sand 95, 201–2, 205–6 specifications 35, 161
safety boots 72
shear failure 8 spirit level 92
safety glasses 71
shear walls 16 splash brushes 241
safety harness 69
sheep’s wool 55 splayed angles 273
safety signs 82–3
sheet roofing materials 29 sponge float 171
sagging 137
shelf life 162 spotting 115
salt inhibitors 167
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 Index

spray machines 157–8 tenders 37, 161–2 tower scaffold 287

square 203 tenon saw 240 track 283
squeeze 229–30 terraced property 6 traditional roof 29
stakeholders 63, 75 thatch 29 trestle staging 172
standard bracket 292 thermal cork finish 24 trisodium citrate 246
steel angle length 294 thermal insulation 292 trowel finish screed 217
steel framing clip 293 thermal laminate 98 trowels 91–4, 202
step ladder 287 thermoplastic materials 236 true 146
stock rotation 168 thin coat finish 24, 157 trussed roof 28
stone 21, 105, 176 thixotropic material 238 try square 240
stop beads 146, 169, 193 three coat work 127, 175 two coat work 127, 181–2, 189
storage tidal power energy 57 Tyrolean 156
of materials 114, 147, 168, 268 tile 29
U
metal components 302 tiler 4
unbonded screed 212
on site 45 timber 29
undercut mouldings 249
stock rotation 168 running moulds 238
underfloor heating 213
straight edge 92 sustainable 52
upper floors 15
strap hanger 299 timbercrete 54
utility knife 112
straw bales 53 timber joists 275
U-values 199
stretcher bond 21 timber lath 104, 111, 244, 262,
strike off 263 274 V
strip foundation 9 timber rule 139 vapours 64
structural engineer 3 timber studs 106 variation order 50
strut 275 timber wall plates 106 veneered walls 19
styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) 110, timesheet 48 Venetian finish 26
206 tin snips 92, 171 verbal communication 47
subcontractors 5, 37 tolerances 187 vermiculite 101
subsoil 10 floor screeds 213 vertical load 15, 17
substructure 8–12 toolbox talks 78–9 viscosity 245
subtraction 42 tools and equipment 91–4 voids 166
suction 100, 103 access equipment 172–3, 286–7 volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
superstructure 12–30 background preparation 107–8 64–5
suppliers 2 fibrous plaster mouldings 235, voltage 68–9
surveyor 3 259–62 volume 43–4, 234
suspended ceiling 275 floor screeding 202 W
suspended flooring 12–15 health and safety 65, 69 wafer head drywall screw 283
sustainability 52 installing plasterboard 112 wall lining junctions 294
symbols 39–40, 83 metal stud partitions 284–7 wallpaper 26
mixing 179, 216 walls
T
power tools 108 external finishes 21–4
tacks 238
rendering 157–8, 170–1, 179 installing plasterboard
tallow 245–6
running moulds 239–41 117–23
tamped finish 212
self-feeding 115 internal finishes 24–6
tape and jointing 128, 147–9
small tools 241 materials 21
tape measure 112
spray machines 157–8 piers 144–5
technical information 37–8
top coat 187–8 types of 15–20
technicians 3–4
topographic survey 8 waste management 45
telescopic handler 158
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waste moulds 250 wet slurry method 109 workbench 239

water wheelbarrow 108 working at height 67–8
drinking 85 wide strip foundation 10 access equipment 172–3, 286–7
level 202 wind energy 58 Working at Height Regulations 2005
services 12 window openings 139–43 67–8
waterproof clothing 71 windows, first fix 31 working drawings see drawings
waterproofer 96, 206 wire and wad 270 written communication 47, 48
wave power energy 57 wire brush 108
Z
wax 246 wood saw 239
zinc 238
welfare facilities 46, 80, 84–6 woodwork machinist 4
wet screed 133 wool 55

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 Notes

Notes

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