grocentre.

is/ftp Final Project 2019

THE EFFECT OF HOT SMOKING ON MICROBIAL AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL

QUALITY OF ATLANTIC HERRING IN LIBERIA

Beatrice K. Newland
National Fisheries and Aquaculture Authority
Bushrod Island, Liberia
[email protected]

Supervisors:
Sigurjón Arason ([email protected])
Marvin Ingi Einarsson ([email protected])
Carina Fernandes ([email protected])
Matis ohf. Reykjavik, Iceland

ABSTRACT
Fish is an important source of animal protein in the diet of the Liberian population. The
methods of harvesting, handling, preservation, processing, and packaging have become a major
problem for human health. Smoking as a method for preservation has remained the most widely
used method for the preservation of fisheries products. The main objective of the research paper
is to provide an improved method of fish smoking comparing modern or conventional methods
of fish smoking. To achieve this, Atlantic herring was smoked, both ungutted and gutted, then
measured for physiochemical, proximate, and microbial analysis. The final products were
packed in a sterilized box and store at 20C° room temperature and 0-4 for up to 23days.
Samples stored at low temperature were stable. Samples stored at 0-4°C never exceeded
maximum limits for TVC and TVB-N allowed in fish products during 20days. Ungutted
samples had more FFA indicating more enzymatic activity. Based on the results it is not
possible to determine the extended shelf life of the gutted product compare to ungutted. These
results show that the fish stored at 20°C spoils within two days, as the TVB-N reaches
unacceptable limits.

This paper should be cited as:

Newland, B. 2020. The effect of hot smoking on microbial and physicochemical quality of Atlantic herring in
Liberia. UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme, Iceland.
http://www.grocentre.is/ftp/static/fellows/document/Beatrice19prf.pdf
 Newland

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Objective ..................................................................................................................... 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Fish processing and hygienic risks .............................................................................. 6
2.2 Hot smoking ................................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Atlantic Herring........................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Post-harvest losses....................................................................................................... 7
3 Materials and Method ......................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Raw Material ............................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Experimental Design ................................................................................................... 8
3.2.1 Pretrial .................................................................................................................. 8
3.3 Main Experiment ......................................................................................................... 9
3.4 Physicochemical analysis .......................................................................................... 10
3.4.1 Water activity ..................................................................................................... 10
3.4.2 Total Volatile Basic nitrogen (TVB-N) ............................................................. 11
3.4.3 Temperature ....................................................................................................... 11
3.5 Proximate Analysis ................................................................................................... 11
3.5.1 Moisture content (Mc) ....................................................................................... 11
3.5.2 Salt content......................................................................................................... 11
3.6 Microbial Analysis .................................................................................................... 11
3.7 Data analysis ............................................................................................................. 12
4 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Physicochemical analysis .......................................................................................... 12
4.1.1 Water Activity (aw) ............................................................................................ 12
4.1.2 TVB-N content................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Proximate Analysis ................................................................................................... 13
4.2.1 Moisture content (Mc) ....................................................................................... 13
4.2.2 Salt content......................................................................................................... 14
4.2.3 Lipid content ...................................................................................................... 14
4.2.4 Free fatty acid content ........................................................................................ 15
4.3 Microbial analysis ..................................................................................................... 15
DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................... 16
4.4 Water activity (aw) ..................................................................................................... 16
4.5 TVB-N content .......................................................................................................... 16
4.6 Moisture content (Mc) ............................................................................................... 17

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 2

 Newland

4.7 Salt content ................................................................................................................ 17

4.8 Lipid content ............................................................................................................. 17
4.9 Free Fatty Acid content ............................................................................................. 18
4.10 Total Volatile Count .................................................................................................. 18
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................... 18
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... 19
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 20

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Hot smoking of Atlantic herring in Robertsport Fanti Town, Liberia in 2016
(NaFAA,2018) ........................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2. Pictorial View of Atlantic Herring and Distribution Map in the Atlantic Source:
(FishBase.org) ............................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3. Pre-trial testing of Atlantic herring; different brining time, un-gutted without scale,
gutted, after they have been taken from brine solutions. ........................................................... 8
Figure 4. Flow chart of the smoking process of gutted and un-gutted Atlantic herring. ......... 10
Figure 5. Water Activity in Gutted and Ungutted smoked Atlantic Herring stored at 200C and
0-40C........................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 6. TVB-N in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 C° and 0-4C°
.................................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 7. Moisture content in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 °C and
0-4°C ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 8. Salt content in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20° C and 0-
4°C ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 9. The Lipid content in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20° C and
0-4C° ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 10. FFA in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 C° and 0-4°C .. 15
Figure 11. The FFA in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 C° and 0-4°C
.................................................................................................................................................. 16

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 3

 Newland

ABBREVIATIONS
aw – Water Activity
EC – European Commission
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
FEP – Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene
GMP – Good Manufacturing Practice
IA – Iron Agar
ICES – International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
ISK – Iceland Krona
ISO – International Organization for Standardization
LOG – Logarithm
MRI - Marine Research Institute
NaFAA-National fisheries and Aquaculture Authority
TCA – Trichloroacetic Acid
TL – Total Length
TVB-N – Total Volatile Basic Nitrogen
TVC – Total Viable Count

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 4

 Newland

1 INTRODUCTION

Fish is an important source of animal protein in the diet of the Liberian population. The
methods of harvesting, handling, preservation, processing, and packaging have become a major
problem for human health. Smoking as a method for preservation has remained the most widely
used method for the preservation of fisheries products. This method is common in most
developing countries with Liberia being no exception. This traditional method of preservation
has been done for centuries by fishmongers and traders. Fish processing through hot smoking
is an age long practice in most parts of the world (FAO, 2010). Fish smoking practices in
Liberia have yet to gain importance on a large industrial scale due to the lack of appropriate
technology to assist the fish smoking business. Locally available methods such as mud bricks,
firewood and cut drums, can adversely affect the quality of the fish which make the quality
control and improved hygienic condition difficult to withstand the market demand diminish the
market value due to damage and non-attractive appearance of the product (FAO, 2010).
The National Fisheries and Aquaculture Authority (NaFAA) of Liberia reported in its 2018
annual report that 43% of fish captured in the artisanal sector are preserved by smoking while
2% is preserved by freezing and 55% is sold fresh or preserved by other methods like salting
and fermenting (NaFAA, 2018). Preserving artisanal catch by freezing in Liberia is a serious
challenge and is mostly in the coastal communities since there is limited electricity. Artisanal
fishermen usually give the remainder of their catch after trade to traders or directly to
consumers or to their wives for processing.
In Liberia, smoking ovens are usually constructed by joining two opened 50-gallon steel oil
drums and cutting a stokehole at the base. Akinwumi et.al (2015) reported the average diameter
of the metal oven as 115 cm, with a height of 90 cm and a stokehole of approximately 40 x 40
cm. Iron rods are fitted about 60 cm above the base of the drum to serve as a support for the
layers of fish (Bianchi et.al, 1999). The processing equipment is light and portable but
vulnerable to rust and deterioration. Smoking of fish using this method gives off considerable
heat during the smoking process to the discomfort of the processor because it is made of metal
steel (Figure 1). The fish usually spend 24 hours on the cut drum oven and heat is estimated at
45°C and the temperature dropped to 10°C.

Figure 1: Hot smoking of Atlantic herring in Robertsport Fanti Town, Liberia in 2016
(NaFAA,2018)

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 5

 Newland

Fish is an important source of animal protein in the diet of the Liberian population, but the
post-harvest practices in the coastal and rural communities remains a major challenge (NaFAA,
2018). The poor quality and safety of the smoked fish products in Liberia is due to poor
handling, preservation, processing, and storage facilities and pose serious health risks. The
problems of post-harvest losses through smoking are a direct result of the way the fish are
handled, preserved, and processed at the end of production. Traditional smoking methods cause
heavy smoke and high fire, causing the fish to burn. The product brittle is easily broken. Un-
gutted smoked herring are part of the traditional diet of Liberians. Besides, the holding time,
as well as the environmental conditions, are contributing to the poor quality of the fish, when
bacteria act on the harvested product.
Fish is an important animal food for human consumption. Nowadays fishermen usually hold
their catches for a long time because they want to catch more. They do not carry ice onboard
for preserving the fish temperature, which results in the deterioration of quality over time.
It is against this background that this research is conducted to know the effect of hot smoking
on microbial and physicochemical quality of herring. Research showed this method will not
add value to the fish, and the fish will not last a longer time of preservation after smoking it
ungutted. Traditional fish smoking methods are harmful for human consumption (Akinwumi,
et.al, 2015).
It is essential to investigate the microbial content to ensure that the end products are safe for
human consumption. This research paper will suggest recommendations to improve the
smoking method in Liberia especially in the artisanal sector.
1.1 Objective
The main objective of the research paper is to provide an improved method of fish smoking
comparing modern or conventional methods of fish smoking.
The specific objectives of this work are:
• To conduct microbiological tests to know the difference in microbial communities
between un-gutted and gutted smoked herring.
• To determine the best strategies for improving the microbial quality of smoked small
pelagic species.
• To provide technical knowledge at a local and national level for achieving high value
and longer shelf life of fish products when the fish is processed by smoking method;
and
• To know the effects of storage temperatures on smoked fish products.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Fish processing and hygienic risks

The main role of processing is preservation. Processing not only extends the shelf life but also
can add value to the product. It is imperative that only fresh, prepared fish be used for smoking
to obtain good quality end product. Smoking will not make poor quality or spoiled fish
acceptable. The suitability of fish for yielding high quality of smoked fish depends on the
characteristics of the fish. The biological state and effects of catching and handling and after
catch. The most important factors are the composition of fish, including the content of fat and
enzyme activity, as well the vulnerability to bacterial spoilage to smoking. The microbial flora

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 6

 Newland

associated with fish could be from the environment in which the fish are harvested and not
specific to a particular species. In Liberia, handling is not done under hygienic condition. The
fish that is smoked, are displayed on dirty floor/ mats, trays and open containers or untidy table
in the market for sale. Fish are easily contaminated with microorganisms in nature, through
handling during processing and post processing.
2.2 Hot smoking
Hot smoking is a traditional method of processing fish in Liberia. This method of preservation
is wildly practiced in Africa for consumption and commercial propose. The fish is smoked at
temperature that are high at 70ºC to 80ºC which causes the fish to be cooked and can be
consumed without further cooking (Coata, 2018). When high temperature is applied during
smoking, the fish takes short time.
2.3 Atlantic Herring
Herring schools in coastal waters from inshore to the edge of the shelf prefer clear saline water
with a minimum temperature below 24°C. The juveniles tend to stay in nursery areas, while
adult stocks are typically found offshore (Bianchi et.al, 1999). It is a highly migratory species
and often rise to surface at night. It feeds mainly on zooplankton, especially copepods; the
juveniles feed on phytoplankton (Bianchi et.al, 1999). This species breeds throughout the year
and have two main spawning periods. Herring species is marketed fresh, canned, smoked or
fried (Whitehead, 1985). In Liberia, herring is marketed when the fish is smoked.
Herring species are found along the West African coast, and the Gibraltar southward to
Saldanha Bay in South Africa (Whitehead, 1985); also, in the Mediterranean Sea and the Black
Sea. Herring can also be found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Cape Cod in the USA to
Argentina (Whitehead, 1985), including the Bahamas, this species can also be found in the
Antilles, Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean coast (Smith, 1997)

Figure 2. Pictorial View of Atlantic Herring and Distribution Map in the Atlantic
Source: (FishBase.org)

2.4 Post-harvest losses

Fish is easily spoiled without any preservative or processing measures. Due to its chemical
composition, fish is a perishable food material and its flavour and texture change rapidly during
storage after death.
Fish harvesting, handling, processing, and distribution provide a livelihood for millions of
people, as well as provide foreign exchange to many African countries (FAO, 2010). In many
rural fishing communities, the infrastructure for post-harvest processing and preservation of

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 7

 Newland

fish are inadequate. The fishing industry, despite its importance, suffers from enormous post-
harvest losses which are estimated at 35–40% of landed weight, and it is estimated that post-
harvest losses remain about 25% of the total world catch annually (Adeyeye et.al, 2016). In
Africa, some 5% of the population, about 35 million people, depend solely on the fisheries
sector, mostly artisanal fisheries, for their livelihood. Various traditional methods are employed
to preserve and process fish for consumption and storage (Adeyeye et.al, 2016). These include
smoking, drying, salting, frying, and fermenting and various combinations of these.
In many countries in Africa, smoking is the most widely practiced preservation method.
Adeyeye et.al (2016) reported that virtually all species of fish caught can be smoked, and
estimated that 70–80% of artisanal and freshwater catch is consumed in smoked form.
Therefore, the quality and safety of all smoked fish as food should be of major concern to
ensure consumer protection in the provision of nutritional and good smoke fish products.

3 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Raw Material

About 20 kg of frozen headed and gutted Atlantic herring were used in this study. The samples
were purchased from SVN, an Icelandic fish processing company, and kept in a frozen storage
at -24°C. The fish samples were thawed at low temperature 0 to 4C° for 24 hours.
3.2 Experimental Design
3.2.1 Pretrial
Before the main experiment, a pretrial was carried out to set up the best brining and smoking
procedure for the main experiment. Ten frozen headed herring samples were used in the
pretrial, frozen and stored at -24°C. The samples were thawed at low temperature 0-4°C for 24
hours. The herring product was divided into two groups, based on the brine used (salt
concentration), the brining time was mainly to determine the best time for the brine
concentration .The two groups of herring were kept in the brine solution at different times;
one for 45 mins and the other 60 mins in the brine solution. After the pre-trial, it was determined
that the best time for the brining was 60 mins. The gutted fish was descaled and washed. The
belly cavity was cleaned as well as any traces of blood and belly lining and was placed in brine
solution. The two groups were brined in an 8% sodium chloride solution. Thawed frozen fish
of good quality were used for making hot smoked products in gutted and ungutted Atlantic
herring.

Figure 3. Pre-trial testing of Atlantic herring; different brining time, un-gutted without
scale, gutted, after they have been taken from brine solutions.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 8

 Newland

The herring samples were tested in the smoke oven after removal from the brine at the set
timing to determine the best smoking time. The smoking oven was set at different timing and
temperatures during smoking. At the first stage, the temperature was set at 30°C and the time
was 30 minutes to prevent subsequent breakage, after which the temperature was raised to 50°C
for 30 minutes to allow partial cooking. The temperature was later raised to 80°C and the time
was increased to 60 minutes to complete the final smoking. The specimens were then chilled
and transferred to the laboratory to be tested for salt content. The importance of the pre- trial
was to set up the best brining time and smoking procedure for the main experiment for
acceptable product in the market.
3.3 Main Experiment
The frozen herring that were used in this study were purchased from SVN an Icelandic fish
processing company and kept in a frozen storage at -24C°. the fish sample were thawed at low
temperature 0-4 for 24 hours.
The experimental design of the main trial is shown in (Figure 4). The results obtained in the
pretrial, however determine the main trial and experimental designed. Frozen herring arrived
at the laboratory and were thawed at 0-4C°overnight and was divided into two groups, washed
the herring removed the gut from the fish ,washed the fish and placed it in the brine for sixty
minutes, after brining the herring, it was divided into two groups. The fish was placed in the
box and was taken to the smoking site. The smoking fuel was used based on the results from
the pretrial. Temperature loggers were placed on the smoking racks as well as inside to monitor
the temperature profile during smoking. The final products were packed in a sterilized box and
store at 20C° room temperature and 0-4 for up to 23 days.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 9

 Newland

Frozen Herring

Thawing

Gutting Brining

Brining Hot
smokingsmokinghs
moking
hot smoking Cooling

Cooling Packing

Packaging Room temp. storage

(20°C)

Chilling storage Room temp. storage

(0-4°C) (20°C)

Lab analysis Lab analysis

(Day 0, 6, 16, 20, 26, 30) (Day 0, 2, 4, 6)

[Grab your reader’s

Figure 4. Flow
attention charta of the smoking process of gutted and un-gutted Atlantic herring.
with
great quote from
the document or use
this space and
Physiochemical to microbial analysis were carried out on the sampled species in water
emphasize
content, a key
free fatty acid (FFA), total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), and total plate count
point. To place this
(TPC) were measured in the raw material and after smoking. Free fatty acid (FFA) total plate
text (TPC),
count box anywhere
water activity (aw) and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) were done form (0-
ondays
23) the andpage,
(0-6)just
days at room temperature (20C°) for both groups, and cold temperature (0-
drag it.]
4) for gutted herring. All analysis was performed in duplicate.
3.4 Physicochemical analysis
During the pre-trial stage of the experiment, physicochemical analysis was carried out on both
raw materials, water activity (aw) and salt content were measured.
3.4.1 Water activity
An aqualab water activity meter was used to measure water activity (aw) of the fresh and
smoked fish. About 2 g of sample were put into the instrument and aw was measured
automatically after starting the program, each sample were measure in duplicate.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 10

 Newland

3.4.2 Total Volatile Basic nitrogen (TVB-N)

The total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) was determined according to the method described
by Malley & Poumeyrol (1986). TVB-N was measure by steam distillation (stuer TVN
distillatory, STRUERS, Copenhagen) and titration, after extraction the fish muscle with 7.5%
aqueous trichloroacetic acid solution. The distilled TVB-N was then collected in boric acid
solution and titrated with sulphuric acid. TVB-N content was expressed as mg/100g of fish
sample. TVB-N was than calculated as,
𝑚𝑔
14 𝑥𝑎𝑥𝑏𝑥300 𝑚𝑔𝑁
𝑚𝑜𝑙
⌈ 100 ⌉
25𝑚𝐿

3.4.3 Temperature
The temperature during smoking and storage was recorded at five-minute intervals, by data
loggers placed inside in the fish, on rack of the oven in the cooling room and in room
temperature storage. Additionally, the temperature was measured during smoking by a
thermometer.
3.5 Proximate Analysis
3.5.1 Moisture content (Mc)
The moisture content was determined by weight loss of a sample during drying at 105 over
night The results were expressed as percentage of wet weight. The sample glass was made from
plex glass and were 19mm in inner diameter, 62mm in height, and 25mm in outer diameter.
The samples were centrifuged at 1500 mp for five minutes in special samples glasses. Samples
were prepared by chopping them in braum mixer for 10-20 seconds until homogenous. The
sample glass was weighed empty and then 2g of sample were weighed into the glass. After
centrifugation, the sample glass was weighed again without the loose bounded water.
Moisture content (%) = M2 -M3 X 100
M2 -M1
3.5.2 Salt content
Salt content of products was determined according to (Costa, 2016). Soluble chloride was
extracted from the samples with water. Upon addition of nitric acid, the solution was titrated
with silver nitrate and the end point was determined potentiometrically

𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
Percentage salt concentration= × 100
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡+𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡

Where.
a =Volume of sulphuric acid (mL)
b= normality of sulphuric acid (%)
14=is the molecular weight of nitrogen.
3.6 Microbial Analysis
To determine and quantify the microbial activity on the analysis a microbiological method was
assessed: Total Viable Counts (TVC) analysis was done on frozen, gutted in different storage.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 11

 Newland

3.7 Data analysis

Microsoft, Excel (Microsoft office 2016, c© corporation, Redmond, Wash USA) was used for
calculating means and standard deviation. Value as presented as means and standard deviation
(SD) for all multiple measurements in duplicate and to generate graphs.

4 RESULTS

4.1 Physicochemical analysis

4.1.1 Water Activity (aw)
Water activity (aw), measures how efficiently the water present in a food material can take part
in a chemical or physical reaction. The water activity of the raw material fillets was 0.99 (Figure
5).
For samples stored at 20 °C, the (aw) was not stable in final product for both groups tested for
the period between 0 and 4 days. Ungutted samples decreased and increased in day 6 in terms
of temperature. The gutted samples also decreased in (aw) from day 0 to day 1, increased on
day 4 and decreased slightly on day 6. For samples stored at 0-40C, the (aw) was not stable. It
increased from day 6 to day 11, decreased on day 14 and increased on day 20. Generally, for
the samples stored at the two different temperatures, (aw)decreased in time for samples stored
at 200C and increased for samples stored at 0-40C.

1,12

1,10

1,08

1,06
Wa

1,04

1,02

1,00

0,98

0,96

Storage Days

Gutted (20oC) Ungutted (20oC) Gutted (0-4oC)

Figure 5. Water Activity in Gutted and Ungutted smoked Atlantic Herring stored at 200C and
0-40C.
4.1.2 TVB-N content
The TVB-N results (Figure 6) showed that increase in temperature increases the concentration
of the TVB-N over time. The Gutted and Ungutted samples stored at 20°C both increased
significantly from day 0 to day 6. However, the TVB-N concentration of Ungutted sample

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 12

 Newland

(117.4mg N/100 g) at this temperature was higher than for Gutted samples (90.2 mg N/100 g)
at the same temperature at the day 6. The day 0 values for the gutted and the ungutted samples
were 14.2 mg N/100 g and 15.7 mg N/100 g, respectively. The TVB-N concentration for
samples stored at 0-4 °C were, however, relatively stable ranging between 18.0 mg N/100 g at
day 6 and 18.3 mg N/100 g at day 20.

140
120
100
TVB-N mg/100

80
60
40
20
0

Storage Days
Gutted (20) Ungutted (20) Gutted (0-4)

Figure 6. TVB-N in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 C° and 0-4C°
4.2 Proximate Analysis
4.2.1 Moisture content (Mc)
The moisture content for the treatments followed a different pattern during the storage period,
as shown in Figure 7. In the beginning of the storage time, the Mc was similar between gutted
samples at different temperatures (20 °C and 0-4 °C) but different for ungutted samples stored
at 20 °C.
The Mc for the Gutted sample stored at 20 °C decreases with the storage time from 67.56% at
day 0 to 61.97% at day 6. Similarly, the Mc for gutted sample stored at 0-40C, though relatively
unstable, decreased from 67.53% at day 0 to 61.10% at day 20. The Ungutted samples,
however, increased in Mc from 59.01% at day 0 to 65.35% at day 6.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 13

 Newland

70,00

Moisture content(%)
65,00

60,00

55,00

50,00

D10
D11
D12
D13
D14
D15
D16
D17
D18
D19
D20
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
D8
D9
Gutted (20) Ungutted (20) Gutted (0-4)

Figure 7. Moisture content in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20°C and
0-4°C
4.2.2 Salt content
The changes in salt content of smoked Atlantic herring storage temperature and time for both
smoked groups are presented in Figure 8. The smoked gutted and ungutted herring stored at 20
°C increased over time except for smoked gutted herring stored at 20°C; the smoked gutted
and ungutted herring stored at 20°C initially increased in salt concentration and decreased after
the first day of smoking. The ungutted herring stored at 20°C experience an increased in salt
concentration from the initial 0.4% and stabilized from the fourth day of smoking to 1.2%. The
gutted herring stored at 0-4 °C, however had slight increase in salt concentration.

1,4
1,2
1
Salt (%)

0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
Raw…

D16
D10
D11
D12
D13
D14
D15

D17
D18
D19
D20
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
D8
D9

Storage Days
Gutted (20) Ungutted (20) Gutted (0-4)

Figure 8. Salt content in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20° C and 0-
4°C
4.2.3 Lipid content
The lipid content of all the samples decreased with time, as illustrated in Figure 9. For the
gutted and ungutted samples stored at 20°C, both samples decreased gradually from 0.08 and
0.07 at day 0 to 0.08 and 0.07 at day 6, respectively. The lipid content of samples stored at 0-
40C also declined with time from 0.08 at day 6 to 0.058 at day 20.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 14

 Newland

0,09
Lipid content (g/3mL) 0,09
0,08
0,08
0,07
0,07
0,06
0,06
0,05
0,05
0,04
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D10 D11 D12 D13 D14 D15 D16 D17 D18 D19 D20
Storage Days

Gutted(20) Ungutted (20) Gutted (0-4)

Figure 9. The Lipid content in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20° C and
0-4C°
4.2.4 Free fatty acid content
The free fatty acid (FFA) content of the gutted and ungutted samples at different temperatures
behaved differently with time, as shown in Figure 10. For the gutted samples stored at different
temperatures (200C and 0-40C), the FFA content were relatively stable from day 0 to 6 and day
6 to 20, respectively. On the other hand, the FFA content of the ungutted samples increased
significantly from 2.95 at day 1 to 24.69 at day 6.

30
Free Fatty Acid(g/100g)

25
20
15
10
5
0

Days

Gutted (20oC) Ungutted (20oC) Gutted (0-4oC)

Figure 10. FFA in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 C° and 0-4°C
4.3 Microbial analysis
For both groups and storage temperature tested, the total Plate count bacterial (TVC) increased
with time for ungutted smoked samples and decrease for gutted SAMPLE STORED at 0-4°C
(Figure11).

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 15

 Newland

10,00
9,00
8,00
7,00
Log TVC cfu/g

6,00
5,00
4,00
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Storage time (days)

Gutted 20 Ungutted 20 Gutted 0-4 Raw material

Figure 11. The FFA in gutted and ungutted smoked Atlantic herring stored at 20 C° and
0-4°C

During smoking (TVC) increased. There is not much difference between gutted and ungutted
stored at 20°C. since they spoil so fast. After six days the TVC has not increase much in gutted
samples at 0-4°C, The limits for TVC 10 is unacceptable but five is good.

DISCUSSIONS

4.4 Water activity (aw)

Water activity (aw), measures how efficiently the water present in a food material can take part
in a chemical or physical reaction. The water activity of the raw material fillets was 0.9927.
Generally, for the samples stored at the two different temperatures, aw decreased in time for
samples stored at 200C and increased for samples stored at 0-40C. High temperatures increased
evaporation which causes water activity to decrease. Therefore, water activity increases with
low temperature and decreases with high temperature as observed in the samples at different
storage temperatures. This agrees with the results of Costa (2016) who observed that water
activity decreased with increasing temperature. However, the water activity for all samples
were still above 0.9 and so the samples are susceptible to microbial growth and mould
contamination. To avoid microbial growth, dried fish products water activity should be
maintained below the critical value of 0.60 (Perera & Rahman,1997). However, although yeast
and moulds organisms are more tolerant at a reduced aw and can grow at value above 0.62, the
pathogenic bacteria cannot grow aw below 0.85-.86 (Rahman & Labuza 2007).
4.5 TVB-N content
The total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) is one of the most widely used measurement of
seafood quality. TVB-N value is an important parameter to determine the freshness of fish
products. TVB-N value is affected by species, catching region and season, age and sex of fish

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 16

 Newland

(Gokoglue etal., 1998). According to Huss (1995), it is a general term which includes the
trimethylamine, dimethylamine, ammonia and other volatile basic nitrogenous compounds
associated with sea food spoilage.
The total volatile basic nitrogen or total bases noted TVB-N or TVB or TVN consists mainly
of a mixture of ammonia, DMA and TMA plus amines from the decarboxylation of amino
acids (Garcia-Garriod, 1997) and other nitrogen compounds that become volatile when made
alkaline (Pedrosa-Menabrito & Regenstein, 1990). The results of analysis are given in nitrogen
equivalent, Ammonia-N, DMA-N, TMA-N and TVB-N.
TVB-N is commonly used as an indicator of spoilage. Its increased is related to the activity of
spoilage bacteria and endogenous enzyme s(Fernandez-Segovia et,al., .2012; Ozyurt, Kuley,
Ozkutuk & Ozogul, 2009). The increase in TVB-N content of Gutted and Ungutted samples
stored at 200C from day 0 to day 6 showed declining quality of the fish. This agrees with the
study of Rizo et.al. (2015) who observed that the smoke-flavoured sample gradually increased
in TVB-N throughout the storage period. The TVB-N concentration for samples stored at 0-
40C were however, relatively stable ranging between 18.0mg at day 6 and 18.3mg at day 20.
The treatment to which fish is subjected is known to affect its TVB-N content and the Chilean
fishing authority, as cited by Rizo et.al. (2015), proposed acceptability limit for smoked fish to
be between 30 and 40 mg N/100g.
4.6 Moisture content (Mc)
The moisture content for the treatments followed different pattern during the storage period. In
the beginning of the storage time the Mc was similar between gutted samples at different
temperatures (200C and 0-40C) but different for ungutted samples at 20 °C temperature.
The Mc for the Gutted sample stored at 200C decreases with the storage time from 67.56% at
day 0 to 61.97% at day 6. Similarly, the Mc for gutted sample stored at 0-40C, though relatively
unstable, decreased from 67.53% at day 0 to 61.10% at day 20. The Ungutted samples,
however, increased in Mc from 59.01% at day 0 to 65.35% at day 6. The increase in Mc of
Ungutted samples may have be as a result of the viscera content which already has an amount
of moisture. Daramola & Adeparusi (2007) noted that fish stored at room temperature with
moisture content above 12% has more tendency to grow moulds after a few days of storage.
The moisture content of the samples stored at 200C could therefore make the fish more liable
for mould to attach. This process may be slower for those stored at 0-40C owing to effect of
storage temperature.
4.7 Salt content
The smoked gutted stored at 20C° decreased while ungutted increased from day 0. The gutted
herring stored at (0-4 C°), however only had slight increase in salt concentration. Costa et al
(2016) also observed slightly increased in salt content in samples stored at 0°C. However, the
variability observes in samples stored 20°C salt content of samples but has been reported in
other studies as well. Reduction in water content over storage time has also been said to
increased salt content (Costa, 2016).
4.8 Lipid content
The lipid content of all the samples decreased with time. For the gutted and ungutted samples
stored at 200C room temperature, both samples decreased gradually from 0.086 and 0.077 at
day 0 to 0.083 and 0.071 at day 6 respectively. The slight drop in lipid content at day 4 may
however be due to environmental conditions. The lipid content of samples stored at 0-40C also
declined with time from 0.080 at day 6 to 0.058 at day 20. Reduction in lipid content could be

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 17

 Newland

attributed to oxidation of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) present in fish tissues. The rate
of fat deterioration was slow. Fish oil has been said to be more susceptible to spoilage than
other oils due to their greater number of unsaturated fatty acids thus increase in degree of
unsaturation would increase the tendency of rancidity (Daramola & Adeparusi, 2007). This
process was however faster in the ungutted fish which may indicate a faster rate of
deterioration. Cyprian et al. (2015) has shown that proper storage and packaging of fish
products could stabilize lipid content of fish.
4.9 Free Fatty Acid content
Free fatty acid is a tertiary product of rancidity which increases with storage time. The free
fatty acid (FFA) content of the gutted and ungutted samples at different temperatures behaved
differently with time. For the gutted samples stored at different temperatures (200C and 0-40C),
the FFA content were relatively stable from day 0 to 6 and day 6 to 20 respectively. The FFA
level of gutted sample stored at 200C, though stable within from day 1-6, was a little higher
than the level of fish stored at 0-40C. On the other hand, the FFA content of the ungutted
samples increased significantly from 2.95 at day 1 to 24.69 at day 6. The gut content of the
ungutted sample may have hasten the rancidity of the fish during the storage period. The study
of (Daramola & Adeparusi, 2007) demonstrated that fish stored at room temperature increased
in FFA with time.
4.10 Total Volatile Count
Total volatile count and remaining shelf life is used for microbiological evaluation of fresh,
frozen and smoked fish (ICMSF, 1986). Recommended TVC limits of 5x10cuf/g for
marginally acceptable samples. However, these TVC limits seem indeed inappropriate for
several types of seafood. For example, cod fillets with TVC of 10 cfu/g can be excellent sensory
quality and have remaining shelf life of 1-2 weeks at 0°C.

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Samples stored at low temperature were stable. Samples stored at 0-4°C never exceeded
maximum limits for TVC and TVB-N allowed in fish products during 20days.
Ungutted samples had more FFA indicating more enzymatic activity. Based on the results it is
not possible to determine the extended shelf life of the gutted product compare to ungutted.
These results show that the fish stored at 20°C spoils within two days, as the TVB-N reaches
unacceptable limits.
The viscera are full of enzymes and bacteria which is known to have bad effects on quality,
food safety and their shelf life. It is recommended to gut all fish if possible.
Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are made.
• Fish should be gutted and preserved at low temperature, to increase the shelf life and in
turn add value to the products
• It is important to continue the work in Liberia and measure quality parameters to ensure
safety

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 18

 Newland

• The competent Authority of National Fisheries and Aquaculture in Liberia needs to

educate fishmongers and fishermen on the importance of gutting and cooling at low
temperature fish.
• Adequate handlining is important and ensure that fresh fish is used.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was carried out at Matís –Icelandic Food and Biotech R&D. The work was
financed by UNESCO GRO - FTP Fisheries Training Programme.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Sigurjon Arason, Marvin Ingi
Einarsson alongside Carina Fernandes and Jónas Baldursson for the patience they had with
me and for never getting tired of guiding me in the right direction .Also for the knowledge
and advice they gave me towards this study.
My thanks go to the GRO- Fisheries Training Programme for providing me with the
opportunity to take part in this training and all the people that contributed and helped me to
succeed in this project. I also acknowledge the help and hospitality accorded to me during my
stay here by the staff of Matis Institute, for their kindly reception.
I am deeply grateful to the Director of GRO FTP- Mr. Thor Asgeirsson and Deputy Mary
Frances Davidson for their support and guidance while developing the work and supporting
me throughout this course and for their assistance, comments and suggestions in relation to the
completion of this project.
To the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Authority of Liberia for giving me the opportunity
to participate in this training programme.
I would like to address a word of gratitude to all staff of MATIS- Icelandic Food and Biotech
Research & Development for providing excellent facilities and friendly environment to carry
out my study.
To the 2019 fellows’ team, for the friendship developed between us over these months, which
give us strength and helped us to overcome homesickness of our families back home and for
making our time in Iceland memorable.
I thank the Newland - Garley family and my best friend, my sons (Telo, Isaac and Kuminue)
for their patience during my study.

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 19

 Newland

REFERENCES

Adeyeye; et.al. (2016). An Overview of Traditional Fish Smoking In Africa. Journal of

Culinary Science & Technology, Pages 198-215.
Bianchi et. al. (1999). FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. Field guide to the
living marine resources of Namibia. FAO, Rome. 265p.
Costa, O. D. (2016). The influence of different smoking methods of the quality and stability of
smoked redfish, (Sebastes norvegicus). United Nations University Fisheries Training
Programme, Iceland .
FAO. (2010). Quality Control Measure in Africa.
Fuentes, A., Fernandez-Segovia, I., Barat J. M., &Serra, J. A. (2010). Physicochemical
characterization of some smoked and marinated fish products. Journal food process preserve
34(1); 83-103.
LISGIS. (2017). National Estiblishment Census 2017 Report. Monoriva: Liberia Institute of
Statistic and Geo-Information Services.
Malle, P & Poumeyrol, M. (1986). A new chemical criterion for the quality control of fish;
Trimethyl amine/ Total Volatile basic nitrogen (%). Journal of food protection 52(6);419-423.
NaFAA. (2013). Annual Report. Monrovia.
NaFAA. (2018). Annual Report. Monrovia.
Smith, C. (1997). National Audubon Society field guide to tropical marine fishes of the
Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. New York.:
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Whitehead, P. (1985). FAO Species Catalogue. Rome: FAO.: FAO Fish. Synop. 125(7/1):1-30

UNESCO GRÓ Fisheries Training Programme 20