2024/04/05
Lecture 3: The Sun
ENV201: ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE
Course lecturer: Dr Kaera Coetzer
Department of Geography, Geoinformatics & Meteorology
[email protected] 27 February 2023
Original Material Acknowledgements (2023): Dr Barend Van Der Merwe
Solar radiation: Revisiting Terminology
• Recap Lecture 2:
• Radiation is the transfer of energy via electromagnetic waves
(“photons”) (Incropera et al., 2007).
• 2 types: Longwave (>4 μm) versus shortwave (<4 μm)
• Radiation wavelength proportional to the temperature of the object
emitting it:
• The hotter the object, the more energy
• the hotter the object the shorter the wavelength [at maximum
output]
• Solar radiation = short wave
• Terrestrial radiation = long wave
μm = micrometer (one millionth of a meter )
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Solar radiation: Revisiting Terminology
Insolation: The incoming solar radiation [shortwave]
from the sun
Figure Credits: Eric Snodgrass & Ahrens (Images 2001
Brooks/Cole Publishing)
Image credit: ClearIAS
Solar radiation: Sun/Earth relationships
• The relationship the sun has with Earth can be broadly
described at local and ‘planetary’ scales:
• Local: The position of the sun in the sky
Practical 1
• Sunrise: When the sun emerges above the horizon.
• Sunset: When the sun drops below the horizon.
• Solar noon: When the sun is directly above the local meridian;
highest position in the sky “midday” (midway) btn sunset & sunset
Solar noon Pretoria
27 February 2024:
12:20pm
February 11 2024
marked the latest
solar noon globally
(Pretoria: 12:21 pm)
Image credit: Cristina Ortiz Lopez/ EarthSky.
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• Zenith: The point that is directly above the observer’s head. [Solar noon is at the
zenith in the tropics, but elsewhere slightly N/S of the zenith].
• Zenith angle: angle between the sun and the vertical / zenith, measured from
the zenith (0°) towards the horizontal/horizon (90°)
• Altitude angle (~Elevation angle): is the angular height of the sun in the sky
measured from the horizontal; The angle of the sun above the horizon (0° =
horizon and 90° is equal to the zenith (- values, below the horizon).
• Azimuth angle: The compass direction of the position of the sun in the
sky/where the sunlight is coming from. Angle between 0° and 360° measured
clockwise from North (like measuring bearing)
N
Zenith 0
°
Zenith
Vertical
angle Altitude W θ
of sun E
270° 90°
Altitude
θ
angle Azimuth
θ angle
S Source: Nou et al 2016
Horizontal 180°
• Angle of incidence**: for a horizontal plane, the incidence angle, θ, and the
zenith angle, θ , are equal
**Note: There is some discrepancy about this in the literature (different authors treat it
varyingly), but we use the convention sensu Jensen 2014
55
Image source: Jensen 2014, pg
Zenith Sun high in sky Sun low in sky
Representation between the angle of incidence
Zenith and the amount of energy transferred to the
Vertical
angle Altitude surface. In cases where the angle of incidence is
of sun
small (left, sun higher in sky, closer to zenith)
Altitude
θ more energy is transferred to the surface than in
angle
cases where the angle of incidence is large
θ (right, sun lower in sky). (image credit: B, van
Horizontal der Merwe)
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The relationship between Earth & the Sun
• The relationship the sun has with Earth can be describe at local and
planetary scales:
•‘Planetary’ : The position of the sun in the sky influenced by both
earth’s orbit & Erath’s axial tilt
Source: Tyson & Preston-Whyte 2000 pg 57
• The earth orbits the sun in an elliptical • The rotational axis of the Earth is
path (Aguado and Burt, 2007). tilted 23.5° (Aguado and Burt, 2007).
• The position of the Earth in its orbit around the sun and its axial tilt determine
the seasons
Insolation & Latitude
• Due to the shape of the Earth,
the angle of incoming
radiation changes with
latitude (Aguado and Burt,
2007).
• The sun’s heating varies
across the surface of the
earth (Vasquez, 2003).
• The sun’s heating varies
with the seasons
(Vasquez, 2003).
• The time of sunrise and
sunset differs with latitude Figure credit: SA Geography (You will remember this from
[Practical 1] Gr10 & 12!)
• The length of a day is Angle of Incidence : @Equator, the Sun’s rays strike
determined by the latitude the Earth’s surface more directly= concentration of
and the time of the year. insolation over smaller area = hotter
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Solstices & Equinoxes
• There are four special days in terms of solar radiation
Reminder:
Summer solstice: Winter solstice:
i. 22 December i. 21 June
ii. Solar radiation ii. Solar radiation
perpendicular on Tropic of perpendicular on Tropic
Capricorn (~23.4°S) of Cancer (~23.4°N)
Autumn equinox: Spring equinox:
i. 20 March i. 23 September
ii. Solar radiation ii. Solar radiation
perpendicular on Equator perpendicular on Equator
Solstices & Equinoxes
• Summer solstice example
Astronomical
Summer
Summer
solstice
~Dec 22
The sun is directly overhead at "high-
noon" at Tropic of Capricorn (23.5S).
Credit: Przemyslaw Idzkiewicz, via Wikipedia
Commons.
Source: Tyson & Preston-Whyte 2000 pg 57
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Solstices & Equinoxes
• There are four special days in terms of solar radiation
Autumn
Equinox
Astronomical ~March 20
Autumn
Astronomical
Summer
Winter Summer
solstice solstice
~Jun 21 ~Dec 22
Astronomical
Winter
Astronomical Spring
Spring
Equinox
~Sep 23
Source: Tyson & Preston-Whyte 2000 pg 57
Interaction between solar radiation and the
atmosphere (1)
• As electromagnetic radiation passes through the atmosphere, it can be
absorbed, reflected, scattered or transmitted (Tyson and Preston-Whyte,
2000).
Reflection: Incoming
Transmission: Incoming
radiation ‘bounces off’ the
radiation passes through
substance in a predictable
the substance with no
direction. θ1= incidence
attenuation/impact
angle; reflection angle = θ2
Scattering: Incoming Absorption: Incoming
radiation ‘bounces off’ in radiation absorbed by
unpredictable directions substance; some is
converted to heat energy &
re-emitted at longer
[infrared] radiation
Image source: Crankshaft Publishing
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Interaction between solar radiation and the
atmosphere (2)
• As electromagnetic radiation passes through a mixture of
gasses (i.e. the atmosphere) it gets depleted in a portion
of the spectrum (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000).
{‘”attenuated”}
• The depleted portion of the spectrum is the part of the
spectrum that is absorbed by the gasses and transformed
into heat (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000).
• Selective absorption occurs since different gasses only
absorbs a certain wavelength (Tyson and Preston-Whyte,
2000).
Absorption of [solar/shortwave] radiation by
different atmospheric gases
Source: Tyson & Preston-Whyte 2000 pg 63
Methane
Greenhouse gases
Nitrous oxide {link to climate
Oxygen & Ozone change lectures}
Carbon dioxide
Water vapour
Ultraviolet Visible Near Thermal Infrared
(UV) Infrared
Figure Credits: Eric Snodgrass & Ahrens (Images 2001
Brooks/Cole Publishing)
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Interaction between solar radiation and
surfaces (1)
• The intensity of sunlight striking the ground depends on the sun's angle in the sky
(and the angle of incidence of incoming rays at which the Sun’s rays strike the Earth):
• When the sun directly overhead (90° to horizon, i.e. altitude angle = 90° = zenith ),
incoming insolation strike surface at right angles and is most intense (maximum
heating) (i) {incidence angle small (0 °) = zenith angle}
• When the sun is at a lower [altitude] angle in the sky (i.e. 45°; i.e. altitude angle =
45°), the same amount of energy is spread over a larger area of ground, reducing
intensity of radiation = surface is heated less {angle of incidence slide} (ii)
{incidence angle is larger than in i) }
• Energy coming at a smaller angle of incidence must pass through more of the
atmosphere to reach the surface – more chance of attenuation (‘loss’) to
atmospheric gasses/molecules
(i) (ii)
Image Credit: Pidwimy & Jones; 2018
Altitude Altitude
angle θ angle θ
= 90° θ θ = 45°
Image credits: here
Interaction between solar radiation and
surfaces (2)
• The portion (i.e. percentage) on incoming solar radiation that is reflected by a
surface is referred to as the albedo of the surface (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000).
• The higher the value for Albedo (% or value 0 to 1] , the more energy is reflected
back to the source (sun)
• High albedo surface – reflects most of the incoming radiation (~lighter coloured)
• Low albedo surface – absorbs most of the incoming radiation (~darker coloured)
• Changes in the planetary surface albedo have significant impacts on climate (e.g.
melting sea ice , less ‘white’ to reflect, more heat absorption in oceans ) {link to
climate change lectures}
~0.30 / 30%.
Image credit: Steven Earle (2019): Physical Geology The albedo values of certain selected surfaces
(adapted from Hidore and Oliver (1993)).
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Example questions
1. (1 point) Which one of the following lines of latitude would have the smallest
angle of incidence on the summer solstice?
a) (a) 34°S
b) (b) 24 °S
c) (c) 64 °S
d) (d) 44 ° S
2. 2. (1 point) The altitude of the sun is 62 ° . Which of the following surfaces will
heat up the most?
a) Green field crops
b) (b) Concrete
c) (c) Dry sand
d) (d) All the surfaces will be equally hot.
3. (2 points) Which one of the following stations will have the longest day length on
6 April 2023? Make use of calculations to support your answer.
Station Sunrise Sunset
Pretoria 06:18 18:01
Umtata 06:19 17:53
References
• Aguado, E. and Burt, J. E. (2007). Understanding weather and climate, fourth
edn, Pearson Prentic Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
• Hidore, J. J. and Oliver, J. E. (1993). Climatology: An atmospheric science,
Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.
• Incropera, F. R., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L. and Lavine, A. S. (2007).
Introduction to heat transfer, fifth edn, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New
Jersey.
• Tyson, P. and Preston-Whyte, R. (2000). The weather and climate of southern
Africa, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Vasquez, T. (2003). Weather Forecasting Handbook, Weather Graphics
Technologies, Garland, USA.
• Other sources not listed here noted on respective slides
