CHAPTER 09: NERVOUS TISSUE & NERVOUS SYSTEM  Originates from the axon hillock

---------------------------------------------------------------------- o Creates action potential once its

• The most complex system in the human body threshold has been reached (takes place
• Formed by a network of billions of neurons away from the cell body), creating
• Has two major structural divisions: CNS and PNS movement
• The whole system responds to stimuli. o Review!
• Messages are transmitted via nerve impulse.  P.I.S.O. (potassium in, sodium out)
• Developed from the ectoderm.  There are only a few positively-
---------------------------------------------------------------------- charged ions inside the cell.
----------------------------------------------------------------------  In order to create an action potential,
Neurons the charge inside the cell changes. As
more cells become positively-
charged, the cell’s sodium channels
open to let sodium in. Depolarization
happens.
 HOWEVER, too much action is bad
☹. Repolarization happens; sodium
channels close, and the neuron cell
body now has a negative charge.
 Composed of the axolemma and axoplasm
 The distal end of an axon forms the terminal
arborization
• Functional unit of both the CNS and PNS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
• Main Parts to remember: Two Classifications of Neurons
 Cell Body (a.k.a. Perikaryon or Stroma) 1. Based on the number of processes extending from the
 Serves as the trophic center or synthetic body:
center of the entire neuron ()
o Allows neurons to develop, survive, and
maintain connections with its neighboring
neurons
o Receives information
 Contains the nucleus and cytoplasm
 Action:
o Produces cytoplasm
o Contains highly developed RER
 Histology Note () –
Appears as clumps of basophilic
material under the microscope which
are called as chromatophilic
substance (a.k.a. Nissl bodies) • Multipolar
o Has abundant neurofilaments  1 axon, ≥ 2 dendrites
 Dendrites  Most common type of neuron found in
 Tree-like branches covered with numerous the nervous system
synapses  Composed of motor neurons and
 Action: interneurons
o Signal reception  Its plasma membrane is specialized for
 Dendrites are specialized to receive impulse generation.
chemical signals from the axon.  Direction of Impulse – dendrite  cell
o Processing sites of neurons body  axon, or cell body  axon
 It converts the signals into smaller • Bipolar
impulses and transmits them  1 axon, 1 dendrite
inwardly to the direction of the cell  Very rare
body. In a sense, dendrites are like  Usually associated with the receptors for
the gatherers/ collectors of info. special senses – e.g., taste, smell,
 Axon hearing, sight; are found:
 Most neurons have only one axon. o Within the eye’s retina
 o Ganglia of vestibulocochlear nerve substances from the blood to the
• Pseudounipolar or Unipolar neurons
 1 axon  Has 2 types:
 Majority of pseudounipolar neurons are  Fibrous Astrocytes – have relatively few
sensory neurons located close to the CNS. long processes
• Anaxonic  Protoplasmic Astrocytes – have many
 0 axon, multiple dendrites short, branched processes found in the
 Function: gray matter
 Communicates thru dendrites, but
produces no action potential
2. Based on their functional roles:
• Motor (a.k.a. efferent neurons)
 Transmits impulses from the spinal cord to
the skeletal and smooth muscles
• Sensory (a.k.a. afferent neurons)
 Activated via sensory input from the
environment
 Transmits impulses to the nervous system 3. Ependymal Cells
----------------------------------------------------------------------  Low columnar or cuboidal cells lining the
---------------------------------------------------------------------- brain’s ventricles and the spinal cord’s central
Four Glial Cells in the CNS canal
 () One of the cells (e.g.,
macrophages, choroid plexus, etc.)
normally found in CSF
 Have cilia or long microvilli at its apical ends
 Cilia – facilitates movement of CSF
 Microvilli – involved with absorption of
substances

• Neuroglial/ glial cells are supporting cells with

specialized functions.
• There are 4 glial cells found only in the CNS
():
1. Oligodendrocytes
 Predominant glial cell in the CNS white
matter ()
 Histology Note – White matter is white
under the microscope because of the
lipid concentrated in it.
 Produces myelin sheath that provides
electrical insulation for neurons in the CNS
()
 Appearance: small cells w/ rounded,
condensed nuclei and unstained cytoplasm 4. Microglial Cells
2. Astrocytes  Macrophages found in the brain
 Contains a large number of radiating  Small cells with short irregular processes
processes  Evenly distributed between the gray and
 Most abundant glial cells of the CNS white matter
 Function:  Function:
 () Regulates vasodilation and  In-charge of analyzing nerve tissues for
transfer of oxygen ions and other damaged cells and invading
 microorganisms • Has 3 layers:
 Engulfs foreign material 1. Dura Mater (thick external layer)
 Greek; “dura” (tough) + “mater” (mother)
 Consists of:
 Dense, fibroelastic connective tissue
(continuous with the skull’s periosteum)
 Its internal and external surface is covered
by simple squamous epithelium of
mesenchymal origin
2. Arachnoid (spider-like inner membrane)
 Trabecular system continuous with the deeper
---------------------------------------------------------------------- pia mater
Two Glial Cells in the PNS  Has 2 components:
• There are 2 glial cells found only in the PNS:  A sheet of connective tissue in contact
1. Schwann Cells (a.k.a. Neurolemmocytes) with dura mater; a system of loosely
 Discovered By: Theodor Schwann arranged trabeculae containing fibroblasts
 Only found in the PNS and collagen
 Produces myelin sheath that provides o Subarachnoid Space () –
electrical insulation for neurons in the PNS. a large, sponge-like cavity where CSF
 Whenever there is nerve injury, Schwann flows; surrounds the trabeculae
cells undergo regeneration.  Cerebrospinal Fluid (a.k.a. CSF)
2. Satellite Cells  Function: To cushion the brain from shock
 Exert trophic (related to nutrition) or or trauma
supportive role among the neurons  () Rate of Production = 20 mL/
 The molecular basis of their support is poorly hour (it literally never runs out)
understood.  () Normal Appearance =
---------------------------------------------------------------------- crystal clear
---------------------------------------------------------------------- o () Tau Protein – uniquely
found in CSF
 () Adult Normal CSF Volume =
90 mL – 150 mL according to Henry’s
Clinical Diagnosis and Management by
Laboratory Methods (newer source)
o The older source and main reference,
Susan King Strasinger’s Urinalysis
and Body Fluids, mentions it to be
140 mL – 170 mL.
o () For neonates = 10 mL –
60 mL
Central Nervous System  Notes About Collecting CSF
• Its principal structures include: a. () Position – lateral
1. Cerebrum decubitus position (a.k.a. fetal
2. Cerebellum position)
3. Spinal Cord b. () Area of Collection –
• The structures of the CNS show 2 regions: between the 3rd, 4th, or 5th vertebrae
1. White Matter () – mainly composed of o Note: Only pathologists or
myelinated axons and oligodendrocytes physicians collect CSF.
2. Gray Matter – contains abundant neuronal cell c. () Question: Who was the
bodies, dendrites, initial unmyelinated portions of first to recognize/ discover CSF?
axons, astrocytes, and microglial cells. o Answer: Domenico Cotugno, in
• Note: Nerves from the CNS are incapable of 1764 (he described it in a Latin
regenerating. publication De Ischiade Nervosa
---------------------------------------------------------------------- Commentarius)
Meninges  In some areas, the arachnoid penetrates the
• Membranes of connective tissue between the bone and dura mater and protrudes into blood-filled dural
nervous tissue. venous sinuses located there. These CSF-filled
 protrusions (which are covered by vascular response to a transmembrane pressure
endothelial cells lining the sinuses) are what gradient
you call arachnoid villi. o Once the BBB is destroyed, harmful
 Arachnoid Villi – Releases excess CSF into chemicals, microorganisms, bigger
the blood WBCs, and macromolecules might pass
 Note: While the choroid plexus (see under thru and cause damage. Moreover, there
Pia Mater in this reviewer) produces the is also the consequence of getting
CSF, it is the arachnoid villi that releases diseases like meningitis and multiple
excess CSF into the blood. sclerosis.
3. Pia Mater (thin innermost layer) • Its structural components include:
 Greek; “pia” (tender) + “mater” (mother)  Capillary Endothelium – which the cells are tightly
 Lines the brain’s surface and the spinal cord sealed together)
 Blood vessels penetrate the CNS thru tunnels  The basal lamina of the capillaries is enveloped by
covered by pia mater (perivascular spaces). the perivascular feet of astrocytes.
 Choroid Plexus ()  This further regulates passage of molecules
 Found in the pia mater and ions from blood to brain.
 Highly-specialized tissues that projects as -----------------------------------------------------------------------
elaborate folds with many villi into 4 large -----------------------------------------------------------------------
ventricles of the brain Peripheral Nervous System
 Main Function (): To produce • Main Components: nerves, ganglia, nerve endings
CSF  Notes about Nerves:
o The choroid plexus removes water  PNS nerve fibers are grouped into bundles to
from the blood and releases it as CSF. form nerves.
----------------------------------------------------------------------  Axons and Schwann cells are covered by the
Blood Brain Barrier epineurium (dense irregular fibrous coating).
• A functional barrier that regulates the passage of It also consists of a sparse layer of loose
substance from the blood into the CNS tissues. connective tissue that merges with an
 Protects the brain from chemicals and other external lamina of type IV collagen, laminin,
substances in the blood that can harm brain tissue and other proteins produced by Schwann
 Question 1: Is CSF an ultrafiltrate of plasma? cells.
()  Note: Nerves from the PNS are capable of
o Answer: No. regenerating.
o Explanation (from the video lecture) –  Notes about Ganglia:
There is 1) another structure producing  Typically-ovoid structures containing
the CSF, and 2) the BBB prevents other neuronal cell bodies and glial cells supported
substances to pass thru the brain. by connective tissue
o Other Explanation (from the internet) –  Contains a number of nerve cell bodies,
Na, Cl, and Mg concentrations are higher typically linked by synapses, and often
+ K and Ca concentrations are lower than forming a swelling on a nerve fiber.
those of plasma. • Nerve Fibers – consist of axons enclosed within a
 Question 2: Is urine an ultrafiltrate of plasma? special sheath of cells derived from the embryonic
() neural crest; has 2 types (myelinated, unmyelinated)
o Answer: Yes. • Has 2 divisions:
o Explanation (from the video lecture): 1. Somatic Nervous System
Whatever is found in our blood is also  Reacts to stimulus (e.g., reflexes, eye blinking,
found in urine (except for protein). balance, etc.) and is involved in voluntary/
o Longer Explanation (from the internet) – conscious activities
Formation of urine begins by the 2. Autonomic Nervous System
filtration of blood plasma in the kidney’s  Consists of motor neurons
nephrons. Essentially, the fluid within the  Involved in involuntary movements (e.g.,
nephron is the same as blood plasma, movement of internal organs)
but without the macromolecules.  Has 2 more subdivisions:
 Notes:  Sympathetic Nervous System (fight or
o Ultrafiltration – allows for the production flight)
of plasma water from whole blood  Parasympathetic Nervous System (rest
across a semipermeable membrane in and digest)